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THE 
 
 ARMIES OF EUROPE 
 
 COMPRISISG 
 
 DESCRIPTIONS IN DETAIL 
 
 MILITARY SYSTEMS OF ENGLAND, FRANCE, RUSSIA, 
 PRUSSIA, AUSTRIA, AND SARDINIA, 
 
 Adapting tlicir Advantages U all Arms of tie Uuited States Senicc: 
 
 ASD E5IB0DYIXG THE 
 
 REPORT OF OBSERVATIONS IN EUROPE DURING THE CRIMEAN WAR, 
 
 AS MILITARY COMMISSIONER FROM THE UNITED STATES 
 
 GOVERNMENT, IN 1855^6. 
 
 BY 
 
 GEO. B. M^CLELLAN, 
 
 * MAJOR-GEXEEAL U.S. ARMY. 
 
 ORIGIN A T.T.Y PUBLISHED TJNDEE, THE DIKECTION OP THE WAB DEPARTMEKT 
 BY OKDER OP CONGRESS. 
 
 . »_ > > ' » 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. 
 
 1861. 
 

 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1861, by , 
 
 J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. 
 
 The following pages comprise tlie record of the observations 
 of General McClellan, as military comriiissioner from the United 
 States Government to Europe in 1855-56. He was the youngest 
 officer of the commission, and was selected on 'account of the 
 brilliant military qualities he had already displayed. 
 
 This volume opens with a masterly and interesting summary 
 of the war in the Crimea, in which the boldness of the comments 
 is fully warranted by their intelligence and justice : following 
 this is a varied and detailed description of all the components 
 of the prominent European armies, gathered from the highest 
 authorities, at the military schools, forts, museums, camps, and 
 garrisons of the countries which he visited. As he was at that 
 time a captain of cavalry, this arm engages his particular atten- 
 tion : he has presented the fullest account yet offered of the 
 cavalry service in Europe ; and, by adaptation, a most excellent 
 set of Regulations for the field service of the United States 
 cavalry in time of war. - These regulations are invaluable, and 
 should be in the hands of every cavalry officer in the service. 
 
 A recapitulation of the contents would be prolix and unneces- 
 sary : a word may be said as to the present issue of the work. 
 "Written in time of profound peace, — the author being of subor- 
 dinate rank, and but little known, beyond that army appreciation 
 which he has always enjoyed, — the report appeared originally as 
 a Government document, in an inconvenient (quarto) form, and it 
 commanded a large price. Although adding to his reputation 
 among military men, it never found its way to the public at large. 
 
 Those into whose hands it fell, and who were sufficiently edu- 
 cated in military affairs to appreciate it, at once recognized its 
 excellence, the immense labor bestowed upon it, and the practical 
 value of its teachings; but the facts just mentioned prevented the 
 expectation that these would receive the reward of general praise. 
 
 5 
 
 250163 
 
. • • • 
 
 B" " PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. 
 
 Actuated by energy, enterprise, and self-respect, McClellan was 
 true to'himself and his commission, and was willing to submit his 
 labors to time. 
 
 That time has now arrived. The country is convulsed by war; 
 military instruction is everywhere looked for and eagerly received. 
 The American public is educated up to the intelligent use of such 
 books as this; and the book itself, in excellence, variety, and 
 value, stands without a rival. The citizen soldier, whose patriot- 
 ism alone takes him to the field, will here find the best precepts 
 in his newly-adopted profession, now emanating from the lips of 
 his own distinguished commander. To the army he always speaks 
 with authority. 
 
 Originally an engineer officer, and serving with distinction in 
 an engineer company during the Mexican War^ McClellan has 
 given us in this work the best directions as to engineer troops, 
 reconnoissances and field fortifications, a^d entrenchments. 
 
 As -a captain of cavalry, he has made that arm his special sub- 
 ject; and as a complete soldier, who knows that the strength of 
 an army is its infantry, he has not neglected that corps, in ob- 
 servation or record. The work is indeed a full and clear descrip- 
 tion of the armies of Europe, as its new title expresses. 
 
 But chiefly is it appropriate and timely because it lays down 
 the principles which are to guide him in hia important command. 
 It contains his own theoretic views and rules, now to be carried 
 out in practice. It is — as it were — his own military history 
 written, unconsciously, in advance. 
 
 His constituency is now immense ; and they will watch with 
 intense interest, while they read his war-precepts here, to see 
 how he will carry them out in the great war in which he has such 
 an important command. 
 
 It is due to the distinguished author to say that the republi- 
 cation is made at the urgent request of the publishers. 
 
 Philadelphia, Oct. 3, 1861. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Crimean War 9 
 
 European Exgiseek Troops 36 
 
 French, Austrian, Prussian, and Sardinian Infantry 57 
 
 The Russian Army : 
 
 Chapter I. Organization, Uniform, Recruiting, Rations, &c 85 
 
 Chapter II. The Instruction and Tactics of Cavalry 116 
 
 Chapter III. Equipment, Arms, Stables, Horses, &c., of Cavalry 200 
 
 Chapter IV. On the Russian Infantry 211 
 
 Prussian Cavalry , 295 
 
 Austrian Cavalry 314 
 
 French Cavalry 340 
 
 English Cavalry 377 
 
 Sardinian Cavalry *. /: 384 
 
 United States Cavalry 386 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 Regulations and Instructions for the Field Service of Cavalry, in 
 
 Time of War^ for the United States Army 395 
 
 Index 491 
 
M^CLELLAN'S 
 
 ARMIES OF EUROPE 
 
 THE CRIMEAN WAR. 
 
 Believing that the officers of. the army have a right to know the 
 opinions formed by one of their number who enjoyed the opportunity of 
 visiting, in an official character, the scene of the recent contest in the 
 East„ I somewhat reluctantly undertake the task of attempting to give a 
 succinct account of those general points of the operations in the Crimea 
 which are most important and interesting in their professional bearing. 
 
 For many and obvious reasons, no attempt will be made to enter into 
 details. The task woul(i be an endless one were the means at hand ; and 
 nothing but an accurate survey, or very minute and frequent examina- 
 tions, of every part of the vast field on which these operations occurred, 
 combined with the advantage of having been an eye-witness of the events 
 themselves and the circumstances under which they took place, could 
 justify any one in undertaking to give a detailed account of the campaign 
 of the Crimea. It is known that circumstances rendered it impossible 
 for the commission to reach the seat of war until a short time after the 
 fall of the Malakofi". I have reason to expect that the other members of 
 the commission (Col. Delafield, of the Engineers, and Maj. Mordecai, 
 of the Ordnance) will enter into considerable detail with regard to the 
 condition and nature of the Russian defences as they existed at the close 
 of .the siege, the amount, calibre, and effect of the artillery employed, &c. 
 
 Although fully aware that it is much easier to criticize operations after 
 the result is known than to direct them at the time, I shall not hesitate to 
 invite attention to what appear to be evident mistakes on either side ; this, 
 not for the purpose of finding fault, or instituting comparisons, but with 
 the hope that it may serve to draw the attention of our officers to the 
 same points, and, perhaps, assist in preventing similar errors on our part 
 hereafter 
 
 From the general interest felt in the Crimean war, it is more than 
 
 9 
 
10 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 probable that every officer of our army followed step by step the movements 
 of the allies from Gallipoli to Varna, from Varna to Old Fort, and thence 
 to the scene of the gigantic strife in the Heracleidan Chersonese. 
 
 It may seem absurd to compare small affairs with great, but it cannot 
 fail to be a source of satisfaction to reflect upon the fact that in the opera- 
 tions against Vera Cruz, the first thing of that nature we had ever under- 
 taken, we completed a difficult line of investment on the second day after 
 landings while, the experienced troops of tha allies required nearly seven " 
 days to land and march about 15 miles to the Alma; bearing in mind that 
 they landed without knapsacks, (the English, at least,) with nothing but 
 a scanty field material, and that they were in constant communication with 
 their fleet. It was twenty-seven days after the battle of the Alma that 
 they opened fire upon Sebastopol, although the distance from the Alma to 
 Balaklava did not exceed 30 miles, and their siege train was with the 
 fleet and landed in the secure harbors of Kamiesch and Balaklava. In 
 spite of the delays arising from mistakes in forwarding our siege t^ain, 
 which was landed on an open beach, at a time when violent northers 
 frequently suspended work and cut off all communication with the fleet, 
 we opened fire upon Vera Cruz on the thirteenth day after landing. 
 
 Before entering upon the siege of Sebastopol, it may be well to refer to 
 the battles which varied the monotony of that long period, during which 
 both parties evinced so much gallantry and endurance in the usual opera- 
 tions of attack and defence, relieved often by the gallant sorties of the 
 garrison on the one hand, and on the other by the desperate assaults of 
 the besiegers. In the battle of the Alma, important chiefly because it 
 established the morale of the attacking party, the allies seem to have been, 
 judging from the statements of both sides, of about double the force of 
 the Russians. It does not appear that the position was really a remark- 
 ably strong one, nor that it was at all improved by artificial means. The 
 only field works were a few trifling barbette parapets in front of some of 
 the batteries ; while the slopes leading to the position seem often to have 
 been, particularly on the Russian left, too steep to permit the effective 
 operation of the weapons of the defenders. Of the relative gallantry of 
 the troops composing the allied army this is no proper place to speak. It 
 need only be said that the column conducted by General Bosquet decided 
 the retreat of the Russians, since it turned their left flank. • Of the pro- 
 priety of this movement doubts may be entertained, considering always 
 the subsequent movements of the allies. It would seem natural that two 
 plans ought to have been considered by the allied generals : the first, to 
 cut off the Russian army from Sebastopol, and, following the battle by a 
 rapid advance upon the city, to enter it, at all hazards, over the bodies of 
 its weak garrison, effect their purposes, and either retire to the fleet or 
 hold the town ; the second, to cut off the Russian army of operations from 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR.. 11 
 
 all external succor on the part of troops coming from the direction of 
 Simpheropol, to drive them into the city, and enter at their heels. 
 ■ To accomplish the first plan, the attack of Bosquet was proper, but 
 should have been followed up by such an unremitting pursuit as that 
 which succeeded the battle of Jena. To gain the second object, it would 
 have been proper to attack the Russian right, and endeavor not only to 
 cut them off from Simpheropol, but to throw them into the sea by pushing 
 forward the allied left so far and so rapidly as to cut them off from Sebas- 
 topol, and thus annihilate theiil. Neither of these plans was fully carried 
 out. The Russians retired in perfect order, abandoning only one or two dis- 
 mounted guns, thus justifying the supposition that their general appreciated 
 much more fully than did the allies the delicate nature of his position. 
 
 It must be stated that, during the battle, the garrison of Sebastopol 
 consisted merely of four battalions and the sailors of the fleet. The con- 
 dition of its defences at that time will hereafter be alluded to. 
 
 In considering the operations of the Russians at this period, it must be 
 remembered that the nearest harbot to the north of Sebastopol that could 
 at all answer as a" depot for the operations of a siege was the poor one of 
 Eupatoria, forty-eight miles distant ; and that to the south of the city 
 the only harbors were Balaklava and the series between Cape Chersonese 
 and the city. It was clearly the interest of the Russians to oblige the 
 allies to attack on the north rather than on the south side ; for the reasons 
 that the former was already in an efficient state of defence, requiring open 
 trenches to reduce it, while the latter was open ; and more especially that 
 their long line of communication with Eupatoria and the rear of their 
 position would have remained exposed to the constant attacks of the re- 
 inforcements which might soon be expected by the Russians, while the 
 city could still be supplied by the more circuitous route of the valley of 
 Baidar, the allied force being too small to complete the investment. It 
 was impossible for the Russians to oppose the landing ; because an army 
 on land could never keep pace with the movements of a fleet. The only 
 reasonable plan was to remain in position at Sebastopol, and act according 
 to circumstances as soon as the allies showed their hand. But, the landing 
 being once effected, the Russian general should have annoyed and harassed 
 them, by day and night, by unremitting attacks by his Cossacks and other 
 light troops. 
 
 Instead of offering battle at the Alma, two other plans were open for 
 the consideration of the Russian. In any event, to destroy the harbors of 
 Balaklava, Kamiesch, kc, and then, first, to leave in Sebastopol the gar- 
 rison necessary to secure it against assault by a detachment of the allied 
 army, and with the rest of his available troops to operate on the left flank 
 of the allies, in which case his superior knowledge of the ground ought 
 to have enabled him at least to delay them many days in a precarious 
 
12 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 position ; second, to remain in the vicinity of the city, occupy the plateau 
 to the south of it, arid allow the allies to plunge as dee|)ly as they chose 
 into the cul de sac thus opened to them. 
 
 A couple of vessels sunk in the narrow mouth of the harbor of Balak- 
 lava, or the employment of a few tons of powder in blasting the elf fife 
 which enclosed its entrance, would have effectually prevented all access 
 to it. A few vessels sunk in the common entrance of the harbors of 
 Kamiesch and Kazatch, and the same thing at Strelitzka bay, would have 
 rendered them also inaccessible. This should have been regarded as a 
 necessary part of any system of defence for Sebastopol, and, if carried 
 out, would have placed the allies in a most unenviable position. The 
 result of their expedition would have been disastrous in the extreme; and 
 they might well have esteemed themselves fortunate if permitted to re- 
 trace their weary journey to the Old Fort, there to re-embark and con- 
 sider more promising plans of campaign. I am not acquainted with the 
 early career of the Russian commander, but cannot resist the conviction 
 that the history of his operations will but present another example of the 
 impropriety of intrusting military operations to any other than a profes- 
 sional soldier, or at least of the danger of atteulpting to combine in one 
 person any such dissimilar professions as those of the sailor and the soldier. 
 The moral courage and energy of the admiral in the early part of the 
 siege, and his sagacity in detecting the merits of Todtleben, are above 
 praise, but cannot efface the impression that he £iiled to take a suffi- 
 ciently enlarged and military view of the events .he so largely controlled. 
 
 To resume the movements of the allies. The battle of the Alma was 
 fought on the 20th of September ; the two following days were spent on 
 the field of battle ; the 23d and 24th were occupied in marching a little 
 more than ten miles to the Balbek; the 25th and half of the 26th were 
 passed here, when, at noon of the latter day, the flank march to the 
 south side was commenced by the curious arrangement of sending the 
 English artillery in advance, without escort, through a woods. This 
 very original order of march was wellnigh attended with disastrous con- 
 sequences ; for, as the head of the column approached -the main road at 
 Mackenzie's farm, a strong Russian column passed by. Fortunately for 
 the English batteries, the Russians must have neglected observing the 
 roads, and, being ignorant of the true state of affairs, steadily pursued 
 their march towards Baktschi Serai, thus losing an opportunity of 
 striking a brilliant blow without risk to themselves. 
 
 Finally, after darkness set in, the head of the English column reached 
 the banks of the Tchernaya at the Traktir -bridge, the rear closing up 
 very late at night, broken down by disease, burning with thirst and 
 exhausted by fatigue. Next day the march was resumed ; losing many 
 men by the cholera, and much disorganized by the fatigues of the pre- 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. 13 
 
 ceding day, they at length reached the welcome haven of Balaklava 
 just as an English steamer glided in. Thus, on the 27th, the communi- 
 cation -with the fleet was regained, and the first episode of the campaign 
 terminated. The French followed the movement, the armies ascended the 
 plateau, Kamiesch was occupied ; and now, instead of taking advantage of 
 the exposed condition of the south side, the allies commenced the labor 
 of landing and moving up their siege material, opening the trenches, &c. 
 
 To appreciate the position of the English army on the night it reached 
 the Tfchernaya, it must be borne in mind that it had in its rear the pre- 
 cipitous heights of Mackenzie, several hundred feet in elevation, with 
 but a single road leading to the summit, and that they were thus cut off 
 from the immediate assistance of the French. If the English had been 
 attacked this night, the result must have been disastrous to them in the 
 extreme. Had the harbor of Balaklava been destroyed, and the attack 
 been made during the next day's march, it is probable that their annihilar 
 tion would have been the result. 
 
 In considering this marcH, it is somewhat difficult to determine which 
 party committed the greatest faults, — the allies in so exposing themselves, 
 or the Russian in failing to avail himself of the opportunities offered. 
 
 Thus far the allied generals displayed none of the qualities of great 
 commanders : their measures were half-way measures, slow and blunder- 
 ing ; they failed to keep constantly in view the object of the expedition, 
 and to press rapidly and unceasingly towards it. 
 
 From the moment the allies occupied Balaklava and Kamiesch, the 
 conduct of the Russian general deserves high commendation, and was in 
 striking contrast with that of his antagonists. 
 
 The affair of Balaklava has been so often discussed, yet so imperfectly 
 explained by the innumerable military and civil inquiries to which it, and 
 all connected with it, have been subjected, that it would seem idle for 
 one who visited the scene nearly a year after it occurred to pretend to 
 comment upon it ; but it may be permitted to say, with regard to the 
 ground over which the English light cavalry charged, that, if the eye 
 were not raised from the soil under foot, no more favorable place could 
 be selected for a charge of cavalry — it was on the smooth turf of the flat and 
 level bottom of a wide valley; but, upon turning the glance to the ground 
 to the north and east, imagining the Russians in the positions which they 
 occupied on the 25th October, 1854, it is difficult to divine how any 
 officer could direct such a charge to be made : destruction was inevitable, 
 and nothing could be gained. No doubt there often are cases in which 
 one arm of service may consistently be required to sacrifice itself for the 
 benefit of the others, but this was not such a case. The most appropriate 
 criticism upon this exhibition of insane and useless 'valor seems to be 
 that, no doubt, made by a well-known French general : " C'est bien mag- 
 
14 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 nifique, mais ce n'est pas la guerre !" The Russians have been criticized 
 for effecting ^^ too much and too little" in the affair of Balaklava : too 
 much in indicating to the allies the weakness of their right ; too little in 
 not availing themselves of this weakness to carry Balaklava. It is pro- 
 bable that their object was chiefly to slacken the operations of the siege 
 by making a diversion; but it does not appear that they acted with all 
 possible energy on this occasion. 
 
 As things went at Inkermann, the resul^, as far as the English were 
 concerned, appears td have been due to that steady and magnificent courage 
 of their race, which has so often palliated or overbalanced the follies and 
 unskilfulness of their commanders, whether in victory or defeat. Their 
 conduct on that day was worthy of the nation which gained credit alike 
 at Malplaquet and Landen, Blenheim and Fontenoy, Waterloo and 
 Corunna. 
 
 The position of Inkermann is the key-point of the northeastern angle 
 of the plateau of the 'Chersonese; it commands the road ascending the 
 plateau by Cathcart's ravine, the only approach from the north side, and 
 the road which follows the Careening Bay ravine, the only approach from 
 the city in that vicinity j it is the most elevated ground in- the neighbor- 
 hood, and is susceptible of a strong defence from wl\atever direction it 
 may be attacked. Were it occupied by the Russians, the siege of the 
 Karabelnaia became impossible, and the position of the allies dangerous 
 in the extreme; if strongly occupied by the allies, their right became 
 perfectly secure. 
 
 Could the Russians have anticipated a siege of Sebastopol, it would 
 have been an unpardonable error not to have occupied the Inkermann by 
 a small permanent work. How little they were prepared for an attack 
 by land will probably be shown in the sequel ; but, as things were, it 
 appears to be a grave error not to have intrenched the position from the 
 beginning. It was still more inexcusable on the part of the allies to 
 have omitted the occupation of the position in force; nor, with proper 
 field works, would a very large force have been necessary. 
 
 The Russian plan for the battle of November 5 was most excellent in 
 conception ; and, as far as mere orders could go, nothing seemed wan ting- 
 to insure success, and drive the English partly over the steep borders of 
 the plateau into the open arms of Gortschakoff, partly into the sea, and 
 the rest to Kamiesch. It must be kept in view that the principal object 
 of the Russians in giving battle at the Inkermann was to prevent an 
 assault upon the town, then regarded as too weak to resist it: in this 
 respect, although at a heavy cost, they gained their point, for they effect- 
 ually rendered an assault impossible for many months thereafter. In 
 considering the plan of attack, the Russian general rejected the idea of 
 a movement on the allied centre, (by the ravine of the inner harbor,) 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. 15 
 
 because it was too effectually defended by the siege batteries of the allies; 
 the attack upon their rear was rejected because the plateau was very diffi- 
 cult of access, strongly guarded, and the affair of Balakluva had induced 
 the allies to throw up works in that direction. It was therefore determined 
 to attack the English right and centre, making false attacks on the French 
 left and towards Balaklava. 
 
 The spirit of the orders issued was as follows : Greneral Soimonoff, with 
 16,200 infantry and 38 guns, to march up the Careening Bay ravine, 
 ascend its western slope near the Victoria redoubt, and attack the English 
 centre. General Pauloff, with 13,500 infantry and 28 guns, to march 
 fi-om the north side, descend into and cross the Tchernaya valley at the 
 head of the bay, ascend by Cathcart's ravine, and attack the English 
 risht ; the attack of these two commands to be simultaneous. General 
 Gortschakoff, with about 15,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry, and 40 guns, to 
 make a false attack upon Balaklava and the roads leadipg thence to th* 
 plateau. General Timofajeff, with some 2,500 men and 4 guns, to make 
 a false attack upon the French left, carrying their batteries, if any con- 
 fusion were observed among them. The batteries in the town to keep 
 up a warm fire. 
 
 A close examination of the ground would indicate the propriety of this 
 plan of attack; the difficulty arose in the execution. It would appear 
 that in the orders the expression ^' left of the Careening Bay ravine" was 
 used for ^^ western;'^ Soimonoff improperly interpreted this as meaning 
 his own left, and thus brought his own and Pauloff^s column into a state 
 of confusion which paralyzed the efforts of both, so that but a portion 
 of either command was at any one time engaged. • 
 
 As it wfis, the Russians were undouhtedly drivijig the exhausted Kng- 
 lish before them when Bosquet came up. Had the false attack towards 
 Balaklava been properly conducted. Bosquet would have been unable to 
 assist the English ; but, soon perceiving that the operations of Gortscha- 
 koff were confined to a simple cannonade at long range^he readily divined 
 the true state of affairs, and by his prompt action saved the army. 
 
 Timofajeff'succeeded in spiking fifteen guns, and paralyzed the French 
 left. . •• 
 
 It would thus seem that the result of the action was due partly to the 
 courage of the English, partly to the mistake of Soimonoff, (who expiated 
 his error with his life,) partly to the prompt and correct judgment of 
 Bosquet, and mainly to the fact that Gortschakoff did not conduct his 
 false attack with sufficient energy and decision. 
 
 The desperate courage of the Russidns in this affair was fully acknow- 
 ledged by all who participated in it. 
 
 In the battle of the Tchernaya the principal efforts of the Russians 
 were directed against two points : the Fedukhine heights, occupied by 
 
16 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 the French, and the hills occupied by the Sardinians, between the Feduk- 
 hine and the village of Karlofka Pus, directly opposite Tchorgouh. 
 
 A glance at the map will show the propriety of this attack ; for had 
 either of these points fallen the other must have followed; and, ha(>the 
 Russians followed up the occupation by any active measures, the result 
 must have been the suspension of the siege. The question will naturally 
 arise, why did the Russians abandon these positions, which were in their 
 possession during a part of the preceding winter ? The only reasonable 
 answer is, that their force was then so small as to be entirely required 
 for the defence of the city. 
 
 The Fedukhine heights, the elevation of which is not far from 100', 
 extend about two and a half miles along the Tchernaya; their horizontal 
 plan is nearly a trident, with the points towards the stream, the central 
 Ijranch sending forth some five irregular spurs ; towards the stream the 
 •elopes are sufiiciently steep to render access difficult, while full sweep is 
 permitted to the fire of artillery and musketry from the summit, and 
 upon any one point from the collateral spurs. 
 
 The aqueduct, whitjh is here a ditch so broad and deep as to be much 
 in the way of troops, skirts the northern base of the heights along their 
 whole extent. 
 
 The Traktir bridge is directly, in the prolongation of the ravine which 
 separates the central from the eastern branch of the trident ; for more 
 than half a mile on each side of the bridge the deep and vertical bed 
 of the Tchernaya skirts the aqueduct. 
 
 The Traktir bridge was of masonry, and covered by a weak tete-de- 
 pont. 
 
 Either the aqueduct or the stream was in itself a serious obstacle : 
 the two combined constituted a formidable obstacle, requiring the use 
 of bridges, situated as they were under the close fire of the troops occu- 
 pying the heights. 
 
 The same diffiqulties, to a greater extent, existed at the foot of the Sar- 
 dinian heights ; but the attack in this quarter does not appear to have 
 been quite so pronounced as that upon the French. Both'of these posi- 
 tions were strengthened to a certain extent by field works, 'especially that 
 of lihe Sardinians. 
 
 It is certain that the allies had received intelligence, from a neutral 
 capital, that the Russians intended attacking on or about the 18th of 
 August; although the precise point was not perhaps specified. 
 
 The Russian reports give their own version of the failure, attributing 
 it to a failure on the part of one of their generals to carry out his orders; 
 but the foregoing description of the ground may render it probable that 
 the repulse was due to the strength of the position and the gallantry of 
 its defenders, without seeking for other causes : it may safely be said that 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. 17 
 
 the defeat of the Russians was not owing to any want of courage and 
 impetuosity on their part. 
 
 The events of Inkermann and Traktir seem to lead to the conclusion 
 that the Russians moved in too heavy and unwieldy masses : this system 
 of tactics, which would on many fields, no doubt, carry all before it, if 
 followed by a rapid deployment, in these cases exposed them to terrible 
 losses, and rendered impossible that eflfective development of numerical 
 force and individual exertion which was necessary to carry the day. 
 
 The general configuration of the harbor of Sebastopol, and the penin- 
 sula to the south of it, is too well known to require description. The 
 most striking and, in their bearing upon the siege, the most important 
 features are : First : — The complete isolation of the high plateau of the 
 peninsula from the main Crimea by the nearly continuous valleys of 
 Balaklava and the Tchernaya. Second : — The lofty and almost inaccessible 
 escarpment which limits the plateau towards the east, south, and to a 
 great extent on the north. Third : — The deep and difficult ravines which 
 intersect this very irregular surface. 
 
 Some points of the plateau exceed 700' in elevation ; the average 
 height of the escarpment above the valleys of Balaklava and the Tcher- 
 naya may safely be taken at 400'. It need scarcely be stated that this 
 plateau formed for the allies a position of great strength. 
 
 Of the many ravines by which it is intersected, it is only those from 
 the Careening to the Quarantine bays, inclusive, that have an immediate 
 bearing on the works of attack and defence. All of these have their 
 origin quite close to the eastern border of the plateau. 
 
 The most important is the great central ravine, the main branch of 
 which commences quite near the " Col de Balaklava," — the depression 
 through which the main road from Balaklava to Kamiesch ascends the 
 plateau, — then runs a little west of north, formid^, where it enters the 
 town, the inner harbor, which separates Sebastopol from the Karabelnaia 
 suburb. During nejarly the first half of the siege the French approaches 
 were confined to the west of this ravine, occupying all the space thence 
 to the sea; while the English were on the east, occupying the ground 
 only as far as the Otchakoff ravine : in other words, the original French 
 attack was directed against the city proper, while that of the English was 
 against a portion of the Karabelnaia suburb. 
 
 It is now time to state that when the allies reached Balaklava the land 
 defences of Sebastopol, on the south side, consisted of a loop-holed wall, 
 4' 8" thick, and from 18' to 20' high, extending from the western point 
 of Artillery bay to the position afterwards occupied by the Central Bas- 
 tion; thence around the Karabelnaia suburb to the main harbor the only 
 defence consisted of the Malakoff" tower, a semicircular structure, withi 
 two stories of loop-holes and 5 guns in barbette. 
 
 2 
 
18 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 To resume the description of the ground west of the central ravine : 
 the Artillery Bay ravine commences about three-quarters of a mile out- 
 side of the city, and at first runs nearly north, being separated from a 
 spur of the central ravine by a ridge about one-eighth of a mile wide ; on 
 the highest point of this ridge was situated the Flag-staff Bastion, (Bas- 
 tion du Mat ;) the French approaches followed this ridge, and extended 
 across the Artillery Bay ravine, which is here by no means steep or diffi- 
 cult, but becomes much more pronounced upon entering the city, when it 
 for some distance runs off to the west of north. 
 
 Just before this ravine enters the city there commences to the west of 
 it, and separated from it by a ridge about one-eighth of a mile wide, another 
 ravine, which runs into the Quarantine bay, and which we will call the 
 Central Bastion ravine; the direction of this ravine is nearly northwest; 
 near its head, and on the highest point of the ridge which separates it 
 from the Artillery Bay ravine, is situated the Central Bastion, at an ele- 
 vation of 217' above the sea. 
 
 The loop-holed wall, and the works constructed to replace or strengthen 
 it, follow this ridge for about three-quarters of the distance to the Qua- 
 rantine batteries, and then turn off to the north; from this angle to the 
 batteries a line of works called the Quarantine redans was erected during 
 the siege. 
 
 The French attacks against the Central Bastion followed the ridge 
 on which it was built, and to the westward occupied the irregular ridge 
 between the Central Bastion ravine and the Quarantine Bay ravine, then 
 crossed this last ravine and terminated at the shore of the Black Sea, 
 where powerful batteries were erected. The Central Bastion ravine has 
 rather gentle slopes, and is by no means so difficult as those on the eastern 
 side of the great central ravine : in fact, approaches could be carried over 
 it, and did, indeed, eAend into it. 
 
 Passing to the east of the central ravine, Cathcart's hill, which will be 
 found on all the maps, may be taken as a starting-poiyt. 
 
 On the west and east sides of this hill two difficult ravines commence : 
 the first, called by the English the Valley of Death, unites with the cen- 
 tral ravine about one mile from the southern extremity of the inner har- 
 bor ; the second, by which the Woronzoff road enters the city, joins the 
 central ravine at the very end of the inner harbor. The isolated spur 
 thus formed was occupied by the English left attack, the only object of 
 which was to establish batteries to assist the French attack upon the 
 Flag-staff Bastion, and the English right attack upon the Redan, as well 
 as to protect the flanks of those attacks ; for the ravines bordering this 
 spur are so deep and difficult as to render it impossible to cross them 
 either by trenches or assaulting columns. 
 
 Farther to the east is the Otchakoff ravine, running nearly parallel to 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. 19 
 
 the Woronzoff ravine, much less difficult, and directed cipon the Dock 
 Yard bay. On the highest point of the ridge separating the two ravines 
 last named, and at its end nearest the town, were situated the Redan and 
 the Barrack battery; the English right attack followed the ridge. To 
 the eastward of the Otchakoflf ravine, and nearly parallel to it, is the 
 Careening Bay ravine, the most difficult of all. On the highest point at 
 the end of the ridge thus formed was placed the Malakoff, at an elevation 
 of 333' ; the Little Redan (Batterie Noire) occupied a considerably lower 
 point to the northeast of the Malakoff, while the work known as the 
 Mamelon Vert, or Brangion redoubt, crowned a hill on the same ridge, 
 about three-eighths of a mile to the southeast of the Malakoff, and 40' 
 more elevated ; the French attacks against the three works named occu- 
 pied the summit and higher slopes of the ridge. 
 
 Between the Careening Bay ravine and the main harbor is situated the 
 high and narrow ridge known as Mount Sapoune. Points of this ridge 
 were occupied by the Volhynia and Selenghinsk redoubts, (ouvrages 
 blancs,) which acted upon the flank of the French approaches against the 
 Mamelon, and would have taken in reverse the approaches thence against 
 the Malakoff. The French approaches against the redoubts wound along 
 the summit of the Sapoune ridge. In rear of the Redan and Malakoff, 
 more especially in the latter case, the ground fell rapidly to the level of 
 the Karabelnaia and the bay j in rear of the loop-holed wall the ground 
 also soon fell rapidly into the Artillery Bay ravine, leaving, however, a 
 plateau of some little width immediately behind the defences, which thus 
 screened the greater part of the town and harbor from the view of those 
 in the trenches. 
 
 From the course known to have been pursued by fhe Russians in other 
 cases, the nature of the ground, the appearance of the works at the close 
 of the siege, and the remarks of officers on both sides, it would appear 
 that when Todtleben was called upon to fortify Sebastopol, in presence of 
 the enemy, he commenced by occupying most of the important points 
 that have been mentioned by detached works, generally closed at the 
 gorge. The first efforts of the garrison were directed towards giving these 
 sufficient strength to resist assault; afterwards they were connected by 
 re-entering lines of a weaker profile, which served to enfilade the ravines 
 and flank the main works. These lines were generally, but not always, 
 continuous. 
 
 One of the early measures was to construct rifle-pits, which were often 
 advanced to a very considerable distance. 
 
 The most important points of the main line of defence should pro- 
 bably be classed in the following order of strength : 1st. The Flag-staff 
 Bastion; 2d. Central Bastion; 3d. Malakoff; 4th. Redan; 5th. Little 
 Redan. 
 
20 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The Flag-staflF Bastion was, on account of the ground, a somewhat irre- 
 gular figure, — nearly a lunette. The ditch of the right face was flanked 
 by two guns in a blinded caponi^re ; the left face was flanked by four 
 guns, in a return of the epaulment which extended from the rear of the 
 work along the crest of the central ravine, and finally down to the bottom 
 of the valley. The command of the work could not have varied much 
 from 15'. The ditch was about 30' wide, and from 12' to 15' deep; its 
 slopes steep, often vertical. Against a portion of the scarp, near the 
 salient, rested a row of palisades some 10' high, and uninjured by the fire. 
 This was the only case of palisading observed in any part of the ditches. 
 The work was provided with a glacis and covered way, the interior slope of 
 the latter revetted with gabions. Shelters were excavated in the counter- 
 scarp, under the covered way. There was a small battery in the covered 
 way of the left face. It was in front of this bastion that the principal 
 mining operations were conducted : on the part of the French to advance 
 their approaches, on the part of the Russians to frustrate the attempt. 
 The craters were from 12' to 15' in depth, and in a very rocky soil. The 
 French never succeeded in carrying the work, nor in crowning the crest 
 of the glacis. 
 
 Some portions of the exterior slope were revetted with gabions. These 
 were sadly disfigured, but still presented a formidable obstacle. It is 
 most probable that this system was resorted to only as a rapid means of 
 repairing damages. 
 
 The guns were mounted on a narrow rampart, with traverses for each 
 gun, and parados on the right face. Here, as well as in all the other land 
 defences, ships' guns mounted on ships' carriages, and worked by side 
 tackle and breechings, were alone employed. In this battery many of 
 the embrasures were revetted with the commop boiler-iron ships' water- 
 tanks, cubes 4' on each edge. These were filled with earth, and three 
 were employed to revet each cheek. In one embrasure thirteen shot and 
 shell had struck a che6k thus revetted, yet the embrasure was perfectly 
 serviceable. In some cases traverses were made of these tanks. Their 
 sides were sometimes used instead of the rope mantelets. The rope man- 
 telets were suspended from a horizontal spar laid across the top of the 
 embrasure and lashed to stout stakes : they were 4" thick, and made of 
 three thicknesses of rope sewed together. A hole was left in the lower 
 part for the gun to run through, and often a circle of similar construction 
 was placed upon the gun, a small aperture being left for pointing. This" 
 arrangement was rendered indispensable by the great depth of embrasure 
 required for ships' carriages, and was found to afford ample protection 
 against rifle-balls and small grape. 
 
 The bomb-proofs were generally ample in number ; they were sometimes 
 under the rampart, sometimes under the second line of defence, (where 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. 21 
 
 such a line existed,) often under special traverses, and occasionally entirely 
 under ground. Their height was generally 6' and upwards, the width 
 sufficient for two rows of banquette beds ; the length varied exceedingly j 
 the roof was generally composed of 18" timber, for the most part pieces 
 of masts ; the minimum depth of earth on top seemed to be 6'. As I 
 observed none which were broken in by shells, it may be a fair inference 
 that this depth was sufficient. 
 
 Many of the bomb-proofs were lined with boards, had fireplaces and 
 chimneys, were well ventilated, and whitewashed. Latrines were arranged 
 in special bomb-proofs, movable casks with seats over them being employed. 
 
 The Flag-staflf Bastion had a second line of defence, which was filled 
 with bomb-proofs. » 
 
 The Central was similar in construction to, yet weaker in profile than, 
 the Flag-stafi" Bastion; its steep scarp and counterscarp rendered it, indeed, 
 a formidable obstacle to assault. With such defenders as the Russians, 
 it is no discredit to the French that their patient yet brilliant effijrts 
 failed to achieve success. The loop-holed wall was either covered by a 
 rampart and parapet, or entirely replaced by a simple parapet; wherever 
 it remained exposed it was much injured by the long cannonade to which 
 it was subjected. 
 
 The Quarantine Bedans were little more than a simple trench, with 
 the gabionade thrown forward about 3', thus affording a banquette ; the 
 soil in this part was even more rocky than in front of the bastions just 
 described. 
 
 The strength of profile of the works east of the central ravine was very 
 much less than that of the Flag-staff and Central Bastions. The remem- 
 brance of the history of the progress of the siege will explain the seeming 
 anomaly that points, now generally considered of secondary importance, 
 should be more strongly fortified than those which common opinion pro- 
 nounces the key-points of the position. Until the spring of 1855, all the 
 efforts of the French were directed against the Flag-staff and Central 
 Bastions ; and for some reason or other (probably the languor with which 
 their approaches were pushed) the Russians seemed to attach very little 
 importance to the operations of the English. It was therefore natural 
 and proper that the Russians should avail themselves of the time em- 
 ployed by the allies in preparing to open their fire, and of the slackness 
 of the fire during the winter, to turn all their efforts upon the points 
 attacked. It is probable that serious work upon the Malakoff scarcely 
 commenced before the French opened their trenches against it : it was 
 therefore carried on under much more unfavorable circumstances. 
 
 In the leisurely construction of a system of permanent defences for 
 Sebastopol, the neglect of the Malakoff and Sapoune ridges would have 
 been indeed inexcusable; but the actual works were constructed for the 
 
22 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 most part under fire, and always in sight of the enemy. The garrison 
 was for a long time weak for so extensive a position, and the supply of 
 tools was always inadequate in amount and wretched in quality : looking 
 at their miserable tools, it was a source of astonishment that such gigantic 
 results could have been achieved with such paltry means. 
 
 The Redan was more properly a salient bastion, and appearances indi- 
 cated that it was originally a detached lunette, closed at the gorge by a 
 bastioned front, having a good ditch, banquette, &c. ; in fact, this gorge 
 front still existed in fair condition at the close of the siege, the left half 
 bastion alone having, for some reason, been nearly levelled. The Redan 
 was afterwards connected with the Barrack battery on the one hand, and 
 oj^ the other extended by the line of works crowning the western crest 
 of the Otchakoff ravine. The nature of the ground, especially near the 
 salient, was such that the scarp and counterscarp were more gentle than 
 in the bastions already described. Without pretending to enter into 
 details which would necessarily be imperfect, the best practical idea of 
 the real nature of the work will be derived from the fact ' that, although 
 no breach was made, the English, on the 8th September, entered the 
 work without using the ladders. The details of the interior were similar 
 to those of the Flag-staff Bastion, the guns being covered by traverses 
 and parados, which formed shelters very favorable to an attacking column 
 after it had once effected an entrance. It should be distinctly stated 
 that the Redan had no second line of defence. 
 
 In front the ground has a very gentle slope and is unobstructed; the 
 works connecting the Redan with the Barrack battery border the preci- 
 pitous side of the great ravine ; the ground occupied by the work itself 
 slopes gently from the salient towards the gorge ; in rear it falls rapidly 
 towards the inner harbor, but somewhat less so to the north, so that access 
 is not very difficult from that direction. 
 
 In the immediate vicinity of the Redan there was a series of remarkable 
 bomb-proofs, excavated in the solid rock : first, a ditch 12' wide and 4' 
 deep was excavated ; then holes for a couple of men each were formed on 
 each side of the ditch, each hole being 6' long, 5' high, and 3' wide. 
 
 In the same locality arrangements were observed for firing canister 
 from a 13" mortar. 
 
 The line of works extending from the Redan along the crest of the 
 Otchakoff ravine varied much at different points ; in some places the ditch 
 was excavated to the depth of 6' and 8' in the rock, in others the coun- 
 terscarp was wholly artificial; portions of the abatis still remained in 
 front of this line. This line did not extend continuously to the Malakoff, 
 but was broken where it crossed the Otchakoff ravine, detached retired 
 batteries enfilading the latter. 
 
 The Malakoff also was a salient bastion, its right face being slightly 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. 23 
 
 broken to the front; the bastion enclosed the remains of the tower, the 
 lower story of which was covered by the parapet. 
 
 An ample estimate for the profile of the Malakoff at the salient would 
 probably be, command 14' j thickness of parapet, 18'; ditch, 18' wide and 
 12' deep. At all events, such was the condition of affairs that the Zouaves, 
 who formed the storming party on the 8th September, entered the work 
 without the aid of ladders. 
 
 The Malakoff Bastion (called by the Russians Korniloff, the name 
 Malakoff being applied by them only to the tower) occupied the eastern 
 crest of a hill rising from the general surface of the ridge, and terminating 
 it towards the town ; the slope of the hill towards the French approaches 
 was gentle, while towards the Karabelnaia suburb it was steep, difficult, 
 and obstructed in the extreme ; to the north and south the ground fell 
 away rapidly. In rear of the bastion an irregular redoubt occupied the 
 remainder of the summit of the hill ; the parapet did not always follow the 
 ditch, but was often broken into saw-teeth (to obtain better directions for 
 the guns) while the ditch ran in a straight line. With regard to the 
 bastion and redoubt two errors were committed : in the first place, two 
 epaulments were left standing, extending from near the flanks of the 
 bastion to the redoubt, which afforded easy access to the latter from the 
 parapet of the former ; in the second place, the bastion was literally filled 
 with traverses covering the bomb-proof shelters ; these traverses entirely 
 nullified the effect of the fire of the redoubt upon the troops who gained 
 the bastion, and afforded them complete shelter. As these bomb-proofs 
 were absolutely necessary to enable the garrison to hold the work during 
 the bombardment, it is not perhaps exactly proper to designate their con- 
 struction as an error, although their existence proved fatal at the time of 
 the assault. The evil might have been remedied either by sinking the 
 bomb-proofs entirely under ground, or by giving to the mass of earth 
 above a glacis slope towards the salient; although the latter arrangement 
 would have required much space. The interior slopes of all the works 
 were revetted with gabions, crowned with fascines and sand-bags. From 
 the Malakoff to the Little Redan abatis, military pits, spikes, and caltrops 
 with four barbed points, stuck through planks, were freely employed. 
 These things were also employed in front of other parts of the defences. 
 Explosive machines, on the Jacobi principle, were also employed. 
 
 The Russian engineers appeared to have relied upon the artillery fire of 
 the collateral works for flanking defences and acting upon the ground in 
 front of any particular work, rather than upon the immediate flanking 
 arrangements of the special work in question. The entire absence of 
 blinded. batteries is somewhat remarkable. There can be no doubt that 
 such batteries at the salients of the principal works would have exercised 
 a very great influence. 
 
24 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The Mamelon Vert was situated on the summit of a mound of no con- 
 siderable elevation above the general surface of the ridge; the eastern 
 slope was gentle, while it was more abrupt on the other sides, particularly 
 towards the west. It was difficult or impossible to determine the original 
 form of the work. It appeared to have been a redan, with a pan-coupe, 
 the right face flanked by the Malakoff, the left by the Little Redan, the 
 pan-coup6 by the Sapoune redoubts ; yet it is not improbable that it was 
 a lunette. The Sapoune redoubts appear to have been lunettes, with a 
 command of 7', the ditch 5' deep and 12' wide, a glacis 2' in height. 
 Even in these detached works excellent bomb-proofs were provided. 
 
 The Eussian counter-approaches generally consisted of fleches, united 
 by a simple trench. 
 
 The famous rifle-pits varied much in character. Sometimes they con- 
 sisted merely of a little pile of stones, or two gabions, placed *on their 
 sides, forming an angle merely sufficient to shelter one man ; at other 
 times, of a hole in the ground for four or five men ; again, of semicircle^ 
 or filches capable of holding from ten to forty men. 
 
 In front of the Volhynian redoubt there were two lines of these semi- 
 circular shelters, uniting at an acute angle about two hundred and fifty 
 yards in advance of the work, and extending across the ridge. In advance 
 of the angle were two rows of small ones for one or two men each. These 
 particular semicircles were eight paces wide at the gorge, had a parapet 
 4' high, the interior being excavated. In many cases these pits were 
 thrown much farther in advance, and in very exposed situations. They 
 contributed very materially towards impeding the progress of the ap- 
 proaches. 
 
 From the preceding hasty and imperfect account of the defences of Se- 
 bastopol, it will appear how little foundation there was for the generally 
 received accounts of the stupendous dimensions of the works, and of new 
 systems of fortifications brought into play. The plain truth is that these 
 defences were simple temporary fortifications of rather greater dimensions 
 than usual, and that not a single new principle of engineering was there 
 developed. It is true that there were several novel minor details, such as 
 the rope mantelets, the use of the iron tanks, &c. ; but the whole merit 
 consisted in the admirable adaptation of well-known principles to the 
 peculiar locality and circumstances of the case. Neither can it be asserted 
 that the plans of the various works were perfect. On the contrary, there 
 is no impropriety in believing that, if Todtleben were called upon to do 
 the same work over again, he would probably introduce better close-flank- 
 ing arrangements. 
 
 . These remarks are not intended to, nor can they, detract from the repu- 
 tation of the Russian engineer. His labors and their results will be 
 handed down in history as the most triumphant and enduring monument 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. 25 
 
 of tlie value of fortifications, and his name must ever be placed in the 
 first rank of military engineers. But, in our admiration of the talent and 
 energy of the engineer, it must not be forgotten that the inert masses 
 which he raised would have been useless without the skilful artillery and 
 heroic infantry who defended them. Much stronger places than ^ebas- 
 topol have often fallen under far less obstinate and well-combined attacks 
 than that to which it was subjected. There can be no danger in express- 
 ing the conviction that the siege of Sebastopol called forth the most 
 magnificent defence of fortifications that has ever yet occurred. 
 
 This would seem to be the proper place to notice a popular fallacy which, 
 for a time at least, gained extensive credence. It was, that the siege of 
 Sebastopol proved the superiority of temporary (earthen) fortifications 
 (Jver those of a permanent nature. It is easy to show that it proved 
 nothing of the kind, but that it only proved that temporary works in the 
 hands of a brave and skilful garrison are susceptible of a longer defence 
 than was generally supposed. They were attacked as field works never 
 were before, and were defended as field works never had been defended. 
 The main difference between properly-constructed permanent fortifications 
 (intended to resist a siege) and temporary works is, that the latter seldom 
 present an insuperable obstacle against assault, while the former always 
 do. In addition, permanent works have a better command over the 
 adjacent country, and are more carefully and perfectly planned. The 
 masonry walls, which render an assault impossible, cannot be seen from 
 the distance, and can be destroyed only by establishing batteries on the 
 crest of the glacis or the edge of the ditch ; the earthen parapets alone 
 being visible beyond that point, they may, until the besiegers arrive there, 
 be regarded in the same light as field works, with the difference that the 
 garrison are not harassed by the necessity of being constantly prepared 
 to repel an assault. Now, in the siege of Sebastopol, the trenches of the 
 besiegers never reached the edge of the ditch ; so that, had the fortifica- 
 tion been a permanent one, the most difficult, slow, and dangerous part of 
 the siege remained to be undertaken, viz. : — the crowning of the covered 
 way, the establishment of the breach batteries, the descent and passage 
 of the ditch, and the assault of the breach : in other words, at the moment 
 when the weakness of the temporary works became apparent and fatal, 
 the true strength of the permanent defences would have commenced 
 coming into play. 
 
 Assuming the progress of the attack to have been as rapid as it was 
 under existing circumstances, the besiegers, on the 8th of September, 
 would not yet have been in a condition to crown the covered way, the 
 siege would certainly have extended into the winter; and it may even be 
 doubted whether the place would eventually have fallen, until the allies 
 were in sufficient force to invest the north as well as the south side. 
 
26 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 From the fleet and the naval arsenals were undoubtedly derived the 
 means of arming and equipping the land defences; on many occasions 
 the fire of the vessels up the ravines, as well as their vertical fire, was 
 probably attended with effect: yet I can see no reason to coincide in the 
 opinion that the presence of the fleet justified the allies in failing to 
 advance upon the town immediately after their arrival in front of it. No 
 doubt the fire of the vessels would have rendered it impossible for the 
 allies to have occupied immediately the lower parts of the town and the 
 shores of the harbor; but the nature of the ground was such that they 
 could have opposed no serious resistance to the allied occupation of the 
 positions subsequently occupied by the Malakofi", Redan, and Flag-stafi" 
 Bastion. Once holding these points, it would have been easy for the 
 allies to establish batteries commanding at once the fleet and the town ; 
 defence would have been impossible, and the opening of their fire must 
 have been the signal alike for the destruction of the fleet and the evacua- 
 tion of the south side. 
 
 We will now pass to the works of attack. 
 
 So great was their extent, some 6 miles from the extreme right to the 
 farthest left, with a development that has been stated, probably without 
 exaggeration, to exceed 40 miles, and so broken was the ground over 
 which they stretched, that it is impossible to give in a report like this 
 any thing approaching to a definite idea of their plan. An endeavor will 
 be made merely to point out how far the besiegers departed from, or con- 
 formed to, their established systems for works of this nature. 
 
 As the selection of the points of attack, and the positions to be occu- 
 pied to cover the siege, must first have engaged the attention of the allied 
 commanders, they will naturally be the first objects for our consideration. 
 
 In the determination of the position for covering the siege there were 
 two things to be considered : 1st, the power of resisting the eff^orts of a 
 relieving army ; 2d, the facility of bringing up to the front the various 
 supplies required in the operations. 
 
 The strength of the position afforded by the plateau of the Chersonese 
 has already been referred to ; with the small force at first present on the 
 part of the allies, it is certain that their position would have been much 
 stronger and more secure had they confined themselves to the occupation 
 of the plateau, holding the valleys to the east only by detachments to 
 observe the enemy. The English, supposing that their position and 
 point of attack remained as it was, would have had a somewhat greater 
 distance to pass over in the transportation of their supplies; but by 
 abandoning Balaklava for Kazatch they would have obtained a much 
 more extensive and convenient harbor, and the united efforts of the two 
 armies would have enabled them to construct, in ample season, a good 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. 27 
 
 road for the passage of their trains. Had the siege been undertaken by 
 a French army alone, it can scarcely be doubted that Kamiesch and 
 Kazatch would have been used to the exclusion of Balaklava; at all 
 events, Balaklava would have been employed only as a temporary depot, 
 when the roads were good and the enemy at a distance : here the insupe- 
 rable evils of a divided command probably intervened. In this case the 
 barren and disastrous day of Balaklava would never have occurred ; the 
 force and labor employed in protecting Balaklava would have placed the 
 position of Inkermann in such a state of defence as either to have de- 
 terred the Russians from engaging in the battle, or to have secured the 
 victory to the allies without the frightful cost and great uncertainty 
 attending that eventful contest. 
 
 In the actual condition of affairs, if either on the 25th October or the 
 5th November the Russians had succeeded in carrying Balaklava, the 
 English army would have been reduced to the most desperate extremity 
 by the total loss of all its supplies and means of transportation. It is 
 possible that the result would have been the total abandonment of the 
 siege, and a retreat upon Kamiesch, to embark there as rapidly as trans- 
 portation could be obtained. 
 
 To anticipate objections, it may be stated that, during the winter of 
 1854 and 1855, no supplies were drawn from the country beyond Balak- 
 lava, and that the only advantages derived from its occupation were : — 
 inextricable confusion in unloading vessels and despatching supplies, 
 arising from the want of size of the harbor, and the steepness of its 
 banks ; wretched roads over the muddy soil ; a steep ascent to be over- 
 come in reaching the plateau ; finally, the constant and lively anticipation 
 of being entirely deprived of these uncertain advantages upon the first reso- 
 lute attack by the enemy in force. The most probable reasons for the selec- 
 tion of Balaklava as the English depot are, that it was somewhat nearer 
 the position on the plateau; that it was- not taken by the French; and 
 that, since it existed, it would be a pity that it should remain idle. 
 
 We may now turn to the point of attack. 
 
 The facts of the case are well known. For many months the operations 
 of the French were directed entirely against the Flag-staff and Central 
 Bastions, the English being engaged in what may be termed two false 
 attacks against the Redan. 
 
 It was not until the spring of 1855 that the efforts of the French 
 were at last turned towards securing possession of the Malakoff. 
 
 To appreciate the merits of this question, it is necessary again to refer 
 to the map, to bear in mind that the heights overlooking the Karabelnaia 
 were considerably more elevated than those bordering upon the main city, 
 and that the docks and other naval, as well as military, establishments 
 were all located in the Karabelnaia suburb. 
 
28 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Were the Flag-staff Bastion carried, but a single step was gained; 
 beyond it existed at least two lines of defence, both difl&cult to carry, 
 before even the main city was reached. While these new approaches 
 were being constructed, it would have been a simple matter for the 
 Russians to border the commanding heights of the Karabelnaia with new 
 batteries directed against the town; the fire from these, together with 
 that from the works on the north side, would have rendered the victors 
 very uncomfortable and insecure in their barren conquest ; and the fleet 
 could have retired to the vicinity of the Careening bay, where it, as well 
 as the docks, would have been secure against direct injury. 
 
 By taking the Malakoff, the fleet and the establishments of the Rus- 
 sians lay exposed at the feet of the allies ; its commanding position and 
 proximity to the main harbor rendered further resistance useless when 
 once occupied by them. Considerations relating to the facility of bring- 
 ing up supplies and covering their depot very probably determined the 
 direction of the early French attacks, but by no means diminish the 
 credit due to General Neil, who first turned the efforts of his countrymen 
 in the right direction. 
 
 If a deficiency in men and means is assigned as a reason for the early 
 operations of the allies, it is but another proof that, in undertaking the 
 affair, they neglected one of the clearest rules of war; that is, to under- 
 take no important operation without full and reliable information as to 
 the obstacles to be overcome, and the means of resistance in the hands 
 of the enemy. 
 
 Enough has already been said to justify the belief that a dilemma, 
 diflS.cult of solution, might be presented for the consideration of the allies : 
 on the one hand, the comparatively small scale upon which the original 
 expedition was organized, — the intimation contained in some of the French 
 instructions that " half a siege train" would suffice to capture Sebastopol, 
 and the absence of all preparations for passing the winter in the Crimea, 
 would indicate that the allied governments were well aware of the real 
 weakness of Sebastopol at that time, and intended that it should be carried 
 by a " coup de vigeur ;" on the other hand, from the moment the armies 
 landed, every movement was conducted in a manner indicating that the 
 generals were under the impression that formidable defences were in 
 front of them, and that nothing serious could be attempted until further 
 supplies and reinforcements were received. 
 
 In regard to the detailed execution of the French attacks, little or 
 nothing novel is to be observed. Even when coolly examining the 
 direction of their trenches, after the close of the siege, it was very rarely 
 that a faulty direction could be detected : they always afforded excellent 
 cover, and were well defiladed; in some cases the excavation of the 
 double direct sap was carried to the depth of 6F in the solid rock. 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. . 29 
 
 The execution of many of the saps and batteries was worthy of a school 
 of practice. In the parallels, bomb-proofs were provided as temporary 
 hospitals, ofl&ces for the generals on duty, &c. They did not use the 
 sapper armor. The use of the sap roller was often attempted, but it 
 could be employed only during the latter part of the attack upon the 
 Malakoff, when the fire of the Russian artillery was nearly extinguished 
 by the mortars ; before that, as soon as a sap roller was placed in position 
 some 30 guns would be brought to bear upon it, the result being its 
 immediate destruction. 
 
 It may justly be said of the French approaches, that they admirably 
 carried into practice their system of sapping. The technical skill and 
 patient courage evinced by their officers and men in pushing forward 
 such excellent approaches, under a most deadly fire, is worthy of all com- 
 mendation, and is such as might have been expected from the antecedents 
 of their corps of engineers. With regard to the English the case was 
 difi"erent: it seemed as if they systematically abandoned the excellent 
 system taught and perfected with so much care at Chatham. 
 
 Whenever the ground was difficult, their trenches generally ceased to 
 afi"ord shelter ; a shallow excavation in the rock, and a few stones thrown 
 up in front, appeared to be all that was considered necessary in such 
 cases. They were often faulty in direction as well as in profile, being 
 not unfrequently badly defiladed, or not gaining ground enough, and 
 entirely too cramped ; nor were they pushed as close to the Redan as 
 they ought to have been before giving the assault. 
 
 In too many cases the expression " tatonnement" of the French would 
 seem to convey the best idea of their operations. Their batteries, how- 
 ever, were very well constructed. Their magazines, platforms, &c., were 
 usually similar to those adopted at Chatham, although unnecessary devia- 
 tions were sometimes complained of. 
 
 They employed neither armor nor the full sap; sometimes the half- 
 full, but generally the flying sap were employed. The excellent English 
 magazines were generally covered with 7" or 8" timber, 2 layers of 
 fascines, 2 layers of sand-bags, and b' or 6' of earth. During the siege 
 three were exploded by 13" shells; but it was supposed that in two of 
 these cases the shells burst in the passage, as similar magazines resisted 
 13" shells falling on the roof; in the third case the magazine was first 
 struck fairly on the roof by a 13" shell, which laid it bare to the sand- 
 bags ; the corporal of sappers in charge, being intoxicated, neglected to 
 repair the damage, when another 13" shell struck in the same place and 
 exploded the magazine. 
 
 A very good gabion was made, by the English, of the iron hoops of 
 bales of hay, casks, &c. They were 3' high and 2' in diameter, having 
 11 stakes of sawed wood. The iron hoops were wattled as the ordinary 
 
30 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 witheS; and were bound by iron straps running the whole length of the 
 gabion. These were much employed in revetting the cheeks of embra- 
 sures, thus avoiding the use of raw hides. The first pair of gabions, at 
 the throat, should not be of iron, since it was found that shot would often 
 tear oflf pieces of the straps, which caused bad wounds. 
 
 Gabions were also made of split hoops. 
 
 The fascines were bound with iron straps, twisted by pincers, in addi- 
 tion to the ordinary withes. The dimensions of their materials varied 
 much in size, being made by difi"erent parties. 
 
 Sand-bags were very much employed in revetting batteries, tra- 
 verses, &c. 
 
 Latrines were provided at the extremities of parallels and boyaux, and 
 cleansed with lime every day. 
 
 Water tanks and reservoirs were provided in the parallels, and filled 
 every morning and evening by means of pack-animals. 
 
 During the siege the English working parties and guards of the 
 trenches generally paraded at 6^ P.M., and moved off after dark, often 
 suffering severely before reaching the trenches. The guards of the 
 trenches went on duty in their red coats and forage caps, without knap- 
 sacks; working parties in working dress, and armed; muskets on the 
 reverse of the trench. Grenerally double sentinels were posted, on their 
 bellies, -about 50 yards in advance of the trench. 
 
 Materials, guns, ammunition, &c., were carried up at night, "over the 
 open." 
 
 The result of the operations of this long and eventful siege was that 
 on the 8th of September, 1855, the French had, at a great cost of life 
 and labor, pushed their approaches to the distance of 32 paces from the 
 counterscarp of the Malakoff, and not quite so near the other works. 
 The English, meanwhile, had scarcely reached within 225 yards of the 
 ditch of the Redan. 
 
 On that day the assault was made at noon upon at least six points. 
 
 A few minutes later than the assault upon the Malakoff, the English 
 attacked the Redan. The Russians being now upon the alert, they did 
 not pass over the open space before them without loss; but the mass 
 succeeded in crossing the ditch and gaining the salient of the work. 
 Finding themselves entirely unsupported, they at once took shelter behind 
 the traverses, whence the example and efforts of their officers did not 
 avail to draw them, in order to occupy the work closing the gorge. 
 Having in vain used every effort, having despatched every officer of his 
 staff to the rear urging that supports should be at once sent up, and 
 seeing that the Russians were now beginning to assemble in force, the com- 
 mander of the English storming party reluctantly determined to proceed 
 himself to obtain reinforcements. Scarcely had he reached the trenches, 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. 31 
 
 and at last obtained authority to move up the required succor, when, upon 
 turning to lead them forward, he saw the party he had left in the work 
 rapidly and hopelessly driven out at the point of the bayonet. No further 
 eflfort was made to carry the work. It would, in all probability, have 
 failed, and would only have caused a useless sacrifice of men. 
 
 The failure of the English assault may be attributed partly to the fact 
 that their advanced trenches were too small to accommodate the requisite 
 force without confusion, in part to their not being pushed sufficiently 
 near the Redan, but chiefly to that total absence of conduct and skill in 
 the arrangements for the assault which left the storming party entirely 
 without support. Had it been followed at once by strong reinforcements, 
 it is almost certain that the English would have retained possession of the 
 work. 
 
 The two French attacks on the west of the central ravine were probably 
 intended only as feints : at all events, the parties engaged were soon driven 
 back to their trenches with considerable loss, and effected nothing. Their 
 attempts upon the Little Redan, and the works connecting it with the 
 Malakoff, met with even less success than the English assault. The 
 Russians repulsed the French with great loss, meeting with the bayonet 
 the more adventurous men who reached the parapet. Thus, in five points 
 out of six, the defenders were fully victorious, but, unfortunately for them, 
 the sixth was the decisive point. 
 
 In their admirable arrangements for the attack of the Malakoff, the 
 French counted on two things for success : — ^first, they had ascertained that 
 the Russians were in the habit of relieving the guard of the Malakoff at 
 noon, and that a great part of the old guard marched out before the new 
 one arrived, in order to avoid the loss which would arise from crowding 
 the work with men; in the second place, it was determined to keep up 
 a most violent vertical fire until the very moment of the assault, thus 
 driving the Russians into the bomb-proofs, and enabling the storming 
 party to enter the work with but little opposition. The hour of noon was 
 therefore selected for the assault, and the strong columns intended for the 
 work were at an early hour assembled in the advanced trenches, all in 
 admirable order, and furnished with precise instructions. 
 
 The mortars maintained an unremitting fire until the moment appointed. 
 The very instant the last volley was discharged, the storming party of 
 Zouaves rushed over the thirty paces before them, and were in the work 
 before the astonished Russians knew what had happened. It was stated 
 that this party lost but eleven men in entering the work. Other troops 
 advanced rapidly to the support of the storming party, a bridge was formed 
 by rolling up five ladders with planks lashed to them, a communication 
 was at once commenced between the advanced trench and the bridge, 
 brigade after brigade passed over, the redoubt was at once occupied by the 
 
82 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 storming party, and tlius the Malakoff, and witt it Sebastopol, was won. 
 The few Russians remaining in the work made a desperate resistance. 
 Many gallant attempts were made by Russian columns to ascend the 
 steep slope in reiar and regain the lost work; but the road was narrow, 
 difficult, and obstructed, the position strong, and the French in force. 
 All their furious efforts were in vain, and the Malakoff remained in the 
 possession of those who had so gallantly and skilfully won it. With 
 regard to the final retreat to the north side, it can only be said that a per- 
 sonal examination of the locality merely confirms its necessity, and the 
 impression so generally entertained that it was the finest operation of the 
 war: so admirably was it carried out that not a straggler remained behind; 
 a few men so severely wounded as to be unfit for rough and hurried trans- 
 portation were the sole ghastly human trophies that remained to the allies. 
 
 The retreat, being a more difficult operation than the assault, may be 
 worthy of higher admiration; but the Russian retreat to the north side 
 and the French assault upon the Malakoff must each be regarded as a 
 masterpiece of its kind, deserving the closest study. It is difficult to 
 imagine what point in either can be criticized; for both evinced con- 
 summate skill, discipline, coolness, and courage. With regard to the 
 artillery, I would merely remark that the Russian guns were not of 
 unusual calibre, consisting chiefly of 24, 32, and 42 pounders, and that 
 the termination of the siege was mainly due to the extensive use of 
 mortars finally resorted to by the allies. If they had been employed in 
 the beginning as the main reliance, the siege would have been of shorter 
 duration. 
 
 The causes of the unusual duration of this siege naturally resolve them- 
 selves into three classes : the skilful disposition of the Russians, the faults 
 of the allies, and natural causes beyond the control of either party. 
 Among the latter may be mentioned the natural strength of the position 
 and the severity of the winter. In the first class, there may be alluded 
 to : — the skill with which the Russian eugineers availed themselves of the 
 nature of the ground; the moral courage which induced them to under- 
 take the defence of an open town with a weak garrison; the constant use 
 they made of sorties, among which may properly be classed the battles 
 of Balaklava, Inkermann, and the Tchernaya; the ready ingenuity with 
 which they availed themselves of the resources derived from the fleet ; 
 the fine practice of their artillery; their just appreciation of the true use 
 of field works, and the admirable courage they always evinced in standing 
 to their works to repel assaults at the point of the bayonet; the employ- 
 ment of rifle-pits on an extensive scale; finally, the constant reinforce- 
 ments which they soon commenced receiving, and which enabled them to 
 fill the gaps made in their ranks by disease and the projectiles of the allies. 
 
 The evidences of skill on the part of the allies, as well as the apparent 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. 33 
 
 faults on all sides, having been already alluded to, it is believed that the 
 means have been famished to enable any one to draw his own conclusions 
 as to the history of this memorable passage of arms. 
 
 At different times .during the siege ai vast amount of labor was bestowed 
 upon field works in front of Kamiesch and Balaklava, near the Inker- 
 mann, on the northern and eastern borders of the plateau, and along the 
 Tchernaya: these works varied much in strength and character, some- 
 times consisting of continuous lines, again of detached redoubts. 
 
 The redoubts generally had ditches about 10' wide and 6' deep. In 
 many cases these works were only undertaken when a narrow escape from 
 some imminent danger had demonstrated their necessity. 
 
 The line in front of Kamiesch consisted of eight pentagonal redoubts, 
 connected by an infantry parapet; it ran from Strelitzka bay nearly south to 
 the sea, passing at a Iktle more than a mile from the harbor of Kamiesch : 
 it was never completely finished. 
 
 The position of the Russians, after the evacuation of the south side, 
 was one of exceeding strength : their establishments were covered by Fort 
 Sivernaia, (a permanent work,) and long lines of strong earthen batteries, 
 which would have required a siege to reduce them. 
 
 The steep declivity of Mackenzie's heights, accessible at but a few 
 points, all of which were strongly guarded, rendered the approach from 
 the south a matter of extreme difficulty. It would appear that the allies 
 were wise in refusing to attempt to force the passage, unless the effort had 
 been made immediately after the fall of the Malakoff, before the Russians 
 recovered from the shock. • 
 
 Efforts were made to turn the extreme Russian left by the valley of 
 Baidar, but they only served to ascertain the hopelessness of the under- 
 taking. 
 
 The detached operations against Kinburn, Eupatoria, Kertch, the Sea of 
 Azoff, &c., cannot be regarded as having produced any effect upon the gene- 
 ral result of the war : they served chiefly to weaken the main body of the 
 allies, to annoy and exasperate the Russians, to occupy the attention of 
 some of their irregular troops, and to destroy more private than public 
 property. 
 
 The most accurate topographical map of the ground around Sebastopol, 
 that I have seen, is one published at the hydrographic o^ce of the Admi- 
 ralty, February 2, 1856, and entitled, " Sebastopol : shpwing the Russian 
 defence works and the approaches of the allied armies; by Lieutenant 
 George R. Wilkinson, R.N., under the direction of Captain T. Spratt, 
 R. N. C. B., September 1, 1855." 
 
 The permanent defences of the harbor of Sebastopol against an attack 
 by water, although inferior in material and the details of construction to 
 our own most recent works, proved fully equal to the pui'pose for which 
 
84 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 they were intended. Indeed, the occurrences on the Pacific, the Baltic, 
 and the Black Sea, all seem to establish, beyond controversy, the sound- 
 ness of the view so long entertained by all intelligent military meuj that 
 well-constructed fortifications must always prove more than a match for 
 the strongest fleets. 
 
 It is believed that a calm consideration of the events so hastily and 
 imperfectly narrated in the preceding pages must lead all unprejudiced 
 persons among our countrymen to a firm conviction on two vital points : 
 
 1st. That our system of permanent coast 'defences is a wise -and proper 
 one, which ought to be completed and armed with the least possible 
 delay. 
 
 2d. That mere individual courage cannot suffice to overcome the forces 
 that would be brought against us were we involved in a European war, 
 but that it must be rendered manageable by discipline, and directed by 
 that consummate and mechanical military skill which can only be acquired 
 by a course of education instituted for the special purpose, and by long 
 habit. 
 
 In the day of sailing-vessels the successful siege of Sebastopol would 
 have been impossible. It is evident that the Russians did not appreciate 
 the advantages afforded by steamers, and were unprepared to sustain a siege. 
 
 This same power of steam would enable European nations to disembark 
 upon our shores even a larger force than that which finally encamped 
 around Sebastopol. To resist such an attack, should it ever be made, our 
 cities and harbors must be fortified, and those fortifications must be pro- 
 vided with guns, ammunition, and instructed artillerists. To repel the 
 advance of such an army into the interior, it is not enough to trust to 
 the number of brave but undisciplined men that we can bring to bear 
 against it. 
 
 An invading army of 15,000 or 20,000 men could easily be crushed by 
 the unremitting attacks of superior numbers ; but when it comes to the 
 case of more than 100,000 disciplined veterans, the very multitude 
 brought to bear against them works its own destruction ; because, if with- 
 out discipline and instruction, they cannot be handled, and are in their 
 own way. We cannot afford a Moscow campaign. 
 
 Our regular army never can be, and, perhaps, never ought to be, large 
 enough to provide for all the contingencies that may arise ; but it should 
 be as large as its .ordinary avocations in the defence of the frontier will 
 justify ; the number of officers and non-commissioned officers should be 
 unusually large, to provide for a sudden increase ; and the greatest pos- 
 sible care should be bestowed upon the instruction of the special arms, of 
 the artillery and engineer troops. 
 
 The militia and volunteer system should be placed upon some tangible 
 and effective basis, instructors furnished them from the regular army. 
 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. 35 
 
 and all possible means taken to spread sound military information among 
 them. 
 
 In the vicinity of our sea-coast fortifications it would be well to provide 
 a sufficient number of volunteer companies with the means of instruction 
 in heavy artillery; detailing officers of the regular artillery as instructors, 
 who should at the same time be in charge of, and responsible for, the guns 
 and material. 
 
 In time of war, or when war is imminent, local companies of regular 
 artillery might easily be enlisted for short terms of service, or for the war, 
 in the sea-coast towns. The same thing might advantageously be carried 
 into effect on a small scale, in time of peace. 
 
36 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 
 
 THE RUSSIAN JeNGINEER TROOPS, 
 
 As has been stated previously, are organized in battalions of four 
 companies eacb, a battalion being attached to each army corps. Each 
 company consists of 1 first captain, 1 second captain, 1 lieutenant, 1 
 second lieutenant, 1 ensign, 20 sergeants, 6 musicians, 230 corporals and 
 privates. There are three classes of .privates, with different rates of pay. 
 No extra pay is allowed them for any kind of work. 
 
 Forty men in each company carry a rifled carbine, the rest have the 
 ordinary infantry musket; all carry tools of some kind. The general 
 equipment, drill, &c., is as for the infantry. The drivers are not detailed 
 from the companies, but are a distinct set of men. 
 
 The officers of the sappers are distinct from those of the coi'ps of en- 
 gineers, and need not have passed through the engineer, school, but may 
 enter at once from any of the military schools. 
 
 The engineer troops havfe charge of the bridge train. Their general 
 duties are as in most other services, including the repairs of roads, &c. 
 
 The use of armor in the trenches has been abandoned. The tools, 
 pontons, wagons, &c., are made afe the engineer arsenals of construction. 
 In a siege, all the works, including the batteries, are made by the sappers. 
 
 COMPANY AND BATTALION SCHOOLS. 
 
 These are under the supervision of the junior field officer of the bat- 
 talion ; the method of mutual instruction is pursue'd, and text-books are 
 provided. 
 
 In each company school the following branches are taught : 1, reading; 
 2, writing; 3, religion, i.e. the ten commandments, the creed, and the 
 principal prayers; 4, arithmetic, i.e. the four rules for single and de- 
 nominate numbers ; 6, reading extracts from the School of the Recruit, 
 with questions and answers. 
 
 In the lower class of each battalion school the following subjects are 
 taught : 1, in religion, the catechism and short extracts from the Scriptures ; 
 2, the chief rules of grammar and parsing; 3, in arithmetic, the repetition 
 
EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 
 
 of the four ground rules, fractions, proportion, raising to the second 
 power, and extracting the square ropt; 4, in geometry, the drawing, 
 nomenclature, and properties of figures; 5, writing. 
 
 In the higher class of the battalion school the course is as follows : 1, 
 in the Russian language, the rest of the grammar, and writing from dic- 
 tation ; 2, in arithmetic, simple, inverse, and double rule of three, with its 
 application to examples, the extraction of the cube root; 3, algebra, as 
 far as Simple equations ; 4, geometry, with ' the calculation of plane sur- 
 faces; 5, writing; 6, the drawing of the different objects relating to the 
 duties oF sappers, miners, and pontoniers; 7, in summer, the practical 
 solution of simple geometrical problems by means of cords and stakes, 
 execution of field works, saps, mines, &c., with the names of their differ- 
 ent parts. 
 
 MILITARY BRIDGES. 
 
 The Birago equipage has been partially introduced, 
 especially the trestles, but the Russian engineers seemed 
 to prefer their own system of canvas pontons. 
 
 I was informed that in the Hungarian campaign the ad- 
 vantage was altogether on the side of the canvas pontons, 
 and that, as a general thing, their bridge was thrown 
 and the troops crossing before the Austrian Birago 
 wagons could fairly come into position : it was also 
 stated that when the roads were bad the Austrian train 
 required ten horses for each wagon. 
 
 The canvas pontons consist of two wooden side frames, 
 connected by movable transoms, with a painted canvas 
 cover stretched over the bottom, ends, and sides. 
 
 The annexed figure gives the shape and dimensions 
 of one of the side frames, which are made of about 4" 
 scantling. The bottom transoms have, tenons at each 
 end, which fit into mortises in the bottom sills of the 
 side frames ; the two top transoms are laid on the top 
 pieces of the side frames about 2! from the ends, and are 
 lashed to them. The boat is 5' 4" wide from out to 
 out. 
 
 The canvas cover is painted black on both sides ; it is 
 10' 8" wide, 30' long in the m'iddle, 23' 3" long along 
 the edges. This cover is brought over the ends of the 
 frame and lashed to the top transoms; it is secured 
 along the sides to the top string-pieces of the side frames 
 by small' nails passing through eyelet-holes along the 
 edges of the cloth. 
 
 L.xr. 
 
 "^ 
 
38 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 A plank is laid along the bottom for the pontoniers to stand 6n. The 
 cables are attached to the top transoms. There are four balks for each 
 boat, each balk being 23' 4" long, 5" 'deep, 4" wide ; the side "rails are 
 2V long, and of 3" scantling; four chesses are 12' 2" long, 1.5" thick, 
 and 18.6" wide, the rest being of the same length and thickness, but only 
 9.3" wide. The balks of adjacent bays are connected by iron bolts and 
 keys. There are special supports for the hand-ropes. The Birago trestle 
 and abutments are used with this train. The wagon is very simple; it 
 has four wheels, a flat open bottom, with a stanchion about 3' high at 
 each angle. In loading, the four broad chesses are laid on edge against 
 the stanchions, two on each side, thus forming the sides of the wagon ; 
 the narrow chesses are laid on the bottom, then the balks, side rails, 
 ponton-frames, oars, &c., the anchor and cable on top of all. The canvas 
 cover is rolled on a boat-hook and hung to the stanchions on the right- 
 hand side of the wagon. 
 
 To pass a siege train over this bridge, the boats are placed 8' apart, 
 from centre to centre, and six balks are used instead of four. In other 
 cases the distance between the centres of the supports varies from 11' 8" 
 to 16' 7i", according to the method of construction and the load to be 
 crossed over. 
 
 I saw a bridge of fifteen bays thrown over a lake, by cadets, in forty-five 
 minutes. In this time the wagons were unloaded, the boats put together, 
 &c. ; two of the bays were on Birago trestles, and two on Birago pontons. 
 
 The canvas ponton, with its cover, cctoplete, weighs 720 pounds. 
 
 Floatation of each ponton, 13,428 pounds. 
 
 Weight of flooring, &c., of one bay, 1,476 pounds. 
 
 Other materials packed on each wagon vary from 144 to 378 pounds. • 
 
 •Total load of each wagon, from 2,340 to 2,574 pounds. 
 
 Weight of empty wagon, 1,206 pounds. 
 
 The weights and dimensions given above are derived from the Russian 
 Aide-M4moire of the Engineers, pp. 143 to 145. 
 
 LEATHER PONTONS OF THE MOUNTED ENGINEER TROOPS. 
 
 These are made of varnished leather, stretched over a wooden frame. 
 The boats, or pontons, are 20' long; greatest width, 5' 7"; depth, 3'; 
 weight, 972 pounds ; floatation, when sunk to the depth of 2' 8", 5,760 
 pounds. 
 
 For each boat there are 8 balks, each 18' long and 4" square, and 
 weighing 72 pounds. 
 
 For each bay there are 12 chesses, each 12' long, 18i" wide, 2" thick, 
 and weighing 101 pounds. 
 
 Each ponton is carried on a wagon, together with 8 balks and some 
 other materials. 
 
EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 39 
 
 On other wagons are carried the chesses for two bays and the remainder 
 of the material. 
 
 The weights of these wagons and their loads are as follows : 
 
 Boat-wagon, empty 2,178 pound: 
 
 The boat 972 " 
 
 8 balks 576 " 
 
 Other materials 640 " 
 
 Total 4,266 " 
 
 Chess-wagon, empty 2,196 pounds. 
 
 24 chesses , 2,424 ^» 
 
 Other materials 270 " 
 
 Total 4,890 
 
 Each wagon is drawn by 6 horses. 
 
 Each leather boat will transport 25 men, with their arms and accoutre- 
 ments. 
 
 A raft formed of two boats will transport one gun, or 6 horses.' 
 
 The foregoing account of this bridge is also derived from the Eussian 
 Aide-M^ftioire, (edition of 1848,) pp. 153 and 154. 
 
 I had no opportunity of examining a train of this kind. 
 
 Raft bridges are much employed and admirably handled by the Russians. 
 There is a very fine one, with a draw, over the Vistula, at Modlin. 
 
 FIELD WORKS. 
 
 The normal dimensions of the different parts are as follows: 
 
 Ditchj not less than 10 J' wide at top; from 6' to 9' deep; base of 
 scarp and counterscarp, from J to f of the depth. 
 
 Parapet, from 1' to 8' high; thickness against infantry, 4'; against 
 artillery, ffom 9' to 14' ; interior slope, J ; exterior slope, f or f , accord-- 
 ing to the soil. 
 
 Banquette, 3' to 4^' wide, 4' 4" below the interior crest. 
 
 Berm, W to 3' wide. 
 
 Embrasures, V 9" wide at the throat ; exterior opening depends upon, 
 the thickness of the parapet and the desired field of fire ; sole, 3' to 
 3' 3" above the platform. • . 
 
 3Ierhns, T to 8' high, VJ^' to 21' from axis to axis of the embrasures. 
 
 Barbettes, 3' to 3' 3" below the interior crest, 17J' to 24' deep, 14'' 
 wide. 
 
 Chin and howitzer platforms, 9' wide, 17 J' to 21' long. 
 
 Mortar platformy T wide, V to 9' long. 
 
40 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 A gun or howitzer platform consists of: 1st, a hurter, not less than 9' 
 long X 6" gquare; it is bisected at right angles by the directrix; 2d, 3 
 or 6 sleepers, (according to the soil,) not less than 6" square, and as long 
 as the platform; the outside sleepers are 5 2' apart from centre tp centre, 
 and are parallel to each other; 3d, flooring planks not less than 2" 
 thick. 
 
 A mortar platform consists of: 1st, 3 sleepers 8" square and as long 
 as the platform ; 2dj flooring timbers 7' long and 8" thick. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OP THE WORKING PARTY ON A FIELD WORK. 
 
 From four to five men. are assigned every six running feet of the ditch, 
 according to the strength of the profile. In easy soil each of these 
 parties has one pick or mattock, four shovels, and one earth-rammer; in 
 difficult soil there should be two-thirds shovels and one-third picks; in 
 very difficult soil, one-half shovels and one-half picks. 
 
 The workmen are placed in four ranks, which are 6' apart; the first 
 rank in the ditch, near the counterscarp; the second at the middle of the 
 ditch, opposite the intervals of the first rank; the third on the berm; 
 the fourth on the parapet. 
 
 The first rank carry their excavation to' the depth of 3', from the 
 counterscarp to the middle of the ditch, and throw the earth on the 
 berm ; the second rank work from the middle of the ditch towards the 
 scarp, throwing the earth on the berm and parapet; the third rank throw 
 the loose earth from the berm towards the interior slope ; the fourth- rank 
 level thd earth on the parapet, ram it, form the slopes, &c. If the ditch 
 is more than 10^' wide, the first rank throw their earth towards the scarp, 
 whence the second rank throw it on the berm. The scarp and counter- 
 scarp are at first cut down in steps, being afterwards trimmed oflf to the 
 proper slopes. 
 
 Any superfluous earth is formed into a glacis. 
 
 In a 'ditch not more than 4' deep, in good soil, two men can in ten 
 hours excavate and shovel off 343 cubic feet; in a ditch frofh 4' to 5 2^' 
 deep, one additional man is required to do the same work ; in a ditch 
 more than 5^^' deep, four men, two of whom have barrows or baskets, are 
 required to do the same work. The interior slope is always revetted with 
 fascines or hurdles; in default of these, with sods. The exterior slope 
 is revetted with fascines or hurdles only when the parapet is of sand. 
 
 When the work is to-stand for some time, the exterior slope and the 
 counterscarp may be revetted with sods. 
 
 Parties of seven sappers each are detailed to revet the interior slope ; 
 the three oldest soldiers arrange the slope, the other four bring up the 
 materials. Each party should revet 24 running feet, and is provided 
 witl^ one iron hammer, one bill-hook, and 1 handsaw. 
 
EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 41 
 
 SECONDARY MEANS OP DEFENCE. 
 
 Inundations stould not be less than 5' deep. 
 
 Chevaux-de-fnse. — Body of square timber, 9' long; the lances. project 
 5', are \\" in diameter, and 9i" apart. 
 
 Palisades. — Of round timber, 9^' to 10 i' long, 8'' in diameter; point, 
 1' lon^ ; butts charred. They are placed at the foot of the scarp or coun- 
 terscarp, or in the middle of the ditch. "The trench to receive them is 
 1\' wide and 2j' deep. The palisades are from 2" to 3'' apart. 
 
 Stockades are double palisades, employed against light artillery. 
 
 The military pits are from 5' to 6' deep, upper diameter 6', lower dia- 
 meter 1^'j the stake from 4" to 5" in diameter, and projects 4^' above 
 the' bottom of the pit. 
 
 Fraises, entanglements, abatis, caltrops, &c., are also employed. 
 
 SIEGE MATERIALS, ETC. 
 
 The usual mathematical and surveying instruments are provided. The 
 tools are generally inferior in quality. 
 
 Common fascine. — 6' or 12' long, 2' in circumference; withes from 1' 
 to 2' apart. 
 
 Batter?/ fascine. — 18' to 21' long, 1' in diameter; withes 10" to 12" apart. 
 
 Sap fagot. — 2 J' long, 10" in diameter; central stake projects 6". 
 
 The trestles of the fascine cradles are from 2 2' to 3' apart; the stakes 
 of which they are made are 5' to 6'. long, diameter 3" to 4" at the butt; 
 points enter the ground 3' apart, and cross 3' abov^ the ground. 
 
 The brush for fascines is not more than 1" in diameter. A fascine 
 party consists of six men : two for preparing the brush, one to prepare 
 the withes, two to lay and choke the brush, one to remove the fascine 
 when completed. Each party is provided with two bill-hooks, one 
 hatchet, one measuring-rod, one cord to measure the circumference, and 
 one choker. 
 
 Gallon. — The sap gabion is 30" high, 24" in diameter, and has 9 
 stakes; each stake 3^' long, and from 1^" to 2" in diameter. 
 
 Battery gallon. — 4' high, 3' in diameter, 13 stakes. In all gabions the 
 stakes should be 8' apart. 
 
 A gabion party consists of three men, and is provided with one 
 measuring-rod, two bill-hooks, and one hatchet. 
 
 Sap roller.— 1^' long, 4' in diameter, stuflfed with wool or fascines, and 
 closed at both ends by wattling. It has 17 stakes. 
 
 The brush being cut for them, and it being only required to trim off 
 the leaves and twigs and to wattle, a party of three men can in four hours 
 finish three sap gabions, two- battery gabions, or one-third of a sap roller. 
 
 Hurdles are from 4' to 9' long; stakes, from 4' to 7' long, 2" in dia- 
 
42 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 meter, and 1' apart. A party of tliree men can make 53 square feet of 
 hurdles in four hours, the brush being abeady cut. 
 
 Sand-hags.— 2' long, 8" to 9" wide. 
 
 Sods,—lW' long, 12" broad, from 5" to 6" thick. 
 
 Average weight of different sap materials. 
 
 Common fascine, 6J' long, 8^'' diameter #.. . 31J 
 
 Battery fascine, 20Mong, V diameter..... 288 
 
 Sap fagot 17 
 
 Sap gabion 43 to 54 
 
 Sap roller, empty 324 
 
 Sap roller, stuffed with fascines 1,080 to 1,296 
 
 Sand-bag, filled 36 to 40 
 
 SIEGE OPERATIONS. 
 
 Simple trench. — In easy soil, that can be worked by the shovel alone, 
 the men are placed 4' apart ; when the pick is required, 3' apart ; in very 
 difficult soil, 2' apart. The communications leading to the first parallel 
 have the following profile : trench, 3' deep at the berm, 8' to 9' wide at 
 bottom; parapet, 4' high and 9' thick at base. This should be com- 
 pleted the first night. Next day the first parallel receives the following 
 dimensions : parapet, 4' high, 16' thick at base ; trench, 9' wide at bottom 
 in the clear, 3' deep in front; two steps, revetted with fascines, against 
 the berm slope, and one broad step on the reverse slope. 
 
 As regards their appearance, when completed, saps are single, double, 
 or covered ; with respect to the mode of execution, they are flying or slow. 
 
 The single sap affords cover from one direction only ; the double sap, 
 on both sides ; the covered sap, on both sides and above ; the latter is 
 employed fo give protection against a ricochet fire, or when descending a 
 slope, or when following along the foot of a hill. 
 
 In the flying sap the gabions are all placed and filled simultaneously ; 
 in the slow sap the gabions are placed and filled one at a time. 
 
 ,For each head of the slow sap 24 sappers are detailed and divided into 
 4 reliefs ; there is one non-commissioned officer with each relief, and 1 
 officer for every 2 reliefs. 
 
 For each head of sap the following tools are necessary : 2 sap hooks, 9' 
 long, as in annexed sketch : 
 
 lEJ- 
 
EUROPEAN.ENGINEER TROOPS. 
 
 43 
 
 1 square; 1 arm 1' long, the other 18", as a measure for the 1st sapper; 
 3 measures for the 2d, 3d, and 4th sappers, respectively, 2', 2^', and 3' 
 long; 4 hand-axes, to cut turf and roots; 4 picks, or mattocks, according 
 to the soil ; 6 shovels ; 2 axes ; 1 tracing-cord ; 2 sap forks, each 5' long, 
 as shown by the annexed sketch : 
 
 1 seven-foot measure ; 2 handspikes, T long, 6" square ; 1 roller, 4' long, 
 18" in circumference ; 1 block, 2' long, 6" square, as a fulcrum for the 
 handspikes ; 1 curved wooden mallet, of the shape and dimensions shown 
 in the annexed figure, for driving down the crowning fascines, &c. : 
 
 8" • 
 
 Kr 
 
 4' 6' 
 
 For each head of sap the following materials are required: 1 sap 
 roller; sap gabions; sap fagots; fascines; stakes, 2 J' long, for fastening 
 the fascines ; sand-bags. 
 
 Each relief is relieved after filling 18 gabions, which should be accom- 
 plished in 3 hours. 
 
 The first sapper fills 3 gabions, and then becomes No. 6 ; No. 2 becomes 
 No. 1, &c. The end of the sap roller is on the alignment of the exterior 
 surface of the gabionade. The joint between the sap roller and the 
 gabion in the course of being filled is not covered ; the next 12 joints 
 are each covered by 2 sand-bags on end; after that with sap fagots. 
 
 Temporary crowning fascines are not habitually used. 
 
 Execution of the single sap. — The 1st 'sapper leaves a berm of 1'; his 
 form is 18" deep, 1' wide at bottom; base of berm slope 1'; he works on 
 his knees. The 2d sapper follows No. 1 at the distance of 3 gabions; his 
 form is 2.' deep, 2' wide at bottom, berm slope |; he throws his earth 
 over the gabionade, and works on his knees. The 3d and 4th sappers 
 crown the gabions opposite their forms with one layer of 2 fascines, and 
 then complete their respective forms, preserving the berm slope of | ; 
 the form of No. 3 is ^^' deep by 2V wide at bottom ; that of No. 4 is 3' 
 deep and 3' wide at bottom. Each sapper follows at 3 gabions behind the 
 one in front of him. In the mean time, Nos. 5 and 6 pass up the materials, 
 
t 
 44 THE ARMIES OF-EUROPE. 
 
 place and secure with pickets the 2d layer of fascines, remove the sand- 
 bags from the joints, and replace them by sap fagots. 
 
 Nos. 2 and 3 manoeuvre the sap. roller. 
 
 Boyaux made by the single sap are 6' wide at bottom. 
 
 Double sajp. — This is 12' wide between the two rows of gabions. Its 
 trench, when completed, is 10' wide at top, 6' at the bottom. The head 
 is covered by two ordinary sap rollers, not united in any way, the joint 
 being closed by sand-bags, or a wool-bag. If it is necessary to throw the 
 sap rollers farther out than usual, the opening left between them may be 
 covered by a short sap roller. 
 
 The covered sap. — In this, blindage frames are used, each consisting 
 of two stanchions 10^' long X 7" square, and of two cross pieces, the 
 upper of which is 10" X 7", the lower 7" X 5"- The frame is 4' wide 
 from out to out, and 7¥ high from out to out of the cross pieces. The 
 stanchions project equally beyond both cross pieces, and have points* 
 9" long. The frames rest against the berm slope, having its inclination. 
 Two cross beams, each 16' long and 10" X 7", rest on each top cross 
 piece. Five longitudinal beams of a similar section are laid on the cross 
 beams; on top of these two layers of fascines, and on top of them 3' of 
 earth. The trench thus formed is 7' high in the clear and 6' wide at 
 bottom. In pushing the sap from the crowning of the breach, the first 
 sapper makes his form 3' deep and 2' wide at bottom ; each of the other 
 sappers widens and deepens it 1'. 
 
 MINES. 
 
 Frames of grand galleries are 6' high and 3' wide in the clear. 
 
 Frames of common galleries are 4 J' high and 3' wide in the clear. 
 
 Frames of branches are 2V high and 2' wide in the clear. 
 
 All parts of the frames are 5" wide; the caps are from 5" to 9" deep, 
 the sills from 3" to 5" deep. 
 
 For branches, the width and depth are diminished 1". 
 
 The frames of Dutch galleries are of 2" plank, and from 6" to 9" wide. 
 
 Each party of miners consists of three non-commissioned officers and 
 eighteen men, divided into three reliefs, each relief working six hours. 
 In ordinary soil, where no unusual obstacle is encountered, each relief 
 should drive from 3' to 4' in six hours. 
 
 In defending any position by field works, the system pursued was to 
 occupy the flanks and other important points of any given line by 
 redoubts, lunettes closed or palisaded at the gorge, &c., afterwards con- 
 necting them by continuous lines if time was afforded, and the locality 
 rendered it advisable. When circumstances were favorable, the command 
 Df the works was usually from 9' to 12', or even more ; the parapets 16' 
 to 20' thick. In the ditches of the works, which were leisurely con- 
 
EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 45 
 
 structed, palisades, fraizes, caponi^res, block-houses, blinded batteries, &c., 
 were freely and judiciously employed. In some cases all the slopes were 
 revetted with sods. The embrasures varied much in size, according to 
 the circumstances of the particular case ; the soles generally sodded, the 
 cheeks revetted with sods, gabions, or fascines. Generally, every two 
 guns had splinter-proof gabion traverses from two to three tiers in height, 
 two to three gabions wide at bottom, and one at top ; no fascines between 
 the tiers; the gabions vertical, with oflfsefe. There were usually ban- 
 quettes between the embrasures, which latter were provided with rope 
 mantelets : the magazines generally of a pentagonal section, and covered 
 with 12" timber, a layer of fascines, and 6' of earth; the cartridges 
 placed on shelves. 
 
 The works intended to act against shipping were provided with hot- 
 shot furnaces, and heavy guns were employed. Whenever the field works 
 were at all leisurely constructed,* nothing could have been more perfect 
 and creditable than their details. 
 
 On many of the barbette water batteries, the following arrangement 
 was used for aiming : The rear traverse circle was graduated to small 
 fractions of degrees; on the parapet was a small arc graduated pro- 
 portionally; a wooden slat about 3' long, and provided with an index 
 traversed on this arc ; on top of the slat were two fine needle sights. It 
 was only necessary to sight the ship to be fired at with these needle sights, 
 take the reading shown by the index, and then run the gun to the same 
 reading on the rear traverse circle. 
 
 THE PRUSSIAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 
 
 They are called pioneers, and perform the duties of sappers, miners, 
 and pontoniers. They are officered by details from the corps of engineers, 
 and are organized in divisions of two companies each. In time of war, a 
 reserve or depot company is added to each division. There is a division 
 for each of the nine army corps, and two independent companies for the 
 Confederation fortresses of Mayence and Luxembourg. On the war foot- 
 ing, the strength of each company is as follows : 
 
 4 officers. 
 
 1 orderly sergeant. 
 
 1 ensign, (a non-commissioned officer in the line of promotion.) 
 
 3 sergeants. 
 
 9 master pioneers, (an intermediate grade of non-commissioned officer.) 
 
 9 corporals. 
 189 privates, including one hospital attendant. 
 
 3 musicians. 
 
 226 men, exclusive of officers, surgeons, and drivers. 
 
46 . THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 In peace, the strength is reduced to about one-half. The drivers of 
 the tool and ponton wagons are soldiers of the train, and are not taken 
 from the companies. 
 
 When the whole army is placed on the war footing, the strength of the 
 pioneers is 7,743 men, exclusive of officers, surgeons, and drivers. All 
 the pioneer material is made at the engineer arsenals. In the trenches 
 armor is not used. Experiments have been made with helmets and 
 cuirasses made of three thicknesses of bull's hide ; the results are said to 
 be satisfactory. The men carry tools in slings, never attached to the 
 knapsack. They are armed with a light musket, having an ordinary 
 bayonet. Pioneers are employed as overseers, clerks, master-workmen, 
 &c., in the construction of permanent works. 
 
 MILITARY BRIDGES. 
 
 The Birago trestle has been definitively adopted, but somewhat dimi- 
 nished in dimensions ; his sectional ponton only partially, if at all. I saw 
 none in use or in store. 
 
 The boats are of wood, and are 20' X 5' X 2^'. The balks are 18' 
 X 5 J" X 4"; chesses, 12' X 10^' X !"• The anchors are of two sizes, 
 the smaller weighing 80 lbs. 
 
 The wagons are drawn by six horses, and weigh, loaded, from 4,800 to 
 5,400 lbs. The balks and chesses are secured on the wagons by bolts; 
 the boat is placed on top, bottom upwards; the cables, oars, anchors, &c., 
 are placed under it. There are two oars and one boat-hook for each boat; 
 buoys, sounding-poles, &c., are provided. A bridge train consists of 32 
 boats, and requires for its transportation 34 boat-wagons, 5 store-wagons, 
 1 travelling forge, 238 horses, and a company of the train, (drivers,) con- 
 sisting of 1 officer, 6 non-commissioned officers, and 119 drivers. The 
 company of the train is organized only when the troops are placed on the 
 war footing, since horses are provided only in that event. 
 
 Each division of pioneers has 1 bridge train, constituted as above. In 
 addition each division has also a light advanced guard trestle bridge train, 
 which consists of 10 wagons, can follow all the movements of artillery, 
 and most of those of the cavalry. 
 
 Some of the officers spoke very highly of the Birago trestle, but stated 
 that it did not answer well on a very boggy bottom. Nothing peculiar 
 was observed in their manner of throwing and dismantling the bridge ; it 
 was well and rapidly done ; the formation of the various detachments is 
 similar to our own system. 
 
 SAPS. 
 
 Gabions — 30'' high, exterior diameter 20", 7 stakes, bound by 4 withes 
 at 6ne end and by 3 at the other. 
 
EUEOPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 
 
 47 
 
 Sap fagots are used, but are generally replaced by sand-bags. Sand- 
 bags ^0" X 15"^ empty, 6'' X ^" when filled. Temporary crowning fas- 
 cines are not used. 
 
 The sap rollers are of 2 concentric gabions, in the English style ; the 
 outer cylinder is 9' long, 3' 4" diameter at the centres of the stakes, and 
 has 23 stakes ; the inner cylinder is 7' long, and 1' 9" in diameter. The 
 s^ace between the two cylinders is stuffed with fascines, and the ends 
 closed by wooden circles of 2" stuff. The picks and shovels are quite 
 light ; the latter have straight handles; The usual handspikes, chocks, 
 &c., are employed. 
 
 The annexed sketch repre- 
 sents the sap hook. 
 
 The opposite figure shows the 
 butt of the reverse sap hook. 
 
 The annexed figure represents 
 the butt of the berm sap hook, 
 a chain being fastened to the 
 ring and a hook to the end of 
 the chain ; the hook is hooked 
 to the wattling of the gabionade, 
 and thus held secure. 
 
 The annexed 
 sketch represents 
 the sap fork ; its 
 vertical branch is 
 unusually long; 
 the bar, attached 
 by a pin to the 
 handle, serves as 
 a fulcrum in plac- 
 ing the gabion. 
 
 Q 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 
48 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 A brigade for the full sap is composed of 1 non-commissioned officer 
 and 8 men ; the leading sapper fills 2 gabions before changing ; the man- 
 ner of working, changing, &c., presents nothing peculiar. 
 
 The centre of the sap roller is placed on the alignment of the interior 
 slope of the gabionade. In the double sap the rollers are never fastened 
 together ; the interval between them is covered by a short roller, or by a 
 pile of sand-bags. 
 
 In the full sap the berm is from 1' to 2', according to circumstances. 
 No. 1 always keeps one filled gabion in advance of the head of his form. 
 
 The forms of the sappers are as follows: No.l, 18" X 18"; No. 2, 
 24" X 24"; No. 3, 30" X 30"; No. 4, 36" X 36". Each sapper has a 
 wooden measure of his form. In crowning the covered way the sap is 4' 
 deep. 
 
 At the head of the double sap there is a rod as long as the clear inter- 
 val between the gabionades ; this passes through rings at the ends of two 
 sticks, one of which is at the side of each 1st sapper,* and is used to verify 
 the positions of the gabions last placed. 
 
 The hurdle, sod, and fascine revetments, military pits, palisades, huts, 
 &c., are well executed, but present nothing nov.el. 
 
 Mines. — The galleries and shafts are well and neatly executed. I 'ob- 
 served but two peculiarities in regard to the galleries: first, instead of 
 connecting the stanchions of adjacent frames by battens nailed to them, 
 pieces of 3" scantling, as long as the clear interval between the frames, 
 are driven in between them sideways and horizontally ; second, before 
 driving the wedges between the ends of adjacent lengths of sheeting, a 
 strip of board is driven in, edgewise, between the ends of the sheeting 
 planks, at right angles to them. In the shafts the frames are supported 
 from below. 
 
 THE AUSTRIAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 
 
 Their duty is confined to that of sappers and* miners, and the construc- 
 tion of permanent works. In a siege the batteries are built by the 
 artillery. The construction of all kinds of bridges, and of field fortifica- 
 tions, the repairs of roads, &c., are intrusted to the pioneers, a special 
 corps belonging to the general staff. 
 
 The engineer troops receive, however, a certain amount of instruction in 
 these duties, that they may be able to perform them in case of necessity. 
 There are 12 battalions of engineer troops, of .4 companies each. A 
 company consists of — 
 1 captain. 
 4 lieutenants. 
 4 sergeants. 
 
EUBOPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 49 
 
 8 conductors, (an intermediate grade of non-commissioned officer.) 
 16 corporals. 
 32 lance corporals. 
 148 privates. 
 
 2 musicians. 
 
 215— total. 
 
 The officers are detailed from the corps of engineers. Each company 
 is divided into four platoons, one of which is especially instructed as 
 miners, the remaining three as sappers. 
 
 They are armed with a rifled weapon, having a 26" barrel, and a bayonet 
 19" long. 
 
 Figures 1 and 2 show the uniform, accoutrements, manner of carrying 
 picks and shovels, mode of packing the overcoat, &c. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows the formation of a company of engineer troops, as well as 
 the distribution of the various tools. In addition to the various tools 
 mentioned in that plate, each man carries a little bag containing small 
 tools, nails, &c. 
 
 The composition of a brigade for the full sap is the same as in the 
 French system. The most striking peculiarity in the Austrian system is 
 their method of executing the full sap. 
 
 Upon commencing his work. No. 1 finds his form 2 J' wide and 1^' deep 
 for the width of one gabion from the head, in rear of that it is 3' deep; 
 at the point where the form of No. 3 begins the trench is 3' wide. A 
 mantelet is often used on the berm to cover the 5 leading gabions, in rear 
 of the sap fagots. No. 1 places a gabion, and fills it with the earth 
 obtained by cutting away the step at the head of his form, assisted by No. 
 2, who throws into the gabion some of the loose earth he finds in his form. 
 The gabion being filled. No. 1 continues his work until he has not only 
 cut away the step at the head of his form, but has excavated another just 
 like it, extending to 2' from the sap roller ; after he has filled the gabion, 
 he passes back the loosened earth to No. 2, who throws it over the gabion- 
 ade, always taking care to leave some loose earth to assist in filling the 
 next gabion placed. No. 3 carries the sap to the full width ; No. 4 places 
 the sap fagots, &c. ; No. 1 is relieved after having filled one gabion and 
 completed the excavation just described; his task usually occupies 20 
 minutes. Temporary crowning fascines are sometimes used. The sap 
 roller consists of a single cylinder, stuffed with fascines. 
 
 , THE AUSTRIAN PIONEERS. 
 
 As has already been stated, this corps is attached to the general staff, 
 and constructs all military bridges, field works, roads, &c. ; detachments 
 
 4 
 
50 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Fig.l. 
 Austrian engineer soldier. 
 
EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 
 
 51 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 Austrian engineer soldier. 
 
 -^^^^T^' 
 
62 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 from it assist in making surveys. The officers are distinct from those of 
 the general staflf, and are promoted in the arm. 
 
 There are 6 battalions, of 4 companies each. A company consists of; 
 
 1 captain. 
 
 4 lieutenants. 
 
 2 sergeants. 
 20 corporals. 
 
 40 carpenters, (20 of the 1st and 20 of the 2d class.) 
 160 pioneers, (40 of the 1st and 120 of the 2d class.) 
 2 musicians. 
 
 "229— total. 
 
 The company is divided into 4 platoons, — their arms, accoutrements, 
 and moda of carrying tools being precisely like those of the engineer 
 troops. Figures 1 and 2 will give all the requisite information. 
 
 Fig. 4 shows the formation of a company and the distribution of the 
 tools. In addition to the tools, &c., mentioned in the figure, 3,000 nails 
 and various small tools are divided among the men ; the maximum load 
 of any one man is 45 i pounds, every thing included. 
 
 The Birago equipage is exclusively used, and has undergone no modifi- 
 cation, except that the sections of the boats are connected by bolts and 
 keys in addition to the hooks on the sides. 
 
 Experiments are now being made to substitute boiler-iron boats for 
 those of wood; it was stated that they were of about the same weight 
 as the wooden ones, and that they would probably be adopted. I ob- 
 served a number of them at Klosterneuberg. All the bridge materials, 
 and most of the pioneer tools, are made by the men of the corps, the 
 principal arsenal of construction being at Klosterneuberg, near Vienna. 
 
 Each company has two bridge equipages ; an equipage consisting of the 
 pontons, trestles, &c., necessary to form a bridge 174' long; 15 wagons 
 transport this amount of material, and they are so packed that the 
 equipage may be divided into J, i, and i. 
 
 The composition, details, and properties of the Birago bridge are so 
 well known to all interested in the subject, through Haillot's excellent 
 description of it, and Birago's "Examination of the European Systems 
 of Military Bridges," that it is altogether unnecessary to describe it here. 
 
 For the pioneers, as well as for the engineer troops, there are special 
 tactics for the infantry drill of the recruit, company, and battalion drills. 
 
 All the details of the Austrian system of the field duties of the pioneers, 
 such as field fortifications, labors in camp, repairing roads, making bridges, 
 &c., will be found in an excellent work entitled, "Technical Pioneer- 
 Service in the Field, by Captain Wasserthal ;*' or, in the original, 
 " Technischer Pionier-Dienst im Felde, von Konstantin Wasserthal, K. K. 
 
63 
 
 Fig. 3. — Company of 
 
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 M'b\'b\c\ 
 
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 Captain. 
 
 
 1st lieutenant. 
 
 
 2d lieutenant. 
 
 
 1st sub-lieutenant. 
 
 
 2d sub-lieutenant. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Sergeant. 
 
 I. 
 
 T7\ Conduct© 
 
 Y~\ Corporal. 
 
 [[ Musician. 
 
 |g^ Pickaxe-( 
 
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64 
 
 jer troops (Austrian.) 
 
 \'b\~h\l\(L\a\a\(t\a\a\ii\a\{t\cL\a\a\'\ -\l\b\b\a\(v\(v\a\a\(Aft'\to\(AAa^\a^\ B 
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 EID 
 
 tneers, (Austrian.) 
 
 I a\a\a\ a\a\ii\a.\a\a-\(t\a\a\a\a\a-\7di7-f\-f\2 \'k\a,\a\a\ai(L\a\ei\a-\a\a\a\a^cL\eL\a\a\i2^ 
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 [^ Axe. 
 
 Auger. 
 
 f71 Pincers. 
 
 g. ^ Clamp-iron-carriers. 
 
 [^ Saw-carriers. 
 
 (T] Men with two shovels, 
 
 nn Men Without tools. 
 
EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 55 
 
 Pionier, Hauptmann, etc. ; Wien, Yerlag von Carl Gerold und Sohn — 
 1852." 
 
 THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH ENGINEER TROOPS. 
 
 Our own system of instruction being based upon the French and 
 English, their organization and system are so perfectly well known in our 
 service that any description of them may be dispensed with. It is be- 
 lieved that no essential changes have been introduced of late. 
 
 In the course of the observations made upon the operations near Sebas- 
 topol there arises the necessity of alluding to the manner in which these 
 systems were carried into practice, as well as the temporary modifications 
 rendered necessary by circumstances. 
 
 In concluding this brief account of the engineer troops of different 
 European services, there are a few points to which I would ask to call the^ 
 attention of our own officers of engineers. 
 
 In regard to the saps : there are several things which ought at least to 
 be tried. Among them may be mentioned the Russian system of reducing 
 the number of men in a brigade to 6 ; the Austrian method of executing 
 the sap; the Russian curved mallet for fastening the crowning fascines; 
 the Prussian sap hooks and sap fork ; the system of leaving the two sap 
 rollers at the head of the double sap unconnected, and covering the 
 interval by a third roller or by sand-bags ; the use of sand-bags, instead 
 of sap fagots, for covering the joints at the head of the sap, and the 
 Austrian manner of carrying tools. 
 
 In reference to bridges : I would recommend that the Birago trestle, in 
 principle, at least, be definitively adopted as a part of our system. Its 
 universal adoption on the continent of Europe, after careful trial, would 
 appear to be sufficient evidence that its theoretical advantages are fully 
 obtained in practice. On the march from Matamoras to Victoria and 
 Tampico, in 1846 and 1847, we had very great difficulty in bridging boggy 
 streams (there being no suitable timber) and in crossing ravines with 
 vertical banks : a few bays of the Birago trestles would have saved us 
 many days and a vast amount of labor. In the operations in the valley 
 of Mexico, our movements, checked as they so often were by impassable 
 wet ditches and sometimes by dry ravines, would have been rendered so 
 much more free and rapid by the use of the Birago trestles that our 
 successes could have been gained at far less cost, and probably with even 
 more rapidity, than they were. 
 
 With respect to the boats: fully appreciating the great advantages 
 arising from the lightness of our India-rubber pontons, I have never felt 
 satisfied that they could afford, in practice, the advantages expected of 
 them. The material deteriorates and becomes worthless very rapidly, — 
 
56 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 probably the inevitable result of the process of manufacture. It is at 
 least doubtful whether, even in new pontons, the manner of attaching the 
 cable affords sufficient strength, should a heavy load cross the bridge, 
 when thrown over a wide and rapid stream. The pontons are not j&t to be 
 used as boats in ferrying troops over rapid streams, espefcially under fire. 
 
 In attaching the frame to the ponton, the loops soon give way, and 
 cannot be repaired in the field. 
 
 The bridge has never been fairly tested; that is, it has never been 
 thrown across any stream, much less a rapid one, and a heavy load passed 
 over it. 
 
 I would therefore suggest that the equipage ought not to be exclusively 
 relied upon in the field until it has been tested by taking it to some place 
 where it can be thrown over a rapid stream, at least 100 yards wide, and 
 the heaviest loads passed over, and where, too, its capacity, in the form 
 of single boats and rafts, can be fully tried. I would at the same time 
 suggest the propriety of experimenting with sectional boats, after the 
 manner of the Birago boats, but made of the corrugated iron. 
 
 Our force of artillery is large in proportion to the other arms of service, 
 while the number of our engineer troops is ridiculously and shamefully 
 small : it is, therefore, more than probable that in any future siege it will 
 be easy for the artillery to construct their own batteries, while the en- 
 gineers will be sufficiently burdened by the construction of the other 
 works of attack. We have now, at last, the germ of an artillery school of 
 practice : I would then suggest, for the consideration of the War Depart- 
 ment, the propriety of causing the artillery to construct their own batteries. 
 The position and armament of siege batteries should be determined by 
 consultation between the engineers and artillery, the former having the 
 preponderating voice, in order to secure the necessary harmony and con- 
 nection between all parts of the works of attack. 
 
 I would recommend that the result of the experience of the engineer 
 company be reduced to form, and that a full and detailed system for the 
 construction of material, saps, mines, field works, bridges, construction 
 of field ovens, repairs of roads, &c., be adopted and published for the 
 benefit of the service. 
 
 If the artillery be charged with the construction of batteries, there 
 should also be adopted and published for their use an artillery manual, 
 comprising every thing in relation to the preparation of the fascines, 
 gabions, platforms, and magazines, the dimensions of batteries, manner 
 of arranging working parties, &c. 
 
THE FRENCH INFANTRY. 57 
 
 FRENCH, AUSTRIAN, PRUSSIAN, AND SARDINIAN 
 
 INFANTRY. 
 
 THE FRENCH INFANTRY. 
 
 The infantry of the French army is divided into several classes: 
 1st. The infantry of the imperial guard; 2d. The infantry of the line; 
 3d. The battalions of foot rifles, (chasseurs a pied, — formerly d' OrlianSj 
 or de Vincennes;) 4th. The zouaves; 5th. The light infantry of Africa; 
 6th. The foreign legions; 7th. The native (African) light infantry. 
 
 The infantry of the guard is organized in two divisions, each of two 
 brigades. 
 
 1st division, 1st brigade: 1 regiment of gendarmes, 2 battalions; the 
 1st regiment of grenadiers, 4 battalions; the regiment of zouaves, 2 bat- 
 talions. 
 
 2d brigade : the 2d regiment of grenadiers, 4 battalions ; the 3d regi- 
 ment of grenadiers, 4 battalions. Total of 1st division, 16 battalions. 
 
 2d division, 1st brigade : the 1st regiment of voltigeurs, 4 battalions; 
 the 2d regiment of voltigeurs, 4 battalions; the battalion of foot rifles. 
 
 2d brigade: the 3d regiment of voltigeurs, 4 battalions; the 4th regi- 
 ment of voltigeurs, 4 battalions.. Total of 2d division, 17 battalions. 
 Total infantry of the imperial guard, 33 battalions. 
 
 The battalions of gendarmes, grenadiers, and voltigeurs have 6 com- 
 panies ; the battalions of zouaves 7 companies, of which 1 is a depot com- 
 pany; the battalion of foot rifles has 10 companies. 
 
 The infantry of the line consists of 102 regiments, each of 3 battalions; 
 the battalion has 8 companies. 
 
 There are 20 battalions of foot rifles; 10 companies in a battalion. 
 
 There are 3 regiments of zouaves, each of 3 battalions ; the battalion of 
 9 companies, 1 of which is a depot company. 
 
 The light infantry of Africa consists of 3 battalions, each of 7 com- 
 panies, 1 of which is a depot company. 
 
 There are 2 foreign legions, each legion of 2 regiments, the regiments 
 having 3 battalions of 8 companies; to the 2d legion is attached, ia 
 addition, a rifle battalion of 10 companies. 
 
58 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The native light infantry consists of 1 regiment of 2 battalions, having 
 8 Companies each, and of 6 independent battalions, varying from 3 to 8 
 companies each. 
 
 The staff of a regiment of 3 battalions consists of: 1 colonel; 1 lieu- 
 tenant-colonel; 3 chiefs of battalion; 1 major; 4 adjutants, with the rank 
 of captain, (capitaine adjutant major;')! treasurer, with the rank of captain, 
 {capitaine trSsorier;) 1 captain of clothing, (^capitaine d'habillement;) 
 1 assistant treasurer, a sub-lieutenant ; 1 standard-bearer, a sub-lieutenant; 
 3 surgeons. 
 
 To the staff of a regiment of 4 battalions 1 chief of battalion is added. 
 On the staff of a regiment of 2 battalions there are but 2 chiefs of bat- 
 talion and 2 adjutants. 
 
 To the staff of many of the regiments a lieutenant of the general staff 
 (Itat-major) is attached, for his instruction in the service of the arm. 
 
 The staff of an independent battalion, such as those of the foot rifles, &c., 
 consists of: 1 chief of battalion; 1 captain major, a captain doing the 
 duty of major; 1 captain adjutant; 1 captain, as instructor of firing; 
 
 1 lieutenant, acting as treasurer; 1 lieutenant, acting as clothing officer; 
 
 2 surgeons. 
 
 The non-commissioned staff of a regiment of 3 battalions consists of: 
 
 3 non-commissioned adjutants, (sergeant majors;) 1 drum major, or chief 
 bugler; 3 "corporal drummers," or buglers; 1 corporal of pioneers; 
 12 pioneers; 1 band-master; 1 corporal of musicians; 25 musicians. 
 
 For an independent battalion the non-commissioned staff consists of: 
 1 non-commissioned adjutant, 1 chief bugler, 1 corporal of buglers. 
 
 In each regiment there is a ^^ company out of ranks," composed of 
 mechanics, &c. ; attached to each independent battalion, a " section out 
 of ranks." 
 
 Reg't. Batt'n. 
 
 SERGEANTS. 
 
 First sergeant 
 
 Wagon-master, with the rank of 1st sergeant. 
 
 Clerks of the treasurer 
 
 In charge of clothing magazine 
 
 Fencing-master 
 
 Masters armorer, tailor, and shoemaker 
 
 CORPOEALS. 
 
 Clerk of treasurer 
 
 Quartermaster of the staff 
 
 Clerks of oflBcers of clothing and armament. . 
 
 Hospital steward , 
 
 Conductor of the train 
 
THE FRENCH INFANTRY. 
 
 59 
 
 PRIVATES. 
 
 Armorer, (1,) tailors and shoemakers 
 
 Clerk of commanding ofiBcer 
 
 Clerk of lieutenant-colonel 
 
 Clerks of treasurer and assistant treasurer 
 
 Clerks of clothing officer 
 
 Armorers 
 
 Tailors, varying with the strength of the corps 
 
 Shoemakers, varying with the strength of the corps 
 
 Muleteers 
 
 Enfant de troupe , 
 
 Total of company or section out of ranks 
 
 Reg't 
 
 77 
 
 Batfn. 
 
 5 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 48 
 
 With the exception of the foot rifles, a company consists of: 1 captain, 
 1 lieutenant, 1 sub-lieutenant, 1 orderly sergeant, 4 sergeants, 1 quarter- 
 master sergeant, 8 corporals, 96 privates, (the number of privates varies 
 somewhat according to circumstances,) 2 musicians, 2 pupils in music, 
 1 enfant de troupe. In the foot rifles there are : an additional sergeant as 
 instructor of firing, 4 buglers, no pupils in music, and from 100 to 130 
 privates. 
 
 The light infantry are formed in two ranks, the heavy infantry in three 
 ranks. 
 
 The depot system appears to vary. In time of peace, one of the bat- 
 talions may be used as a depot; in war, either additional companies are 
 added to each battalion, or an additional battalion created for the purpose. 
 
 The duties of the colonel are about as in our service. 
 
 The lieutenant-colonel is in charge of all the order-books. 
 
 The chiefs of battalion are directly responsible to the colonel for the 
 instruction, discipline, service, dress, condition of the arms, messing, 
 quarters, &c., of their respective battalions. 
 
 It is the special duty of the major to examine and countersign all 
 requisitions for arms, clothing, subsistence, fuel, &c. 
 
 The duties of the captain adjutants in their respective battalions cor- 
 respond very nearly with those of our regimental adjutants. 
 
 The tactics of the French infantry have not been changed since they 
 were adopted in our service. But little attention is paid to the individual 
 "setting up" of the men; consequently, they present rather a slouching 
 appearance. An exception to this rule is found in the 4lite corps, for 
 which men with a good natural bearing are selected. Much irregularity 
 is tolerated in marching, it being only required that the guides preserve 
 
60 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 their distances with great exactness. In the movements of large columns 
 it is very rare to see any mistakes in this matter. The men are allowed 
 the utmost ease and latitude in ranks. Some essential parts of the French 
 instruction have been omitted in our own, such as the system of gymnas- 
 tics, natation, &c. 
 
 The smooth-bore musket is still in general use for the infantry of the 
 line; the light infantry and elite corps have rifled arms. All buglers 
 carry a rifle; the drummers have none. The infantry sabre is regarded 
 by the men as a useless encumbrance: they are probably the best judges. 
 
 The grenadiers and voltigeurs of the guard have the old-fashion cross 
 belts, without waist-belt; all other troops have only a waist-belt, the 
 bayonet-scabbard, cartridge-box, &c., being attached to it. 
 
 The knapsack is of the pattern in possession of the Department. It is 
 small and of cowskin, with the hair left on. The shoulder-straps pass 
 straight over the shoulders, and hook to brass loops on the waist-belt. 
 Another strap is fastened to the under surface of the knapsack near each 
 outer corner, and buttons to the shoulder-strap a little above the armpit. 
 
 When the overcoat is not worn, it is rolled in a long roll, and strapped 
 on top and on the two sides of the knapsack. The shelter tent is car- 
 ried in the same manner, under the overcoat, if both are attached to 
 the knapsack. 
 
 The shelter tent and manner of using it are described in connection 
 with the French cavalry. The supporting sticks are in two parts, the 
 pointed end having a sheet-iron socket into which the upper part fits. 
 Each man carries one piece of the tent, one stick, and two or three small 
 tent-pins. 
 
 The infantry rations are the same as for the cavalry; so also their cook- 
 ing-utensils. In the infantry, each mess generally consists of 14 men, and 
 has 2 gamelles, 1 lidon, 1 marmite, sometimes a stewpan in addition. 
 The men of the mess take turns in carrying these, attaching them to the 
 knapsack, or in any other manner they find most convenient. The knap- 
 sacks are never carried in the wagons. 
 
 The annexed sketch shows the form and dimensions of 
 the canteen. It is of tin, covered with cloth, suspended 
 by a cord. 
 
 QT^ 
 
 The rations are generally carried in the knapsack. 
 The uniform of the infantry of the line is too well known to require 
 description. In the Crimea, they wore the overcoat, with epaulettes, and 
 
THE FRENCH INFANTRY. 61 
 
 the forage cap; a jacket in camp. The frock-coats and shakos were left 
 in France. 
 
 The grenadiers and voltigeurs of the guard have the uniform of the 
 imperial guard of the first empire, except that pants are substituted for 
 the old knee-breeches. 
 
 The foot rifles of the guard wear a jacket with long skirts, and very 
 loose pants, which are tucked under leather gaiters extending to the top 
 of the calf of the leg. 
 
 The infantry of the line, rifles, &c., wore a light-blue merino scarf, in 
 lieu of a stock, in the Crimea. 
 
 The dress of the zouave is of the Arab pattern ; the cap is a loose fez, 
 or skull-cap, of scarlet felt, with a tassel ; a turban is worn over this in 
 full dress j a cloth vest and loose jacket, which leave the neck unencum- 
 bered by collar, stock, or cravat, cover the upper portion of his body, and 
 allow free movement of the arms ; the scarlet pants are of the loose Orien- 
 tal pattern, and are tucked under gaiters like those of the foot rifles of the 
 guard; the overcoat is a loose cloak, with a hood; the chasseurs wear a 
 similar one. The men say that this dress is the most convenient possible, 
 and prefer it to any other. 
 
 The zouaves are all French; they are selected from among the old 
 campaigners for their fine physique and tried courage, and have certainly 
 proved that they are what their appearance would indicate, — the most 
 reckless, self-reliant, and complete infantry that Europe can produce. 
 
 With his graceful dress, soldierly bearing, and vigilant attitude, the 
 zouave at an outpost is the beau-ideal of a soldier. 
 
 They neglect no opportunity of adding to their personal comforts : if 
 there is a stream in the vicinity, the party marching on picket is sure to be 
 amply supplied With fishing-rods, &c. ; if any thing is to be had, the zouaves 
 are quite certain to obtain it. 
 
 Their movements are the lightest and most graceful I have ever seen ; 
 the stride is long, but the foot seems scarcely to touch the ground, and 
 the march is apparently made without eff'ort or fatigue. 
 
 The step of the foot rifles is shorter and quicker, and not so easy and 
 graceful. 
 
 The impression produced by the appearance of the rifles and of the 
 zouaves is very diff"erent : the rifles look like active, energetic little fellows, 
 who would find their best field as skirmishers ; but the zouaves have, com- 
 bined with all the activity and energy of the others, that solid ensemhle and 
 reckless dare-devil individuality which would render them alike formidable 
 when attacking in mass, or in defending a position in the most desperate 
 hand-to-hand encounter. Of all the troops that I have ever seen, I should 
 esteem it the greatest honor to assist in defeating the zouaves. The 
 grenadiers of the guard are all large men, and a fine-looking, soldierly set. 
 
62 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The voltigeurs are small, active men, but larger than the rifles ; they 
 are light infantry. 
 
 The appearance of the infantry of the line is by no means impressive; 
 it requires close watching to appreciate their excellent qualities. 
 
 The regulations for the government of troops in the field are strictly 
 carried into practice, and appear to work well : the only complaint 
 appeared to be that the number of returns and accounts required was so 
 great that it was impossible to make them out in time ; the consequence 
 was stated to be that most officers were very much behindhand with their 
 accounts. 
 
 The regiments with the shelter tents generally bivouacked in line. 
 
 In the field portable ovens of sheet iron are frequently used. These, 
 with all the necessary utensils, are packed in boxes which may be trans- 
 ported either on mules or in wagons ; each division is provided with a set 
 of these, which require from 2 to 3 wagons for their transportation. With 
 the stone and earth usually to be found at the camp, these ovens can be 
 set up and put in working order in 24 hours. 
 
 In the Crimea bread was baked in permanent ovens established at 
 Kamiesch. Coffee was usually sent to the Crimea green, and roasted there 
 by the men, each mess having a coffee-mill. The cakes of biscuit are f " 
 thick, about 3 to a ration ; they are put up in boxes containing 100 rations, 
 which pack well in the subsistence-wagon, or can be carried on mules. 
 The exterior dimensions of these boxes are 31i" X 18i" X 13i". The 
 biscuit is dried 15 days before being packed, is packed tight, and will keep 
 for many years. 
 
 The system of fencing with the bayonet, which is in general use in the 
 French army, does not differ materially from our own; a gutta-percha 
 bayonet, with a button, is used. The System of G-ymnastics (edition of 
 1847) gives the full details of all the materials necessary, and excellent 
 plates illustrating the various exercises. 
 
 The system of instruction in natation, by the chief of battalion d' Argy, 
 is simple and excellent. 
 
 There is a gymnastic school, near Vincennes, to which one sergeant or 
 corporal is sent from every regiment and independent battalion. They 
 remain six months at the school, the best pupils being retained six 
 months longer as assistant instructors. 
 
 The course consists of gymnastics, scaling walls, swimming, fencing 
 with the bayonet, singing, dancing, reading, writing, &c. 
 
 The agility and skill exhibited by the pupils were really wonderful. 
 
 The efficiency of the French infantry is in no small degree attributable 
 to the great attention paid to these points throughout the army. 
 
 Shortly before our visit to the gymnastic school, a series of experiments 
 had been carried on there, by authority of the minister of war, in a system 
 
THE AUSTRIAN INFANTRY. 63 
 
 of field telegraphing, the invention of Mr. Swaim, an American. The 
 object is to communicate orders and intelligence, as far as the eye can 
 reach, by means of combinations of simple objects, such as a cap or coat on 
 the point of a bayonet, &c. It was stated by the officers that the system 
 worked admirably and was of value. It would be worth the while of our 
 government to inquire into the matter. 
 
 At Vincennes there is a school of firing for officers of infantry. A lieu- 
 tenant or sub-lieutenant is sent here every year from every regiment or 
 independent battalion of infantry. 
 
 The course is of four months, and comprises the theory and practice of 
 target-firing, full instruction as to the construction, use, and preservation 
 of fire-arms, preparation of cartridges, &c. 
 
 In a lesson in aiming, given by the chief of battalion Minie, the gist of 
 his instructions was this : Always press the butt against the shoulder; in 
 aiming at a near object, (without the hausse,) raise the shoulder, in order 
 to bring the low sight up to the level of the eye ; in aiming at a distant 
 object, (with the high hausse,) lower the shoulder, so as to bring the top 
 of the hausse on a level with the eye. 
 
 The barracks generally allow sufficient space, but are not well arranged 
 for the quietness of the men. 
 
 The bunks usually consist of boards supported by iron trestles ; some- 
 times of iron bedsteads. 
 
 The police of the quarters is not generally good ; but the habits of the 
 nation are not remarkable for neatness. 
 
 In the field, as well as in quarters, the officers bestow the utmost care 
 upon the comfort and well-being of the men, rightly regarding that as 
 probably the most essential element to insure efficiency, contentment, 
 and willing obedience. This example cannot be too strongly urged for 
 imitation. 
 
 THE AUSTRIAN INFANTRY. 
 
 This consists of 62 regiments of the line, 14 regiments of frontier 
 infantry, and 32 battalions of rifles. 
 
 During peace, the line regiments consist of 4 field battalions of 6 
 companies each, and 1 depot battalion of 4 companies. In war, the 4 
 grenadier companies are detached from their respective battalions and 
 form a separate battalion, being replaced in the field battalions by new 
 companies. 
 
 The frontier regiments have 2 field and 1 depot battalion. 
 
 Of the rifle battalions, 26 consist of 4 companies, the remainder of 6 
 companies each ; each of the latter has a depot company, while there is 1 
 depot company for every two of the 4 company battalions. 
 
 A grenadier company consists of: 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 2 sub-lieu- 
 
64 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 tenants, 2 sergeants, 12 corporals, 150 privates, 2 drummers, and 2 
 pioneers. 
 
 The other infantry companies consist of: 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 2 sub- 
 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 12 corporals, 12 lance corporals, 180 to 200 
 privates, 2 buglers, 2 drummers, and 2 pioneers. 
 
 A rifle company consists of: 4 officers, 2 sergeants, 12 corporals, 20 
 lance corporals, 160 privates, 2 buglers, and 2 pioneers. 
 
 The company is divided into 4 platoons, and the formation is always in 
 3 ranks. 
 
 The step is 30" long, and at the rate of from 105 to 108 per minute. 
 
 The school of the recruit comprises the individual, squad, and platoon 
 drills, in close order, and as skirmishers ; it contains full instructions as 
 to running, jumping, &c., detailed instructions in regard to target-practice 
 and the theory of firing, and a full system for fencing with the bayonet. 
 
 In the skirmish drill the chain is composed of groups of three men ; the 
 rear rank, or a part of it, being habitually employed as skirmishers. 
 
 In the formation of a company in line, the captain is three paces in 
 rear of the centre ; if the company is alone, he is at half-company dis- 
 tance in front of the centre ; the 1st lieutenant is on the right of the 
 front rank ; the 2d lieutenant on the left of the front rank ; the 3d lieu- 
 tenant by the side of the captain, when the latter is in rear of the com- 
 pany; the sergeants are in the front rank, between the second and third 
 platoons ; four corporals are posted as file-closers behind the centres of 
 the wings of the company, the others on the flanks of platoons ; the 
 drummers and pioneers are six paces in rear of the centre ; the buglers 
 of an infantry company are on the right and left of the centre rank. 
 
 In a rifle company, the pioneers take the place just prescribed for the 
 buglers of an infantry company, and the four buglers are posted six paces 
 behind the centre of the company. 
 
 The field officers of a regiment consist of one colonel commanding, and 
 one field officer (a lieutenant-colonel or a major) to command each battalion. 
 There are a regimental adjutant (a lieutenant) and a battalion adjutant (a 
 sub-lieutenant) for each battalion. 
 
 Each battalion has its own colors. 
 
 The interval between battalions is twelve paces. 
 
 The column by companies is the habitual column of manoeuvre ; it is 
 formed with full distance, in close column, (three paces clear distance 
 between the subdivisions,) and closed in mass, (without distance between 
 the subdivisions.) In the manoeuvres of large bodies of troops the two 
 latter are most frequently employed. 
 
 The Austrian system of forming square, and the constant illustrations 
 given in their tactics of the adaptation of principles to the ground, are 
 worthy of study, and, to some extent, of imitation. 
 
THE AUSTRIAN INFANTRY. 65 
 
 It may be remarked of the Austrian, as well as of most of the European, 
 infantry, that men are allowed to swing the arm freely, and that the piece 
 is much more frequently carried at a slope than at a carry. 
 
 The rifles habitually carry their pieces slung on the right shoulder, 
 (not across the back,) the rifle behind the shoulder, and vertical, the sling 
 passing in front, and grasped by the right hand. This appears to be the 
 most convenient and least fatiguing manner of carrying it. 
 
 Under the new system all small arms are rifled, and have a uniform 
 calibre and lock } the calibre is about the same as that of our own new- 
 model rifled musket. 
 
 The barrel of the infantry musket is 37 i inches long, has four shallow 
 grooves, and a charge of 55 grains. 
 
 The men of the rear rank have a hausse for longer distances than those 
 of the front and centre ranks 3 in other respects the weapons are the 
 same ; the bayonet has four grooves ; the barrel of the rifle is 28 inches 
 long ; the rear rank of the rifles carry a " tige rifle '/' the rifle has a sword 
 bayonet ; the rammer is separate from the rifle, has a wooden handle, and 
 is attached to the shoulder-belt. Thin white cross belts are used, without 
 a waist-belt ; in the rifles the belts are black. The cartridge-box con- 
 tains four packages of six rounds each, and the cleaning-utensils; six 
 additional packages are carried in the knapsack. The Tyrolese rifles use 
 the powder-horn. Non-commissioned officers of infantry, and all the 
 grenadiers, wear infantry sabres. 
 
 In each company 16 hatchets are carried in a leather case attached to 
 the bayonet-scabbard belt. 
 
 Drums of brass, 12 inches high and 16 inches in diametec 
 
 The bugle is, more properly speaking, a clarion. 
 
 No fifes are used. 
 
 Musicians have a sabre, but no fire-arms. 
 
 The pioneers carry a saw, axe, and hatchet, in the same manner as the 
 engineer troops. 
 
 The officers have a light sabre. 
 
 The knapsack is of cowskin, with the hair left on; it is 12 inches 
 square, and 4^ inches thick. No breast-strap is used for the knapsack; 
 the two shoulder-straps are attached to the middle of the top of the 
 knapsack, pass over the shoulder and under the arm to the outer ends of 
 the bottom of the knapsack ; fastened on the left side by a buckle, on the 
 right by a ring and hook. 
 
 The infantry shako, cut of the uniform, belts, &c., are shown in the 
 figures accompanying the description of the Austrian engineer troops. 
 The shako is of black felt, with leather top and visor ; large brass eagle 
 in front ; wooden pompon, trimmed with brass ; a black water-proof cover 
 
66 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 goes over the shako and visor; when this is put on, the pompon and 
 eagle are removed, and put inside the shako in the top lining. 
 
 The forage cap is of light-blue cloth, of the gig-top shape ; it has no 
 visor, but two flaps of cloth, (which can be turned up,) serving as ear- 
 covers in cold weather, and which may serve as substitutes for a visor. 
 The men are all provided with mittens of blue cloth. 
 
 The frock-coat is of excellent thick white cloth; the buttons white 
 and plain; coat lined with thick linen; facings and cuffs different for 
 different regiments. 
 
 This white coat always looks well, and the officers prefer it to any other 
 color, stating that it is very easy to keep it clean in the field, by washing 
 and pipe-clay. 
 
 The men usually wear a vest, made of an old coat. 
 The pants are of light-blue cloth, with a white cord; always have 
 pockets. The pants of the Hungarian and Croat infantry fit perfectly 
 tight to the legs. 
 
 Gaiters of black cloth. 
 
 The shoes come well up on the ankle; the men put nails and iron heels 
 upon them. 
 
 The stock black, with a white edge on top ; it has a bottom flap. 
 The overcoat is of gray cloth, with a large rolling collar; it is made 
 quite loose. All guards in garrison are provided with special overcoats 
 for the sentinels. 
 
 The coat and pants of the rifles are of a bluish gray, cut like those of 
 the infantry; but, instead of the shoulder-strap, there is placed at the 
 point of the shoulder a raised crescent-shaped pad of cloth. 
 
 Their hat is of felt, turned up on both sides, and has a large black 
 plume of cocks' feathers. 
 
 The overcoat is folded in a long roll, and strapped to the top and 
 both sides of the knapsack. Extra shoes are tied to the sides of the 
 knapsack. 
 
 The uniform coat is always carried in the field; no extra pants carried. 
 The forage cap is carried in a small pocket on the front of the knapsack. 
 The contents of the knapsack are: 1 pair of drawers, 1 shirt, 1 hand- 
 kerchief, 1 pair of feet-wrappers, (socks not being used,) and the usual 
 brushes, cleaning-utensils, &c. 
 
 The clothing is issued to the captains either made up, but not trimmed, 
 or else in the form of cloth, as they may elect. The system is explained 
 in describing the Austrian cavalry. 
 
 The distinctive marks of rank are as in the cavalry. It maybe repeated 
 that no epaulettes are worn by the infantry; even the officers are without 
 them. 
 
 The rations and cooking-utensils are as for the cavalry; the kettle is, 
 
THE AUSTRIAN INFANTRY. 67 
 
 however, for a mess of 14 men, and they are carried either in wagons or 
 on pack-horses. 
 
 Each man has a " little gamelle," like those of the French, which is 
 attached to the knapsack. Bread is carried either under the flap of the 
 knapsack or in a linen haversack. 12 tin canteens are carried in each 
 platoon. 
 
 Tents are not used in the field, the men being expected to construct 
 such temporary shelters as the material at hand renders possible; in camps 
 of instruction tents are provided. The men carry no blanket in the field, 
 — merely the overcoat. 
 
 In quarters the bedsteads are single, and of iron ; each man has a bed- 
 sack", pillow, two blankets, and a pair of coarse sheets ; all these belong to 
 the barracks, and are in charge of the captain inspector. The bedsacks 
 are filled every three months. During the day the bedsacks are kept 
 down, but the blankets, &c., are folded at the head of the bed. Each 
 man has a rack and shelf at the head of his bed. The rooms are gene- 
 rally dirty and filled with tobacco-smoke; those of the Polish companies 
 were the cleanest. The men eat in their rooms. The arms and accoutre- 
 ments are kept in the corridors. A part of the'officers live in the barracks. 
 
 PROPRIETORS OF REGIMENTS, PROMOTION, MARRIAGE, INVALIDS, ETC. 
 
 The " proprietor" of a regiment confers his name upon it, receives about 
 3150 per month, and nominates the officers up to the grade of captain, in- 
 clusive. He is obliged to follow the ordinary rules of appointment and 
 promotion, but decides as to the application of those rules. Promotion 
 always goes by seniority, provided the senior is fit for his new duties; it 
 is in the regiment up to the grade of colonel, after that in the whole army. 
 The senior captains and field officers are sometimes transferred to other 
 regiments in order to equalize promotion. Colonels rank in the whole 
 army by seniority, irrespective of corps, and are promoted according to 
 seniority, if competent; if not, they are retired. 
 
 An officer who is retired after five years receives a certain pension ; after 
 ten years' service, a greater one; and so on for every additional five years. 
 
 Any one under the grade of general, who retires after thirty years' 
 service, receives the full pay of his grade; a general who retires after fifty 
 years' service receives full pay. 
 
 The various medals, decorations, &c., carry with them a certain salary, 
 which is continued during the life of the recipient, even should he leave 
 the sendee, and is given to his widow during her liffi; there is no other 
 pension than this for soldiers. 
 
 There are several invalid-asylums in the empire, each for a fixed number 
 of officers and men; the officers are furnished with quarters, fuel, and 
 attendance. When a vacancy occurs, the oldest soldier entitled to be 
 
66 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 goes over the shako and visor; when this is put on, the pompon and 
 eagle are removed, and put inside the shako in the top lining. 
 
 The forage cap is of light-blue cloth, of the gig-top shape ; it has no 
 visor, but two flaps of cloth, (which can be turned up,) serving as ear- 
 covers in cold weather, and which may serve as substitutes for a visor. 
 The men are all provided with mittens of blue cloth. 
 
 The frock-coat is of excellent thick white cloth; the buttons white 
 and plain; coat lined with thick linen; facings and cuffs different for 
 different regiments. 
 
 This white coat always looks well, and the officers prefer it to any other 
 color, stating that it is very easy to keep it clean in the field, by washing 
 and pipe-clay. 
 
 The men usually wear a vest, made of an old coat. 
 
 The pants are of light-blue cloth, with a white cord; always have 
 pockets. The pants of the Hungarian and Croat infantry fit perfectly 
 tight to the legs. 
 
 Gaiters of black cloth. 
 
 The shoes come well up on the ankle; the men put nails and iron heels 
 upon them. 
 
 The stock black, with a white edge on top ; it has a bottom flap. 
 
 The overcoat is of gray cloth, with a large rolling collar; it is made 
 quite loose. All guards in garrison are provided with special overcoats 
 for the sentinels. 
 
 The coat and pants of the rifles are of a bluish gray, cut like those of 
 the infantry; but, instead of the shoulder-strap, there is placed at the 
 point of the shoulder a raised crescent-shaped pad of cloth. 
 
 Their hat is of felt, turned up on both sides, and has a large black 
 plume of cocks' feathers. 
 
 The overcoat is folded in a long roll, and strapped to the top and 
 both sides of the knapsack. Extra shoes are tied to the sides of the 
 
 The uniform coat is always carried in the field; no extra pants carried. 
 
 The forage cap is carried in a small pocket on the front of the knapsack. 
 
 The contents of the knapsack are : 1 pair of drawers, 1 shirt, 1 hand- 
 kerchief, 1 pair of feet-wrappers, (socks not being used,) and the usual 
 brushes, cleaning-utensils, &c. 
 
 The clothing is issued to the captains either made up, but not trimmed, 
 or else in the form of cloth, as they may elect. The system is explained 
 in describing the Austrian cavalry. 
 
 The distinctive marks of rank are as in the cavalry. It maybe repeated 
 that no epaulettes are worn by the infantry; even the officers are without 
 them. 
 
 The rations and cooking-utensils are as for the cavalry; the kettle is, 
 
THE AUSTRIAN INFANTRY. 67 
 
 however, for a mess of 14 men, and they are carried either in wagons or 
 on pack-horses. 
 
 Each man has a " little gamelle," like those of the French, which is 
 attached to the knapsack. Bread is carried either under the flap of the 
 knapsack or in a linen haversack. 12 tin canteens are carried in each 
 platoon. 
 
 Tents are not used in the field, the men being expected to construct 
 such temporary shelters as the material at hand renders possible; in camps 
 of instruction tents are provided. The men carry no blanket in the field, 
 — merely the overcoat. 
 
 In quarters the bedsteads are single, and of iron ; each man has a bed- 
 sack", pillow, two blankets, and a pair of coarse sheets ; all these belong to 
 the barracks, and are in charge of the captain inspector. The bedsacks 
 are filled every three months. During the day the bedsacks are kept 
 down, but the blankets, &c., are folded at the head of the bed. Each 
 man has a rack and shelf at the head of his bed. The rooms are gene- 
 rally dirty and filled with tobacco-smoke; those of the Polish companies 
 were the cleanest. The men eat in their rooms. The arms and accoutre- 
 ments are kept in the corridors. A part of the'officers live in the barracks. 
 
 PROPRIETORS OF REGIMENTS, PROMOTION, MARRIAGE, INVALIDS, ETC. 
 
 The " proprietor" of a regiment confers his name upon it, receives about 
 §150 per month, and nominates the officers up to the grade of captain, in- 
 clusive. He is obliged to follow the ordinary rules of appointment and 
 promotion, but decides as to the application of those rules. Promotion 
 always goes by seniority, provided the senior is fit for his new duties; it 
 is in the regiment up to the grade of colonel, after that in the whole army. 
 The senior captains and field officers are sometimes transferred to other 
 regiments in order to equalize promotion. Colonels rank in the whole 
 army by seniority, irrespective of corps, and are promoted according to 
 seniority, if competent; if not, they are retired. 
 
 An officer who is retired after five years receives a certain pension ; after 
 tew years' service, a greater one; and so on for every additional five years. 
 
 Any one under the grade of general, who retires after thirty years' 
 service, receives the full pay of his grade; a general who retires after fifty 
 years' service receives full pay. 
 
 The various medals, decorations, &c., carry with them a certain salary, 
 which is continued during the life of the recipient, even should he leave 
 the service, and is given to his widow during her life; there "is no other 
 pension than this for soldiers. 
 
 There are several invalid-asylums in the empire, each for a fixed number 
 of officers and men; the officers are furnished with quarters, fuel, and 
 attendance. When a vacancy occurs, the oldest soldier entitled to be 
 
68 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 retired receives the place; if a soldier is disabled by wounds, &c., he must 
 return to his friends and await his turn for the asylum. 
 
 Retired and disabled soldiers receive the preference in all government 
 employments, such as on railways, as orderlies in public offices, in the 
 service of the posts, &c. 
 
 Eight years is the term of service for all arms. The men are drawn 
 by conscription, only-sons being exempted. In 1855 and 1856 the author- 
 ized price for a substitute was about $300. A man who re-enlists, after 
 eight years' service, may demand his discharge at any time. 
 
 Men sent home upon a reduction of the army are liable to be recalled 
 at any time until their eight years are out; the time thus spent at home 
 counts in the eight years, but they receive no pay while absent from 
 their regiments. 
 
 As a general rule, the men are not permitted to marry; but a certain 
 number of laundresses are allowed each company. Under no pretext can 
 more than one-sixth of the officers of any regiment or special corps be 
 married. When any officer desires to marry, he makes an application, 
 and receives permission in his turn when the first vacancy occurs, irre- 
 spective of rank. Before he is permitted to marry, an officer must de- 
 posit in the hands of the government a certain sum, diflPerent for the 
 various grades and corps. He receives the legal interest of this money 
 every month. 
 
 Privates are placed on courts-martial for the trial of their peers. Not 
 more than 100 blows can be given; the usual manner of inflicting them 
 is on the seat, the pants being kept on. Flogging is rarely resorted to, 
 and only with hardened characters and for heinous offences. For deser- 
 tion, the penalty is flogging for the 1st and 2d offences, death for the 3d. 
 An officer on detachment has great powers in regard to the infliction of 
 punishment. 
 
 As far as possible, especially in time of war, offences are tried and 
 punished within 24 hours of the arrest of the offender. Duty on courts- 
 martial is a matter of regular detail, according to the roster. 
 
 The money for the pay, &c., of the men is drawn by the captain; he 
 issues the ration-money every day to the first sergeant, the balance every 
 five days. The first sergeant turns over the ration-money for each squad to 
 its corporal, who makes the purchases ; in doing this, he is always accom- 
 panied by one or two men selected by the squad. 
 
 The captain makes out the requisition for the money; this is examined 
 and approved by the "war commissary,'' whose signature constitutes the 
 order upon the military chest for the payment to the captain. The 
 captain draws the pay of the officers on the same requisition. The com- 
 missary, who gives the order, never has charge of the money, his only 
 duty being to examine and verify the accounts. 
 
THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 69 
 
 When a man is in the hospital his pay ceases, arid he is struck off the 
 company pay-roll, being supplied with food by the hospital. 
 
 Since the affairs of 1848 and 1849, the organization and instruction of 
 the Austrian infantry, as well as that of the other arms of service, have 
 been much improved. In the next war in which they are engaged the 
 beneficial effect will no doubt be perceived. The rifles are a fine set of 
 men, and will probably hold their own against any similar troops with 
 whom they may be brought in contact. 
 
 THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 
 
 The general organization of the regular army and the landwehr, the 
 term of service, &c., are explained in the report upon the Prussian cavalry. 
 The infantry consists of: 
 
 (a) The standing army — 
 
 Battalions. 
 
 4 regii;ients of guards 12 
 
 1 reserve regiment of the guards 2 
 
 2 battalions of rifles of the guards... 2 
 
 32 regiments of infantry of the line 96 
 
 8 regiments of reserve infantry 16 
 
 8 combined reserve battalions 8 
 
 8 battalions of rifles 8 
 
 144 
 
 (6) The landwehr of the 1st levy — 
 
 4 landwehr regiments of the guard 12 
 
 32 provincial landwehr regiments 96 
 
 8 landwehr battalions of the reserve regiments 8 
 
 116 116 
 
 (c) Same for landwehr of 2d levy 116 
 
 376 
 In time of war the following is the general division of the infantry : 
 
 A. INFANTRY DISPOSABLE FOR ACTIVE OPERATIONS IN THE FIELD. 
 
 (1) The guards — 
 
 4 regiments of infantry of the guard 12 
 
 1 reserve regiment of the guards 2 
 
 2 battalions of rifles of the guards 2 
 
 (2) Infantry of the line — 
 
 32 regiments of infantry of the line 96 
 
70 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 8 regiments of reserve infantry, combined with their 8 battalions 
 
 of the landwehr, forming 8 regiments of 3 battalions each... 24 
 8 battalions of rifles 8 
 
 144 
 (3) Landwehr of the 1st levy — 
 
 4 guard and 32 provincial regiments 108 
 
 Total disposable for field operations 252 
 
 B. DEPOT TROOPS. 
 
 (1) For each infantry brigade of 6 battalions, (formed by the 
 
 union of a regiment of the standing army with the corre- 
 sponding regiment of landwehr,) there is a depot battalion 
 ^of 6 companies, (1 company for each battalion ;) the com- 
 bined reserve battalions form the nucleus of these depot 
 battalions 36 
 
 (2) 10 depot companies for the 10 rifle battalions 2^ 
 
 Total depot battalions 38^ 
 
 (c) Landwehr of the 2d levy 116 
 
 Total battalions in time of war 406J 
 
 On the war footing each battalion numbers 1,002 men, exclusive of 
 officers and the train. 
 
 In time of peace the strength of each company is as follows : 1 captain, 
 1 first lieutenant, 3 second lieutenants, 1 orderly sergeant, 1 ensign, 3 
 sergeants, 12 corporals, 10 lance corporals, 4 musicians, and 125 privates. 
 In war the number of privates is increased to 219; making the strength 
 of the company 250, exclusive of officers, and that of the battalion 1,002, 
 including the drum major and battalion clerk. 
 
 For each battalion there are : one field officer in command, who is a lieu- 
 tenant-colonel or major, a battalion adjutant, with the rank of second 
 lieutenant, and two supernumerary captains. 
 
 On the regimental staff" there are : 1 colonel, 1 regimental adjutant, 1 
 regimental surgeon, sometimes a supernumerary field officer, and 1 regi- 
 mental clerk. 
 
 In addition, each battalion has 1 treasurer, 2 or 3 surgeons, and 1 
 armorer. 
 
 The regimental bands of the guards consist of 48 men; those of the 
 regiments of the line, of only 10 men. 
 
 In time of peace the organization of army corps is according to pro- 
 vinces. 
 
THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 71 
 
 In war tlie active army forms 9 army corps, viz. : 1 of the guards and 
 8 of the line. 
 
 The corresponding regiments of the line and the first levy of the land- 
 wehr are brigaded together, i.e. the 8th regiment of the line and the 8th 
 regiment of landwehr form 1 brigade of 6 battalions. 
 
 An army corps, on the war establishment, consists of: 2 infantry divi- 
 sions, 1 cavalry division, the reserve artillery, and a division of pioneers. 
 
 («) Each infantry division consists of 2 infantry brigades, 1 regiment 
 of cavalry, and 2 foot batteries. A battalion of rifles is attached to one 
 of the divisions. 
 
 (h) The cavalry division consists of 6 regiments of cavalry and 2 bat- 
 teries of horse artillery. Four regiments of cavalry of the line and four 
 regiments of landwehr cavalry compose the cavalry of an ,army corps. 
 Special cavalry corps are formed only in case of necessity. 
 
 (c) The reserve artillery consists of 4 foot batteries and 1 horse bat- 
 tery; this is commanded by a field officer. 
 
 (cZ) A division of pioneers, generally with at least one ponton train, is 
 attached to each army corps. 
 
 The order of battle of an active army corps is as follows : 
 
 Advanced guard. — One infantry brigade, (6 battalions,) 1 cavalry regi- 
 ment, and 8 guns. 
 
 3Iain hod 7/. — One infantry division, (12 battalions,) 1 cavalry regi- 
 ment, and 21 guns. 
 
 Reserve. — One infantry brigade, (6 battalions,) 1 rifle battalion, and 8 
 guns; the cavalry division, (24 squadrons,) the reserve artillery, 6 bat- 
 teries, (48 guns,) the pioneer division. 
 
 Total of an army corps : Men. 
 
 25 battalions 25,000 
 
 32 squadrons 4,800 
 
 88 guns 2,000 
 
 1 division of pioneers 500 
 
 32,300 
 
 The nine army corps consist of 226 battalions, 228 squadrons, 792 
 guns, and about 4,500 of the technical troops. 
 
 The military staflf of an active army corps consists of: 
 
 (a) The general commanding. General staff": 1 general as chief, 1 
 field officer, 1 captain. Aides-de-camp : 1 captain of infantry, 1 captain 
 of cavalry, 2 lieutenants. Engineers : 1 field officer and 1 captain. 
 
 (6) Two generals commanding the infantry divisions, one general 
 commanding the cavaliy division. General staff": in each division, 1 
 
72 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 field officer, or 1 captain. Aides-de-camp : in each infantry division, 1 
 captain of infantry and 1 lieutenant; in each cavalry division, 1 captain 
 of cavalry and 1 lieutenant. 
 
 (c) Four brigadier-generals of infantry, two brigadier-generals of 
 cavalry. 
 
 Each general of brigade has 1 lieutenant as aide-de-camp. 
 
 A permanent guard for head-quarters is detailed from the reserve 
 squadrons and battalions of the landwehr, and consists of 1 officer, 5 
 non-commissioned officers, and 37 privates of cavalry, 10 non-commis- 
 sioned officers and 42 privates of infantry. 
 
 The administration of an active army corps consists of: 
 
 (a) The intendancy, comprising the intendancy of the corps, and, 
 under it, oye section of the intendancy for each division, and one for 
 the artillery reserve. 
 
 (6) The military chest of the corps, with four 6-horse wagons. 
 
 (c) The commissariat officers, consisting of 1 chief commissary and 1 
 commissary for each of the 3 divisions and the reserve artillery, as well 
 as 1 in charge of the bakeries. 
 
 (c?) The provision trains, organized as a battalion, and comprising: 1. 
 The staff of the train battalion, with one 2-horse wagon. 2. Five pro- 
 vision columns, consisting of five 6-horse wagons and one hundred and 
 fifty-five 4-horse wagons. 3. A field bakery column, with five 4-horse 
 wagons. 4. A horse depot with seventy-five spare horses, and a 2-horse 
 wagon for papers. 
 
 (e) The field hospital, consisting of: 1. A main field hospital for 1,200 
 invalids. 2. Three. flying hospitals, each for 200 invalids. 
 
 (/) The military post-office, consisting of: 1. One postmaster. 2. A 
 post-office for each of the three divisions and the artillery reserve. 
 
 Total number of wagons of the administration from a to /-^ 
 
 9 6-horse wagons. 
 
 204 4-horse wagons. 
 
 41 2-horse wagons. 
 
 Total 254 wagons. 
 
 (<;) The chief surgeon of the corps. 
 
 (Ji) The judge advocate's department, consisting of: 1. A judge advo- 
 cate for the corps. 2. Six judges advocate of division, i.e. one for each 
 infantry brigade, one for the cavalry division, and one for the artillery 
 reserve. 
 
 (i) Seven chaplains, i.e. one for each infantry brigade, one for the 
 cavalry division, one for the artillery reserve, and one for the hospitals. 
 
THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 73 
 
 The allowance for the transportation of baggage, &c., is as follows : 
 A. A battalion of infantry- is provided with — 
 
 1. One 4:-horse wagon for offiAxrs' baggage. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 (ff) Adjutant's desk 40 
 
 (6) Mess-chest of field officers 40 
 
 (c) 22 officers' portmanteaus, at 61 pounds, and 1 at 102 pounds.. 1,444 
 
 id) Armorer's tools 225 
 
 (e) Surgeon's baggage and instruments 60 
 
 Total weight 1,809 
 
 2. Oifie 4:-horse equipment wagon. 
 
 (a) Money-chest 306 
 
 (i) Treasurer's books, &c 40 
 
 (c) Spare articles of equipment, shoemakers' and tailors' tools, &c. 1,305 
 
 (c^) Surgeon's baggage and instruments 60 
 
 Total weight 1,711 
 
 3. One 2-horse medicine cart. 
 
 (a) Surgeon's baggage, i.e. 60 pounds for portmanteau of the 
 
 battalion surgeon, and 40 pounds for medical books 100 
 
 (b) Chests of medicines, bandages, &c 257 
 
 Total weight 357 
 
 4. Four company pack-animals^ each carrying — 
 
 (a) Mess-chest of company officers 60 
 
 (6) Blankets for sick men 45 
 
 (c) Overcoats of the four lieutenants '. 18^ 
 
 (f?) Baggage of the orderly sergeant 20 
 
 (e) Money, &c., when on detachment 50 
 
 Total load of each animal 193^ 
 
 The captains carry their overcoats on their own horses. 
 
 The normal load of a 4-horse wagon is 1,836 
 
 The normal load of a 2-horse wagon is 816 
 
 The normal load of a pack-animal is 204 
 
 Exclusive of cleaning-utensils, forage, &c. 
 
74 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 B. A battalion of rifles is provided with — 
 
 One 2-horse equipment^wagon. pounds 
 
 Money-chest ., 306 
 
 Treasurer's books, &c 40 
 
 Adjutant's desk •• 40 
 
 Officers' portmanteaus 225 
 
 Armorer's tools 180 
 
 .Total weight ^ 791 
 
 One 2-horse medicine cart, as for the infantry battalions. 
 
 Each company has 4 pack-animals, on which it packs — 
 
 Officers' mess-chest 60 
 
 Officers' portmanteaus 310 
 
 Spare equipments, &c 250 
 
 Blankets for sick men 45 
 
 Overcoats of officers 18J 
 
 Baggage of orderly sergeant 20 
 
 ige of surgeons, hospital attendants, &c 60 
 
 Total load of the 4 pack-animals of a company 763 2 
 
 Tactics, instruction, &c. — The rifles are formed in 2 ranks, all other 
 infantry in 3 ranks. The largest men are in the front rank, the most 
 active men and best shots in the third rank ; these men being habitually 
 employed as skirmishers. The distance between the ranks is 2', mea- 
 sured from the back of the front rank to the breast of the next rank. 
 The company is divided into 2 platoons ; platoons of 20 files and upwards 
 into half platoons ; the latter into sections. Platoons of less than 20 files 
 are divided only into sections. The section consists of not more than 6 
 nor less than 4 files. In a detached company the officers, &c., are posted 
 as follows : the captain at one-third platoon distance in front of the 
 centre ; the 1st lieutenant commands the 2d platoon, and is posted on its 
 right in the front rank ) the senior 2d lieutenant commands the 1st pla- 
 toon, and is posted on its right in the front rank ; the next 2d lieutenant 
 is on the left of the 2d platoon, in the front rank ', the junior 2d lieu- 
 tenant is 4 paces in rear of the centre of the 1st platoon ; the orderly ser- 
 geant is in the rank of file-closers, (2 paces behind the rear rank,) in rear 
 of the 2d file from the right of the company ; the right guides of the pla- 
 toons are in the rear rank; the left guides in the rank of file-closers, 
 behind the 2d files from the left of their platoons ; the remainder of the 
 non-commissioned officers are at equal intervals in the rank of file-closers ; 
 the field music, 12 paces in rear of the centre of the company, except on 
 
THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 75 
 
 parade, when they are 2 paces from the right of the company, on the 
 alignment of the centre rank. 
 
 In a hattallon the platoons are numbered from 1 to 8, in a regular 
 series from right to left. . 
 
 The color-guard, consisting of the color-bearer, who is a non-commis- 
 sioned officer, and 5 color-corporals, is posted between the 4th and 5th 
 platoons. 
 
 The commander of the battalion, with a musician, is posted at com- 
 pany distance in front of the centre ; the adjutant, 12 paces in rear of the 
 centre. 
 
 Each captain commands the 1st platoon of his own company, and is 
 posted in the front rank on its right; the 1st lieutenants are posted as 
 explained for a detached company ; the 2d lieutenant of the 4th company 
 is on the left of the front rank of the battalion ; all the other 2d lieu- 
 tenants are in the rank of commissioned file-closers, (4 paces behind the 
 rear rank,) in rear of their respective platoons; the non-commissioned 
 officers are posted as prescribed for. a detached company. 
 
 All the field music of the battalion is united, and posted 4 paces on the 
 left of the adjutant; the band is 4 paces on his right. On parade, all 
 the music is on the right of the battalion. The length of step is 29" ; 
 the rate of march, 108 steps per minute, except in the bayonet charge, 
 when it is 120. The march is steady, but strikes one as being stiff and 
 awkward ; for the foot is raised very high, the toe much pointed, the 
 knee much stifi"ened, and the foot brought down with a shock ; the noise 
 thus made by a column is something quite extraordinary. 
 
 The manual of arms presents nothing peculiar beyond the fact of 
 bayonets never being unfixed, and the method of loading the needle gun. 
 The piece is very generally carried at a slope arms, or a sergeant's carry. 
 
 The minimum of target-practice is, that each man must fire one shot 
 every week ; but this minimum is far exceeded. 
 
 The individual carriage and instruction of the Prussian infantry are 
 excellent. 
 
 The formation into " company columns" — i.e. forming a third platoon 
 of the men of the third rank, for skirmishing and light infantry service — 
 is employed, and does not difi'er in any essential particular from the 
 system explained in the report upon the Russian infantry. 
 
 The chain of skirmishers consists of pairs of men. The system is ftill 
 and good, but presents nothing peculiar, x 
 
 The movements of a battalion, its formation in column, &c., are habi- 
 tually by platoon. 
 
 The battalion advancing in line, at the command " prepare to charge," 
 the battjilion at once takes the gait of 120 steps per minute, the colors 
 fall back into the front rank, the commander rides to the rear; at 12 
 
76 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 paces from the enemy he gives the command "charge bayonets — charge," 
 on which the front and centre ranks bring down their pieces, and all 
 charge with the " hurrah." 
 
 In the close column the distance between subdivisions is 4', measured 
 from the front rank of one subdivision to the rear rank of the one next in 
 front of it. 
 
 The double column on the centre platoons is the column of attack, and 
 the habitual column of manoeuvre. In this the distances are as in close 
 column, except that two paces clear distance is left between the second 
 and third subdivisions ; the music is in this distance. 
 
 Square is formed from the double column on the centre. At the com- 
 mand " form square," the 3d and 6th platoons close up to 2' from the 
 4th and 5th, the 1st and 8th do the same with regard to the 2d and 
 7th; the 4 rear platoons face about; the color-bearer retires to the 
 centre of the square ; the three outer flank files of the 2d, 3d, 6th, and 
 7th platoons face outwards, these short sides of the square being com- 
 pleted by officers, non-commissioned officers, and men of the rear rank of . 
 the central platoons, formed 3 deep ; in the same manner the intervals 
 between the 4th and 5th, the 1st and 8th, platoons are filled. If either of 
 the short sides is attacked, then the 3 flank files of the head and rear of 
 the square, on that side, face in that direction. 
 
 The square being formed, the command " square — ready !" is given ; 
 upon this the front-rank men of all the faces charge bayonets, the 2d and 
 3d ranks come to a ready. 
 
 The firing is usually by volleys, of one rank at a time ; no rank fires 
 without the special order of the commander. 
 
 The interval between consecutive battalions is 20 paces. 
 
 A brigade is formed in two or more lines, the usual distance being 150 
 paces. 
 
 It is worthy of remark that the Prussian Infantry Tactics, from the 
 school of the recruit to that of the brigade, inclusive, form only one small 
 volume of 228 pages. 
 
 ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS. 
 
 x\ll the regiments of the guards, and at least one battalion of every 
 regiment of the line, are armed with the "needle gun," (ziindnadel- 
 gurche;) the rest of the infantry of the line have the percussion musket; 
 the rifles of the guard have a " needle rifle," (ziindnadelbuchsen ;) the 
 rifles of the line have the tige rifle. 
 
 The needle gun is rifled, and loads at the breech. An aperture exists 
 in the upper surface of the barrel, near the breech ; this is opened and 
 the cartridge slipped in horizontally. In the cartridge, near the base of 
 the ball, there is a pellet of fulminating powder ; behind the cartridge 
 
THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 77 
 
 there is a long sharp needle in the axis of the barrel ; this is connected 
 with a spiral spring. Upon pulling the trigger the spring is liberated, 
 and drives the needle through the cartridge into the fulminating com- 
 pound. 
 
 The target^practice with the needle gun is carried up to 1,000 paces, 
 and seven shots per minute can be fired. 
 
 There is no other belt than a waist-belt ; to this the sabre and cartridge 
 boxes are attached. There is no bayonet-scabbard, the bayonet never 
 being unfixed, except in the case of the rifles, who have a sword bayonet. 
 
 The cartridge-boxes hold 20 rounds each, and are 6" X 3" X 2" ; in 
 the field each man carries two, in front of the body, and on each side of 
 the belt-plate ; in garrison but one is carried, and that in front of the 
 middle of the body. The cap-pouch is on the front of the box, under 
 the flap. Two tin boxes, (2f" X 1" X l"j) each containing forty caps, 
 are carried in the knapsack. 
 
 In each company one man carries on his waist-belt two boxes (65" X 
 4" X 3") containing medicines in vials ; this man carries no musket, and 
 is under the direction of the surgeon. Patterns of these boxes were ob- 
 tained by the commission, and are in possession of the War Department. 
 Each soldier carries a small supply of lint in his knapsack. 
 
 The knapsack is of cowskin, and as shown in the preceding figures. 
 
 TTie overcoat is either strapped to the top and sides of the knapsack, 
 as explained for the Austrian infantry, or is rolled in its full length, the 
 ends fastened together by a strap, and the whole thrown over one shoulder, 
 crossing the back, and passing under the other arm. 
 
 Of the four musicians, two are drummers and two fifers ; each fifer has 
 also a bugle. 
 
 The drums are 18" in diameter and 4" deep, — including the rims, 6' 
 deep. Each drummer has a leather apron on his left thigh. 
 
 UNIFORM. 
 
 The uniform of the officers differs but little from that of the Russians, 
 except in color. 
 
 The helmet is worn by .all the infantry, except the rifles, whose head- 
 dress is like that of the Austrian rifles. The frock-coat is universally 
 worn ; for the infantry it is dark blue, for the rifles green ; the distinc- 
 tions of army corps, regiments, grade, &c., are found on the collars and 
 cuffs ; the sword-knot is also a distinction of grade, and of companies in 
 the same battalion. The overcoat is of dark gray, without cape, and with 
 a standing collar. The shoulder-straps on the frock-coats and overcoats 
 of the men are of the Russian pattern. 
 
 The material of the clothing is very good, and it is well made up. 
 Each man has a pair of cloth mittens and a pair of ear-covers. 
 
THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Prussian Knapsack. 
 
 The hooks hook to the inside belt. G is an iron pin, by means of which the shoulder- 
 straps may be lengthened or shortened. A B is the camp-kettle. 
 
THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY 
 
 79 
 
 Prussian Knapsack. 
 
80 THEARMIESOFEUROPE. 
 
 The contents of the knapsack are : 1 pair of cloth pants, 1 overcoat, 1 
 forage cap, 1 pair of shoes, 1 pair of extra soles, 1 shirt, 1 pair of drawers, 
 brushes, shaving-materials, and 20 rounds of cartridges; weight of the 
 whole about 20 pounds. The whole load of the men, including arms, 
 accoutrements, ammunition, &c., &c., is somewhat less than 60 pounds. 
 All other essential points in relation to the clothing are given in the 
 report upon the Prussian cavalry. 
 
 RATIONS. 
 
 The rations, cooking-utensils, &c., are the same as in the cavalry. The 
 bread used by infantry and cavalry alike in this service is the brown or 
 " black" rye bread of Germany. 
 
 The haversacks are of linen, and are 12'' square ; no canteen is car- 
 ried f instead of it, a small flask of brandy in the haversack. 
 
 QUARTERS. 
 
 In quarters the men are divided into squads of from 18 to 20 men, 
 each under a corporal. 
 
 As a general rule, each squad has two rooms, in one of which all the 
 beds are stowed during the day, the other being used for eating, reading, 
 lounging, smoking, &c. This room is provided with tables and benches ; 
 at night some of the beds are placed in this second room. 
 
 The bedsteads are single and of iron, put together with nuts and 
 screws ; the tops of the corner posts are hollowed out, so that the feet of 
 another bedstead may be set in them in the daytime, thus placing one 
 above another to save space. 
 
 The bottom or floor of the bed consists of boards, placed longitudinally 
 on the cross-pieces ; ap inclined board at the head of the bed renders a 
 thin pillow sufficient. 
 
 The bedding consists of a pillow, bedsack stuff"ed with straw, and a 
 pair of blankets in a check case ; the bedding is not folded up during the 
 day. The bedding belongs to the barrack. Each man has a cupboard, 
 with a lock and key, in which he keeps his rations and efi"ects. 
 
 In the room is a list of the men quartered there, with the name of the 
 orderly; also an inventory of all public property in the quarters. 
 
 On the outside of the door, which is numbered, is a board or paper, 
 inscribed, e.g.j as follows : — 
 
 2d battalion. 
 
 10th infantry regiment. 
 
 8th company. 
 
 5th squad. 
 
 The inspector of each barrack is a retired non-commissioned officer ; he 
 is responsible for the furniture, bedding, &c., of the officers and men 
 
THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 81 
 
 living in that barrack, and reports to the inspector of the post, who is a 
 retired officer; the latter is under the orders of the intendant. Tables, 
 sofas, chairs, bureaus, bedsteads, and bedding, are furnished to every 
 officer ; they paper their own quarters, and paint them if the ordinary 
 government allowance is not sufficient. 
 
 FIELD SERVICE. 
 
 The organization of an army corps in the field, and its allowance of 
 transportation, have already been given. 
 
 Each captain of infantry is allowed a horse ; he is only permitted to 
 ride on the march ; no lieutenant is, under any circumstances, permitted 
 to ride. 
 
 The ordinary march is 14 miles in five hours, sometimes 23^ miles in 
 eight hours. Usually a short halt is made about fifteen minutes after 
 starting, and in the middle of the march a halt of about an hour ; if the 
 march is a very long one, (more than 20 miles, for instance,) two halts 
 of an hour each are made. On the march the piece is carried at will, on 
 either shoulder. No tents or shelter tents are used ; the men hut them- 
 selves as best they can. 
 
 The normal camp of a regiment is in six rows of huts, perpendicular 
 to the front of the camp; two companies being in each row, and there 
 being one street for each battalion. 
 
 Each platoon has its stacks of arms at the head of its row of huts ; the 
 huts of the officers are in the middle of those of the men of their com- 
 panies, in the same row. 
 
 The latrines are in rear of the whole camp. 
 
 The bivouac is essentially the same as the Russian. 
 
 In regard to the landwehr, it is worthy of mention, that in the land- 
 wehr arsenals complete sets of clothing, arms, and accoutrements are kept 
 on hand, so that a few minutes will suffice to supply the men, who are 
 already drilled. A close study of the landwehr system is well worthy of 
 the attention of our own officers; the adoption of some similar system 
 would go far towards rendering our own country unassailable. 
 
 I desire to call the attention of our officers to the rich and interest- 
 ing field of study offered by the Prussian military works ; any one who 
 will provide our service and the country with such valuable aids as 
 '^ Witzleben, Mims, Kalkstein, Scharnhorst," &c., will at least have the 
 satisfaction of knowing that he has conferred incalculable benefit upon 
 the service. 
 
82 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 THE SARDINIAN INFANTRY. 
 
 This consists of 20 regiments of infantry and 10 battalions of ber- 
 saglieri, (rifles.) 
 
 Each regiment of infantry has 4 battalions, of 4 companies each j the 
 staflf of a regiment consists of 1 colonel, 4 majors, 2 adjutants, 1 pay- 
 master, 1 clothing officer, 1 chaplain, 3 surgeons, 2 staff quartermasters, 
 1 drum major, 1 quartermaster, and 3 sergeants of the train; 3 corporals, 
 4 battalion clerks, 3 battalion drummers, 1 chief trumpeter, 1 master 
 carpenter, 1 band-master, 2 armorers, 1 master tailor, 1 master shoe- 
 maker, 26 musicians, 8 carpenters, and 2 sutlers. 
 
 Each company of infantry consists of 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 1 orderly 
 sergeant, 4 sergeants, 9 corporals, 2 drummers, 8 lance corporals ; in time 
 of peace 52, and on the war establishment 126, privates. 
 
 The corps of rifles consists of 10 battalions and 1 depot company, each 
 battalion having 4 companies. 
 
 The stafi" of the corps consists of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 10 
 majors, 1 intendant, 1 clothing officer, (a captain,) 1 paymaster, 1 sub- 
 intendant, 1 quartermaster, 2 lieutenants, 1 regimental adjutant, 10 battalion 
 adjutants, 10 surgeons, and 3 lieutenants for the depot company. Each 
 company consists of 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 1 orderly sergeant, 4 ser- 
 geants, 1 trumpeter, 11 corporals, 76 privates in time of peace, and 133 
 in time of war. The depot company has but 1 orderly sergeant, 2 ser- 
 geants, 5 corporals, and 30 privates. 
 
 The non-commissioned staff of the rifle corps consists of 10 battalion 
 quartermasters, 1 quartermaster and 14 sergeants of the train, 11 chief 
 trumpeters, 11 battalion clerks, 4 corporals of the train, 1 master armorer, 
 1 master tailor, 1 master shoemaker, 10 armorers, and 10 sutlers. 
 
 The army is filled by conscription. 
 
 The term of service for the infantry and rifles is 16 years, during 8 
 of which the men belong to the active army, and for 8 years to the re- 
 serve. They serve but 14 months with their regiments in time of peace, 
 and are then sent on furlough, being liable to be called out again if 
 needed. The term of service for the cavalry, artillery, and engineers, is 
 8 years' uninterrupted service ; these corps are filled with volunteers, sub- 
 stitutes, and men drawn by lot from the mass of the conscripts. 
 
 The Sardinian contingent in the Crimea was composed of provisional 
 regiments of 2 battalions each ; these were formed by detailing a company 
 from every battalion of the infantry, and composed 2 divisions of 4 regi- 
 ments, and a reserve brigade. Two companies of every battalion of ber- 
 saglieri were present, forming 5 provisional battalions. 
 
 The tactics and instruction of the Sardinian infantry differ but little 
 from that of the French, from which they are derived. 
 
THE SARDINIAN INFANTRY. 83 
 
 UNIFORM. 
 
 This is a modification of the French, and is strikingly similar to our own. 
 
 The infantry shako is almost identically ours. 
 
 The frock-coat is dark blue. 
 
 The pants and overcoats are very nearly the color of our own, but of a 
 somewhat more grayish hue. 
 
 The overcoat alone was worn in the Crimea, the frock-coat being left 
 at home; the overcoat has a large rolling collar, but no cape. Shoes and 
 gaiters are used. 
 
 The knapsack is of black leather, and is 15" X 12" X 3F j it is not 
 attached to the waist-belt, but has straps after the Austrian fashion. 
 
 The knapsack contained 1 linen coat, 1 pair of linen pants, 1 woolen 
 shirt, 1 linen shirt, 1 pair of drawers, 1 pair of shoes, 1 pair of leather 
 gaiters, 1 stock or scarf, and the brushes ; a plaid blanket is strapped to 
 the top and sides of the knapsack ; the shelter tent is attached to the 
 front of the knapsack. 
 
 The forage cap is of wool, and something between the Greek cap and 
 the Turkish fez ; it is what is known as the Italian fisherman's cap, and 
 has no visor. 
 
 The hat of the bersaglieri is of felt, with a flat rim 3" broad ; the rim 
 is stiflf, and covered with oiled linen; the crown is round; there is a 
 plume of black cocks' feathers. 
 
 Their pants are dark blue, as well as their overcoats. 
 
 ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS. 
 
 Twenty men in each company of infantry^ have the bersaglieri rifle, 
 the rest have the ordinary percussion musket, using the Nessler ball. 
 
 The bersaglieri rifle has a 30" barrel, and is quite heavy; it has 8 
 grooves, an elevating hausse, and sword bayonet. The beak of the butt- 
 plate has a spiked projection some 5" or 6" long, to assist the men in 
 climbing hills, &c. 
 
 The range of this rifle is about 600 metres. 
 
 The screw-driver is of the shape of a T ; at the end of one branch is a 
 gimlet, so that the screw-driver may be screwed into a tree to afibrd a rest. 
 
 The infantry cartridge-box contains 30 rounds, and is attached to the 
 waist-belt by a loop of sheet iron ; the bayonet-scabbard is also attached 
 to the waist-belt ; the infantry wear no sabre. 
 
 The box of the bersaglieri contains only halls and cleaning-utensils, 
 neither cartridges nor patches being used; the powder is carried in a 
 rough wooden powder-horn, suspended by a green cord, and thrust into 
 a pocket of the coat. 
 
 There is a separate waist-belt for the sword bayonet of the bersaglieri. 
 
 6 
 
86 TUE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 that hostilities there are now almost entirely confined to the most difficult 
 portions; that mountain chains form a great part of its boundaries on the 
 sides of Turkey and Persia; and that, in the event of an offensive war, 
 after having crossed these mOuiltains, the opponents of the Russians 
 would consist mostly of irregular cavalry and indifferent infantry. These 
 considerations will explain the almost entire absence of regular cavalry 
 in that army. It is probable, however, that, in the event of a Persian 
 war, some regular cavalry would be added to this army. During the 
 Persian campaigns of 1826 and 1827 a division (four regiments) of lancers 
 were with the army. 
 
 The system of warfare adopted in the Caucasus is to cut off the low 
 and settled regions from the inroads of the mountaineers by Cossack 
 settlements and posts of regulars ; to construct roads and bridges through 
 the mountains, occupying the passes and other important points by moun- 
 tain forts with small garrisons, and, using these forts as depots, to send 
 out small movable columns of infantry and irregular cavalry into the 
 heart of the hostile region. 
 
 The information contained in this report is derived from personal ob- 
 servation, information obtained from Russian officers, the official regula- 
 tions and tactics, Haxthausen on the Institutions of "Russia, Hirtenfeld's 
 Organization of European Armies, the narrative of the campaigns of 
 Paskivitch in Asia Minor in 1828 and 1829, and from other sources. 
 Errors have probably been "committed, but it is believed that the true 
 spirit of the organization is given. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 At the commencementof the Crimean war, the army of Russia was com- 
 posed and organized about as follows: 
 
 The emperor is the commander-in-chief of all the forces,by sea and land, 
 
 GRAND STAFF OF THE EMPEROR. 
 
 Its members, in time of peace, participate in the duties of the war 
 department, as presidents of committees, &c. It consists of: the minister 
 of war; the inspector-general of the various corps of engineers; the in- 
 spector-general of artillery; the inspector-general of cavalry; the in- 
 spector-general of infantry; the inspector of the military engineers; the 
 inspector of artillery; the chief of the general staff; the inspector-gene- 
 ral of the army; the commandant of the imperial head-quarters; the sub- 
 commandant of the same; the baggage-master general; the inspector- 
 general of the medical department; the chaplain-general. 
 
 THE GENERAL AIDES-DE-CAMP. 
 
 This is merely an honorary title bestowed upon distinguished general 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. ' 87 
 
 officers, but involving no especial duty. There are some eighty general 
 officers in this category. 
 
 THE AIDES-DE-CAMP OP THE EMPEROR 
 
 consist of about four major-generals, "in the suite;" ^me thirty field 
 officers, and fifteen captains; the number is not limited. These are the 
 real aides-de-camp of the emperor. 
 
 THE WAR MINISTRY. 
 
 This is (divided into the office of the minister of war and the departments. 
 (a.) The first consists of — 
 
 1. The military council of legislation and administration. 
 
 2. The office proper, in six sections. 
 
 3. The committee of general judge advocates. 
 
 4. The committee of military censorship. 
 
 5. The scientific military committee. 
 
 6. The medical committee. 
 
 (6.) The departments. Of tiiese, there are nine, subdivided into seve- 
 ral sections, each department having one director, one vice-director, and 
 a council of administration. 
 
 1. The department of the grand general staff, under the chief of the 
 general staff; in addition to the usual functions of the general staff, all 
 matters pertaining to organization and tactics are referred to this de- 
 partment. 
 
 2. The department of the personnel, under the inspector-general of the 
 army; this has charge of the recruiting service, the central military 
 printing-establishment, and the corps of mounted orderlies and couriers. 
 
 3. The artillery department. 
 
 4. The engineer department. 
 
 5. The commissariat department, for the supply of money for all pur- 
 poses, the equipment of the troops, supplies of ammunition, and the 
 administration of the military hospitals, under the commissary-general. 
 
 6. The subsistence department. 
 
 7. The department of the military colonies. 
 
 8. The medical department. 
 
 9. The judge advocates' department. 
 
 Under the direction of the war ministry the military authorities of the 
 different provinces administer their military affairs ; the commands of the 
 infantry, cavalry, and independent corps are under the war ministry. 
 
 THE ARMY. 
 
 This is divided into the main army of operations, reserves, garrison 
 troops, irregular troops, gendarmerie, model regiments, and military schools. 
 
88 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 THE MAIN ARMY OF OPERATIONS. 
 
 This is composed of troops who have not completed their first term of 
 service. 
 
 THE GENERAL STAFF 
 
 is divided into the general staff proper and the topographical corps. The 
 chief of the general staff is at the head of this administration, and under 
 him a chief of the topographical corps. 
 
 The strength of the general staff proper is 17 general ^officers, 32 
 colonels, 48 lieutenant-colonels, 62 captains, and 78 lieutenants. 
 
 It is subdivided into the grand general staff and that of the troops. 
 
 The first consists of 9 general officers, 36 field and company officers, 
 and is divided into three sections ; , 
 
 1. The affairs of the personnel of the general staff. 
 
 2. The distribution of troops, including military operations and foreign 
 armies. 
 
 3. Scientific section, including historical matters. 
 
 The office of the chief of general staff is for the administration. 
 
 The general staff of the troops is as follows : in each army corps, 1 
 general as chief of staff, 2 -field and several company officers; in each 
 division, 2 officers. 
 
 The military colonies, reserve troops, and garrison troops, have special 
 general staffs of their own. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL CORPS. 
 
 This consists of 1 general as chief, 2 generals, 15 field officers, 91 
 captains and lieutenants, and 8 companies of different strength, but 
 amounting ^to 456 sergeants and privates in all. The officers take rank 
 with those of the general staff. 
 
 The corps is subdivided into the topographical depot, the topographical 
 companies, and the officers serving on the staff with armies, &c. 
 
 The depot is. subordinate to the grand general staff, and attends to the 
 engraving and printing of maps, manufacture and repair of instruments, 
 &c. It consists of 6 sections : 1, the office ; 2, topographical section ; 
 3, astronomical section ; 4, section of engraving and printing ; 5, me- 
 chanical section ; 6, archives. 
 
 There are attached to the depot 1 company (of 1 officer and 120 men) 
 composed of mechanics, and a topographical school. 
 
 Of the 8 companies, 1 is at the depot, as above, some employed in 
 making surveys, the rest in fractions at the head-quarters of armies and 
 corps. These companies are usually recruited from among intelligent 
 ^antonists, (soldiers' sons,) taken at the age of 15. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 89 
 
 AIDES-DE-CAMP. 
 
 These do not form a separate corps; they are of two kinds: those of 
 the emperor, as above, and those of the generals. 
 
 The latter are of two classes : senior aides and personal aides. 
 
 The senior aides are appointed by the emperor, and belong to the com- 
 mand ] they superintend the service. The personal aides are selected by 
 the generals, and accompany them when they change commands. 
 
 All aides are taken from among officers serving with troops, never 
 from the general staff. 
 
 On the staff of an army there are, under the inspector-general, who is 
 subordinate to the chief of staff, 5 senior and from 6 to 11 personal 
 aides. 
 
 On the staff of a corps, also under the inspector-general of the corps, 
 who is subordinate to the chief of staff, there are 2 senior and from 3 to 
 4 personal aides. 
 
 On the staff of a division there are 1 senior and 2 personal aides. 
 
 On the staff of a brigade, 1 personal aide. 
 
 THE INFANTRY. 
 
 This is divided into infantry of the line, light infantry, and rifles. The 
 number of regiments is as follows : 12 of the guard, 10 grenadier, 4 car- 
 bineer, 42 of the line, and 42 light. There are also the following inde- 
 pendent battalions : 1 Finland rifles of the guard, 1 of grenadier rifles, 
 and 7 rifles of the line. 
 
 The different kinds of regiments just mentioned are numbered in sepa- 
 rate series ; in addition to its number, each has a name, — generally that 
 of some province or city. Many regiments bear also the names of their 
 proprietors, .who are the grand dukes, native or foreign princes, distin- 
 guished generals, &c. Each regiment of the guard, grenadiers, and car- 
 bineers, consists of three active battalions ; each regiment of the line and 
 of light infantry has four active battalions. Every battalion is composed 
 of four companies. 
 
 On the war establishment, every company consists of 4 officers, 20 ser- 
 geants, 8 musicians, and, for the guards, grenadiers, and carbineers, 236 
 corporals and privates ; for other troops, 230 corporals and privates. 
 
 The battalion staff consists of: 1 commandant of the battalion, 1 junior 
 field officer, 1 adjutant, 1 ensign, and 1 sub-ensign, (both sergeants in 
 the line of promotion,) 1 battalion chief drummer, 1 battalion chief 
 bugler; in the rifle battalion there is no junior field officer or battalion, 
 chief drummer, but there are 1 quartermaster and 1 paymaster. 
 
 The staff of a regiment of the line, or light infantry, consists of: 1 
 colonel, 1 adjutant, 1 quartermaster, 1 paymaster, 1 band-master, 40' 
 
90 THEARMIESOFEUROPE. 
 
 musicians, 1 regimental chief drummer, 1 regimental chief bugler; the 
 regiments of guards, grenadiers, and carbineers have, in addition to the 
 commander of the regiment, (who is a major-general,) 1 colonel, and 50 
 musicians instead of 40. 
 
 The strength of a battalion of the line or light infantry is, then, 1,055 
 combatants. 
 
 The strength of a battalion of guards, grenadiers, or carbineers, is 
 1,079 combatants. 
 
 The strength of a regiment of 4 battalions (line or light infantry) is 
 4,267 combatants. 
 
 The strength of a regiment of 3 battalions (guard, grenadiers, &c.) is 
 3,294 combatants. 
 
 To each re^ment there belongs a company of the train, which com- 
 prises the teamsters, mechanics, (except tailors q,nd shoemakers,) hospital 
 attendants, and ofl&cers' servants. In a regiment of the line the company 
 of the train consists of: 1 officer, 7 sergeants, 280 corporals and privates, 
 280 horses, and 71 wagons and carts; these men are not included in the 
 force of combatants as given above. 
 
 These companies of the train form the train battalion of the division ; 
 every independent battalion has a company or section of the train. 
 Attached to each regiment are a surgeon and several assistants. 
 
 The regiments of infantry are permanently organized into brigades, 
 divisions, and army corps; 2 regiments form a brigade, 2 brigades a 
 division, 3 divisions (with the proper proportion of the other arms of 
 service) a corps. 
 
 THE CAVALRY. 
 
 This consists of cuirassiers, dragoons, lancers, hussars, and Cossacks. 
 The number of regiments is as follows : cavalry of the guard-.— cuirassiers 
 4, dragoons 2, lancers 2, hussars 2, Cossacks 2, and 5 J independent 
 squadrons ; cavalry of the army — cuirassiers 8, dragoons 9, lancers 20, 
 and hussars 16. 
 
 The regiments are named and numbered in a similar manner to the 
 infantry. 
 
 All the cuirassier regiments, and all the cavalry of the guard, have six 
 active squadrons per regiment ; the dragoons of the line liave ten active 
 squadrons per regiment; all the rest of the regiments, except two of 
 lancers and two of hussars, (forming the reserve light cavalry division,) 
 have eight active squadrons. 
 
 On the war establishment, the full strength of each squadron is, 6 
 officers, 16 sergeants, 3 trumpeters, 146 corporals and privates ; there are 
 also, usually, an assistant veterinary surgeon and a horse-shoer. 
 
 The staff of a regiment of six squadrons consists of: 1 colonel, 3 field 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 91 
 
 officers, (one to command each division of two squadrons,) 1 adjutant, 
 1 quartermaster, 1 paymaster, 1 chief veterinary surgeon, and 1 regi- 
 mental trumpeter : in a regiment of eight squadrons there is one additional 
 field officer, to command the 4th division. 
 
 The dragoons of the line have each five divisions, of which the first 
 four (having two trumpeters and two drummers to each squadron) are 
 stronger by two musicians, each, than the divisions of other cavalry; 
 the 5th division is as other cavalry. The staff of a dragoon regiment has 
 one field officer more than a regiment of eight squadrons, and also a regi- 
 mental drummer. 
 
 The strength of a regiment of 6 squadrons is, thus, 1,034 combatants. 
 u u g a 1^377 u 
 
 u li 10 « 1 729 u 
 
 Two regiments of cavalry, usually of the same kind, form a brigade ; 
 
 two brigades, of difi"erent kinds, form a division; two or more divisions 
 form a cavalry corps. 
 
 ARTILLERY. 
 
 There are batteries of position, or heavy foot batteries, light foot bat- 
 teries, heavy and light horse batteries, and mountain batteries. 
 
 A battery consists of 8 or 12 pieces, and is usually commanded by a 
 field officer. Each battery has its own section of the train. 
 
 A heavy foot battery consists of six 12-pounder guns, six 28-pounder 
 licornes, 7 officers, 312 men, and 241 horses; or of four 12-pounder guns, 
 four 28-pounder licornes, 7 officers, 222 men, and 177 horses. 
 
 A light foot battery : six 6-pounder guns, six 14-pounder licornes, 7 
 officers, 246 men, and 167 horses ; or of four 6-pounder guns, four 14- 
 pounder licornes, 7 officers, 172 men, and 128 horses. 
 
 A heavy horse battery : eight 28-pounder licornes, 8 officers, 282 men, 
 and 374 horses. 
 
 A light horse battery : four 6-pounder guns, four 14-pounder licornes, 
 7 officers, 219 men, and 284 horses. 
 
 A Cossack battery : four 6-pounder guns, four 14-pounder licornes, 5 
 officers, 202 men, and 273 horses. 
 
 A mountain battery : eight 3-pounder guns, four 4" mortars, (weight 
 46 pounds,) 7 officers, 222 men, and 229 horses. 
 
 The heavy horse batteries have eight horses to each piece ; the light 
 horse batteries, and heavy foot, six horses per piece ; the light foot bat- 
 teries, four horses to each piece. 
 
 The caisson^ are two-wheeled carts, drawn by three horses abreast; 
 each 12-pounder gun and 28-pounder licorne has three of these carts; 
 each 6-pounder gun and 14-pounder licorne has two carts. 
 
 The foot and horse artillery have separate organizations. 
 
92 . THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Prom two to four batteries form a brigade ; from two to four brigades, 
 a division. It is proper to state that the organization, as given above, 
 bids fair to be superseded, partially, at all events, by the introduction of 
 the Napoleon gun-howitzer ; these guns were being cast, in large numbers, 
 in St. Petersburg, in 1855. 
 
 ENGINEER TROOPS. 
 
 These consist of battalions of sappers and squadrons of mounted 
 pioneers. 
 
 The number of battalions is as follows : 1 of the guard, 1 of the grena- 
 diers, 6 of the line, and 1 of the Caucasus. 
 
 There are two squadrons of mounted pioneers of the guard, and two 
 squadrons belonging to the corps of dragoons ; this is the peace establish- 
 ment, to be increased to sixteen squadrons in time of war. 
 
 Each battalion of sappers consists of four companies. 
 
 Each company is composed of 5 officers, 20 sergeants, 6 musicians, and 
 230 corporals and privates; on the battalion staff are 6 officers and 2 
 sergeants. 
 
 The strength of each division (two squadrons) of the mounted pioneers 
 is 13 officers, 29 sergeants, 8 musicians, 328 corporals and privates, and 
 275 horses. 
 
 In time of peace, each battalion has one ponton train of 42 pontons, 
 and as many wagons ; each squadron of the mounted pioneers has eight 
 leather pontons. 
 
 THE ARMY CORPS. 
 
 The active troops heretofore enumerated form the following army corps : 
 the corps of infantry of the guard, and the corps of grenadiers, both elite 
 corps, and destined to form the reserves of the active army of operations; 
 six infantry corps ; the corps of the Caucasus ; the reserve cavalry corps 
 of the guards ; the first and second reserve cavalry corps ; the reserve 
 light cavalry division. 
 
 The corps of the Caucasus forms the basis of the army of the Caucasus ; 
 its composition, and that of the other corps, will be given hereafter. It 
 is now necessary to explain the law of distribution of regiments, &c., in 
 the brigades, divisions, and corps. 
 
 The corps of infantry of the guard consists of 9 regiments of grena- 
 diers of the guard, and 3 regiments of light infantry of the guard. 
 
 These are organized in 6 brigades, numbered from 1 to 6, and 3 divi- 
 sions : the 1st brigade is composed of two regiments of grenadiers ; the 
 2d brigade consists of 1 regiment of grenadiers and 1 of light infantry ; 
 these 2 brigades form the 1st division. The brigades of the other divi- 
 sions are constituted in a similar manner. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 93 
 
 Of the 10 regiments of grenadiers and 4 of carbineers, the first 9 of 
 the former and the' first 3 of the latter form the infantry divisions of the 
 corps of grenadiers. The 10th grenadiers and the 4th carbineers form 
 the elite brigade of the army of the Caucasus. 
 
 The infantry of the corps of grenadiers is formed in 3 divisions, 
 organized exactly as the corps of infantry of the guard ; the carbineers 
 taking the place of the light infantry regiments of the guard. The in- 
 fantry brigades and divisions of the guard and the grenadiers are each 
 numbered in a separate series. 
 
 In the troops of the line, as distinguished from the two elite corps, 2 
 regiments of heavy infantry, or 2 of light infantry, form a brigade ; a 
 division is composed of one brigade of heavy and one brigade of light 
 infantry ; 3 such divisions constitute the main body of the infantry of an 
 infantry corps. There are 42 regiments of heavy and 42 of light infantry, 
 forming 21 divisions, numbered in a regular series. The first 18 divisions 
 belong to the six infantry corps, the last 3 to the army of the Caucasus. 
 In these 21 divisions there are 21 brigades of heavy and 21 of light 
 infantry ; 42 in all. The 1st and 2d regiments of heavy infantry 
 (infantry of the line) form the 1st brigade of infantry of the line ; the 
 1st and 2d regiments of light infantry form the 1st brigade of light 
 infantry ; these two brigades form the 1st division of infantry. The 2d 
 division is composed of the 3d and 4th regiments of heavy and light 
 infantry. The 1st, 2d, and 3d divisions belong to the 1st corps. In the 
 ^ame manner they run in regular series through the six corps. 
 
 The cavalry of the guard forms the corps of reserve cavalry of the 
 guard; its regiments are numbered independently of the rest of the 
 cavalry. The 8 regiments of army cuirassiers compose 2 divisions of the 
 1st reserve cavalry corps. The first 8 regiments of army dragoons con- 
 stitute the 2d reserve cavalry corps ; the 9th regiment belongs to the 
 army of the Caucasus. The 16 regiments of army hussars form 8 bri- 
 gades, in which they are distributed in a similar manner to the infantry 
 regiments ; the first 6 brigades belong to the infantry corps of the same 
 numbers ; the 7th brigade to the corps of grenadiers ; the 8th to the 
 reserve light cavalry division. 
 
 The 20 regiments of army lancers form 10 brigades, the first seven of 
 which serve with the corresponding hussar brigades, thus forming the 
 light cavalry divisions attached to the infantry and grenadier corps ; the 
 8th and 9th brigades form the lancer division of the 1st cavalry reserve 
 corps ; the 10th belongs to the reserve light cavalry division. 
 
 The artillery of the guards and grenadiers is numbered independently 
 of the rest of the artillery, except the brigade of the horse artillery of 
 the grenadiers. There are 6 divisions of army field artillery for the 6 
 infantry corps, the division bearing the number of its corps. 
 
94 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Each division consists of one brigade of horse artillery, each brigade 
 bearing the number of its corps, and the batteries numbered in regular 
 series, and of 3 brigades of foot artillery ; the brigades of the latter, as 
 well as the batteries, are numbered in regular series throughout. 
 
 The batteries of heavy and light foot artillery are numbered separately. 
 The brigade of horse artillery serving with the corps of grenadiers is 
 numbered the 7th, to correspond with the light cavalry division of that 
 cor|)s. The brigades of horse artillery act with, and are regarded as be- 
 longing to, the cavalry divisions of their respective corps. 
 
 The artillery of the army of the Caucasus has a separate organization. 
 The rifle battalions bear the numbers or names of the corps to which they 
 belong. 
 
 The sanie rule applies to the sappers and the brigades of the train. 
 
 The rule explained above will be more clearly understood by giving an 
 example; the fifth infantry corps will be taken for that purpose ; its com- 
 position is as follows : 
 
 FIFTH INFANTRY CORPS. • 
 
 5th diyision light cavalry. ■ 
 
 13th division of infantry.. / 
 14th division of infantry.. J 
 15th diyision of infantry.. J 
 
 5th lancer brigade. 
 
 J 9th regiment of lancers. 
 \ 10th regiment of lancers. 
 
 6th division field artillery. 
 
 5th hussar brigade / ^^J ^«g!°^«^* ^i J"^^^"' 
 
 ( 10th regiment of hussars. 
 
 25th and 26th regiments infantry of the line. 
 
 25th and 26th regiments light infantry. 
 
 27th and 28th regiments infantry of the line. 
 
 27th and 28th regiments light infantry. 
 
 29th and 30th regiments infantry of the line. 
 
 29th and 30th regiments light infantry. 
 
 5th brigade horse artillery, light horse batteries, Nos. 9 and 10. 
 
 r Battery of position. No. 17. 
 13th brigade foot artillery.. J ^^^^ry of position, No. 18. 
 
 1 Light foot battery. No. 33. 
 
 [ Light foot battery, No. 34. 
 
 r Battery of position, No. 19. . 
 
 14th brigade foot artillery.. J ^'^^^ ^^^^ ^^"ery. No. 35. 
 I Light foot battery. No. 36. 
 [ Light foot battery, No. 37. 
 r Battery of position, No. 20. 
 
 15th brigade foot artillery.. J 
 
 Rifle battalion, No. 5. 
 
 Sapper battalion, No. 6, 5th brigade of the train. 
 
 Light foot battery, No. 39. 
 [ Light foot battery, No. 40. 
 
 There will now be given the general composition and strength of the 
 several army corps : 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
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98 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 RESERVE TROOPS OF THE GRAND ARMY. 
 
 There are two classes of reserve troops, the reserve and the depot 
 troops. Authorities differ somewhat as to the constitution of these re- 
 serves, but it is believed that the description here given will give a 
 correct idea of the principles of their formation, although it may be in- 
 correct in some details. 
 
 The term of service in the Russian army is : twenty years in the mili- 
 tary colonies, twenty-three years in the guards, twenty-five years in other 
 corps. 
 
 By the late Emperor Nicholas was introduced the system of granting 
 unlimited furloughs to soldiers who had served faithfully for a certain 
 time. For the purposes of conscription, Russia in Europe is divided 
 into the eastern and western provinces, the line of separation being 
 pretty nearly the meridian of Moscow. 
 
 The soldiers from the eastern provinces and the military colonies 
 receive their furlough after fifteen years' service ; those from the western 
 provinces, after ten years' service; both categories then pass into the 
 reserves. Any soldier who entered the service in consequence of civil 
 misdemeanors, or who has been condemned to punishment for a serious 
 offence while in the service, loses his right to the furlough, and, in the 
 latter case, may even be required to serve longer than twenty-five 
 years. 
 
 The soldiers from the western provinces and the colonies compose the 
 mass of the first reserve, (reserve proper.) They are called together for 
 exercise during about four weeks in every year, and in time of war are 
 the first called upon for service. In this case, they are either drafted 
 into the active battalions, squadrons, &c., or may serve as battalions, &c., 
 by themselves. In time of peace, when not called out for drill, they 
 exercise their civil avocations as any other persons. 
 
 The second reserve (depot troops) are only called out in time of war. 
 
 The small permanent skeletons of these reserve battalions, squadrons, 
 and batteries, serve as schools of instruction for recruits, who are usually 
 kept there about a year before joining their regiments. 
 
 The principal depot for the instruction of infantry recruits is at 
 Moscow. 
 
 The reserve troops are officered by officers on leave of absence, on the 
 retired list, &c. 
 
 Through the whole army, including the guards, there is for every regi- 
 ment of infantry a reserve battalion, for every regiment of cavalry a 
 reserve squadron, for every brigade of artillery a reserve battery, and two 
 reserve battalions of sappers. 
 
 Omitting the guards, there is for every regiment of infantry a depot 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 99 
 
 battalion, for every regiment of cavalry a depot squadron, for every brigade 
 of foot artillery a depot battery, and two depot battalions of sappers. 
 
 TROOPS HAYING A LOCAL DESTINATION. — THE ARMY OP THE 
 
 CAUCASUS. 
 
 The regiments of tbe divisions of infantry, (19tli, 20tli, and 21st,) 
 forming the basis of the army of the Caucasus, have lately, perhaps only 
 temporarily, been increased to 5 battalions each, and the regiments of the 
 elite brigade to 4 battalions each; the regular portion of this army is 
 then as follows : • 
 
 3 divisions of infantry, each of 4 regiments of 5 battalions.. 62,880 men. 
 1 4lite brigade (10th grenadiers and 4th carbineers of 4 
 
 battalions each) 8,576 " 
 
 1 battalion of rifles.....* 1,048 " 
 
 47 regular battalions of native troops 49,585 " 
 
 1 battalion of sappers ' 1,052 " 
 
 1 regiment of dragoons (the 9th) of 10 squadrons 1,729 " 
 
 1 division of artillery, of 4 brigades, having in all : 4 heavy 
 foot batteries of 12 pieces each, 6 light foot batteries of 
 8 pieces each, 6 mountain batteries of 12 pieces each; 
 
 total 168 pieces, and 1 rocket battery 3,953 " 
 
 Total regular troops : 123,141 infantry, 1,729 cavalry, 3,953 artillery, 
 1,052 sappers, and 168 pieces and 1 rocket battery. 
 
 Of the reserve and depot battalions and squadrons of the 19th, 20th, 
 and 21st divisions, the elite brigade, and the dragoon regiment, one-half 
 are kept constantly under arms and ready to march. 
 
 Of the troops mentioned hereafter under the head of irregulars, the 
 Cossacks of the line of the Caucasus, the Mussulmen, and a portion of 
 the Cossacks of the Don and the Black Sea, are constantly under arms 
 and ready for service. All of the Cossacks of the Don, and those of 
 the Black Sea, can be made available if necessary. 
 
 In other European nations,,the regular troops destined to form the 
 army of operations in war, perform during peace the service of the 
 interior, which is confided to the national guards and militia in war; but 
 in Russia this service is perforiAed by a special regular army, the neces- 
 saiy cavalry and field artillery for which are chiefly furnished by the Cos- 
 sacks. These troops are charged with the service in the fortresses and 
 cities, with the defence of certain turbulent portions of the frontier, the 
 administration of the arsenals, workshops, &c. 
 
 Infantry. — 12 battalions of Finland form the 22d division of infantry, 
 and perform the interior service of Finland. 
 
100 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 10 Orenburg battalions form the 23d division of infantry, and are 
 charged with the interior service of that province. 
 
 15 battalions of Siberia compose the 24th division of infantry, and 
 perform the interior service of that region. This division is organized in 
 8 brigades, and has 2 guns with each brigade. 
 
 60 battalions of guards of the interior; each battalion having 21 
 officers and 1,000 men, and divided into 4 companies. For every^ 5 
 battalions there are 5 howitzers, (licornes.) These troops are employed 
 in European Russia, partly as the garrisons of fortresses, partly in the 
 open cities. They are charged, alsq, with the transportation of the 
 reserves, recruits, &c., their commanders having the superintendence of 
 the reserves of all classes. Each battalion has attached to it a penal 
 section^ for minor offenders from the army. In these battalions are many 
 veterans. 
 
 Cavalry. — There are Hi squadrons of gendarmes, with a total strength 
 of 2,364. In time of peace, they act as a military police ', in war, they 
 serve at the head-quarters of corps and armies in the field, having charge 
 of the police, prisoners, &c. 
 
 Artillery. — 98 companies of garrison artillery, each company consist- 
 ing of 4 officers and 165 men. These companies serve the artillery of 
 the fortresses, and some serve at the arsenals, &c. 
 
 12 arsenal companies, of the same strength as the last. These serve at 
 the arsenals, foundries, artillery workshops, small-arm factofies, powder- 
 mills, &c. 
 
 6 laboratory companies, each consisting of 4 officers and 182 men. 
 They are stationed at the six principal laboratories of the empire. 
 • Engineers. — This corps consists of 10 general officers, and 342 other 
 officers, in addition to 25 companies of workmen, (selected mechanics,) 
 of 3 officers and 208 men each. They are charged with the construction 
 of fortifications and the care of material; 54 penal companies (soldiers 
 condemned to labor on the fortifications) are under their direction. This 
 garrison engineer corps has also charge of 2 engineer parks for the supply 
 of sapper and pontonier materials. 
 
 552 companies of infantry veterans, ^^ho are on service in. the smaller 
 towns and villages, have places in the post-office service, act as orderlies 
 in government offices, take charge of public buildings, &c. 271 invalid 
 establishments, many of whose members perform similar services to those 
 last mentioned. 
 
 THE MODEL REGIMENTS. 
 
 The object of the model regiment of cavalry is to secure a uniform 
 system of equitation and instruction throughout that arm of service. It 
 consists of 6 J squadrons, viz.: ^ squadron of Cossacks, 1 squadron of 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. ^ 101 
 
 cuirassiers, 1 squadron of hussar^ 2 squadrons of dragoons, 2 squadrons 
 of lancers. It is composed of ofl&cers, non-commissioned officers, and 
 privates from all the regiments of cavalry; after going through a thorough 
 course of instruction, they return to their respective regiments. With 
 similar objects, there are also established a model regiment of infantry; 
 a model battery of horse artillery; a model battery of foot artillery; and 
 a model battalion for the army of the Caucasus. Officers and men 
 generally serve one year with the model regiments. 
 
 MILITARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 As these will be fully treated of by another member of the commission, 
 it is only necessary to state here that they are numerous and admirable. 
 It is difficult to perceive in what respect they are inferior to any in 
 Europe. 
 
 The majority of the officers come from the military schools, and the 
 absolute necessity of such institutions is fully recognized. 
 
 IRREGULAR TROOPS. 
 
 These include the Cossacks, Caucasians, Calmucks, Tartars, Boschkirs, 
 &c. These people are not subjected to the ordinary conscription, but, being 
 exempt from certain taxes, are required to furnish, at their own expense, 
 a certain quota per district. The organization of all these troops is based 
 upon that of the Cossacks, who form the most important and effective 
 portion. 
 
 The great mass is of cavalry, with some batteries, and a few battalions 
 of infantry, for service in special districts. 
 
 The sotnia is the unit, both of cavalry and infantry; its strength 
 varies from 100 to 200 men. 
 
 All the officers are appointed by the emperor; the subaltern grades 
 alone being filled, as a general rule, by Cossacks. 
 
 Although the Cossacks are all classed under the general name of 
 irregulars, there are many regiments which are, in reality, regular light 
 cavalry ; it is probable that the Cossacks of the guard, and many of those 
 of the Don, are the best regular light cavalry in the world. I have 
 witnessed manceuvres of the Cossacks of the guard conducted with a 
 precision that it would be impossible to exceed. 
 
 The service of the irregular troops is mostly performed on the frontiers, 
 and in the more wild and disturbed portions of the empire, e.g. in Siberia, 
 on the frontiers of China and Tartary, in the Caucasus, on the Danube, 
 &c. Yet large bodies of them are with the regular troops in Poland, &c., 
 and they are much employed at the custom-houses as police, &c. The 
 Cossacks of the Don and the Oural, being no longer in direct and con« 
 stant contact with an enemy, may, ere long, cease to exist as such; at 
 
102 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 present, many of them are employed in the Caucasus. The Cossacks of 
 the Sea of Azoff man. the gun-boats used on that sea and on the coast of 
 the Caucasus. 
 
 The Cossacks of the Black Sea are now chiefly in the Kuban; and it 
 was by a union of a portion of these with the mountain Cossacks that 
 the formidable Cossacks of the line of the Caucasus were formed. 
 
 It is impossible to obtain accurate and full information as to the numbers 
 of the irregular troops; the enumeration of Cossacks given below is 
 probably below the true number. 
 
 EFFECTIVE STRENGTH OF THE COSSACKS. 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 p 
 
 a 
 
 "So 
 v 
 
 1 
 
 Cm 
 
 O 
 
 .1 
 
 s 
 o 
 
 a 
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 1 
 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 
 Names of Cossack armies. 
 
 1 
 
 IS 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 W 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Approximate strength, 
 exclusive of artillery. 
 
 
 58 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 348 
 12 
 
 74 
 
 108 
 60 
 60 
 18 
 54 
 8 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 112 
 
 
 112 
 
 42,000 cavalry. 
 1,700 cavalry. 
 
 f 9,000 cavalry. 
 
 ' 9,000 infantry. 
 16,000 cavalry. 
 7,500 cavalry. 
 7,500 cavalry. 
 2,000 cavalry. 
 6,500 cavalry. 
 
 2. Army of the Danube.... 
 
 3. Army of the Black Sea.. 
 
 4. Army ofline of Caucasus, 
 fi Armv of Onral 
 
 9 
 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 24 
 
 6. Army of Orenburg 
 
 7. Army of Astrakan 
 
 8. Army of Siberia 
 
 
 • 3 
 1 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 9. Army of Chinese frontier. 
 10. Army of cities of Siberia. 
 
 1,000 cavalry. 
 24,000 infantry. 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 124 
 
 742 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 216 
 
 8 
 
 224 
 
 f 93,000 cavalry. 
 { 33,000 infantry. 
 
 
 On the Chinese frontier there are also five regiments of Toungouse 
 cavalry. In the Caucasus there are regiments of native irregulars, Mus- 
 sulmen, &c. During the campaigns of 1828 and 1829 there .were with 
 the army of Marshal Paskivitch four regiments of Mussulmen cavalry ; 
 the number has been increased since then. 
 
 RECRUITING, ETC. 
 
 The officers of the army are chiefly supplied by young nobles, who 
 enter the service after having passed, as cadets, through some of the 
 numerous military schools, or else have prepared themselves by serving 
 six months as pi-ivates, two years as sergeants, and then as ensigns in the 
 regiments; and partly by sergeants, who, after twelve years' irreproachable 
 service, have the right to demand an examination for the grade of ensign. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 103 
 
 The ensign is a non-commissioned officer in the line of promotion, and 
 must pass an examination before receiving a commission. 
 
 The officers of the general staff {6tat major) are selected from officers 
 of all arms, who, after having served two years, apply for the corps. 
 They must be recommended by their commanders, then pass an examina- 
 tion before being admitted to the school of the general staff; having 
 spent two years at this school, they undergo a final examination ; if they 
 pass this, they receive vacancies as they occur, serving meanwhile with 
 arms of service different from that to which they originally belonged. 
 
 The non-commissioned officers, musicians, soldiers, veterinaries, master- 
 workmen, &c., are supplied in three ways: first, by conscription; second, 
 from the cantonists; third, by voluntary enlistment. 
 
 For the purposes of the conscription, the European provinces are 
 divided into two parts, the eastern and the western; the line of demar- 
 cation follows very nearly the meridian of Moscow. In time of peace 
 each of these divisions takes turns in furnishing the annual supply of 
 recruits, which is five men out of every 1,000 squls of the division called 
 upon. But in time of war, or whenever the exigencies of the service de- 
 mand it, this ratio is increased, or both divisions are called upon at once. 
 There are certain conditions which exempt from the conscription : for 
 instance, if there is but one male in a family; bein^ the father of three 
 young children; being an orphan or a foundling, &c., &c. In the com- 
 munities called upon, lots are cast; but it is mentioned as a singular in- 
 stance of the workings of chance that the lot is very apt to fall upon the 
 most worthless characters in the community. 
 
 Under the head of conscription it may be mentioned that men guilty 
 of civil offences are frequently condemned to serve in the army : for in- 
 stance, if a coachman carelessly drives over any one in the streets, he is 
 sent forthwith to the army; vagabonds, thieves, gipsies, dissipated men, 
 &c., are not unfrequently condemned to serve. Yet mingled with these 
 worthless characters are many good men : in fact, the latter preponderate, 
 and the influence of rigid discipline soon converts the others at least 
 into good soldiers, if not into good men. Any one designated as a con- 
 script may purchase a substitute, if he- can find one. 
 
 The cantonists are soldiers' children, educated for the army at tJie ex- 
 pense of the State. Every son of a non-commissioned officer or soldier, 
 born after his father enters the service, is necessarily a cantonist. 
 
 At the option of his parents, he may be taken care of in one of two 
 ways : he may remain with them until the age of twenty, the government 
 allowing him clothing and rations, and then enter the army as a private 
 soldier; or he may, at the age of six, be taken charge of by the govern- 
 ment, and is then brought up at one of the establishments maintained for 
 the purpose. 
 
104 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 With regard to the cantonists of the first class, the State assists in their 
 education, which is not so perfect as that of the others; those who are 
 physically unfit for the service are apprenticed to a trade, and finally 
 sent to the military colonies. 
 
 The cantonists of the second class remain at the preparatory establish- 
 ments until the age of 12; they then enter the corps of cantonists, which 
 consists of 25 battalions, 20 squadrons, 5 batteries, 1 regimental school 
 of the guards, 14 artillery division schools, 3 sapper brigade schools, 1 
 Cossack school, and 1 Siberian school. 
 
 At about the age of 17 they leave the corps of cantonists, and enter either 
 the battalions of instruction, where 8 battalions of carbineers, 1 squadron 
 of dragoons, (attached to the model regiment of cavalry,) 3 batteries, and 
 1 battalion of sappers are destined to receive them, or enter the special 
 schools, among which are, 11 schools of the garrison artillery, for edu- 
 cating non-commissioned officers, 3 technical ' schools, for the education 
 of master-workmen in the armories, 3 for master-workmen in the powder- 
 mills, 3 for master-workmen 'in the arsenals, 1 veterinary school, 1 surgical 
 school, 1 school- for accountants, 1 topographical school, 1 school for 
 riding-masters, and 1 for fencing-masters; finally, they may enter the army 
 directly from the corps of cantonists. 
 
 With the means thus provided, the cantonists furnish excellent non- 
 commissioned officers, clerks, musicians, master-workmen, veterinaries, 
 &c., &c. 
 
 This would seem to be the proper place for alluding to the laws with 
 regard to the marriage of officers and men. 
 
 No officer is allowed to marry without permission ; this permission is 
 granted only when either the officer, or the lady whom he is about to 
 marry, possesses a certain amount of property. This amount is difi"erent 
 for different grades, and is intended to be sufficient to enable the officer 
 to support his family in a manner befitting his condition during his life, 
 and to give them a decent competence after his death. The marriage of 
 the soldiers is encouraged, for the reason that the institution of the can- 
 tonists prevents their children from being an encumbrance to the regi- 
 ment and a burden upon the State. 
 
 Wherever it is possible, suites of rooms are appropriated to the married 
 soldiers : more than one family usually living in the same room. 
 
 Voluntary enlistments are comparatively few. To every volunteer who 
 presents himself the government advances a certain bounty, which it 
 receives back again from the first conscript who desires a substitute. The 
 greater part of the bounty is invested for the volunteer, who receives but 
 a small portion of it before the expiration of his enlistment. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 105 
 
 THE MILITARY COLONIES. 
 Those for the cavalry and horse artillery are in the south of Russia. 
 
 (a) The Ukraine colony, in the government of CharkoflF : here are the 
 2d reserve cavalry corps, the 6th division of light cavalry, and 6th 
 brigade of horse artillery. 
 
 (b) Colony of South Russia, in the government of Cherson : 1st reserve 
 cavah'y corps. 
 
 (c) Colony of the Boug, in the government of Podolia : 4th division 
 of light cavalry, and 4th brigade of horse artillery. 
 
 (^d) Colony of the Lower Boug, in the government of Cherson : 6th 
 division of light cavalry, and 5th brigade of horse artillery. 
 
 The reserve light cavalry division, and the reserve batteries of the 
 horse artillery belonging to the infantry corps, are also in these colonies. 
 
 The arrangement of the colonies is as follows : one-half the ground is 
 reserved for the support of the troops, and is cultivated by the colonists •, 
 the other half is divided among the colonists, each family having 240 
 acres, one plough, and a house. From 40 to 50 houses form a platoon, 
 180 to 190 a squadron, or village, and frofti 6 to 10 squadrons a regi- 
 ment. 
 
 The officers preserve military and civil order among the colonists. 
 
 Each house is required to feed and lodge a soldier, without his horse, 
 the soldier assisting his host jn his work. The colonist is exempt from 
 all taxes, military liabilities, &c. The possession passes down to the 
 eldest son, and renders him exempt from military duties, while the other 
 sons become cantonists, like soldiers' children, and ^are eventually taken 
 into the regiment. 
 
 In the colonies every married soldier has a separate house. In every 
 village there are stables, riding-houses, hospitals, arsenals, &c. 
 
 The infantry colonies, near Novgorod, are no longer true colonies ; the 
 system has been abandoned there, and at present certain troops are can- 
 toned there, under no peculiar regulations. 
 
 UNIFORM. 
 
 The predominant color of the Russian uniform is dark green. A frock- 
 coat is worn by all grades, and all arms of service ; it is green, except for 
 certain portions of the cavalry. 
 
 Boots are worn by all arms ; they are habitually inside the pants, except 
 for the cuirassiers, who, in full dress, wear the jack boot; the infantry, 
 however, on the march, tuck the pants inside of the boot-legs. 
 
 The stock is of green cloth, and fastens by a button; it has in front a. 
 flap, some four or five inches long. 
 
 The distinctions of regiments, divisions, and corps, are found in the- 
 
106 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 buttons, shoulder-straps, and facings of the cuffs and collar; sometimes 
 in the head-covering and the color of the dress. 
 
 On. certain occasions the officers wear sashes ; these are of silver cloth 
 for the guard, and of mohair, colored white, black, and orange, for the 
 rest of the army; the tassel is worn behind the left hip. The sword-knot 
 is of similar material and color. Officers on duty wear the gorget; a 
 crescent-shaped metallic plate, hung around the neck, and restipg on the 
 breast just below the collar. Generals, staff officers, and adjutants of 
 infantry, wear a straight sword. The different grades of officers are dis- 
 tinguished chiefly by the epaulettes, or shoulder-straps. 
 
 Company officers wear epaulettes without bullion, i.e. merely the strap 
 and crescent, the latter of wire instead of solid metal ; a sub-lieutenant 
 has one star on the strap of each epaulette, a lieutenant two stars, a cap- 
 tain three. Field officers have a very short and light bullion; a major 
 has o;ie star, a lieutenant-colonel two, a colonel three. 
 
 General officers wear a heavier bullion, of the pattern known as the 
 box-epaulette; a major-general has one star, a lieutenant-general two, a 
 general three. A fie]d marshal wears a still heavier epaulette, with three 
 stars, and a distinctive gold embroidery on the collar. 
 
 All officers have, in full dress, lace or embroidery on the collar and 
 cuffs, distinctive of rank. 
 
 The aiguillette is worn by staff officers. 
 
 Mounted officers are required to wear their spurs on all occasions. The 
 helmet is worn by all staff officers ; officers serving with regiments wear a 
 head-dress similar to that of their men. 
 
 The forage cap o^ the officers is flat, with a large round top, and a 
 peaked visor. General officers wear scarlet pants, with a gold stripe. 
 
 Other officers wear dark green pants with a red cord, except in those 
 regiments where the men wear pants of some other color than green. 
 
 Infantry officers wear an overcoat of the same cut and color as those of 
 the men. 
 
 Cavalry and staff officers wear a mantle, or loose overcoat, with a long 
 cape, and of a dark gray color. 
 
 Recently a field uniform has been adopted for the officers, in which the 
 epaulettes are replaced by shoulder-straps of a shape similar to those worn 
 by the men. 
 
 • The distinctive mark of a non-commissioned officer is a narrow strip of 
 gold or silver lace (depending upon the color of the button) on the upper 
 and front edges of the collar and on the cuffs. 
 
 Chevrons are worn on one arm, and merely designate length of service. 
 
 The soldiers' clothing is of a very coarse but serviceable material, and is 
 made up in the regiments. 
 
 The same overcoat is worn by all arms of service ; it is of a brownish- 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 107 
 
 gray color; very long, reaching to within three or four inches of the 
 bottom of the pants ; double-breasted, standing collar, without cape ; it is 
 made very loose by means of large plaits in the back, which can be 
 gathered up by a strap and button ; the buttons, shoulder-straps, cuff and 
 collar -facings, are the same as those of the uniform coat. As the men 
 have no blanket in the field, the overcoat is their only protection. It is 
 the habitual and favorite dress of the Russian soldier; on the march the 
 infantry hook up the skirts. 
 
 The forage cap, for all arms, is low, with a flat, round top, and has no 
 visor ; it is of the color of the overcoat, usually has a red cloth band, with 
 the number of the company in yellow cloth, and a red cord around the 
 edge of the top. 
 
 Instead of socks, the men have bandages of linen, which they wrap 
 around the feet. Shirts and drawers are issued. 
 
 INFANTRY. 
 
 Black leather helmet, with a brass spear-head ; thin strap, plated with 
 brass scales ; large imperial eagle of brass on the front. 
 
 Coat, dark green; distinction of regiments and divisions as follows: 
 number of the regiment on the button, which is yellow ; number of the 
 division on the shoulder-straps, which are shaped like those upon the old 
 United States private's undress jacket. Infantry of the line have red 
 facings on their collars ; light infantry, darh green ; both have red cuff- 
 facings." The 1st regiment of each brigade of infantry of the line have 
 red, the 2d white shoulder-straps ; the 1st regiment of each brigade of 
 light infantry have light blue, the 2d dark green shoulder-straps. The 
 rifle battalions have white buttons and shoulder-straps; black facings. 
 Pants of all the infantry, dark green, with a red cord; in summer, white 
 linen. 
 
 CAVALRY. 
 
 Pants, except for the Cossacks and dragoons of the Caucasus, light blue, 
 with a red cord, and re-enforced with black leather. 
 
 Cm iVassj'ers. -^Metallic helmet, white coat, with facings of various colors 
 for the different regiments ; white gauntlets. 
 
 Dragoons. — Helmet like that of the infantry, but with black horsehair 
 plumes ; coat, dark green, yellow buttons, brass shoulder-scales. * 
 
 Lancers. — Czapka, or Polish lancer cap, of same color as the facings; 
 water-proof cover. Coat, sky-blue; facings different for different regi- 
 ments; buttons white. 
 
 Hussars. — Cloth shako, nearly cylindrical, but a little larger at the top 
 than at bottom; visor sloping and peaked; hair hackle; cap cord; water- 
 proof cover.. Coats of various .colors, trimmed with bright cord; shoulder- 
 
108 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 knot of cord of same color as tlie trimmings. In full dress, the pelisse is 
 worn. • 
 
 In the cavalry, the number of the regiment, &c., is indicated in a 
 manner similar to that pursued in the infantry. 
 
 All officers of cavalry wear a pistol cartridge-box, suspended by a 
 shoulder-belt ; it is richly decorated with metal. 
 
 Cossacks of the guard. — Pants, dark blue, with a red stripe ; coat, dark 
 blue ; no buttons ; fastens by hooks ; worsted epaulettes, without bullion. 
 Cylindrical fur shako, without visor; double pompon on the left side; 
 cloth bag hanging down on the right side ; water-proof cover. 
 
 All the head-dresses heretofore mentioned have on the front a brass ' 
 imperial eagle, 6f inches high and 6 J inches broad; on this is the num- 
 ber of the regiment. 
 
 Dragoons of the Cav^asus. — Light gray pants; dark gray coat, cut 
 like that of the Cossacks of the guard. 
 
 Hat, turbari-shaped, with a crown of cloth, and a broad thick band of 
 lamb's wool. 
 
 The Cossacks of the line of the Caucasus, most of the other Cossacks, 
 and, on service, most of the regular troops serving in the Caucasus, wear 
 the hat described for the dragoons of the Caucasus. 
 
 The dress of the Cossacks is loose and easy; generally of dark 
 colors. 
 
 The Mussulmen troops wear the high, pointed Persian cap of lamb's 
 wool; their dress is cut in the Persian style, and is generally of very 
 bright colors, — each man selecting those colors which suit his fancy. 
 
 Artillery. — Dragoon helmet; coat dark green, yellow buttons, black 
 facings, red shoulder-straps. Horse artillery have brass shoulder-scales, 
 , like the dragoonSj Cossack artillery wear the Cossack dress. 
 
 Sappers. — Same uniform as the foot artillery, except that the buttons 
 are white and the belts black. 
 
 Gendarmes. — Dragoon helmet; light blue, coat and pants; white but- 
 tons ; white gauntlets. 
 
 ,The train. — Gray uniform, with blue facings; red shoulder-straps; 
 white buttons and belts. Officers' servants wear the uniform of the train. 
 
 INSPECTIONS. 
 
 Independently of special inspections by staff officers, every regiment i^ 
 inspected once a month by its colonel, as often by the general of brigade, 
 3 or 4 times a year by the general of division, and once each year by the 
 general commanding the army corps. 
 
 At the inspections by the general officers, after the inspection under 
 arms, the men are .assembled without the officers, and are then asked 
 whether they have any complaints to make. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 109 
 
 The aides of the emperor, of the minister of war, &c., are frequently 
 
 sent to make unexpected inspections of distant establishments. 
 
 t 
 
 QUARTERS. 
 
 They are comfortable, and kept in good order. 
 
 The men have wooden or iron bunks; single iron bunks are being 
 generally introduced. Each man is provided with a straw mattress and 
 pillow, and one or more blankets, according to the season ; the bedding 
 belongs to the barracks, and not to the men, so that none of it accom- 
 panies the men when they change quarters. In the quarters of bands, &c., 
 are tables and chairs. 
 
 The wooden bunks are provided with dra^^ers ; there is a shelf and rack 
 over the head of each bed ; the arms in racks along the walls. In quar- 
 ters, there are always sergeants and privates of the day on duty, with side- 
 arms. Some of- the quarters, especially in new barracks for the special 
 arms, have separate mess-rooms. 
 
 In the new barracks, and in some of the old, arrangements for the 
 ablutions of the men are provided in the building. 
 
 The officers' quarters are generally good, and are, to a certain extent, 
 provided with furniture by the government. 
 
 The cavalry quarters are sometimes over the stables. 
 
 TENTS. 
 
 The annexed sketch represents 
 a vertical section through the 
 «entre of a tent; they are square, 
 with a pyramidal roof. They are 
 supported by a centre pole, and a 
 short po\e at each angle of the 
 roof. When the arms are taken 
 inside the tent, they are tied 
 around the centre pole. 
 
 In permanent camps the men have a plank banquette bed, and usually 
 dig a cellar 3' deep, banking up around the tent with the earth thus 
 obtained. 
 
 A tent is pitched by 5 men in 3 minutes. The allowance of tents is : 
 1 for each field officer, 1 for every two company officers, 1 for every 15 
 non-commissioned officers and privates, whether of infantry or cavalry. 
 
 HOSPITALS. 
 
 As these will be fully considered in the report of another member of 
 the commission, it will be sufficient to record he7e my opinion that the 
 
110 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 best Russian military hospitals are, for comfort, convenience, and clean- 
 liness, the model hospitals of the world. 
 
 In all of them the utmost order and cleanliness are preserved, and the 
 greatest attention is paid to the sick. 
 
 The command, control of the police, and responsibility, are always vested 
 in an ofl&cer of the line, who has other officers as assistants; the surgeons 
 have merely to prescribe, order the diet, &c., but have not the slightest 
 military authority or responsibility. I would call attention to this system 
 as being eminently worthy of consideration, in the event of the establish- 
 ment of large temporary hospitals during a war, or any concentration of 
 a large number of troops. 
 
 THE ARTEL. 
 
 This is a species of company fund, belonging in common to all the non- 
 commissioned officers and men of the company. It is formed by certain 
 regular stoppages of pay, extra allowances, and the produte of extra labor 
 by the men, whether for civilians, as sap guards, &c., or otherwise. These 
 extra labors are encouraged wherever circumstances permit, and the whole 
 product is turned into the artel. By means of this fund the men are 
 provided with vegetables, salt, extra meat, oatmeal, cleaning-utensils, 
 wagons and horses for the transportation of the company provisions, &c. 
 
 It is only when the soldier leaves the service that he receives his share 
 of the fund ; this individual share is stated to amount sometimes to more 
 than $100. 
 
 The artel is divided into two parts, or funds : one serving to provide 
 for the current wants of the men, the pther to pay them their share upon 
 leaving. 
 
 The management and application of the artel are intrusted to sergeants 
 and privates elected by the company. 
 
 One of these men makes the daily purchases for the mess, &c.; being 
 always accompani*ed and watched by two others, whose duty it is to protect 
 the interests of the company. 
 
 A monthly report is made to the captain. 
 
 RATIONS. 
 
 The daily ration consists of 2f pounds of bread, half a pound of fresh 
 meat, salt, oatmeal, cabbage, and brandy. The bread, the brandy, and 
 one-half the meat, are furnished by the government, that is to say, always 
 issued in kind; the. rest of the ration is purchased by means of the artel; 
 the daily sum allowed to the artel for this purpose varies with circum- 
 stances. 
 
 The Russian soldier has, habitually, three meals per day : 1 Breakfast, 
 simply of bread and salt, with a little brandy. 2. Dinner, at 11 o'clock, 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. HI 
 
 of bread and soup, made of meat, cabbage, &c. 3. Supper, at 4 o'clock, 
 of bread and soup, or oatmeal porridge. The bread is brown ; both it and 
 the soup are coarse and acid, but they are nutritious and plentiful; the 
 acidity is agreeable to the taste of the Russian. 
 
 In permanent camps, and in barracks, the cooking is by company, in 
 large boilers. The baking is done by men detailed permanently. 
 
 In barracks the men usually eat in their own rooms, but they some- 
 times have mess-rooms ; in permanent camps messing-places are provided 
 in rear of the kitchens,. the seats and table being sodded banks of earth, 
 with a roof of boughs or thatching. 
 
 Each man has a wooden spoon, and there is a soup-bowl for every 6 
 men, out of which they eat in common. 
 
 No portable ovens are carried on the march. 
 
 Where it is possible, bakers are sent on two days in advance to bake 
 in the ordinary ovens of the villages ; if this cannot be done, they either 
 carry flour and bake it in temporary ovens of wattling, covered with 
 clay, or else issue biscuit. 
 
 In the field a small copper kettle, without cover, is carried for every 
 three men. 
 
 PAY. 
 
 The circumstances in which the Russian troops are placed are so totally 
 different from those of our own army as to render entirely useless any 
 attempt at a comparison of the respective amounts of pay. 
 
 It will be sufficient to state that the pay of the Russian army is very 
 low, and that the principle is recognized of increasing the pay, of both 
 officers and men, in proportion to the importance, difficulty, and danger 
 of the service performed. 
 
 The captains of squadrons, companies, &c., are responsible for the 
 arms, accoutrements, spare clothing, &c., of their commands. 
 
 As the militia was a peculiar body, and not a part of the regular organ- 
 ization, but a new feature called forth by the exigencies of the late war, 
 it is deemed best not to include it in the foregoing general description of 
 the military establishment. 
 
 It will be described in the chapter on the Russian infantry, which 
 seems to be its appropriate place. 
 
112 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
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 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
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116 THE ABMIES OP EUROPE. 
 
 CHAPTEK II. 
 
 THE INSTETJCTION AND TACTICS OF CAVALRY. 
 
 The Russian cavalry tactics comprise the following schools, or divi- 
 sions of instruction : 1. The school of the recruit, divided into : a. 
 .Manage, or individual equitation; h. Drill in single rank; c. Sabre, 
 lance, carbine, and pistol exercise., 2, The school of the platoon. 3. 
 School of the squadron. 4. School of the regiment. 5. Evolutions of 
 the line. As supplements to these, are the regulations for service in 
 garrison and in the field ; the latter being divided into regulations for 
 field service during peace, and those for time of war. 
 
 It is proposed to give in this, chapter sufficiently copious extracts from 
 the tactics to explain the system of instruction and its peculiarities. The 
 sabre exercise is presented in full. The subjects 2ifQ presented in the 
 order in which they occur in the tactics ; those portions being omitted 
 which are neither new nor interesting. Although generally condensing 
 the text, I have endeavored to preserve the spirit and language of the 
 original Russian. 
 
 I. SCHOOL OF THE RECRUIT. 
 
 The instruction of the recruits is presumed to require nine months ; 
 immediately after joining the regiment or depot, they are placed under 
 the charge of monitors, selected from among the most steady and in- 
 telligent old soldiers. 
 
 \st month. The recruits are taught certain religious duties and the 
 obligations of their new vocation. The monitors impress upon them the 
 advantages of irreproachable conduct, and the consequences of negligence, 
 evil disposition, and crime. They are made acquainted with all parts of 
 a soldier's uniform, how to wear, and keep it in order. 
 
 2c? month. They are taught how to clean a horse ; are made acquainted 
 with the names, object, and manner of using the different parts of the 
 horse equipment ; are taught how to place the saddle, (without the pack,) 
 first on a wooden horse, afterwards on the animal itself; to clean their 
 arms and take them to pieces ; and they commence chanting the signals. 
 
 ^d month. They are taught the first principles of dismounted drill, 
 beginning with the facings and marching ; to load without the motions ; 
 the principles of the skirmish drill, and of duty at the advanced posts, 
 whether on foot or mounted, according to the following system : — 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 117 
 
 1. The instruction commences with the signals and the movements of 
 skirmishers without arms ; when they have learned to load without the 
 motions, their fire-arms are given to them when learning the duties of 
 advanced posts. 
 
 2. The most simple signals, such as "common time," "right turn," 
 &c., are employed at first, afterwards passing to the more difficult. 
 
 3. In all the lessons the proper progression is observed, never advancing 
 to any new lesson until all that precedes is comprehended. 
 
 4. After a certain amount of preliminary instruction, the recruits are 
 divided into classes, or squads, according to their progress. 
 
 5. In the more advanced squads, the recruits will have their positions 
 in the ranks changed, that they may learn the duties of all positions. 
 
 6. To complete the instruction in the duties of advanced posts, squads 
 will he placed in front of each other, that the men may understand the 
 position of the enemy and the manner of applying what they have been 
 taught. 
 
 4ith month. The instruction of the preceding month is continued by 
 drilling the recruits, on foot, at the rank and platoon drill for mounted 
 troops. At the beginning of this month they are taught the first prin- 
 ciples of equitation with the snaffle, each man always having the same 
 quiet, well-broken horse. The men are not required to maintain a correct 
 seat in the first lessons, and the observation of the principles is insisted 
 upon only when they can sit the horse without fear of falling off, and have 
 acquired a certain amount of self-confidence. 
 
 6th month. Equitation with the snaffle is continued. The men are 
 taught the facings and marching on foot with arms ; the use of arms on 
 foot, beginning with the sabre, then passing to the fire-arms, and finally 
 to the lance — for troops armed with that weapon. 
 
 Qth month. The instruction in taking apart and putting together the 
 fire-arms is completed. Equitation with the curb, without arms, is com- 
 menced by all sufficiently instructed in riding with the snaffle. They 
 are at the same time taught the manner of bitting a horse, packing the 
 valise and cartridge-box, and saddling up with the complete pack. 
 
 1th, month. Equitation with the curb, with arms. 
 
 8^^ month. Full instruction in the rank, platoon, and skirmish drills, 
 with arms and mounted. 
 
 ^th month. Use of all arms, mounted. 
 
 After this month the recruit is occupied in perfecting himself in the 
 instruction prescribed for the preceding months. 4 
 
 The progression herein prescribed is to be carefully observed; great 
 care is to be taken not to exact too great precision at first, in order not to 
 disgust the recruits. Each drill should last not longer than from one 
 hour to one hour and a half. Great care must be exercised in the choice 
 
118 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 of instructors, who should unite patience with knowledge, and possess the 
 faculty of giving clear explanations. 
 
 During the first six months the recruits are to be instructed at least 
 twice a week by the chaplain in their religious duties, such as the Lord's 
 Prayer, the Ten Commandments, the Apostles' Creed, the Psalms, &c. 
 In detached squadrons the religious instruction is given by the sergeants. 
 
 MANEGE RIDING. 
 
 This should be limited to the actual necessities of the service, and by 
 the natural capacity of the horse ; therefore more is required of the non- 
 commissioned officers than of the privates, because the former have the 
 best riding-horses. The non-commissioned officers are taught — 
 
 1. The walk. 
 
 2. The trot : (a) the common trot, and (b) the trot out. 
 
 3. The gallop, on either foot. 
 
 4. The charge. 
 
 5. To rein back. 
 
 6. The right and left turn, right about and left about turn, in place. 
 
 7. The passage to the right and left. 
 
 8. The turns and abouts, at all gaits; at a gallop, both true and false 
 
 9. To ride in circle to right and left, at all gaits. 
 
 10. To circle back to rear on same track, at all gaits ; at a gallop, both 
 true and false. 
 
 11. To change direction across the riding-hall, at all gaits. 
 
 12. To change foot when galloping on a straight line. 
 
 13. To leap ditches and fences. 
 
 The privates are taught every thing prescribed above, with the following 
 exceptions : they are not required to change foot at a gallop, nor to gallop 
 false ; it is only at a walk and trot that they ride in circle, circle back to 
 rear on the same track, and change direction in the riding-hall. Never- 
 theless, the privates having the best horses should receive the instruction 
 prescribed for the non-commissioned officers, as far as the strength and 
 fitness of the horses and the aptness and intelligence of the men will 
 permit. Commanders of troops should never require of the men more 
 than is prescribed in these instructions, and should never lose sight of 
 the preservation of their horses ; for a horse in good order, although less 
 perfectly broken to the rules of manage riding, is preferable to one per- 
 fectly instructed in all these rules, but broken down. 
 
 The recruits are parried through the course indicated above, at first 
 with the snaffle, afterwards with the curb. The squads are made as small 
 as the available number of instructors will permit, and the movements in 
 the riding-hall are few in number and simple in kind, being limited to 
 those actually necessary for the purpose in view. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 119 
 
 THE GAITS. 
 
 There are three kinds of gaits : the walk, trot, and gallop. 
 
 The trot is of two kinds : (a) the common trot, (6) the trot out. 
 
 The charge is the acceleration of the gallop to the utmost power of the 
 horse. 
 
 At a walk the horse travels about 3i miles per hour ; at the common 
 trot, 6f ; at the trot out, 9J; at the gallop, 8. 
 
 EQUITATION. 
 
 The instructor must never allow the recruit to pass from one lesson to 
 another until he fully understands and can execute all that precedes. 
 When the recruit has learned how to arrange his equipment, to take care 
 of a horse, to saddle and bridle him, he takes his first lessons in riding, 
 on a quiet, well-broken horse. The first lessons are given with the snaffle; 
 the man is to be in undress uniform, without arms or accoutrements, the 
 horse without schabraque, but with a surcingle ; in the first lessons with 
 the curb the recruit is without arms or accoutrements, then with both, and 
 finally with the schabraque and full pack. In the beginning the recruit 
 is required to ride with stirrups somewhat shorter than the proper length, 
 that he may acquire confidence and firmness in his seat, without which 
 the fear of falling from his horse renders him inattentive to the explana- 
 tions of the instructor. In the course of time, as he progresses, the 
 stirrups are lengthened, and finally he is required to ride without them, 
 until he acquires a perfectly firm seat; then he is again obliged to ride 
 with stirrups an inch too long, and is thus, in the course of several 
 lessons, brought by degrees to the prescribed length. 
 
 It is necessary to explain to the recruit that he should not press hard 
 upon the stirrups, or thrust them forward, but allow them to hang ver- 
 tically ; also, that the bottom of the stirrup should never be under the 
 hollow of the foot, but that the first joint of the great toe should be 
 against the inner side of the stirrup ; in other words, the ball of the foot 
 rests on the stirrup. Spurs are given to the recruit when he is fully con- 
 firmed in his seat, with and without stirrups. 
 
 THE SEAT. 
 
 The body of the rider is divided into three parts, of which two are 
 mova"ble and one immovable : one of the first consists of all the upper 
 part of the body, down to the waist, the other of the lower part of the 
 legs, from the knee down; the immovable portion is from the waist 
 to the knees. (Fig. 5.) The cavalry soldier should sit square on the 
 middle of the saddle, the upper part of the body presenting a free and 
 unconstrained appearance, the chest not much thrown forward, the ribs 
 
120 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 resting freely on the hips, the waist and loins not stiffened, and thus 
 not exposed to tension or effort from the motions of the horse ; the upper 
 part of the body should lean slightly to the rear, rather than forward ; 
 the thighs, inclining a little forward, lie flat and firmly on the saddle, 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 covering the surcingle, of which only a small part, behind the knee, 
 should be seen 3 the lower part of the leg, hanging vertically from the 
 knees, touches the horse, but without the slightest pressure ; the toes are 
 pointed up, without constraint, and on the same line with the knees, for, 
 if the toes are turned outward, it not only causes the horse to be unneces- 
 sarily pricked by the spurs, (especially when marching in line,) but the 
 firmness of the seat is lost 3 the heels should be | (seven-eighths) of an 
 inch below the toes, and the stirrups so adjusted that, when the rider 
 raises himself on them, there may be the breadth of four fingers between 
 the crotch and the saddle ; to make this adjustment, when the recruit 
 has acquired a firm and correct seat, he should, without changing that 
 seat, push the bottom of the stirrup to the hollow of the foot, and then, 
 with the foot horizontal, feel a slight support from the stirrup ; when 
 this is accomplished, he replaces the foot properly in the stirrup, and the 
 heel will then be 1 of an inch below the toes. 
 
 To give the recruit a correct seat, the instructor, having caused him to 
 mount, seizes the lower part of his leg, and stretches it straight towards 
 the fore-quarters of the horse, so as- to bring the buttocks of the rider 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 121 
 
 square on the saddle -, then, resting one hand on the man's knee, he 
 seizes the lower part of the leg with the other, and carries back the 
 thigh and knee so as to bring the crotch square on the saddle, the thighs 
 covering the surcingle, the lower part of the leg, from the knee down, 
 also over the surcingle, and sees that the recruit does not sit too much 
 on his crotch, but has his buttocks well under him. He then explains to 
 the recruit that the firmness of the seat consists in this : that the rider 
 grasps the horse with his legs ; 
 
 that both thighs press equally ^^S- 6. 
 
 upon the saddle, in conformity 
 with the movements of the body; 
 and that the general movements 
 of the body and thighs must 
 conform to those of the horse. 
 To spare the horses, and explain 
 more readily to the recruit the 
 principles of the seat, he should 
 at first sit upon a wooden horse, 
 on which a saddle is secured, 
 (Fig. 6;) on this he should 
 learn to carry the thighs back, 
 without leaning the body for- 
 ward; at the same time he is 
 taught how to hold the feet, 
 without allowing him to place them in the stirrups, for this is one of the 
 most essential conditions for a good seat. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Position of the hands and arms when riding' with the maffle. 
 Both arms free, and without the slightest stiffness in the shoulders ; 
 the elbows bent; the upper part of the arms a little forward of the ver- 
 
122 . THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 tical; the forearms resting against the sides, without pressure; both 
 hands raised a little above the elbows, but not higher than the eyes of 
 the horse ; the hands five or six fingers* breadth apart, tlie outer hand 
 higher than the inner ; the units on the prolongation of the forearms ; 
 the thumbs on top, and not turned inwards ; the manner of holding the 
 reins is shown in Figs. 7 and 8. 
 
 Position of the hands and arms when riding with the curb. — (Fig. 5.) 
 
 The left arm free, and without the slightest stiffness ; the elbow bent, 
 and on the vertical line from the shoulder to the hip; the forearm 
 touches the side, without pressure; the hand in the prolongation of the 
 forearm, and two or three fingers' breadth above the pommel ; the curb- 
 reins pass upward through the hand, and over the forefinger, covered by 
 all the four fingers, the nails opposite the bottom of the jacket, and in 
 such a position that the rider can see the little-finger nail by casting his 
 eyes on the hand ; the snaffle-reins pass over the forefinger, and down- 
 wards through the hand, lying flat in the hollow of the hand ; the thumb 
 presses on top of the reins ; the right hand rests, with the knuckles, on 
 the seam of the pants, on the right thigh, seven inches below the hip, 
 the fist closed, except the thumb, which lies on the seam, pointing 
 upwards ; the elbow on the line of the shoulders. 
 
 For the lessons with the snaffle, the horse is conducted to the ground 
 without passing the reins over his head, they are passed over just before 
 placing the left foot in the stirrup ; in the lessons with the curb, the 
 horse is conducted to the ground with the reins already passed over the 
 neck ; in both cases the reins are held in the left hand while mounting. 
 
 In the first lessons with the curb, the curb-chain is hooked on the 
 ground, under the direction of the instructor; it is of such a length that 
 two fingers may be laid flat between it and the chin. 
 
 All individual turns and abouts, from a halt, are made by turning the 
 horse on his hind-legs as a pivot ; in wheels by platoon, or by squadron, 
 on a fixed pivot, the pivot-man turns in this manner. Turns on a march 
 are made on an arc with a radius of three yards. 
 
 THE DRILL IN SINGLE RANK. 
 This is commenced when the men are well instructed in the individual 
 riding drill ; from six to fifteen men are formed in one rank, with a 
 non-commissioned officer or old soldier on each flank. The recruits first 
 execute this drill on foot, and are not required to execute it on horseback 
 until they understand its principles fully. When mounted, the men are 
 at first placed two yards apart, and as they progress the files are closed 
 in, until they touch stirrups, towards the guide. The instruction is 
 commenced in open order, to accustom each man to observe the rules for 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. • 123 
 
 moving straight forward, to oblige him to conduct his horse independ- 
 ently of his neighbor, and to force him to pay more attention; for, in 
 close order, the men, by blindly following the movements of their com- 
 rades, might execute many movements satisfactorily without understand- 
 ing them, and it would be impossible for the instructor to ascertain the 
 proficiency and progress of each man. Every movement should be 
 executed first at a walk, afterwards at the other gaits. The recruits 
 should be mixed with old soldiers in the ranks, to prevent mistakes from 
 extending through the whole rank ; but the instructor must watch care- 
 fully that the old soldiers do not prompt the recruits. 
 
 At the commencement of every drill in single rank, the recruits should 
 be required to execute some of the lessons of the individual drill ; so that 
 correctness of riding, and facility of executing the movements in close 
 order, may always be preserved. 
 
 The single rank drill comprises all the movements of the platoon drill 
 that can be executed in one rank. 
 
 THE USE OF THE SABRE. 
 
 This is one of the most important elements in the instruction of the 
 cavalry soldier; for the sabre is the arm common to all cavalry. 
 
 The recruit should go through the whole exercise not less than once a 
 week. 
 
 The rules for the use of the sabre are divided into two parts : (a) the 
 manual ; (6) the sabre exercise. 
 
 The use of the sabre is taught by means of commands and numbers. 
 The commands of execution are called timesy and these times are sub- 
 divided into particular movements called motions. At the commence- 
 ment of the instruction, the instructor calls the numbers and executes 
 the motions himself; when the recruit becomes accustomed to the use of 
 the weapon, he is obliged to execute the motions and call the numbers 
 simultaneously with the instructor; after that, the recruit calls the num- 
 bers and executes the motions for himself; finally, he executes the 
 motions without calling the numbers. 
 
 The use of the sabre is first taught to single men on foot, then by 
 uniting several men, and finally on horseback. 
 
 THE SABRE MANUAL. 
 
 This is so similar to that in use in the United States service as to ren- 
 der it unnecessary to describe it in this report, with the exception of two 
 peculiarities, viz.: when the sabre is at a carry, both the little finger and 
 that next to it are outside of the gripe ; there is a position of reversed 
 sabre, for funerals, as follows : the blade passed between the left arm and 
 the body, point to the rear, edge to the left, the flat of the blade resting 
 
124 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 on the left forearm, close to the guard, the gripe held lightly by the 
 right hand, the blade horizontal. 
 
 THE SABRE EXERCISE. 
 
 This is divided into two parts, the first in open order ^ the second in 
 close order. The first part is subdivided into : (a) the sabre exercise for 
 the attack ; (6) thatybr the retreat. 
 
 I. THE SABRE EXERCISE IN OPEN ORDER. 
 
 A. In the attack. 
 
 The instruction should be at first given to single men, or small squads, 
 on foot ; afterwards, in the same manner, mounted ; first at a halt, then 
 in motion — i.e. first at a walk, then at a trot, gallop, and charge. 
 
 The use of the sabre on foot forms no part of the duty of a cavalry 
 soldier, and is given only as preparatory to its use on horseback, which is 
 its proper object. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Guard. 
 
 In giving the instruction, it should be explained that the following 
 movements constitute the basis of the system : 1, the moulinets ; 2, one 
 thrust; 3, three cuts; 4, four parries; all the other movements given are 
 merely combinations or modifications of these. 
 
 In the motions of the sabre, it is, as a general rule, grasped by the 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 125 
 
 right hand, the four fingers encircling the gripe, the thumb on the oppo- 
 site side, resting on the forefinger, (fig. 9 ;) but if the soldier is to thrust, 
 he places the thumb on the back of the gripe, the end of the thumb 
 against the guard. 
 
 All the motions are made from the position of " guard." 
 The recruit being at a carry, to cause him to assume the position of 
 guard, the instructor commands : 
 
 GUARD. — 1 time. 
 
 (Fig. 10.) Carry the right hand about 10 inches in front of the right 
 hip, the blade in an oblique position, the point a little raised, the edge 
 upwards, the back of the blade resting in the hollow of the left arm, as 
 near the body as possible. In this position the right hand should be 
 without the slightest efibrt or constraint, and should not feel the weight 
 of the sabre, which is supported by the left arm. 
 
 (Fig. 11.) In the instruction on foot it is necessary to give the recruit 
 a position corresponding to that on horseback; therefore, at the command, 
 guard, he carries his right foot 18 inches from the left, the heels on the 
 same line, the weight of the body supported equally on both legs, which 
 are a little bent at the knees ; at the same time he moves his left forearm 
 and hand to the front, placing them as if holding the reins when mounted, 
 and holds the right hand and sabre as already prescribed. This position, 
 once taken, is maintained during the whole lesson. 
 
 The recruit returns to a carry, as in the United States sabre exercise, 
 except that when at a carry both the little finger and that next to it are 
 outside of the gripe. 
 
 THE MOULINETS. 
 
 The lessons in the sabre exercise are commenced with the moulinets, 
 for the following reasons : 1, they accustom the men to the circular move- 
 ments of the edge of the sabre, necessary in all the motions ; 2, they give 
 to the hand the strength and address necessary for handling the sabre ; 
 3, they accustom the horses to the sabre. 
 
 PREPARE TO MOULINET. — 1 time. 
 
 (Fig. 12.) At this command, the recruit, being at guard, extends the 
 right arm to its full length, at the same time raising it so as to bring 
 the hand in front of the centre of the head, as high as the eyes, point 
 to the front, edge upwards, blade horizontal, and perpendicular to the 
 breast. 
 
 All the moulinets are made from the position just described, and upon 
 their completion the position of guard is resumed. 
 
 The moulinets are made to the left and to the right : i.e. the circular 
 
126 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 movement of the sabre passes on the left or on the right side of the 
 
 horse's neck. 
 
 There are two moulinets : 
 the first passes downwards 
 along the body ; the second 
 passes upwards along the 
 body. 
 
 The recruit being in the 
 position of ^^ prepare to 
 moulinetj' to execute the 
 first moulinet, the instructor 
 commands : 
 
 FIRST MOULINET. 
 
 Make a moulinet to the 
 left, — i.e. on the left side of 
 the horse's neck, — raising 
 the blade with the edge 
 towards .the body, the cir- 
 cular motion passing downwards along the left shoulder ; and after that, 
 make a right moulinet, — i.e. on the right side of the horse's neck, — raising 
 the point, the edge towards the body, and the circular movement passing 
 downwards along the right shoulder ; then another moulinet to the left, 
 then again to the right, and, in the same manner, alternately on each 
 side, until the command, guard, when the position of guard is resumed. 
 The recruit being in the position of ^^ prepare to raoulinet^^ to cause him 
 to execute the second mouUnetj the instructor commands : 
 
 SECOND MOULINET. 
 
 Make a moulinet to the right, turning the wrist a little outwards, 
 lowering the point, edge from the body, and passing the blade upwards, 
 along the right shoulder ; then make a similar moulinet to the left ; and 
 continue in the same manner, alternately on each side, until the command, 
 guard. 
 
 In the execution of the moulinets neither the elbow nor shoulder should 
 bend, but the movement is to be effected by the hand and wrist alone; 
 the sabre should pass as far as possible from the horse's head, to avoid 
 striking him, and as near as possible to the man's shoulder; the left arm 
 is not moved. 
 
 At the commencement the instructor requires the recruit to count one 
 at the end of each left moulinet, two at the end of each right moulinet, 
 or the reverse ; finally requiring him to accelerate the motion of the sabre 
 to the utmost. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 127 
 
 THE BLOWS. 
 
 Blows are of two kinds, thrusts and cuts. 
 
 They may be given in four directions : 1. To the right front j i.e. 
 against an antagonist obliquely in front of the right shoulder; 2. To the 
 left front; 3. To the right; 4. To the left. 
 
 The thrusts and cuts should always be given together, i.e. first a thrust 
 and then a cut. After each blow the position of guard is resumed. 
 
 For the blow to the right front, the instructor commands : 
 
 RIGHT FRONT THRUST AND CUT. — 1 tiTne, 4 motions. 
 Fig. 13. Right front thrust. Fig. 14. 
 
 1. At the last part of the command, which is, cut, turn the eyes to the 
 right front, raise the hand to the height of the right ear, and seven inches 
 from it, the shoulder and elbow thrown well back, the thumb on the back 
 of the gripe, point falling a little below the horizontal, and directed to the 
 right front, edge upwards. (Fig. 13.) 
 
 2. Extend the arm rapidly to its full length, thrusting to the right 
 front, i.e. somewhat to the right of the horse's right ear; at the end of 
 the thrust the right arm and the sabre are horizontal ; the point, if any 
 thing, a little below the horizontal. (Fig. 14.) 
 
 3. Without moving the arm, replace the thumb on the side of the 
 gripe, turn the hand so as to bring the nails upwards, at the same time 
 carrying the point well to the right ; then, by a turn of the wrist, cut 
 horizontally from right to left. 
 
 4. Turn the nails downwards, and by a turn of the wrist cut hori- 
 zontally from left to right. At once resume the position of guard. 
 
 LEFT FRONT THRUST AND CUT. 1 time, 4 motions. 
 
 (Figs. 15 and 16.) Executed as the preceding blow, with the following 
 differences : in the 1st motion the arm is raised as prescribed for the blow 
 
128 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 to the right front, but the point and eyes are directed to the left front; 
 in the 2d motion, thrust to the left front, i.e. somewhat to the left of the 
 Fig. 15. Left front thrust. Fig. 16. 
 
 horse's left ear ; the 3d and 4th motions, as in the blow to the right front, 
 but given on the left side of the horse's head. 
 
 RIGHT THRUST AND CUT. — 1 timej 4 motions. 
 Fig. 17. Right thrust. Fig. 18. 
 
 (Figs. 17 and 18.) 1. At the last part of the command, which is, cut^ 
 half face to the right in the saddle, at the same time place the arm and 
 sabre in the position of first motion of right front blow, except that the 
 eyes and point are directed tO the right. 
 
 2. Thrust to the right, in a direction as nearly as possible perpendicular 
 to the side of the horse. 
 
 3 and 4. As in the blow to the right front, except that the cuts are 
 made in a direction to the right of the horse, and that, on resuming the 
 guard, the recruit will sit straight in the saddle. 
 
 LEFT THRUST AND CUT. — 1 time, 4 motions. 
 
 Executed as the preceding blow, with the difference that it is made on 
 the left side of the horse ; therefore, in the first motion the recruit makes 
 
THE RUSSIAN A»MY. 
 
 129 
 
 a half face to the lefk in his saddle, and directs his eyes and point to the 
 left, in a direction perpendicular to his horse ; in the third and fourth 
 motions he gives the horizontal cuts, as in the last blow, but on the left, 
 and finally returns to the guard, resuming his seat square in the saddle. 
 
 THE PARRIES. 
 
 The parries are all made from the position of guard. After every 
 parry the position of guard is at once resumed, unless it is to be followed 
 at once by a cut or thrust. 
 
 There are four parries : (a) that for the right side, or the right parry; 
 (b) that for the left side, or left parry; (c) that for the head, or head 
 parry; (c?) that for the left shoulder and rear, or left rear parry. 
 
 RIGHT PARRY. — 1 timej 2 motions. 
 
 (Fig. 19.) 1. Grrasp the sabre firmly, extend the arm to the right, the 
 hand moving horizontally, the point at the same time describing a semi- 
 circle upwards, and, with the edge to the right, parry as strongly as pos- 
 sible the blow aimed at the right side. 
 
 2. Resume the position of guard. 
 
 Fig. 19.— Right parry. Fig. 20.— Left parry. 
 
 LEFT PARRY. — 1 time, 2 motions. 
 
 (Fig. 20.) 1. Raise the hand above, and about seven inches in front of, 
 the eyes, the elbow somewhat bent, edge to the left, point downwards, 
 and about fourteen inches outside of the horse's left shoulder, and parry 
 as strongly as possible the blow aimed at the left side. 
 
 2. Return to the position of guard. 
 
 HEAD PARRY. — 1 time, 2 motions. 
 
 (Fig. 21.) 1. Raise the arm quickly to its full length, the hand a little 
 to the right, the sabre a little above the head, edge upwards, blade hori- 
 zontal and parallel to the shoulders. 
 
 2. Resume the guard. 
 
130 THE A JIM IE S OF EUROPE. 
 
 In this parry the sabre should be grasped with the utmost firmness, to 
 prevent its being beaten down. 
 
 Fig. 21. — Head parry. Fig. 22.— Left rear parry. 
 
 LEFT REAR PARRY. — 1 time, 2 motions. 
 
 (Fig. 22.) 1. Turn the head to the left and rear, carry the right hand to 
 the left shoulder, on which rest the back of the blade, the point to the 
 left rear, the edge upwards. 
 
 2. Resume the guard. 
 
 PARRIES AND BLOWS. 
 
 When the recruit is well instructed in the blows and parries separately, 
 he should be taught to combine them, in the following manner : — 
 
 RIGHT PARRY AND CUT. — 1 time, 2 motions. 
 
 1. Parry to the right, as already explained. 
 
 2. Cut once horizontally from right to left, as prescribed in the third 
 motion of the blow to the right front, and resume the guard. 
 
 LEFT PARRY AND CUT. — 1 time, 2 motions. 
 
 1. Parry to the left, as already explained. 
 
 2. Cut once horizontally from right to left, as prescribed in the third 
 motion of the blow to the left front, and resume the guard. 
 
 HEAD PA&RY AND THRUST. — 1 time, 3 motions. 
 
 1. Parry for the head, as already explained. 
 
 2. Place the arm and sabre in the position of the 1st motion of blow 
 to right front. 
 
 3. Thrust to right front, and resume the guard. 
 
 THE BLOWS AGAINST INFANTRY. 
 
 The cavalry soldier, when engaged against infantry, in open order. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 131 
 
 should endeavor to parry the bayonet on his right side, cut to the right 
 and left, and thrust to the right. 
 
 AGAINST INFANTRY — RIGHT PARRY AND CUT. — 1 timej 3 motions. 
 
 (Figs. 23 and 24.) 1. Half face to the right in the saddle, carry the 
 right hand to the right and rear, arm nearly extended, sabre grasped 
 
 Against infantry. — Right parry. 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 jSrmly, hand as high as the head, and over the croup of the horse ; nails 
 outwards, edge to the rear, point upwards, blade vertical. 
 
 2. Lower the point towards the rear, and parry the bayonet with the 
 back of the blade by a rapid circular movement of the sabre and arm, so 
 that, at the end of the movement, the right hand may be in front of the 
 left shoulder as high as the head, and 10 inches from it, the nails towards 
 the breast, point of sabre upwards, edge to the front. 
 
 3. Bear the weight of the body on the right stirrup, bend the body 
 well down to the right, and, by a movement of the whole arm from the 
 shoulder, cut downwards, from the head of the horse towards the croup ) 
 at once resume the guard. 
 
 AGAINST INFANTRY — ^LEFT CUT. — 1 timej 1 motion. 
 
 (Fig. 25.) Half face to the left in the saddle, extend the right arm to 
 its full length, the hand opposite to and above the eyes, edge somewhat 
 to the left, the point a little to the front; then, by a movement of the 
 whole arm from the shoulder, cut circularly downwards, on the left side ; 
 of the horse ; at once resume the guard. 
 
132 * THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 AGAINST INFANTRY — RIGHT AND LEFT CUT. — 1 time, 2 motions. 
 
 1. Half face to the right in the saddle, and take the position described 
 at the end of 2d motion of the "right parry and cut" against infantry, 
 and at once cut against infantry, as prescribed in the 3d motion. 
 
 2. Instead of resuming the guard, at once half €ace to the left, and 
 act as prescribed for the left cut against infantry ; resume the guard. 
 
 Fig. 25. — Against infantry. I Fig. 26. — Against infantry. 
 
 — Left cut n — Right thrust. 
 
 AGAINST INFANTRY — BRIGHT CUT AND THRUST. — 1 time, 2 motions. 
 
 (Fig. 26.) 1. Half face to the right in the saddle, and act as directed 
 in the first motion of the preceding blow. 
 
 2. Bear the weight on the right stirrup, bend well down to the right, 
 extend the right arm well downwards, and, with the back of the sabre 
 upwards, thrust forward as nearly horizontally as possible; at once resume 
 the guard. 
 
 In these cuts the recruit should sit firmly in the saddle, and make the 
 half faces to the right and left quickly, easily, and without constraint. 
 
 B. The sabre exercise for the retreat. 
 
 In retreat the cavalry soldier should cut his pursuer to the right rear. 
 
 RIGHT REAR CUT. — 1 time, 1 motion. 
 
 (Fig. 27.) Half face to the right in the saddle, cast the eyes well to 
 the right rear, raise the right arm so as to bring the hand opposite to and 
 at the height of the left shoulder, edge to the front, point upwards, cut 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 133 
 
 horizontally to the rear by a movement of the sabre from left to right; 
 at once resume the guard. 
 
 Fig^ 2 7.— Right rear cut Fig. 28.— Charge sabre. 
 
 BIGHT REAR CUT TWICE. 
 
 As the last blow, except that the cut is repeated before resuming the 
 position of guard. 
 
 TO rORM A SQUADRON FOR THE SABRE EXERCISE. 
 
 Preparatory to the sabre exercise, the squadron, whether mounted or 
 on foot, should first of all be ordered to call off. For this purpose the 
 instructor commands : 
 
 FOR SABRE EXERCISE CALL OFF. 
 
 At this command, each man of the right file turns his head to the left, 
 that his comrades may hear him, and, in a loud, distinct tone, calls out 
 20, (twenty;) the men of the 2d file call out 15; those of the 3d file, 
 10; the 4th, 5; the 5th, '' stand fast ;" the 6th, 20; the 7th, 15; the 
 8th, 10; the 9th, 5; the 10th, ^^ stand fast ;^' and in the same manner 
 through the squadron to its left flank. 
 
 These numbers signify that at the command " sabre exercise — march," 
 (which will be explained hereafter,) each man is to march forward the 
 number of paces he called out, i.e. 20, 15, 10, and 5 paces, respectively, 
 for the first four men of every five, the fifth standing fast. The non- 
 commissioned officers in the front rank are to move forward 25 paces ; 
 those in the rear rank are to rein back into the line of file-closers, and 
 with them fall back 5 paces behind the rear rank. Each man turns his 
 head to the front as soon as he has called off. If the sabre exercise is to 
 
134 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 be performed in presence of an inspector, the calling oflf is done before 
 his arrival. When the exercise is to be commenced, the front rank is 
 marched forward 25 paces ; the instructor then commands : 
 
 SABRE EXERCISE — MARCH. 
 
 At this command the men take their distances by moving forward, in each 
 rank, the number of paces they respectively called off, as already explained. 
 When the exercise is finished, the instructor commands : 
 
 TO YOUR POSTS — MARCH. 
 
 At this command, the men who advanced 20 paces stand fast, the 
 others move up, and dress on them in each rank. 
 
 The non-commissioned ofiicers of the front rank rein back 5 paces into 
 their places. The instructor then closes ranks by the usual commands. 
 
 During the exercise the officers place themselves 15 paces from the 
 front rank, facing it. 
 
 THE SABRE EXERCISE IN CLOSE ORDER. 
 
 When attacking in close order, the sabre should always be carried in 
 the position of charge sabre. 
 
 CHARGE SABRE. — 1 timej 1 motion. 
 
 (Fig. 28.) Raise the right arm and extend it to the front, the hand 
 opposite the right eye, the blade perpendicular to the breast, the edge 
 upwards, the point a little raised. 
 
 To pass from this position to that of guard, the command is, guard. 
 If necessary, the command, carri/ sabres, may be given at once, without 
 first coming to the guard. 
 
 In close order, all the motions of the sabre are made from the position 
 of charge sabre, and on the completion of every movement the men at 
 once return to that position. 
 
 RIGHT FRONT THRUST, PARRY, AND CUT. — 1 time, 4 motions. 
 
 1 and 2. The recruit, being in the position of charge sabre, at once 
 thrusts to the right front, as prescribed in open order. 
 
 3. Makes the head parry, as in open order. 
 
 4. Cuts vertically downward, on the right of the horse's neck, and 
 resumes the position of charge sabre. 
 
 LEFT FRONT CUT, PARRY, AND THRUST. 1 time, 4 motions. 
 
 1. Commence the cut by the 2d motion of the 2d moulinet : i.e. lower 
 the sabre along the left side of the horse's neck, raise it along the left 
 shoulder, cut downwards to the left front, and resume the position of 
 charge sabre. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 135 
 
 2. Make the head parry. 
 
 3 and 4. Thrust to the right front, and resume the position of charge 
 sabre. 
 
 RIGHT AND LEFT FRONT THRUST. 1 time, 2 motions. 
 
 1. Thrust once to the right front. 
 
 2. Thrust once to the left front, and resume the position of charge 
 sabre. 
 
 In close order, too much care cannot be taken to make the cuts by the 
 wrist alone, without moving the arm; they should be made as near the 
 horse's neck as possible, to avoid striking the next man, or his horse. 
 
 As a conclusion to the sabre exercise, all the commands are here given, 
 in the order in which they should be taught. 
 
 Commands for the 
 
 Guard. 
 
 Prepare to moulinet. 
 
 First moulinet. 
 
 Guard. 
 
 Prepare to moulinet. 
 
 Second moulinet. 
 
 Guard. 
 
 Right front thrust and cut. 
 
 Left front thrust and cut. 
 
 Right thrust and cut. 
 
 Left thrust and cut. 
 
 Right parry. 
 
 sahre eocercise in open order. 
 
 Left parry. 
 
 Head parry. 
 
 Left rear parry. 
 
 Right parry and cut. 
 • Left parry and cut. 
 
 Head parry, and thrust. 
 
 Against infantry — right parry and cut. 
 
 Against infantry — left cut. 
 
 Against infantry — right and left cut. 
 
 Against infantry — right cut and thrust. 
 
 Right rear cut. 
 
 Right rear cut twice. 
 
 Commands for the sahre exercise in close order. 
 Charge sabre. Left front cut, parry, and thrust. 
 
 Right front thrust, parry, and cut. Right and left front thrust. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS, FROM THE SCHOOL OF THE RECRUIT. 
 
 (Fig. 29.) When loading and firing thei car- 
 bine, the snaffle-reins are knotted around the 
 curb-reins, and allowed to hang loosely; the 
 curb-reins are passed around the middle finger 
 of the left hand, thus leaving the others free to 
 manage the carbine. 
 
 When the carbine is cast about, the butt is 
 thrown on the right side of the horse, the left 
 hand seizing it just above the tail-band. 
 
 Skirmishers armed with lances, when using 
 the carbine, carry lances at a rest and sabres in 
 
 Fig. 29.— Manner of hold- 
 ing the reins when using the 
 carbine. 
 
136 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 the scabbards; skirmishers who have no lances have the sabre drawn 
 and suspended from the right wrist by the sabre-knot when using their 
 carbines. 
 
 THE CHARGE. 
 
 At the command, charge, the rider, without changing his seat, presses 
 a little harder on the stirrups, throws the weight of his body backwards, 
 and prepares the horse, as 'explained, for the gallop; then, giving him a 
 free rein, he urges him to his greatest speed by the pressure of his legs 
 and spurs. 
 
 SCHOOL OF THE PLATOON. 
 
 In the tactics, the platoon is supposed to consist of 12 or more files, 
 always in two ranks. The rear rank is one pace (3 feet) from the front 
 rank, and the file-closers at the same distance behind the rear rank. 
 
 In addition to the 12 files, there are supposed to be with the platoon 
 1 officer as instructor, 1 non-commissioned officer on each flank of the 
 front rank, 2 non-commissioned officers as file-closers, and 1 trumpeter. 
 
 Preparatory to mounting, the platoon being formed with closed ranks, 
 the men call off in each rank by twos. 
 
 At the command, prepare to mount, Nos. 1 of the front rank lead for- 
 ward 4 paces, (of 3' each,)* Nos. 2 of the rear rank, and the file-closers, 
 fall back the same distance, the non-commissioned officers on the flanks 
 of the front rank lead forward 8 paces. After mounting, upon the com- 
 mand, form ranks, the Nos. 2 of each rank move up alongside of Nos. 1, 
 the non-commissioned* officers resume their proper places, and the rear 
 rank is closed up on the front rank. 
 
 The dismounting is -effected in a similar manner. 
 
 The men, being mounted, call off in each rank from right to left, and 
 then in each rank by threes. 
 
 Column may be formed : by file, by twos, by threes, and by sixes. 
 
 In the column by twos, each rank consists of the men of the same file, 
 each rear-rank man riding alongside of his front-rank man. 
 
 In the column by sixes, each rank consists of the men of the same set 
 of threes, the three rear-rank men riding abreast of their three front- 
 rank men. 
 
 (Fig. 30.) To break the platoon by file, from a halt: at the preparatory 
 command, the right guide places himself in front of the 1st file, the 
 trumpeter in front of the right guide; at the command, march, the 
 trumpeter, guide, and first file move straight forward; the men of the 
 other files, in succession, advance one pace, halt, turn to the right, (on 
 the horse's hind-legs,) move to the right in the direction of the front of 
 the platoon, and turn individually to the left when arriving behind the 
 head of column. 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 139 
 
 Fig. 31 shows the manner of breaking by twos. 
 
 To break by threes, the first set of threes march straight forward, the 
 rest of the men wheel to the right by threes in each rank, move forward, 
 and, upon arriving behind the head of column, wheel to the left by threes, 
 in each rank. Fig. 32 shows the formation of a platoon of 11 files, in 
 column by threes. 
 
 Fig. 33. To break by sixes, at the preparatory command the right guide 
 passages 3 yards to the right, the rear-rank men of the first set of threes 
 oblique to the right and place themselves on the alignment of the front 
 rank, between the right guide and their front-rank men ; at the command, 
 march, the right guide and the first set of threes (formed in one rank, the 
 rear-rank men on the right) move straight forward, the rest of the men 
 wheel to the right by threes in each rank, move forward, and wheel to the 
 left by sixes when the croups of their horses are on the prolongation of 
 the left flank of the column. 
 
 Fig. 33 shows the formation of a platoon in column by sixes, the platoon 
 consisting of 11 files. 
 
 On the march, the platoon is broken into column according to the same 
 principles ; except that to break by file or by twos, in doubling the gait, 
 the right file moves straight forward at the new gait, and the rest of the 
 platoons at once oblique to the right, each file entering the column in 
 succession. 
 
 All these movements are executed by the left flank, by inverse means. 
 When the platoon, broken into column, is to form to the front, on the 
 right or left, or to the right or left into line, the leading subdivision 
 marches platoon distance before halting. 
 
 The platoon being in column by file, right in front, at a halt, to form 
 column by twos : at the command, march) each front-rank man moves 
 forward his horse's length and halts ; each rear-rank man moves up on the 
 right of his front-rank man and halts ; then the column closes up on the 
 leading subdivision. 
 
 To form from column by file into column by threes : at the command, 
 march J Nos. 1 of both ranks move forward a horse's length and halt ; 
 Nos. 2 and 3 of each rank oblique to the left, and form on the left of 
 Nos. 1 ; then the column closes up on the leading set of threes. • 
 
 Fig. 34. To form from column by file, into column by sixes : at the com- 
 mand, march, Nos. 1 of the front rank move forward a horse's length and 
 halt ; Nos. 2 and 3 of the same rank oblique to the left, and form on the 
 left of Nos. 1, in the order of their numbers ; the rear-rank men oblique 
 to the right, and form on the alignment of the front rank, also in the order 
 of their numbers, from right to left ; the ranks of sixes, thus formed, then 
 close up on the head of the column. 
 
 If the column is in march, the front is increased according to the same 
 
140 
 
 THE ARMIES OP EUROPE. 
 
 principles; i.e. each new subdivision is formed at the original gait; then 
 those in rear close up on the head of column by doubling the gait. 
 
 The front is decreased, whether the column is in march or at a halt, in 
 a manner similar to that pursued in the United States tactics. 
 
 SCHOOL OF THE SQUADRON. 
 
 The squadron is divided into two half squadrons and four platoons. 
 The platoons are numbered from right to left, and each platoon preserves 
 its original number, whatever position it may occupy in line or in column. 
 Each platoon is counted off : (a) by twos ; (ft) from right to left ; (c) by 
 threes ; this is done under the direction of the commandants of platoons, 
 before the squadron informed. If there are odd files in the 4th platoon, 
 they are posted on its right. 
 
 COMPOSITION OP THE SQUADRON. 
 
 The minimum strength is as follows : 1 captain, commanding ; 4 com- 
 mandants of platoons; 16 sergeants; 3 trumpeters; 96 corporals and pri- 
 vates. As a general rule, the average strength of the squadron is 120 
 corporals and privates, or 60 files. 
 
 POSTS OP THE OPFICERS AND SERGEANTS. 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 2idj,t Tthj^t 4fl^Lt 
 
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 Fig. 35. The squadron being deployed, the officers are posted as follows : 
 the captain commanding, at platoon distance in front of the centre of the 
 squadron ; the commandant of the 1st platoon, 1 pace in front of the 2d 
 file from the right of his platoon ; the commandants of the 2d and 3d 
 platoons, 1 pace in front of the centres of their platoons ; the commandant 
 of the 4th platoon, 1 pace in front of the 2d file from the left of his pla- 
 toon ; if there is a 5th subaltern, he is posted, as a file-closer, 3 paces in 
 rear of the centre of the line of non-commissioned file-closers ; if there is 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 141 
 
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142 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 a 6th subaltern, lie is posted 1 pace in front of the 2d file from the left of 
 the 1st platoon ; if there is a 7th subaltern, he is posted 1 pace in front 
 of the 2d file from the right of the 4th platoon. 
 
 Subalterns command platoons according to their ability, and not according 
 to seniority ; the 1st and 4th platoons being considered the most important. 
 
 If there are not enough officers present to supply commandants of pla- 
 toons, the deficiency is made good by the most capable sergeants. 
 
 If there is no officer to act as file-closer, this position is not filled by a 
 sergeant. 
 
 Fig. 35 gives the positions of the difi"erent sergeants in line ; No. 15 is 
 the standard-bearer, in standard-squadrons, and No. 16 is his assistant ; in 
 squadrons without standards, No. 15 is posted in rear of the 2d file from 
 the left of the 2d platoon, and No. 16 in rear of the 2d file from the right 
 of the 3d platoon ; the non-commissioned file-closers are 1 pace behind the 
 rear rank. In standard-squadrons having but 14 sergeants. No. 13 is the 
 standard-bearer, No. 14 his assistant. 
 
 No. 6 carries the squadron guidon. 
 
 There must always be at least one file-closer for every platoon ; if there 
 are not enough sergeants for this purpose, corporals are detailed to supply 
 the deficiency. 
 
 The sergeants may be posted, by the commander of the squadron, with- 
 out regard to their relative rank. 
 
 Trumpeters are posted, either in one rank, at five paces on the right of 
 the rear rank, or in rear of the 4th files from the right of the 1st, 4th, and 
 2d platoons ; the latter position in preference. 
 
 In the engravings accompanying this report, extracted from the Russian 
 tactics, two drummers and two trumpeters are usually represented ; these 
 drummers refer only to the dragoon regiments. 
 
 The men armed with rifled carbines, (four in each platoon,) who are to 
 act as skirmishers, always form the flank files of the platoons ; these files 
 should always be full. 
 
 Figs. 36 to 42 will sufficiently explain the formation of a squadron in 
 column by twos, threes, sixes, platoons, and half squadrons, as well as the 
 posts of the officers and non-commissioned officers. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 Column by sixes — Right in front. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 143 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 ■l^c. 
 
 ^s^ 
 
 Column by sixes — Left in froaL 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 
 Column by platoons— Right in front. 
 
144 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
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 Column by platoons — Left in front. 
 
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 145 
 
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 Column by half squadrons. 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
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 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 Fig. 44. 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 147 
 
 TO MOUNT AND DISMOUNT THE SQUADRON. 
 
 To mount, the squadron is formed with closed ranks, all the officers 
 dismounted except the commander of the squadron. Fig. 43 shows the 
 positions of all persons, both in mounting and dismounting; the princi- 
 ples already explained in the school of the platoon are observed in this 
 case. 
 
 OF VOCAL COMMANDS. 
 
 These are of two kinds : those of preparation, and those of execution. 
 
 The first are uttered slowly, every syllable being clearly pronounced ; 
 the latter are uttered briefly and abruptly. 
 
 The commander should modulate his voice in proportion to the number 
 of men who are to execute the command, so that every word may be 
 heard. In the text, the tonic accent (1) is placed over the syllables that 
 are to be accented and uttered slowly j the hyphen (-) indicates the pass- 
 age from the preparatory to the executive command. 
 
 Commands indicating the gaits are always given with the cautionary 
 command, and before the word — march. 
 
 The commanding officer should always designate the gait. 
 
 PRINCIPAL GUIDES. 
 
 Sergeants Nos. 6, 9, and 12 are the principal guides of the squadron ; 
 all the sergeants should, however, be instructed in the duties of principal 
 guides, that they may be able to fulfil them in case of necessity. 
 
 Fig. 44 shows the positions of the principal guides in the alignment of 
 a squadron, to the right, by platoons. 
 
 In mounted squadrons the men are arranged, according to the height 
 of men and horses, from right to left in the right half squadron, and from 
 left to right in the left half squadron. 
 
 The front rank is composed of the men who are the best looking, best 
 riders, and most prompt, with, as far as possible, the best and most 
 thoroughly trained horses. Prompt and well-instructed men, with the 
 best horses, are placed on the flanks of platoons and threes. 
 
 SQUADRON WITH OPENED RANKS. 
 
 The ranks may be opened either by causing the front rank to move 
 forward, or the rear rank to rein back. 
 
 Fig. 45 shows the formation of the squadron with open ranks ; the 
 commandants of platoons, facing the squadron, are six paces from the 
 front rank ; the ranks six paces apart ; the file-closers six paces behind 
 the rear rank 
 
 Columns by files, twos, threes, and sixes, are formed and broken as 
 prescribed in the school of the platoon. 
 
 The front of the column may be increased either in all the platoons at 
 
148 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 the same time, or, beginning with the head of the column, by the diflferent * 
 platoons in succession. The front of the column is decreased always by 
 the platoons in succession. 
 
 When the squadron is in line, to break it, by the right, by platoons to 
 the front, the 1st platoon marches straight to the front, all the others 
 wheel to the right on a fixed pivot ; the 2d platoon then wheels to the 
 left and follows the 1st ; the 3d and 4th move forward and wheel to the 
 left, as each arrives where the 2d wheeled to the left. 
 
 MARCHING IN LINE. 
 
 A. When marching in line, the alignment of the squadron will depend 
 upon that of the officers in front of the platoons ; it is therefore required 
 that these officers should be frequently exercised in marching in line, at 
 the proper intervals, to the front and obliquely, at all gaits ; since absent 
 officers are to be replaced by sergeants, the latter are also exercised in 
 the same manner. 
 
 B. Before marching in line with closed ranks, the squadron is exercised 
 with the ranks opened to squadron distance, the front rank commanded 
 by the senior subaltern, the rear rank by the second subaltern. 
 
 C. The squadron is exercised at marching with the flank files of the 
 platoons and the intermediate sergeants, thrown forward about 20 paces. 
 
 D. In starting or changing gait, the guide moves gently, to avoid agita- 
 tion in the ranks. 
 
 E. The march in line should not be attempted at a trot until well done 
 at a walk ; after being properly done at a trot, it is executed at a gallop, 
 the gait being changed on the march. 
 
 OF COLUMNS. 
 
 Right columns are those right in front j left columns are those left in 
 front. 
 
 There are three kinds of columns : 1, columns with distance ; 2, close 
 columns ; 3, marching columns, or columns in route. 
 
 In every kind of column the distance is measured from the fore-feet of 
 the horses of one subdivision to the fore-feet of the front-rank horses of 
 the next subdivision. 
 
 In a right column the guide is left, in a left column it is right. 
 
 The object of a column with full distance is that the troops composing 
 it may form line in every direction ; therefore the distance between the 
 subdivisions must be equal to their respective fronts. 
 
 The object of a close column is, by decreasing its depth to execute 
 movements conveniently and rapidly. Close columns are formed by half 
 squadrons and by squadrons; the distance is 15 paces; the formation of 
 these columns is explained in the school of the regiment. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 149 
 
 
 
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150 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Tlie object of a column in route is to effect a march conveniently. 
 According to the width of the road, this column is formed by platoons, 
 sixes, threes, twos, or files; in preference, by plateons, when the road 
 permits. 
 
 The direction of a column ip march is changed as in the United States 
 tactics ; but, in order to perfect the instruction of both ranks, the column 
 by platoons is formed in single ranks, at platoon distance, in the first 
 lessons? 
 
 To form from column by platoons, or half squadrons, into line to the 
 front or rear, or to increase the front of a column by platoons, each 
 platoon obliques, instead of making half wheels, e.g. : 
 
 (Fig. 46.) To form front into line from a column of platoons, right in 
 front, the 1st platoon marches forward platoon distance and halts, the 
 others oblique to the left, by the individual oblique march, .and move to 
 the front when opposite their respective places in line. . 
 
 To form on the right or left into line, the leading platoon moves for- 
 ward platoon distance, after having finished its wheel. 
 
 OF ATTACKING. — THE ATTACK, OR CHARGE, IN CLOSE ORDER. 
 
 The general rules for executing a charge in close order are the same 
 'as for an advance in line. 
 
 The command of execution for a charge is march, march. 
 
 At this command the ofl&cers and the front rank charge sabre. 
 
 During a charge all commands, after that of march, march, are re- 
 peated by the commandants of platoons. 
 
 A charge should not extend over more than eighty paces ; the nearer 
 a regiment of cavalry can approach the enemy at a trot, the more violent 
 will be the shock ; but the farther from the enemy the command march, 
 march, is given, the weaker will be the shock, and the greater the dis- 
 order among the horses. In order to save the horses, they should, if pos- 
 sible, before halting them after a charge, be brought down to a trot. 
 
 The charge is first taught by platoon, and afterwards by squadron. 
 To execute the charge by platoon, the squadron commander places him- 
 self 300 paces in front of the squadron, and directs the commandant of 
 the first platoon to execute the charge; this officer moves his platoon 
 fifty paces at a walk, then 100 at a trot, fifty at a gallop, charges eighty 
 paces, and halts his platoon abreast of the captain. The charge by squad- 
 ron is executed in a similar manner, the captain leading the charge 
 
 At the command trot, or walk, after the charge, the officers and the 
 front rank carry sabres. 
 
 The troops are also taught to charge directly from a halt. During the 
 charge, at the command march, march, the standard-bearer falls back 
 into the line of file-closers, the assistant behind him; at the command 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 151 
 
 ♦^ 
 « 
 
 halt, they resume their places in line. • Dui'ing the charge, the rear-rank 
 men are to cover their file-leaders, and neither crowd up on them nor fall 
 back. 
 
 THE CHARGE IN OPEN ORDER. 
 
 This is effected by one half squadron. (Fig. 47.) 
 
 In open order the half squad- 
 ron is formed in two ranks, and 
 occupies a front equal t© that of 
 five platoons in close order. When 
 deployed in open order the officers 
 and sergeants are posted as fol- 
 lows : the commander of the 
 squadron always follows the 
 movements of the half squadron 
 detailed for duty in open order, 
 and places himself where he 
 deems necessary, having a trum- 
 peter with him; if there is an 
 officer with the squadron as 
 file-closer, he accompanies the 
 squadron commander, to carry his 
 orders ] the commandants of pla- 
 toons are in the front rank; the 
 sergeants are in their usual places, 
 except that the file-closers are ten 
 paces behind the rear rank. The 
 other half squadron constitutes a 
 reserve, and holds itself at 150 
 paces in rear of the line, deployed 
 in open order; it never retires 
 without special orders. The stand- 
 ard remains with the reserve. 
 
 For the charge in open order 
 the signal " attack" is sounded, 
 and then " disperse." If the 
 charge is to be made from a 
 halt, then at the first signal the 
 designated half squadron moves forward at a trot, and at the second signal 
 the commander orders disperse; if the squadron is on the march when 
 the first signal is sounded, the attacking half squadron continues moving 
 at the original gait, while the reserve halts. At the command disperse 
 the men charge sabres and disperse as follows : if it is the right half 
 squadron which is to disperse, the right guide is the guide of the move- 
 
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152 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 • 
 ment, and moves straight forward 'at a hand gallop; the rest of the 
 men gain ground to the left and front, at the charging gait, until the 
 left file of the second platoon extends to platoon distance to the left of 
 the left flank of the reserve ; (this is done to cover the intervals when 
 several squadrons are formed in one line.) If it is the left half squadron 
 which deploys, then the left guide is the guide of the movement, and the 
 right file eitends to platoon distance beyond the right file of the reserve. 
 When the outer flank has extended sufiicientlj^ the whole line moves 
 straight forward at a charge, the men using their pistols and sabres, not 
 paying attention to the alignment, but taking care to preserve sufl&cient 
 intervals for a free use of their weapons. At the signal halt, they halt 
 and dress on the centre, the rear- rank placing themselves ten paces be- 
 hind their front-rank men. 
 
 The skirmishers may be assembled either on the reserve or on the guide 
 of the line ; in either case it is at full speed ; and in the first case the 
 men fall in without regard to place, merely endeavoring to get into the 
 proper rank and platoon. The men are instructed in the charge in open 
 order, first at a walk, afterwards at a trot, gallop, and charge. 
 
 ECHELONS. , • 
 
 The squadron is exercised in advancing by echelons of half squadrons, 
 the distance between the echelons being at least equ^l to the front of a 
 half squadron.. The advance is by alternate half squadrons, or -occa- 
 sionally by both advancing, in echelon, simultaneously. 
 
 A retreat is always conducted by half squadrons, and at a walk, or trot. 
 If the right half squadron commences the movement, it wheels to the 
 right about by platoons, moves about half squadron distance to the rear, 
 and again wheels by platoons to the right about ; on this, the left half 
 squadron wheels to the left about by platoons, moves squadron distance 
 to the rear, and then again wheels to the left about by platoons. The 
 standard remains with the left half squadron. 
 
 SKIRMISHERS. 
 
 The open order of battle is a chain of skirmishers, with a reserve in 
 its rear. The purpose of the chain of skirmishers is to watch the move- 
 ments of the enemy, to weaken and harass him by its fire, and thus to 
 prepare the way for the success of the main body in close order, or else 
 to cover its movements. 
 
 The reserve is to support and reinforce the chain, and to serve as a 
 rallying-point for the skirmishers ; it should therefore be in rear of the 
 skirmishers, and follow their movements. 
 
 Commanders of parties detailed as skirmishers will employ vocal com- 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 15S 
 
 mands in preference to the' trumpet* signals; the latter will be employed 
 only when the skirmishers are already deployed. 
 
 To avoid the possibility of mistakes, commanders ordering their trum- 
 peters to sound any signal will always indicate it by its name, and not by 
 its number. 
 
 The Russian system of instruction for mounted skirmishers gives in 
 great detail the movements for their deployment, advance, and retreat; 
 change of direction and position ; firing, extending and closing intervals, 
 assembly, relief, &c. 
 
 If a platoon of 12 files is detailed for skirmishing duty, 6 files are de- 
 ployed, and 6 are detailed as a reserve. The commandant of the platoon, 
 one of the guides, a file-cloaer, and a trumpeter, accompany the skir- 
 mishers a little in rear of the line ; the other guide commands'the reserve, 
 which he holds at lOO.yards from the line of skirmishers.* 
 
 Fig. 48. — Skirmishers. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 (Fig. 48.) When the line is halted, each rear-rank man places him- 
 self so that his horse's head shall be 1 pace to the rear and right of the 
 tail of the horse of his front-rank man ; the interval between the files 
 depends upon circumstances. 
 
 To fire at a halt. — No. 1 of the front rank, in each set of threes, 
 advances 20 paces at a walk, halts, turns his horse's left side obliquely 
 towards the enemy, fires, and returns at a trot to the place vacated by his 
 rear-rank man, who has in the mean time taken the front-rank man's 
 original position. As soon as No. 1 has fired, the front-rank No. 2, in 
 each set of threes, advances 20 paces, but does not fire until No. 1 has 
 retaken his place in the line ; when No. 3 has fired, in the same manner 
 the rear-rank No. 1 fires, &c. 
 
 To fire advancing. — This is executed according to the same principles; 
 the line continuing to move forward at its original gait, while the men 
 who are to fire advance by doubling the gait. 
 
 To fire retreating. — The whole line halts, and faces the enemy; Nos. 1 
 of the front rank fire, come to a right about, and retire at a walk, loading 
 their pieces ; as they pass their rear-rank men, the latter make a right 
 
>54 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 about, and follow at 1 pace to the right rear of their front-rank men ; 
 when they have retired 30 paces, each makes a right about, and halts, 
 facing the enemy, the rear-rank men now nearest the enemy. • 
 
 As soon as Nos. 1 have executed this, Nos. 2 do the same ; then Nos. 3 ; 
 then the rear-rank Nos. 1 fire, and so the movement is continued. 
 
 Fig. 49 gives an example of the arrangement of 2 squadrons detailed 
 as skirmishers in front of a regiment of 6 squadrons ; in each of the 2 
 squadrons a half squadron is held in reserve, the other platoons being 
 deployed as already explained ; each of these platoons holds one-half of 
 its force in reserve. 
 
 The chain of skirmishers should always be continuous, unless there is 
 artillery in rear of it; it should overlap the,body it covers about 20 paces 
 on each flank, and have its own flanks somewhat thrown back. 
 
 When it becomes necessary to dismount parties of cavalry for the pur- 
 pose of holding or carrying some post, Nos. 2 of each rank remain 
 mounted, and hold the horses of Nos. 1 and 3. 
 
 Lancers are.not dismounted if it can be avoided; but if it is necfessary, 
 then only one-half the men dismount, and place their lances in the left 
 stirrup boots of the men remaining mounted, who pass the sling over the 
 left arm. 
 
 . In actual service, the officers and non-commissioned officers must watch, 
 that, when the signal to commence firing is given, only those men fire 
 who see the enemy within suitable range. To prevent accidents, the men 
 should never cock their pieces until their turn to fire arrives. Officers 
 and sergeants with the chain and reserves carry sa!)res. 'Whilst dis- 
 persing, the sergeants and men charge sabres, or lances ; but at the com- 
 mand halt^ both ranks rest lances, or drop sabres, (allowing them to hang 
 from the wrist by the sabre-knot,) and advance carbine or raise pistol. 
 
 '- THE OOLUMN OF ATTACK. 
 
 Before passing to the school of the regiment, it is necessary to explain 
 the column of attack. It must first be stated that in the Russian cavalry 
 2 squadrons form a division, commanded by a field officer; each division 
 in a cavalry regiment partially corresponding to a battalion in an infantry 
 regiment in a tactical sense ; in line, the interval between the 2 squadrons 
 of a division is the front of a platoon. The column of attack (so called) 
 is, in fact, a column of manoeuvre, and is nothing more than a division 
 formed in double column on th^ centre by half squadrons at platoon dis- 
 tance, thus : the 4th platoon of the 1st squadron and the 1st platoon of 
 the 2d squadro;i (having closed in on each other) form the head of the 
 column; the next subdivision is composed of the 3d platoon of 1st 
 squadron and the 2d of the 2d squadron, &c. 
 
 Fig. 50 shows the manner of forming column of attack from a halt. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
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156 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
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15B^' ^^^^^^^^THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Fig. 51 shows the manner of forming column of attack advancing. 
 
 Fig. 52 shows the manner of forming column of attack retreating, the 
 division having wheeled about, by platoons, before commencing its retreat. 
 
 To deploy the column, the platoons of the 1st squadron oblique to the 
 right, those of the 2d squadron to the left ; in deploying from a halt, the 
 leading platoons gain platoon distance to the front and half platoon dis- 
 tance to the right and left, respectively. 
 
 SCHOOL OF THE REGIMENT. 
 Before commencing the drill of the regiment, the colonel is required 
 to exercise the officers without the men ; for this purpose the command- 
 ants of platoons are placed in one rank, at their proper intervals, (as if 
 in front of their platoons,) the commanders of squadrons and divisions, 
 also, in their proper places ; and in this position they are carried through 
 the various manoeuvres, and taught to preserve their intervals and align- 
 ment ; any absent commandants of platoons are replaced by sergeants. 
 Regiments of cavalry consist of 6, 8, or 10 active squadrons. 
 In each regiment, the squadrons are numbered in regular series, from 
 right to left. 
 
 In regiments of 8 squadrons, the 7th and 8th are called flanker squad- 
 rons, and, when necessary, act as skirmishers ; in regiments of 10 squad- 
 rons, (dragoons,) the 9th and 10th squadrons are armed with lances, are 
 called lancer squadrons, and act as skirmishers. 
 
 In each regiment, the 1st and 2d squadrons form the 1st division, 
 the 3d and 4th " " 2d " 
 
 the 5th and 6th " " 3d " 
 
 the 7th and 8th " " 4th " 
 
 the 9th and 10th " " 5th " 
 
 It may be well here to repeat, and call attention to the fact, that all 
 the regiments of light cavalry of the line, and 4 of the heavy cavalry, 
 are 8-squadron regiments, so that the formations, &c., hereafter given for 
 8-squadron regiments may be regarded as the rule in the Russian service. 
 
 THE FORMATIONS OF A, REGIMENT IN LINE. 
 
 A cavalry regiment may be deployed for inspection and review, or for 
 combat. In 6-squadron regiments, these formations are the same ; in the 
 others they are different. The formation for inspection and review is 
 called the order of review; that for combat, is galled the order of battle. 
 
 THE ORDER OF REVIEW. 
 
 This is the same for all regiments ; in it all the squadrons are formed 
 in one line, arranged in the order of their numbers, from right to left ; 
 the interval between the squadrons is equal to the front of a platoon. 
 
 Fig. 53 shows this formation, and the positions of the different officers. 
 
159 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 163 
 
 The colonel is 6 times platoon distance in front of the centre ; each 
 division commander at double platoon distance in front of the centre- of his 
 division ; the squadron ofl&cers as prescribed in the school of the squadron 
 
 If there is not an officer, as file-closer, behind each squadron or division, 
 there must, at least, be one for the regiment, who is posted at platoon distance 
 in rear of the centre of the line of non-commissioned file-closers; if there 
 are more than one officer, as file-closers, but iiot as many as the number 
 of divisions, they are posted in preference behind tlie flank divisions. 
 
 The trumpeters are either united, at half platoon distance on the right 
 of the 1st squadron, or are with their respective squadrons. 
 
 THE ORDER OF BATTLE. 
 
 • 
 
 The formation of a regiment in order of battle depends upon the num- 
 ber of squadrons of which it is conjposed. 
 
 (Fig. 53.) For a regiment of 6 squadrons, it is, as already stated, the 
 same as the order of review. 
 
 (Fig. 54.) For a regiment of 8 squadrons, it is as follows : the first 6 
 squadrons are deployed as in the order of review, and form the line of 
 battle; the 7th squadron is formed in column by platoons, left in front, at 
 squadron distance behind the right flank of the line of battle, its line of 
 left guides being at platoon distance to the right of the right flank of the 
 1st squadron; the 8th squadron is formed in column by platoons, right in 
 front, in a similar position behind the left flank of the line of battle. 
 
 (Fig. 55.) For regiments of 10 squadrons, (dragoons,) with all their 
 squadrons present, the order of battle is as follows: in two lines ^ one 
 line of the first four squadrons, the other line of the next four, either line 
 may be in front; the front line is called the line of battle, and is deployed; 
 the rear line is formed in columns of attack, these columns being opposite 
 the intervals in the divisions of the line of battle. 
 
 The lancer squadrons (9th and 10th) are formed in columns by platoons 
 in rear of the flanks of the line of battle, as described for the 7th and 
 8th squadrons of 8-squadron regiments. 
 
 The line of battle an^ the second line are 300 yards apart. 
 
 The figures explain sufficiently the positions of the officers in the order 
 of battle. 
 
 Commands are given and repeated on the same principles as in the 
 United States tactics; when the colonel gives the command, march, he 
 raises his sabre vertically, to the full length of his arm; he does the same 
 thing upon giving the command, halt. 
 
 In the order of battle, the chief trumpeter accompanies the colonel; 
 there is one trumpeter with each commander of division; one with each 
 platoon of the flanker, or lancer, squadrons; the rest are in the rank of 
 file-closers with their respective squadrons. 
 
164 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 In dragoon regiments, the drummers are united in rear of the second 
 line. • 
 
 STANDARDS AND THEIR ESCORT. 
 
 Every division has a standard, which is posted with the 1st squadron 
 of the division, and generally follows the movements of the 3d platoon. 
 
 The escort of the standards is always composed of one of the platoons 
 of the 1st squadron of the regiment; to bring the standards to the regi- 
 ment, the chief trumpeter and 3 trumpeters accompany the escort; to 
 carry them back to the colonel's quarters, all the trumpeters of the regi- 
 ment are detailed. 
 Fig. 56. Fig. 56 shows the order of march of the standards and their 
 
 I escort. 
 
 1^ In bringing the standards to the regiment, when the escort 
 
 X. reaches the nearest flank of the regiment, it at once moves to 
 
 ^ its post in line, at a trot, by the rear of the regiment. 
 
 If ^ ^ ^l^^ For the departure of the standards, the chiefs of the 3d 
 i^WfasiTOi^ platoons of the standard -squadrons conduct them to the front 
 ^ of the 1st platoon of the 1st squadron of the regiment, which 
 
 in this case forms the escort; having turned over the standards to the 
 adjutant, the chiefs of the 3d platoons at once return to their platoons. 
 
 It is required that the commandants of the 3d platoons of standard- 
 squadrons shall be officers, even if all the other platoons of the squadron 
 are commanded by sergeants. 
 
 ALIGNMENTS. 
 
 There are no general guides. One squadron is designated as the 
 squadron of direction; its principal guides (see school of the squadron) 
 are posted by the adjutant, who then aligns the principal guides of the 
 other squadrons, in succession, on them. 
 
 When the regiment is deployed, it may be aligned by ordering the 
 commandants of platoons forward on the line, instead of sending out the 
 principal guides. The principal guides or commandants of platoons move 
 to their posts on the new line at a full gallop. 
 
 TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF REVIEW TO THE ORDER OF BATTLE. 
 
 In an 8-squadron regiment, the first 6 squadrons stand fast, the com- 
 manders of the 7th and 8th wheel their squadrons by platoons to the 
 right, and conduct them, by the shortest line, to their new positions. 
 
 In a 10-squadron regiment the first two divisions stand fast; the 3d 
 and 4th form columns of attack, and then move by the shortest line to 
 their new positions; the 9th and 10th squadrons act as prescribed for the 
 7th and 8th of an 8-squadron regiment. 
 
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 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 In columns with distance, the colonel and the commanders of divisions 
 and squadrons are all on the directing flank, opposite the centres of their 
 respective commands, and at distances from the line of guides equal lo 
 their respective distances in front of the line when it is deployed; so that 
 if the column wheels into line they are all in their proper places; the 
 adjutant habitually follows the colonel. 
 
 Among other formations in column, the regiment is sometimes formed 
 into several parallel columns of divisions, or squadrons, by platoons. 
 
 CLOSE COLUMNS. 
 
 In these, the distance between subdivisions is 15 paces, measured from 
 the fore-feet of the front-rank horses of one subdivision to the same of 
 the next subdivision. 
 
 Fig. 57 shows the manner of forming close column by squadron, from a 
 halt, and the posts of the officers. If there are in front of any of the pla- 
 toons officers other than their commandants, they retain their usual places. 
 
 If the close column is by half squadron, the commandants of divisions 
 and squadrons are posted on i;he directing flanks of their leading sub- 
 divisions, and the commandants of half squadrons on the directing flanks 
 of their respective commands: 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 (For scale, see p. 167.) 
 
 HEEH 
 
 In forming close column from a halt, the movement is by threes, in 
 each rank. In regiments of 10 squadrons, to form close column from 
 order of battle, the divisions of the 2d line first deploy. 
 
 Fig. 58 will show the general manner in which a regiment formed in 
 columns of attack changes front and deploys. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
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168 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Fig. 59 "wdll sufficiently explain tlie general methods of deploying close 
 columns. 
 
 The changes of front are executed either with the squadrons deployed, 
 or formed in columns of attack. 
 
 The regiment is exercised in advancing and retreating by alternate 
 half squadrons, squadrons, or divisions. 
 
 The formations in echelon are by half squadrons, squadrons, or divisions. 
 
 THE CHARGE. 
 
 The charge in line, in close order, is executed according to the princi- 
 ples laid down in the school of the squadron. 
 
 In certain cases, regiments charge in close column ; this is executed, in 
 preference, by the cuirassiers, and always at the trot out; only the front 
 rank of the leading subdivision charge lances, or sabres. 
 
 The charge in open order is also executed according to the principles 
 laid down in the school of the squadron; one half squadron of every 
 squadron charges, while the others remain in reserve. One division com- 
 mander is detailed to command the half squadrons which charge, another 
 to direct the reserve. If the regiment is formed in columns of attack, 
 when the charge in open order is to be made, the squadrons first form 
 columns by half squadron, of which the leading -half squadrons charge, 
 while those in rear are held in reserve, and at once take the proper inter- 
 vals of 5 platoon fronts. 
 
 The flanker squadrons of 8-squadron regiments, and the lancer squad- 
 rons and second line of dragoons, follow the movements of the line of 
 battle ; marohing at the same gait as the latter until it charges, when they 
 move on at the trot out ; closing up on the line of battle to the prescribed 
 distance, when it halts. If the colonel considers it necessary to form the 
 flanker or lancer squadrons in echelon, he orders them to form squadron, 
 after which they continue the movement as just explained. 
 
 If the signal reserve is sounded, these flanker or lancer squadrons, 
 instead of- halting, move on at a charge in pursuit of the beaten enemy, 
 returning to their posts in rear of the flanks when the recall is sounded. 
 
 REVIEWS. 
 
 Cavalry passes in review: in column with distance, by platoons, half 
 squadrons, or squadrons ) in column with half distance, by half squadrons, 
 squadrons, or divisions; in close column, by half squadrons, or squadrons. 
 The adjutant is at the head of the column ; one pace behind the adjutant 
 is the band of trumpeters, in two ranks, with the chief trumpeter on the 
 right of the front rank ; the colonel, 6 paces in rear of the trumpeters ; 
 the commander of the 1st division, 3 paces in rear of the colonel; the 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 169 
 
 commander of the leading squadron, 3 paces in rear of the division com- 
 mander ; then the leading subdivision of the column. 
 
 The Russians call a division of 2 brigades divisia; a division of 2 
 squadrons is divisw/i. Confusion is thus avoided. 
 
 f EVOLUTIONS OF THE LINE. 
 
 The volume on this subject is divided into two parts : 1. Evolutions 
 of the line proper; 2. Orders of battle, general columns, and the appli- 
 cation of the evolutions of the line to these. 
 
 EVOLUTIONS OF THE LINE PROPER. 
 
 This subject comprehends the movements of several regimelits, whether 
 in line or in columns. 
 
 The first great requisites for a successful cavalry general and instructor 
 are, perfect coolness and presence of mind. 
 
 The rules for giving and repeating commands, as given in the school of 
 the regiment, apply here, with a few additions. 
 
 The preparatory commands are given by the general commanding, and are 
 repeated by the other generals and the colonels ; they are at once followed 
 by the designation of the gait and the command, march. Down to the bri- 
 gadier-generals, inclusive, the general commands alone are given; the colo- 
 nels give the special commands prescribed in the school of the regiment. 
 
 In all cases the generals of brigade repeat the preparatory commands 
 of the gen^als of their divisions. 
 
 If all the regiments of a brigade are to execute the same movement, 
 the general of brigade gives the preparatory commands for all of them. 
 
 If difiterent regiments of a brigade are to execute different movements, 
 the general of brigade gives the preparatory command for the movement 
 of the 1st regiment only ; the colonels of the other regiments giving the 
 requisite commands. 
 
 Whenever the preparatory commands are to be repeated by all the 
 generals and colonels, the general commanding raises his sabre; this 
 signal is repeated simultaneously by all the generals and colonels ; the 
 commanders of divisions (2 squadrons) and squadrons at once give the 
 command, march. 
 
 When a movement is to be executed by all the troops, the general pre- 
 paratory commands are repeated by all the subordinate commanders; but- 
 when only a portion of the troops are to execute the movement, the pre- 
 paratory commands will be repeated only by the commanders of that 
 portion. 
 
 Colonels will always preface the command, regiment, by the number of 
 their regiments in the division, or brigade, (if there is only a brigadO: 
 present.) 
 
 11 
 
170 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Generals of division will likewise preface the command, division, by 
 the number of their respective divisions ; but generals of brigade simply 
 give the command, brigade, not prefacing any number. 
 
 If the troops are formed in one general column, or in a line of regi- 
 mental columns, the commands to draw and return sabres are given by 
 the generals of division, and repeated by the generals of brigade and the 
 colonels ; the troops execute the order at the command of the latter. If 
 the regiments are deployed, or each formed into several columns in line, 
 these commands are repeated by all commanders, down to those of squad- 
 rons inclusive, and executed at the command of the latter. When the 
 number of troops is so great that the voice of the general commanding 
 cannot be Iffeard by all, he sends his orders by aides-de-camp. In such 
 cases the distant parts should conform to the movements of those nearest 
 the general commanding, that the movements may be as simultaneous as 
 possible. The general will assure himself that the aides fully comprehend 
 the order, so as to prevent errors and misunderstandings ; the aides should 
 carry the order with the utmost rapidity, and deliver it clearly and slowly, 
 but they have no authority to interfere with the execution. If they see 
 that the order is not properly carried out, they should remind the ofl&cer 
 to whom it was delivered and return to the general as soon as it is exe- 
 cuted ; they report the fulfilment of the order, or the reason for its non- 
 fulfilment. Trumpet signals apply only to the first line, and are repeated 
 only by the trumpeters of that line. All commands to the second and 
 other lines are given by the voice. The rules for the guidance of the 
 principal guides, as given in the school of the regiment, apply to the 
 case of evolutions of the line. 
 
 POSTS OP GENERALS, ETC. 
 
 Figs. 60 to 65 give the positions of the generals of division, brigade, &c. 
 When the regiments are deployed, either in the order of review or of 
 battle, the generals of division are at the distance of ten platoon fronts 
 in advance of the centres of their respectivfe divisions ; the generals of 
 brigade eight platoon fronts in advance of the centres of their brigades. 
 
 In general close column (fig. 63) the general of division is on the di- 
 recting flank of the leading subdivision of his command, at the distance 
 of three platoon fronts from the guide ; each general of brigade on the 
 line of his leading subdivision, at the distance of two platoon fronts from 
 the guide. When the regiments are formed in line of close columns of 
 regiments, at deploying intervals, the posts of the generals are as when 
 the regiments are deployed. When the line of close column of regiments 
 is with closed intervals, the generals of division are at the distance of six 
 platoons; generals of brigade, four; colonels, two in advance; the latter are 
 on the prolongation of the lines of guides of their regiments. The general 
 
171 
 
 Fig. 60. — Division dep 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 173 
 
 commanding may move wherever his presence is most necessary ; but the 
 subordinate commanders will in no case leave the places assigned to them, 
 but will correct any faultg, either by orders to tjie nearest subordinate 
 commanders, or by means of their aides-de-camp. Each general has a 
 trumpeter with him ; the other trumpeters take post as prescribed in the 
 school of the regiment. 
 
 OF DEPLOYED LINES. 
 
 Regiments and brigades are posted, in each division, from right to left, 
 according to seniority. In the order of review and the order of battle 
 they are each formed as prescribed in the school of the regiment. Corps, 
 divisions, and brigades are habitually formed in order of battle, unless 
 special orders are given to form them in the order of review. 
 
 Fig. 64 shows the formation of a brigade of eight-squadron regiments 
 in the order of battle. 
 
 Fig. 65 shows the formation of a brigade of ten-squadron regiments in 
 the order of battle. 
 
 Both in the order of battle and that of review the interval between 
 regiments and brigades is two platoon fronts ; in the first case, for eight 
 and ten squadron regiments, this interval is measured between the flanker, 
 or lancer, squadrons. In the order of battle of commands composed of 
 ten-squadron regiments the front line may be composed of the correspond- 
 ing wings of all the regiments, or one half of it may be composed of the 
 right wings of one-half the regiments, and the other half of it of the 
 left wings of the remaining regiments. 
 
 In the order of battle of eight and ten squadron regiments the flanker, 
 or lancer, squadrons are regarded as belonging to the first line, and not 
 as constituting a separate line. When the general line is to be aligned to 
 the front, care must be taken that the new direction does not cross the old. 
 
 In all alignments the flanker, or lancer, squadrons, formed in columns by 
 platoons, align themselves on the flank squadrons of the line of battle, 
 and always have the guide on the inner flank. 
 
 The march to the front, the oblique march, wheels and abouts by sub- 
 divisions, and halts, "are executed by the commands and according to the 
 principles laid down in the school of the regiment, substituting in the 
 preparatory commands, when necessary, the word division, or brigadcj for 
 regiment. The charge is executed according to the principles laid down 
 in the school of the regiment. 
 
 The same holds good with regard to the passage of obstacles ; but if 
 partial obstacles exist along the front of a whole regiment, each squadron 
 breaks into column by the appropriate subdivision, and forms squadron as 
 soon as the obstacle is passed. If all the ground in front of a regiment 
 is impassable, it forms into close column, by squadrons, in rear of one of 
 the regiments on its flanks, and does not re-enter the line until the next 
 
174 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 halt, unless orders to the contrary are given. If the obstacle is in front 
 of the regiment of direction, another regiment is designated in its place. 
 
 ECHELONS. • 
 
 The formation of and movements by echelons are executed as in the 
 school of the regiment, with the following modifications : 
 
 (Fig. 66.) In a line of considerable extent, one part may break by 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 Scale of paces, Figs. 66—69, 82, 83. 
 
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 Echelons by divisions, one regim^it standing fast. 
 
 echelons while the other part remains in line; in this case the movement 
 begins at one of the flanks, and is arrested by the command, halt. 
 
 Echelons may be formed on an interior part of the line, in which case 
 that part is designated as that of direction; the following movements may 
 thus be executed : (1,) one flank of the line may break by echelons to 
 the front, and the other to the rear ; (2,) both flanks may break to the 
 front, or both to the rear; (3,) the subdivision of direction may commence 
 the movement, by breaking to the front or rear. 
 
 In the first two cases the subdivision of direction stands fast, in the last 
 case it commences the movement ; all these movements are executed as 
 prescribed in the school of the regiment. During movements by eche- 
 lons, the 2d line of ten-squadron regiments conforms to what will here- 
 after be laid down for the second line. Line is formed from echelons 
 according to the principles of the school of the regiment. 
 
 THE ADVANCE AND RETREAT BY ALTERNATE HALF SQUADRONS, 
 SQUADRONS, AND DIVISIONS. 
 
 This is executed as prescribed in the school of the regiment, with the 
 following modifications : if the movement is ordered to be commenced by 
 the right, and by divisions, (of two squadrons,) then, in six and eight 
 squadron regiments, the 1st and 3d divisions of the 1st regiment, and 2d 
 division of the 2d regiment of each brigade, commence the movement; 
 if it is directed to be commenced by the left, the 2d division of the 1st 
 regiment, and the 1st and 3d divisions of the 2d regiment, commence the 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 175 
 
 movement. If the order to advance by alternate subdivisions is given 
 while the line is on the march, the subdivisions which are to commence 
 the movement continue marching at the original gait, but the others halt; 
 if, under the same circumstances, a retreat is to be executed, the sub- 
 divisions which are to commence the m(j7ement at once wheel about at the 
 original gait, the others halt. 
 
 TO CHANGE FRONT. 
 
 In changes of front the general rule is : the regiment of direction 
 changes front by the rules laid down in the school of the regiment ; the 
 others form columns of attack, which move by the shortest lines upon the 
 positions marked by their principal guides. 
 
 If, in a single brigade, the preparatory command is prefaced by the 
 words, " hy squadrons," each regiment executes the movement according 
 to the school of the regiment, neither forming columns of attack. 
 
 If the flank squadron of any brigade or division is the squadron of 
 direction, the contiguQus regiment of the next brigade or division may 
 change front according to the school of the regiment. In a line of great 
 extent, all the regiments may be first formed into columns of attack, and 
 the change of front then executed. 
 
 OF THE FORMATION OF COLUMNS. 
 
 General rules. — Columns with full distance are formed according to the 
 school of the regiment. Columns with less than full distance are formed 
 like close columns. The principles of the formation of close columns by 
 squadrons and by half squadrons being the same, the rules for those by 
 squadrons are alone given. 
 
 Columns having the senior regiment in front are called right columns^ 
 those having the junior regiment in front are called left columns, whether 
 each regiment be right or left in front; in all cases right general columns 
 have the guide left, and the reverse. 
 
 The distance between divisions, brigades, and regiments, in close column, 
 is twice platoon distance, measured as between the subdivisions of a regi- 
 mental close column. General close columns may be formed either from 
 a deployed line or from a line of close regimental columns. 
 
 FORMATION OF GENERAL CLOSE COLUMNS FROM A DEPLOYED LINE. 
 
 (Figs. 67 and 68.) One squadron is designated as that of direction; the 
 regiment to which that squadron belongs forms close column on it, ac- 
 cording to the school of the regiment ; the other regiments each form 
 close column on the flank squadron nearest the regiment of direction, 
 and then move by the oblique march to their respective positions in the 
 general column. 
 
176 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 In all the movements of the regimental columns to form the general 
 column, especially when obliquing, every squadron must be exactly 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 General right column on 3d squadron, let regiment. 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 (For scale, see p. 174.) 
 
 parallel to its original position in line ; the lines <jP guides on both flanks 
 must be parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the squadron at the 
 head of the column; and, finally, the several files must be parallel to 
 each other. 
 
 FORMATION OP GENERAL CLOSE COLUMNS FROM A LINE OF REGI- 
 MENTAL COLUMNS. 
 
 Regimental columns in line — i.e. columns having the heads of all the 
 regiments on the same line — are formed with full or closed intervals; this 
 formation is called a line of columns with full or closed intervals. 
 
 Full intervals are such as to permit all the regiments to deploy into 
 order of battle on the same squadron of every regiment ; closed intervals 
 are: between 6-squadron regiments 2 platoon fronts; between 8-squadron 
 regiments 4 platoon fronts; between 10-squadron regiments 6 platoon 
 fronts. 
 
 General close column may be formed from a line of columns, either 
 with full or closed intervals. 
 
 The first case has already been explained, when giving the manner of 
 forming general column from a deployed line. 
 
 Fig. 69 gives an example of the latter case ; one regiment being desig- 
 nated as that of direction, those which are to be in front of it in the 
 column march straight to the front, until arriving abreast of their places 
 in column, when they move straight to their places ; those that are to be 
 in rear of the directing regiment gain their positions by first marching to 
 the rear. 
 
 If the order to form general column is given when the line is in march, 
 the directing regiment halts; the others acting as just described. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 177 
 
 Fig. 70 shows the manner of forming the general column on one of the 
 flanks when the march is to be continued after the formation. 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 Formation of a right general 
 column, on Sd regiment, from 
 a line of columns with closed 
 intervals. 
 
 The 1st regiment marches straight forward; the 2d moves to the right, 
 by threes in each rank, as soon as the last squadron of the 1st regiment 
 is abreast of the 3d squadron of the 2d regiment, and moves to the left, 
 by threes, when its line of left guides is on the prolongation of that of 
 the 1st regiment; the 3d and 4th regiments move to the right, in turn, 
 as soon as the regiments next on their right have gained an interval 
 equal to the depth of a regimental close column — i.e. in a 6-squadron 
 regiment 5 platoon fronts ; in an 8-squadron regiment 7 platoon fronts ; 
 in a 10-squadron regiment 9 platoon fronts. At the close of the move- 
 ment, the distances between the regiments in the general column will be 
 four platoon fronts ; the colonels of the 2d, 3d, and 4th regiments will, 
 therefore, close up on the head of the column, by doubling the gait. 
 
 If the column is thus formed on the march, the 1st regiment continues 
 to move at the original gait ; the others halt. 
 
 Each brigade may be formed into a separate column, and these brigade 
 columns, afterwards, in one general column. 
 
 Fig. 71 shows the manner of forming general close column, from a line 
 of regimental columns, by a change of direction to the right or left, 
 executed by each regiment. If the intervals between the regiments in 
 line are less than those already laid down, it will be necessary to increase 
 them for eight or ten squadron regiments before executing the move- 
 
178 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 ment. At the close of this formation, the regiments in the general 
 column will have less than their proper distances; these must be taken 
 upon the first movement of the column. 
 
 Fig. n. 
 
 6-squadron regiments. 
 
 *J — i*.;ffj?i-a" 
 
 fV..— -.^.1..-.— c-jsi-3,a - 
 
 8-squadron regiments. 
 
 ta-^MT— r.'f^t-rj— -c^.-Jsr-j— 
 
 TO FORM LINE OF COLUMNS FROM A DEPLOYED LINE. 
 
 To effect this, each regiment forms close column by squadron. 
 
 If the same squadron in each regiment is taken as that of direction, 
 the line of columns will be formed with full intervals. 
 
 If the line is to be formed with closed intervals, the squadrons of 
 direction are so chosen, in the different regiments, that no squadron may 
 be obliged to pass twice over the same ground. 
 
 A line of columns of attack is formed as prescribed in the school of 
 the regiment. 
 
 OF MOVEMENTS IN COLUMN. 
 
 Movements in general column. — These are made in every direction, 
 according to the principles of the school of the regiment. 
 
 In changing the direction of a close column, by the head of column, 
 the following is to be observed : each regiment will turn where those in 
 front §f it did ; the gait of the regiments in rear must be so regulated 
 that no part of the column may be obliged to halt before the wheel is 
 made, and that, on the completion of the wheel, every regiment may have 
 its proper distance. 
 
 Fig. 72 gives an example of the method of changing the direction of a 
 close column from a halt. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 179 
 
 In close column, distances are taken in accordance with tlie principles 
 of the school of the regiment; e.g., in a close column, consisting of a 
 brigade of 2 six-squadron regiments, to take distance, by head of column, 
 on the 2d squadron of 2d regiment; the 2d regiment takes distance on 
 its 2d squadron, as laid down in the school of the regiment; the colonel 
 of the 1st regiment marches it forward, and when his 6th squadron is 6 
 times platoon distance in advance of the point where the 1st squadron of 
 2d regiment halted, he halts the 6th squadron ; the others halting in suc- 
 cession as they gain their distances. 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 Ji m 
 
 
 
 — >- 
 
 tSTJKKS 
 
 / 
 
 Columns with distance are closed according to the school of the regiment. 
 
 Movements of a line of columns. — These are effected according to the 
 same principles, and by the same commands, as for a deployed line. 
 
 The intervals of a line of columns are diminished or extended by 
 marching each column along the line; th6 principal guides of the leading 
 squadron of each column precede it, and mark its new position. 
 
 Fig. 73 presents an example of the manner of changing the front of a 
 line of columns. with closed intervals. 
 
 TO FORM LINE FROM COLUMN. 
 
 General rules. — To form line from a right general column, with full 
 distance, each subdivision wheels to the left ; from a left column, they 
 wheel to the right ; in both cases the line is formed on the side of the 
 guides, and in accordance with the principles of the school of the regiment. 
 
 To form line forward from a similar column, it is first closed, and the 
 line then formed as usual from closed .columns. 
 
 A general close column may be formed either into line of columns, or 
 into a deployed line. 
 
 The formation into line of columns may be effected either to the front, 
 to the right, or to the left. That to the front is effected by conducting 
 the heads of the regiments on the new line ; that to the left, (Fig. 76,) 
 
180 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 ^ iiii 
 iii: 
 
 
 i 
 
 -;:;; i— ^: <-.•;; -ai 
 
 liii 
 
 mmrti 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 
 SErteS 
 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 ^:pj: 
 
 -I <.... — pi5jsK3 
 
 SiSEJ5S 
 
 For scale, see page 174. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 181 
 
 from a right column, by a change of direction to the left in each regi- 
 ment ; that to the right, from a left column, by a change of direction to 
 the right in each regiment. 
 
 To form a general close column into a deployed line, to either flank, the 
 column first changes direction, and then forms line to the front. A line 
 of close columns may also be deployed into line to the front, or either 
 flank; in the last case, the preceding paragraph must be conformed to. 
 
 In forming line of columns from general close column, the regiment 
 of direction may either halt or move forward. In both cases the forma- 
 tion is executed according to the rules given, in the school of thtf regi- 
 ment, for deploying a close column: i.e. all the- movements and rules 
 laid down for the squadrons and squadron Fig. 74. 
 
 commanders are here executed by the regi- 
 mental columns and the colonels. 
 
 The line on which the heads of columns 
 form is marked by the principal guides of the 
 leading squadron of each regiment. 
 
 The line of columns, formed from general 
 column, should be with closed intervals. 
 
 Fig. 74 shows the manner of forming line 
 of columns to the front, on the 3d regiment, 
 which stands fast. 
 
 Fig. 75 shows the manner of forming line of columns to the front, on 
 the 3d regiment, which advances. 
 
 Fig. 76 shows the manner of forming line of columns to the left, from 
 general column. 
 
 To form a deployed line from general close column, one squadron is 
 designated as that of direction. In forming line on the leading squadron, 
 it may either stand fast or advance; if any other squadron is that of 
 direction, it will always be thrown forward. The column may be de- 
 ployed either from a halt or on the march ; in the latter case, the squad- 
 ron of direction halts at the command of execution. 
 
 Fig. 77 gives an example of the manner of deploying a general column 
 of 2 regiments on the 6th squadron of the 1st regiment. 
 
 Fig, 78 gives an example of the deployment of the same column on the 
 2d squadron of the 2d regiment. 
 
 TO DEPLOY INTO LINE FROM A LINE OP COLUMNS. 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 Fig. 79 gives an example of the deployment of a line of 2 regimental 
 
182 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 columns ; this will explain the general principle of all such deployments, 
 in which the squadrons of direction always advance upon the new line. 
 
 A line of columns of attack is deployed as prescribed in the school of 
 the regiment. 
 
 OF THE FORMATION IN TWO LINES. 
 
 The first line is usually deployed; the second in columns of attack; the 
 first line, however, is sometimes also in columns of attack. 
 
 The distance between the lines is, usually, about 300 yards. 
 
 The second line is formed in columns of attack, because these columns 
 are deployed more rapidly than any other ; because in this order the 
 second line can advance through the first without obstacle, and the first 
 can in like manner retreat through the second. 
 
 The columns of attack of the second line are' placed behind the cor- 
 responding divisions (of 2 squadrons) of the first line ; the centres of the 
 columns opposite the middles of the intervals in the divisions of the first 
 line. 
 
 A general column is deployed into two lines, as follows : the portions 
 designated for the 1st line remain in the column until ordered to deploy, 
 either from a halt or in march, by the general commanding, whose order 
 is repeated by the commander of the 1st line ; the portions designated 
 for the 2d line are conducted to the proper distance to the rear by the 
 commander of that line, and, having gained this distance, at once deploy, 
 and form columns of attack; if the deployment is made on the march, 
 the 2d line reduces the gait, halting if the original gait was a walk, and 
 then acts as described above ; in any case, when the 2d line has formed 
 its columns of attack, it preserves its proper distance from the 1st line by 
 doubling or reducing the gait as may be necessary. 
 
 ASSIGNMENT AND POSITION OP COMMANDERS. 
 
 Each line should have a special commander. In a division formed in 
 two lines by brigade, the commanders of the lines are the generals of the 
 brigades of which they are respectively formed ; if a brigade is formed in 
 two lines, the colonels of the regiments are the commanders of the lines; 
 if each line is composed of two regiments belonging to different brigades, 
 then the general of division assigns a general of brigade to command each 
 line. In every case the position of the commander of each line is in con- 
 formity with what has heretofore been prescribed ; e.g. if a line consists 
 of two regiments, whether of the same brigade or not, the commander of 
 that line posts himself as prescribed for a general of brigade. 
 
 The general of division is always with the 1st line. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 183 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF THE LINES. 
 
 All movements of the 1st line are made by signals, or by the order of 
 tbe general commanding, repeated by the commander of the 1st line ; the 
 movements of the 2d line are made by orders of the general commanding, 
 transmitted by an aide-de-camp, and upon the immediate order of the 
 commander of the 2d line. Trumpet signals refer only to the 1st line, 
 and are not repeated by the trumpeters of the 2d line. The 2d line con- 
 forms to all the general movements of the 1st, and preserves, with refer- 
 ence to it, the distance at which it was originally formed. If the 1st line 
 charges, the 2d moves at the trot out, and resumes its proper distance 
 when the 1st halts, or passes to a slower gait from the charge. 
 
 If the 1st line moves to either flank, advances, or retreats, the 2d line, 
 formed in columns of attack, executes the corresponding movements by 
 platoons. If the 1st line advances or retreats by alternate subdivisions, 
 the 2d line, in conforming to the movement, moves in one mass ; e.g., if 
 the 1st line advances by alternate squadrons, the odd squadrons com- 
 mencing the movement, the whole of the 2d line advances when the even 
 squadrons of the 1st line start, and halts when these squadrons arrive 
 abreast of the halted odd squadrons, and again advances when the odd 
 squadrons start the second time, — for the distance between the lines is 
 measured between the nearest parts of the two ; if the 1st line retreats by 
 alternate squadrons, commencing with the odd squadrons, the 2d line 
 stands fast untjl the even squadrons start, and moves with them. 
 
 If the 1st line advances or retreats by echelons of divisions, the 
 columns of attack of the 2d line move at the same time as their corre- 
 sponding divisions of the 1st line ] if but a part of the 1st line breaks 
 by echelons, the other part remaining in line, the 2d line conforms to 
 •the movement. 
 
 If the 1st line breaks by echelons on both flanks, or by the centre, 
 the 2d line moves in line, with the rear echelons. If the 1st line breaks 
 by echelons of squadrons, the divisions of the 2d line conform to the 
 movements of that squadron of their corresponding division of the 1st 
 line which is nearest them, and farthest from the enemy. 
 
 CHANGES OF FRONT. 
 
 The 1st line changes front as heretofore explained. 
 
 When the front is changed 45°, the division of direction in the 2d line 
 is the one corresponding to that of the 1st line. The directing division 
 of the 2d line, and all the others in rear of that flank of the 1st line 
 which forms forward, also form forward; the division next to that of 
 direction, on the side in rear of that flank of the 1st line which forms to 
 
184 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 the rear, will have its new position on the line of original formation of 
 the 2d line, and at the point originally occupied by the next division on 
 the other side of that of direction ; all the remaining divisions form to 
 the rear. 
 
 Fig. 80 shows the manner of changing front forward 45°, on the first 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 Change of front 45°, on the 1st division 2d regiment. 
 
 division of the second regiment of the 1st line, and explains what has 
 just been said: i.e. the first division of the second regiment of the 2d 
 line is that of direction: it and all the divisions of the 1st regiment 
 form forward, the second division of the second regiment occupies the 
 original position of the third division of the first regiment, and the third 
 division of the second regiment forms to the rear. 
 
 Fig. 81 shows the manner of changing front 90°. This example will 
 explain the general rule for changing front 90°, which is as follows : in 
 the second line, the division of direction is the one corresponding to that 
 of the 1st line : it, and all the others behind that flank of the 1st line 
 which forms forward, form forward ; the two next divisions in rear of 
 the other flank of the 1st line also form forward; the remaining divisions 
 of the 2d line form to the rear. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 185 
 
 I 
 
 PASSAGE OP THE LINE. 
 
 This may be executed in three ways ; (a) by the 2d line advancing 
 through the 1st ; (b) by the 1st line retreating through the 2d ; (c) by 
 the simultaneous movement of both lines in opposite directions, i.e. the 
 1st line retreating, the 2d advancing. 
 
 When the general commanding intends the 2d line to advance through 
 the 1st, he sends orders to the commander of the 2d line to advance ', if 
 he intends the 1st line to retreat through the 2d, he informs the com- 
 mander of the latter of his intention, and orders the 1st line to retreat. 
 
 In the passage of the line, both may be formed in columns of attack, 
 or one in this order and the other deployed. 
 
 It is a general rule that any party of troops meeting, or passing, another 
 party, leaves the latter on its left; therefore, if the 2d line, formed in 
 columns of attack, is ordered to pass through the let line, formed in like 
 
-mm- 
 
 186 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 manner, the columns of tlie 2d line pass to the right of the corresponding 
 
 columns of the 1st line, as 
 Bfisa... Bimil shown in figure 83. 
 
 _ ^ If, under similar circum- 
 
 stances, the 1st line retreats 
 \ through the 2d, the same 
 
 ^<^ -aH * principle is conformed to. 
 
 ^ m% Hill (Fig- .82.) Ifthe2dlme, 
 
 » ^a3\^ Bim formed in columns of attack, 
 
 ^ *\ ^ jjnjia _> is ordered to pass through the 
 
 1st, which is deployed, then 
 
 gj^ig the columns pass through the 
 
 \ intervals in the corresponding 
 
 gggg^ ' *"j'i"ai" * divisions of the 1st line. 
 
 \ If both lines, formed in 
 
 f^ 
 
 ♦ columns of attack, meet on 
 the march, those advancing 
 
 -:• move straight forward, while 
 
 .§ ^ those in retreat oblique to 
 
 ^ ^ the right, out of their way. 
 
 Z ' I (Fig. 82.) When the 2d 
 
 So I line, in columns of attack, 
 
 I ^ passes though the 1st, which 
 
 (^ 
 
 BttSla"" 
 
 is deployed, it is necessary 
 to increase the. intervals in 
 the centres of the divisions 
 of the 1st line; this is done 
 by the commands of the divi- 
 sion and squadron command- 
 ers, without waiting for the 
 orders of the commander of 
 ^ 3.35.3 ^ pftj > the line; to effect this, the 
 
 g g inner flank platoons of each 
 
 squadron wheel about by 
 threes, then wheel to the 
 right and left, respectively, 
 by platoon, then wheel about 
 by threes, and stand fast 
 until the 2d line has passed, 
 
 on which the commandants of platoons at once wheel into line. 
 
 If the 1st line is in retreat, deployed, or in columns of attack, and the 
 
 2d line is ordered to deploy before the 1st has passed it, then, in the first 
 
 case, (the line retreating deployed,) the odd squadrons of the 1st line 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 187 
 
 break into columns by platoons rigbt in front, tbe even squadrons left 
 in front, and pass through the intervals on the right of their correspond- 
 ing squadrons of the 2d line; having passed the line, these columns, by 
 platoons, oblique towards each other, and thus form columns of attack ; 
 in the second case, i.e. the 1st line retreating in columns of attack, these 
 columns pass through the intervals in the divisions of the second line, 
 which are increased for their passage, as already explained. 
 
 When the columns of the 2d line have passed the 1st, they may either 
 be deployed at once or remain in columns. 
 
 If the advancing 2d line is halted at less than 300 yards in front of 
 the 1st, the latter does not take its proper distance until' the next move- 
 ment, unless it receives special orders to the contrary. 
 
 If the advancing 2d line is not halted at 300 paces from the 1st, but 
 continues to advance, the latter follows the movements of the former at 
 the prescribed distance. 
 
 When the 2d line passes the 1st, which is deployed, the latter at once 
 forms into columns of attack, without awaiting the orders of the general 
 commanding in chief. 
 
 The tactics give, in detail, the order of march, in review, for a corps 
 of cavalry, with its artillery. 
 
 ORDERS OF BATTLE, AND GENERAL COLUMNS. 
 ORDERS OF BATTLE^ — GENERAL RULES. 
 
 To explain the orders of battle, the case taken is that of a division of 
 cavalry, with its artillery. 
 
 By the order of battle of a division of cavalry is meant such a distri- 
 bution of its parts that the (^vision can act promptly against the enemy. 
 
 In the order of battle the regiments are placed in two, three, or more 
 lines. The distribution of the troops in lines, and the formation of each 
 line, depends upon the purpose of each order of battle. 
 
 The 1st line is usually deployed, and is called the line of battle ; the 
 troops of the 2d and 3d lines are formed in columns, and, according to 
 the nature of the columns, constitute either supports or reserves : e.g., if 
 a line is of columns of attack, the troops thus formed are supports, but if 
 the formation is in close columns o^ regiments by squadrons they consti- 
 tute reserves. 
 
 The distance between the lines is usually about 300 yards. 
 
 The second line is intended as a support for the first, in case of neces- 
 sity ; it should, therefore, be formed in the order most suitable for thig 
 purpose. In conformity with this, it is formed into columns of attack; 
 for these can be deployed more rapidly than any other column, and allow; 
 an easy passage of the line. 
 
 12 
 
188 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The purpose of the third line is to support the other two, and also to 
 operate wherever its presence may be necessary. To fulfil this object, it 
 is posted behind the centre of the other lines, and is formed in close 
 columns by squadrons. It is placed behind the centre, because that 
 position is about equaHy distant from the points where it will most pro- 
 bably be required, i.e. -the flanks and the centre ; it is formed in close 
 columns by squadrons, because in that order the troops are more concen- 
 trated than in any other, and can, therefore, be conveniently moved 
 wherever required, and can also, without any inconvenience, be divided 
 and detached, as circumstances may render necessary. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE ORIJERS OF BATTLE. 
 
 Divisions may form in three orders of battle and one order of reserve. 
 
 The first order of battle. — This is employed when the division is 
 isolated, and does not intend engaging in a serious affair with the enemy; 
 therefore, in this case a considerable portion of its force is in reserve. 
 The general formation in this order of battle is : one line of battle, one 
 line of supports, and one line of reserves. 
 
 Fig. 88 shows the peculiarity of the formation of a division of ten- 
 squadron regiments. 
 
 ► Figs. 84 to 89 will indicate with sufficient clearness the formation of 
 the different kinds of divisions of Russian cavalry. 
 
 It is only necessary to remark that eight pieces constitute a battery; 
 that when half a battery is in reserve it is formed in double column on 
 the centre, by sections ; a battery in reserve is formed in double column 
 on the centre, by half battery ; when two batteries are in reserve, each 
 is formed as just described for a single battery. 
 
 The skirmishers represented in the plates rR:e furnished by the flanker, 
 or lancer, squadrons of the regiment in the first line, except those of the 
 division of light cavalry of the guard, which are furnished by a regiment 
 (two squadrons) of Cossacks. 
 
 The second order of battle. — This is employed when the division is 
 supported by other troops, and should present an extended front to the 
 enemy. 
 
 Divisions composed of six and eight squadron regiments are formed 
 in two lines: the first consists of two regiments deployed; the second 
 of the remaining regiments in columns of attack; there is no line of 
 reserves. 
 
 Fig. 90 shows the peculiar formation of dragoon divisions in this order 
 of battle. 
 
 Figs. 91 to 95-give all necessary information as to the formation of the 
 other kinds of divisions. 
 
 The third order of battle. — This is established for the case when a 
 
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 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
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196 THE ABMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 division is to make a very energetic attack. In this case the division is 
 formed in four lines ; in the first line, one regiment deployed, with artil- 
 lery on both flanks; in each of the other lines one regiment in columns 
 of attack. • 
 
 Figs. 96 to 101 give the necessary details. 
 
 Fig. 97 shows one exception to the. rule in the case of a division of but 
 three full regiments and one Cossack regiment of two squadrons. 
 
 Fig. 100 shows an exception in the case of a division of ten-squadron 
 regiments, in which each line is composed of parts of two different 
 regiments. 
 
 The order of reserve serves to concentrate the troops. It presents the 
 following advantages : from it the troops can pass in the shortest time to 
 any of the orders of battle ; they can be most rapidly formed into one or 
 several columns; any portion of the division can be detached without 
 disturbing the general arrangement. In this order the division is 
 arranged in two lines of close columns by squadrons, the senior regi- 
 ment of each brigade on the right. Figs. 102 to 107 give the details. 
 Th« batteries are formed in double column on the centre by half bat- 
 teries. If the general commanding deems proper, he may place the 
 artillery of each brigade in the intervals between the regiments, increas- 
 ing, for this purpose, the usual interval of fifty paces to such an extent 
 that there may be an interval of twenty paces between each flank of thoi 
 artillery and the adjacent regiment; in this case, when the division is at 
 a halt the chiefs of pieces of the leading half batteries align themselves 
 on the front rank of the leading squadrons; on the march they align 
 themselves on the fi\e-closers of the leading squadrons. i 
 
 GENERAL COLUMNS. 
 
 These are columns in which all parts of the division are so arranged 
 that it can easily pass to one of the orders of battle. 
 
 A division of cavalry may be formed in one or two general columns. 
 This formation is employed for taking up a position preparatory to action, 
 or when in route; therefore such columns are called, respectively, q/Tensire 
 columns anj^ marching columns. 
 
 For movements to a flank, and turning movements, the formation in 
 two columns is used; these are called, respectively, flanh and turning 
 columns. General columns having the senior regiment in front are right 
 columns, those having the junior regiment in front are left columns, 
 whether each regiment be right or left in front. , 
 
 In • the formation of a division into columns, the general rule is that 
 the odd-numbered regiments are left in front; the even, right in front. 
 The commander may place the regiments and brigades in the columns as 
 he judges best, without regard to the general rule. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. I97 
 
 General columns j for one division^ with one hatter^. 
 Fig. 108. Fig. 109. 
 
 J . i ""l 
 
 I I 
 
 ^ ■ ¥ 
 a i 
 
 I =-=-=-..=.=-^ Pig. 110. 
 
 R»» Sa o aao ZM iM ifo SO0 CM 700 ^ 
 1 ^ ! I ' I I — ■ — I Paces. 
 
 Fig. 108. In one column. 
 
 Fig. 109. In two columns. 
 
 Fig. 110. In two columns, right or left in front. 
 
198 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Figs. 108, 109, 110, show tlie arrangement of the regiments of a divi- 
 sion, in one or two columns. 
 
 In marching columns, the regiments move by platoons, breaking by 
 sixes, or threes, when a decrease in the width of the road renders it 
 necessary. 
 
 For movements in retreat, the parts of the division are arranged in the 
 columns as for an advance, but in inverse order. 
 
 If a flank movement is to be made in sight of the enemy, or at but a 
 short distance from him, each line forms a separate column, marching by 
 platoons or threes, so as to avoid all shifting of parts, and to be able to 
 form rapidly into order of battle ; during the flank march,, the artillery 
 should march 100 paces within the 1st line of the cavalry; therefore, if 
 the batteries were in position at the beginning of the movement, they 
 limber to the rear, and follow the movement as here prescribed. 
 
 Although, in figs. 102 to 110, the artillery is represented as being in the 
 centre of the brigades, it may be concentrated at the centre of the division. 
 
 RULES FOR FORMING IN ORDER OF BATTLE. 
 
 General rules. — The employment of the difi'erent orders of battle, and 
 their adaptation to the ground and circumstances, depend entirely upon 
 the generals of division, unless it is specified in the instructions for the 
 corps exactly how each division is to form. 
 
 In all cases the generals of division are allowed to make the partial 
 changes rendered necessary by the ground; besides which, a principal 
 object is the choice of the most advantageous position for the artillery, 
 as its success depends upon this choice. It is a general rule for the 
 orders of battle, thftt the junior brigades and regiments of cavalry, and 
 divisions and batteries of artillery, should be in front; an exception to 
 this rule is made in the case of batteries of position, as they are always 
 placed in the first line, the light batteries being in reserve. When the 
 artillery is posted on the flanks of the line, the heavy batteries are on 
 the right flank, the light on the left. As circumstances may render it 
 necessary to employ one patt of a division instead of another, changes 
 may be made in the foregoing rules ; but it is required that the regiments 
 composing a brigade be kept together, unless it is absolutely impossible 
 to avoid separating them. Thus, in the 1st order of battle, if the 2d 
 regiment is in the 1st line, th^ 1st regiment should be in the 2d line, 
 and the 3d and 4th in reserve. 
 
 In the 2d order of battle, it may be permitted to compose the right 
 wings of both lines of one brigade, and the left wings of the other 
 brigade. 
 
 A division forms into order of battle at the command of its chief, who 
 designates as the directing subdivision either one of the squadrons of the 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 199 
 
 1st line, or the artillery, according to the ground and circumstances. 
 The subdivision of direction is taken, in preference, nearest the new 
 position of the troops. 
 
 In forming into order of battle from column, or in passing from one 
 order of battle to another, the shortest road should always be taken; 
 never using, however, the individual oblique march, which should never 
 be employed for more than one or two squadrons; the artillery may 
 oblique. The preparatory formations, and the movements themselves, 
 are made by brigade, or by regiment, according to circumstances. 
 
 In all the general formations there should be an interval of 20 paces 
 between the extreme pieces of artillery and the flanks of the nearest 
 squadrons ; the interval between the pieces themselves is : in light bat- 
 teries, 20 paces ; in heavy batteries, 25 paces. If there is no artillery 
 on the flanks of the 1st line, the flanker, or lancer, squadrons of this line 
 are not aligned upon the rest of the line, but are in rear of its flanks, as 
 prescribed in the school of the regiment. 
 
 Batteries, in front of the 1st line of cavalry, are always aligned upon 
 the principal reserves of -the skirmishers ; if there are no skirmishers 
 thrown forward, or if they are recalled, and the cavalry does not close 
 up on the batteries, the latter fall back somewhat, and take post at from 
 100 to' 120 paces in front of the 1st line. 
 
 The distance between unlimbered batteries and the 1st line is always 
 measured from the line of pieces to the front rank of the 1st line. 
 
 Artillery in reserve is always placed in rear of the cavalry reserve. 
 
 The tactics then proceed to describe the different meth(tds "of passing 
 to the orders of battle from column ;' of passing from one order of battle 
 to another ; of forming general column from the orders of battle. It 
 then gives the application of the principles of the evolutions of the line 
 to the orders of battle, under the following heads : advance in order of 
 battle; retreat in order of battle; changes of front; passage of the line; 
 the duties of skirmishers; of giving the commands. In all these cases 
 the movements of the batteries are fully described. There is, in addi- 
 tion, a supplement, giving the position of the artillery in the diff'erent 
 formations of a corps of cavalry. 
 
200 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 CHAPTER m. . 
 
 EQUIPMENTS, ARMS, STABLES, HORSES, ETC., OF RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 
 
 HORSE EQUIPMENTS. 
 
 All the regular cavalry use the Hungarian saddle ; this will be fully 
 described when treating of the Austrian cavalry, and it is necessary to 
 mention here only that the tree is of wood, not covered, the seat formed 
 by a leather strap about 4 inches wide, nailed to the forks, and secured 
 to the side-boards by leather thongs. 
 
 Light steel stirrups are used, the leathers passing through mortises in 
 the side-boards. 
 
 The cuirassiers use a swivel-stirrup, as shown in thft 
 annexed sketch ; it is spoken of as a good one. Crup- 
 per and breast-straps of black leather. Grirth of 
 leather, and fastened by three small buckles : it 
 passes over the tree and is secured to the side-boards 
 by leather thongs. Two leather pouches are attached 
 to the tree. Saddle-blanket of stout felt cloth ; four 
 thic*knesses are generally used, with a layer of thin 
 black leather on top, the whole secured in form by 
 leather thongs passed through and through; if the 
 horse falls off in condition, additional thicknesses of felt are used, and 
 vice versa. The shoe-pouches are pockets sewed on to the leather cover 
 of the saddle-blanket. 
 
 This felt saddle-blanket is regarded by the Russian officers as the best 
 possible arrangement. 
 
 A small blanket is placed, folded, on the tree, under the schabraque. 
 The schabraque is of thick woollen cloth, lined with coarse linen. Sur- 
 cingle of leather, and fastens by means of ring and thong, in 'the fashion 
 of a Mexican girth. Valise of cloth, not materially different from our 
 own. Forage-bag of coarse white linen, open in the middle. 
 
 Bridle and hits. — By all the regular cavalry a curb and snaffle are 
 used, both of steel. There are three marked peculiarities in the curb- 
 bit : it hooks to a ring at the end of the cheek-strap, as shown in the 
 following sketch; the rings are attached to the branches by means of 
 swivels; the branches are reversed, that is, their convexity is turned 
 towards the front. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 201 
 
 There are three patterns of 
 
 "With regard to the manner of fast- 
 ening the bit to the head-stall, it will 
 be perceived from the sketch that the 
 little ring which is passed through the 
 end of the hook of the branch, and 
 rests against the flat side of the latter, 
 eflPectiially prevents the bit becoming 
 unhooked, unless the ring is raised by 
 the finger. 
 
 The snaffle-bit, a plain one without 
 horns, is fastened to the head-stall by a 
 chain and toggle, like the centring-bits 
 in the United States service. This ar- 
 rangement of the curb and snaffle per- 
 mits the men to feed their horses during 
 short halts without inconvenience; the 
 Russian cavalry officers represent it as 
 being every thing that can be desired. 
 The curb-chain is of steel, and very heavy, 
 the curb used, of different degrees of severity. 
 
 The head-stall and reins are of black leather ; no martingale. Crown- 
 piece single, and has a spare curb-chain on top of , it. Cheek-pieces 
 buckle to the crown-piece, on each side, by one buckle. Each cheek- 
 piece is a single strap, split at bottom to receive the rings by means of 
 which the bits are attached. 
 
 The nose-band passes through loops on the cheek-pieces. 
 
 Two plaited cords of black leather run diagonally across the horge's 
 face, from the brow-band to the nose-band ; there is a leather rosette at 
 their intereection. 
 
 There is nothing peculiar about the halter ; by attaching the snaffle-bit 
 and reins it becomes a watering-bridle ; halter-rope 9 feet long and half 
 an inch in diameter. 
 
 Forage-cord, for use when sent foraging, half an inch in diameter. 
 Curry-comb and brushes large and coarse; brushes have the back and 
 edges covered with black leather. Mane-combs of metal and of horn. 
 
 Spurs of steel, and permanently screwed to the heel of the boot. 
 
 Lancers have a lance-boot attached to each stirrup. 
 
 The Cossack saddle has a thick padding under the side-boards and on 
 the seat; it places the man very high on his horse, so that his feet are 
 always above the bottom of the belly. 
 
 Their bridle has but the simple snaffle-bit, — no curb nor martin^Ie. 
 • The Cossacks of the guard have spurs ; the others have whips, slung" 
 to the wrist, instead of spurs. 
 
202 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The Mussulman cavalry make use of the well-known Oriental horse 
 equipment. 
 
 SADDLING AND PACKING. 
 
 The tree being girthed tight, the pouches are filled ; in these are placed 
 the hatchet, curry-comb, brush, mane-comb, and other cleaning-utensils, 
 with various small articles. The overcoat is then rolled into a long, thin 
 roll, and strapped to the tree over the pouches; the roll falls down on 
 each side, and is of such a length as to be just covered by the schabraque. 
 If the uniform coat is to be carried on th6 saddle, it is placed as described 
 for the overcoat. 
 
 The small blanket is then folded and placed on the tree. 
 
 The schabraque is put on and secured. 
 
 The valise, containing shaving-utensils, soap, and under-clothes, is now 
 strapped tightly to the cantle, over the schabraque. 
 
 The forage-bag, containing habitually three days' rations, is strapped 
 to the cantle, over the valise, and lies on the schabraque, falling down on 
 each side between the valise and saddle.. The stable-frock is carried 
 either with the forage-bag or overcoat. 
 
 The hay, made up in elliptical rings by hay ropeg, is strapped to the 
 cantle, and lies on the schabraque behind the man's leg. 
 
 The forage-cord and halter are attached to the rear of the side-boards, 
 under the schabraque. 
 
 Spare boots are carried on top of the valise, under the flap, heels out- 
 ward. The camp-kettle fits on the end of the valise, and is secured there 
 by straps. One man of every three carries a copper camp-kettle as 
 above ; every man a small hatchet ; one man in every platoon carries a 
 spade, slung to the pommel, the blade in a leather case. 
 
 ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS. 
 
 Cuirassiers. — Steel helmet, breast and back pieces ; these are in some 
 regiments of bright steel, in others gilt, in others painted black. 
 
 Sabre, (pallasch,) a straight, flat, double-edged blade, 39 inches long; 
 it is the sabre described in Thiroux, pp. 146-148, as the model of 
 " L'an XI et XII ; " steel scabbard ; guard of brass, and of the basket form. 
 
 Sabre-knot, a flat strap of brown leather. 
 
 Sabre-belt, of white leather waist-belt, with slings — plate hooks, like 
 those of United States officers — and is worn under the cuirass. 
 
 Each man has one pistol, with percussion lock ; a cord is attached to a 
 ring in the butt, and passes around the neck ; the pistol is carried in a 
 holster on the waist-belt. This rule is general for all the cavalry. 
 
 In each platoon are four men who act, when necessary, as skirmishers ; 
 'they are armed with rifled carbines, the barrels of which are about 
 fifteen inches long; the carbine-sling is like that in use in the United 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 203 
 
 States service, and is worn very short ; the rammer is attached to the 
 sling. 
 
 A cartridge-box, "holding twenty rounds, is slung over the left shoulder; 
 the box is attached to the belt by swivels ; cap-pouch on cartridge-box 
 belt on the breast. The front-rank men are armed with lances 10 J feet 
 long; pennons on the lances. 
 
 Lancers. — Lance 10^ feet long ; pennons of same color as facings of the 
 uniform; sling of leather; point of lance seven inches long; a lance-boot 
 attached to each stirrup. 
 
 The sabre is three feet long in the blade; a little 
 less curved, and rather broader and thinner, than 
 the United States light-artillery sabre ; scabbard 
 of steel ; guard with but one branch, and of steel. 
 
 Sabre-knot as for cuirassiers. Sabre-belt of 
 brown leather, and worn under the coat. Each 
 man has one pistol, as for cuirassiers. Four men 
 in each platoon carry rifled carbines, with a longer 
 barrel than that of the cuirassiers ; these men 
 have no lances. 
 
 Cartridge-box as for cuirassiers. 
 
 Hussars. — Sabre, sabre-belt, pistol, and car- 
 tridge-box, as for lancers. Four men in each 
 platoon carry a rifled carj&ine, the rest a smooth- 
 bore carbine; the carbine is always carried on 
 the sling, there being no carbine-boot. Hussars 
 have a sabretasch. 
 
 Dragoons. — Each man of the first eight 
 squadrons armed with sabre and musket; the 
 9th and 10th squadrons armed as lancers. 
 
 In the first eight squadrons the arms, &c., are 
 as follows : 
 
 Sabre blade and hilt as for hussars. . 
 
 The annexed sketch shows the peculiar ar- 
 rangement of the scabbard and belt ; the scab- 
 bard being of leather, tipped with brass, the 
 rings on the convex edge; bayonet-scabbard 
 attached to flat side of the sabre-scabbard, by 
 brass bands ; the belt, a Circassian shoulder-belt, 
 without waistnbelt, and of such a length that 
 when the sabre is drawn the top of the scabbard 
 
 is just under the left elbow; when the sabre is in the scabbard the hilt is 
 between the elbow and the body. 
 
 Smooth-bore musket, with the ordinary bayonet ; the piece about four 
 
 13 
 
204 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 inches shorter than the United States musket, and somewhat lighter ; it 
 has a common musket-sling. It is usually carried in a water-proof gun- 
 case, with a separate sling, over the right shoulder, muzzle up, barrel 
 against the back ; this case opens by a slit under the stock, which is closed 
 by straps and buckles ; the butt end is sewed up. Cartridge-box carried 
 as for hussars, but contains 40 rounds. 
 
 The sergeants alone carry pistols. 
 
 Cossacks of the guard. — Sabre and scabbard like those of the dragoons, 
 except that there is no guard, and no bayonet-scabbard. Sabre-belt like 
 that of hussars. Musket like that of dragoons, but no bayonet. Car- 
 tridge-box like that of dragoons. Lance 10 J feet long, without pennon; 
 instead of having a lance-bucket attached to the stirrup, a leather strap is 
 fastened to the butt of the lance, and the foot run through the loop before 
 placing it in the stirrup. Each man also carries a pistol on his waist-belt. 
 
 Cossacks of the line of the Caucasus. — Sabre and scabbard as for the 
 Cossacks of the guard; sabre-belt like that of the dragoons. A long 
 musket slung over the shoulder; cartridge-box as for Cossacks of the 
 guard; pipes for ten or twelve cartridges sewed on the breast of the coat. 
 Two or more pistols, on waist-belt, and in holsters. A long, broad poniard. 
 No lances. 
 
 Tscherkesses. — Armed as Cossacks of the line of the Caucasus. The 
 officers carry bows and arrows, to enable them to cut oflf sentinels without 
 creating an alarm. 
 
 Other Cossacks. — Usually armed with lance, sabre, and pistol. About 
 ten men in every squadron carry muskets ; in some cases all the men have 
 muskets. 
 
 Mussulmen of the guard. — Armed in the Oriental style. 
 
 All the irregular cavalry carry their arms very close to the body, and 
 so arranged as to make the least possible noise. 
 
 Mounted gendarmes. — Sabre and belt like those of hussars. Dragoon 
 musket ; bayonet-scabbard on the waist-belt ; cartridge-box on a shoulder- 
 belt. Pistol carried either on the saddle or the waist-belt. 
 
 Officers wear a sabre similar to that of their men. 
 
 HORSES, AND THE MANNER OF PURCHASING THEM. 
 
 In each regiment of cavalry, and battery of artillery, the horses are all 
 of the same color. 
 
 The Russian cavalry is, probably, the best mounted in Europe, — certainly 
 the best on the continent. The English heavy-cavalry horses may be 
 somewhat better, but they have nothing for light cavalry to compare with 
 the mass of the Russian animals for that purpose. The heavy-cavalry 
 horses are mostly purchased in the provinces of Tamboff and Woron^ge, 
 at %n average price of $90 each. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 205 
 
 The light-cavalry horses are obtained from the Ukraine and the steppes, 
 at an average price of S45. 
 
 The artillery horses are bought in all parts of the empire, at about tbe 
 same rate as those for the light cavalry. 
 
 • There are no haras (breeding-studs) for the general service of the 
 army. There is a commission charged with the general direction of the 
 purchase, inspection, and distribution of remount horses. 
 
 They, if necessary, establish sub-commissions, in convenient localities. 
 The horses are purchased by cavalry officeis detailed for the purpose, and 
 are then, if practicable,- inspected by the commission, or one of the sub- 
 commissions. Having passed the inspection, they are distributed among 
 the regiments, at the rate, in time of peace, of about 150 per regiment 
 each year. The colonel of the regiment then distributes them among the 
 squadrons, where they are broken in and drilled by the old soldiers, under 
 the direction of the captain commanding. The Russians have nothing 
 corresponding to the "captain instructor" of the French service. 
 
 Horses are purchased at the age of from three to five years ] those pur- 
 chased at three years old are not used for a year or more. 
 
 About eight years' service is expected of a horse. 
 
 Remount horses enter the squadron at from four months to one year 
 from the commencement of their drilling ; depending upon the age of the 
 animal, his disposition, &c. 
 
 Mares are preferred, as a general rule, but geldings and stallions are 
 also used; and it is stated that no particular inconvenience is found to 
 result from the employment of stallions. 
 
 The horses being once assigned always remain with the same men. 
 Officers purchase their own horses, and are allowed forage, or a commu- 
 tation therefor. 
 
 RIDING-HOUSES. 
 
 These are numerous, large, and well constructed. 
 
 The windows are usually arranged as in the French; Russian stoves 
 are freely used fo* warming them. 
 
 The floor is of earth and sand. There is a wooden wainscot-lining, 
 about six feet high, and having an inclination of about J; the comers not 
 rounded oflF. 
 
 The riding-house of the Chevalier Guard, in St. Petersburg, is 300' 
 long, 95' wide, and 25' ceiling. One near the Paul Palace is 595' long, 
 126' wide, and 25' ceiling. The great riding-house at Moscow is much 
 larger. The two latter are used for drills and inspections during the 
 winter. There are no pillars in any of these. 
 
 STABLES, ETC. 
 There is nothing remarkable in the Russian stables. The floors arc 
 
206 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 generally of plank, a little straw being kept under the horses* fore-feet 
 during the day ; in some stables the floor is of clay. 
 
 As a general rule, the simple, swinging bar is used . to separate the 
 stalls; sometimes there is no division whatever; for' wicked stallions the 
 stalls are boarded up. 
 
 In many cases they use no hay-rack, — merely a long wooden trough, 
 one end of which is divided off for the oats. 
 
 In some cases they use wooden or iron racks and mangers. 
 
 In some stables a bin is arranged for the litter, under the manger,; in 
 others it is kept in the stable-yard, under cover. 
 
 The saddles, bridles, and other equipments are usually kept in the 
 stables ; the bridles being hung on pins attached to the stall-posts ; the 
 saddles, blanket, &c., on a shelf extending between the heel-posts. 
 
 Some of their stalls are six feet wide ; as a general rule they are quite 
 large. The stables are well ventilated, and kept in good order. 
 
 In some stables the quarters for the men are in the 2d story, over the 
 stables. 
 
 The horse-hospitals are usually in separate buildings, with separate box 
 stalls, (about 9' X 7',) boilers for making mashes, &c. 
 
 The horses are cleaned twice a day, watered twice or thrice, and fed 
 three times. 
 
 The daily ration fpr a light-cavalry horse is 9 pounds of hay, 11 quarts 
 (13f pounds) of oats, 3 pounds of straw. The heavy-cavalry horses 
 receive 2 quarts of oats more than the light-cavalry. 
 
 The hay is generally chopped before being fed to the horses. 
 
 The ration is increased with the difl&culty of the service ; the above 
 being a minimum for easy garrison service. 
 
 The horses are shod in each squadron by its shoeing-smith. 
 
 There is nothing peculiar in the shoes, which are light, but strong, 
 and with small heels. 
 
 FIELD SERVICE. 
 
 In the field each horse carries, habitually, 3 days' rations of oats and 
 hay. The animals are sometimes tied by the halter to a picket-rope, or 
 a picket-stake, and sometimes fastened by the right fore-foot to a picket- 
 rope on the ground. 
 
 When picket-pins are used, they are cut by the men on the spot, or 
 carried along if it is expected to encamp in a place destitute of timber. 
 The Cossacks hobble their horses. 
 
 The Russian cavalry do not spare their horses at drill, or on the march, 
 but bestow all possible pains upon them in the stable, or in camp. In 
 bivouac, or in camp, they are clothed with the saddle-blanket if the 
 weather is bad and cold. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 207 
 
 The habitual gait on the march is the walk, of about 3 J miles per hour; 
 sometimes the trot is used ; every hour or so a halt of a few minutes is 
 made, after which the men lead the horses for about three-quarters of a 
 mile. An ordinary march is from 16 to 26 miles a day, depending on 
 the nature of the country. 
 
 The Cossacks regard a march of 45 miles as nothing extraordinary. 
 
 After drill the horses are walked until they are cool. 
 
 They are never unsaddled until quite cool. 
 
 At squad drills, in warm weather, some men are present with buckets 
 of water and sponges to wash out the horses' mouths occasionally. 
 
 In the translation of the regulations for field service in time of peace 
 and in time of war will be found much information in regard to. these 
 subjects. In the field, the cavalry carry 1 dais's rations in a haversack. 
 
 REMARKS UPON COSSACKS, DRAGOONS, LANCERS, ETC. 
 
 There are two peculiarities which cannot "fail to arrest the attention 
 and command the reflection of the observer of the Russian cavalry; these 
 are : the general division of the cavalry into regulars and irregulars ; and 
 the corps of dragoons. 
 
 The irregulars may be comprehended in the general name of Cossacks. 
 Yet their peculiarities of armament, costume, and action are as varied as 
 their origin ; while the sources of the latter are as multifarious as the 
 tribes which compose the mass of Russian nationality, and the circum- 
 stances which, through centuries of warfare, have finally united into one 
 compact whole a multitude of conflicting and heterogeneous elements. But, 
 with all this diversity, there are important and peculiar characteristics which 
 pervade the mass, and are common to every individual, with as much uni- 
 formity and Certainty as that with which the firm government of the Czar 
 is now extended over them. These peculiarities are : intelligence, quickness 
 of vision, hearing, and all the senses; individuality; trustworthiness on duty; 
 the power of enduring fatigue, privation, and the extremes of climate ; great 
 address in the use of weapons; strong feeling for their common country; 
 caution, united with courage capable of being excited to the highest pitch : 
 in short, the combination of qualities necessary for partisan troops. The 
 events of more than one campaign have proved, besides, that these irregulars 
 can be used successfully in line against the best regular cavalry of Europe. 
 
 Circumstances of geography and climate have given to these men a 
 race of horses in every way adapted to their riders ; the Cossack horse 
 is excelled by none in activity and hardiness. 
 
 The Cossack neglects no opportunity of feeding his horse ; during short 
 halts, even under fire, he gives him whatever is to be had ; the horse re- 
 fuses nothing that is ofi'ered him, and eats whenever he has the oppor- 
 tunity, for he has not acquired the pernicious habit of eating only at 
 
208 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 regular hours. Some idea may be formed of the power of endurance of 
 the Cossacks and their horses from the fact that, in a certain expedition 
 against Khiva, there were 3,500 regular Russian troops and 1,200 
 Cossacks : of the regulars but 1,000 returned, of the Cossacks but 60 
 perished. 
 
 The tendency of events, during the present century, has been to assimi- 
 late the organization of the Cossacks to that of the regulars, to a certain 
 extent : whether the effect of this has been to modify or destroy their 
 valuable individual characteristics may yet remain to be proved in a 
 general war ; the events of the campaign of Hungary are said to in- 
 dicate that more regularity of action has by no means impaired their 
 efl&ciency. 
 
 This brief description of the qualities of the irregular cavalry indicates 
 at once the use made of them in war; they watch, while the regulars 
 repose. All the duty of advanced posts, patrols, reconnoissances, escort- 
 ing trains, carrying despatches, acting as orderlies, &c., is performed in 
 preference by the Cossacks; the consequence is, that, on the day of 
 battle, the regular cavalry are brought upon the field in full force and 
 undiminished vigor. Under cover of these active irregulars, a Russian 
 army enjoys a degree of repose unknown to any other; while, on the 
 other hand, it is difficult for their antagonists to secure their outposts and 
 foil their stealthy movements. 
 
 The rapidity and length of their marches are almost incredible; a 
 march of 40 miles is a common thing; they, will make forced marches 
 of 70 miles ; in a thickly-settled country they have, in two days, made 
 six marches of ordinary cavalry without being discovered. 
 
 In concluding this subject, it is impossible to repress the conviction 
 that in many of the tribes of our frontier Indians, such as the Delawares, 
 Kickapoos, &c., we possess the material for the formation of partisan 
 troops fully equal to the Cossacks ; in the event of a serious war on this 
 continent, their employment, under the regulations and restrictions neces- 
 sary to restrain their tendency to unnecessary cruelty, would be produc- 
 tive of most important advantages. 
 
 In our contests with the hostile Indians, bodies of these men, com- 
 manded by active and energetic regular officers, and supported by regular 
 troops, would undoubtedly be of great service. 
 
 The term dragoon was originally applied to troops who were at the 
 same time cavalry and infantry. For example, the French dragoons of 
 the time of Louis XIV. would on one day, as cavalry, meet and defeat 
 the Imperial cuirassiers, and on the next day form the assaulting column 
 in the attack of a breach. 
 
 It is necessary not to confound the true dragoon with such troops as 
 our mounted rifles, for instance, whose proper purpose is to use the horse 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 209 
 
 merely as a means of rapid locomotion, always dismounting and fighting 
 on foot upon reaching the scene of action. 
 
 The Russian dragoons are the only real dragoons in the world ; their 
 arms, equipment, &c., have been heretofore described. 
 
 They are principally employed in covering retreats, occupying isolated 
 posts, making sudden attacks upon villages, &c. 
 
 When they dismount to fight on foot, one man of every three remains 
 mounted, and holds the horses of the others; one officer remains mounted 
 with each squadron. 
 
 When dismounted, they conform to the infantry tactics. 
 
 Since the 9th and 10th squadrons, armed as lancers, do not dismount, 
 each regiment furnishes a battalion of about 800 infantry. 
 
 The idea has been thoroughly carried out; for they are in reality good 
 cavalry and good infantry. 
 
 It is a question at least worthy of consideration, whether it would not 
 be advantageous in the United States service to make real dragoons of 
 the regiments now nominally so, employing them always in those portions 
 of our territory where the Indians frequent the plains but retire to the 
 mountains when hard pressed; at the same time making the so-called 
 cavalry regiments mere regiments of light cavalry, to act only^on the 
 plains, and not to be expected to fight on foot. 
 
 The lances of the front rank of the cuirassiers are intended to be used 
 only in dose order ; while the lancer regiments proper are taught to use 
 the lance both in close and open order. 
 
 From the great use of the lance in the Russian service, it will be seen 
 that it is a favorite weapon with them. 
 
 I have been told by an old general of Cossacks, who served from Aus- 
 terlitz to Paris, and against the Persians and Turks, that " the Cossack 
 never uses his sabre, but depends altogether on his lance, and uses his 
 carbine only to give signals." He was also strongly in favor of snaffle- 
 bits, sharp spurs, and Balaklava charges. Nevertheless the chasseurs 
 d'Afrique told marvellous stories of the expertoess of the Cossack in the 
 use of the musket on horseback ; and the Cossacks of the line of the 
 Caucasus, engaged almost daily in hand-to-hand conflicts, have abandoned 
 the lance, and they are more dreaded by the mountaineers of the Cau- 
 casus than any other Russian troops. 
 
 Against the Indians of our plains, who have no sabres, the far-reaching 
 lance would no doubt be an effective weapon ; yet a light sabre would be 
 about as much so, and far less in the way. 
 
210 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 EXPLAiN'ATIOI^ OF SIGI^S. 
 
 General of division. 
 
 -General of brigade. 
 
 — Colonel. 
 
 -Commander of battalion. 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 ■-- -Junior field officer. 
 
 I Senior adjutant. 
 
 I Adjutant. 
 
 f 
 
 ■ Officer with the markers. 
 
 LI -Division quartermaster. 
 
 i —Captain. 
 
 A "First lieutenant. 
 
 * Second lieutenant. 
 
 ■ Ensign. 
 
 • Orderly sergeant. 
 
 * Sergeant. 
 
 *t- Color-bearer. 
 
 * Right guide. 
 
 db..... -Left guide. 
 
 A Right flank aligner. 
 
 jfa. -Left flank aligner. 
 
 ff. , Marker. 
 
 5 Color-files. 
 
 — Skirmisher. 
 
 •Riflemen. 
 — Drum major. 
 
 ^ - Band. 
 
 I 
 
 ■- Regimental chief horn-player. 
 
 ■ Battalion chief horn-player. 
 
 •• Horn-player. 
 
 ■ Regimental chief drummer. 
 
 ■L Battalion chief drummer. 
 
 ■— Drummer. 
 
 A Fifer. 
 
 H Column by platoons, right in front 
 
 B Column by platoons, left in front. 
 
 m Double column on the centre platoon. 
 
 ^ Column of attack. 
 
 '^ • ""■— — First regiment. 
 
 Second regiment. 
 
 Third regiment. 
 ftl I mm„-Mim Fourth regiment. 
 
 lJyr}^^yt^^^?^:^2£j^^-:<-2LU3 First position. 
 Second position. 
 I^Final position. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 211 
 
 CHAPTEK ly. 
 
 ON THE RUSSIAN INFANTRY. 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM THE INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 The habitual formation of the infantry is in three ranks ; from eight 
 to three men are formed in two ranks; three or two men in one rank. 
 
 A regiment may be composed of two, three, four, or five battalions, 
 which are numbered as the 1st, 2d, 3d, &c. 
 
 When the regiment is deployed in one line, the battalions are posted 
 from right to left in the order of their numbers. 
 
 Every battalion consists of four companies, arranged as follows : — 
 
 In the grenadier regiments, of one grenadier and three fusileer com- 
 panies ; in the infantry regiments, of one grenadier and three musketeer 
 companies ; in the carbineer regiments and rifle battalions, of one car- 
 bineer and three rifle companies. Sapper battalions are composed of four 
 companies, called 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th sapper companies. In the in- 
 terior garrison regiments, &c., the companies are known only by their 
 numbers. 
 
 In all the regiments the grenadier or carbineer companies bear the 
 numbers of their respective battalions ; the other companies are numbered 
 in a regular series through the whole regiment : e.g., in the first battalion 
 the fusileer, musketeer, or rifle companies are numbered as 1st, 2d, and 
 3d ; in the second battalion they are the 4th, 5th, and 6th ; and in a similar 
 manner for the remaining battalions. 
 
 Battalions may, exceptionally, consist of three companies. 
 
 Grenadier and carbineer companies consist of men distinguished by 
 their courage in battle, good conduct, zeal for their duties, and clear 
 understanding of the drill. 
 
 The men are arranged in each company according to height, the tallest 
 third part being in the front rank, the next tallest in the rear rank, the 
 remainder in the centre rank. 
 
 In sizing the battalion, the companies are so arranged that the men in 
 the right wing are sized from right to left, and those in the left wing 
 from left to right, except the eighth platoon, which is also sized from 
 right to left. 
 
 Incomplete files are placed on the left flanks of the platoons ; if only 
 one man is wanting in a file, the centre rank is left vacant. 
 
212 THE AR.MIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The files are numbered from right to left in each platoon ; the men in 
 each rank have the number of their file. 
 
 Each platoon is divided into two half platoons ; that on the right is 
 the first, the other is the second. 
 
 Each platoon "is also divided into sections of not less than four nor 
 more than six files each. 
 
 The sections are numbered from right to left. 
 
 To equalize the platoons of a battalion, men may be transferred from 
 one company to another; but the 6lite companies are kept distinct from 
 the others. 
 
 Platoons should not contain less than fourteen files; therefore, when 
 a battalion consists of from 56 to 84 files, it is divided into four platoons ; 
 if of from 84 to 112 files, into six platoons; if of more than 112 files, 
 into eight platoons'. 
 
 Battalions of three companies are divided into six platoons, unless they 
 contain less than eighty-four files, when they are divided into four pla- 
 toons. The best-drilled men are placed, in preference, on the flanks of 
 platoons, half platoons, and sections, then in the front rank; but the rule 
 with regard to size must be violated as little and as imperceptibly as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 The ranks are twenty-eight inches apart, measured from heel to heel. 
 
 The interval between battalions of the same regiment is twenty paces. 
 
 The pace, when used as a measure in the infantry service, is two and 
 a half feet, (30''.) 
 
 POSTS OF THE OFFICERS. 
 
 (Fig. 111.) The colonel, mounted, is from fifty to sixty paces in front 
 of the centre of the regiment. 
 
 The commanders of the battalions are thirty paces in front of the 
 centres of their respective battalions. 
 
 The battalion adjutant is on the right flank of the battalion, on the 
 right of the field music; the junior field officer on the right of the bat- 
 talion adjutant; the officer detailed as marker is on the right of the 
 junior field officer of the first battalion; the regimental adjutant on the 
 right of the marker ; all these officers are mounted. 
 
 In every battalion the officers are assigned to platoons as follows : 
 
 The 1st platoon is commanded by the captain of the grenadier company. 
 
 1st 
 
 u 
 
 2d 
 
 a 
 
 8d 
 
 a 
 
 grenadier 
 
 The 2d 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 1st lieut. " 
 
 The 3d 
 
 iC 
 
 u 
 
 captain. " 
 
 The 4th 
 
 (I 
 
 a 
 
 1st lieut. " 
 
 The 5th 
 
 a 
 
 ic 
 
 captain " 
 
 The 6th 
 
 (( 
 
 it 
 
 1st lieut. " 
 
 The 7th 
 
 (( 
 
 (C 
 
 captain " 
 
 The 8th' 
 
 i( 
 
 it 
 
 1st lieut. " 
 
213 
 
 Format 
 
 'Ju^^^jSf^ 
 
 zeFaces 
 
 30 
 
 
 -; «^ 
 
 2nd. Battalion 
 
 The Grenadier company is divided— one pk 
 
)/a regiment. 
 .111. 
 
 214 
 
 \io 
 
 , !fc 
 
 
 on the right of the battalion, the other on the left. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 215 
 
 The commanders of the first 7 platoons are posted on the right of the 
 front rank of their platoons ; the commander of the 5th platoon separates 
 his platoon from the color-guard ; the commander of the 8th platoon is 
 on the left of its front rank, the next officer (the 2d Heutenant of the 
 grenadier company) on the right of its front rank. 
 
 The commander of the 1st platoon of each division commands the 
 division ; the rest of the officers are posted, as file-closers, two paces in 
 rear of the rank of non-commissioned file-closers. 
 
 POSTS OF THE SERGEANTS. 
 
 The sergeants remain with their companies, but the number may be 
 equalized among the platoons. 
 
 In battalions of 8 platoons, when there are 25 or more files in each 
 platoon, there must be at least 67 sergeants; if the platoons have less 
 than 25 files, there must not be less than 59 sergeants. 
 
 'Any deficiency in the number of sergeants is made up by detailing the 
 senior corporals as acting sergeants. 
 
 The sergeants are posted as follows : 
 
 1 as color-bearer. 
 
 5 color-sergeants. 
 
 1 sergeant separates the color-files from the 4th platoon. 
 
 3 markers, whose posts and duties will be given hereafter. 
 
 16 right and left guides of platoons : of these, 9 stand in the rear 
 rank and cover the officers posted in the front rank ; the remaining 7 left 
 guides are in the rank of file-closers, behind the left files of their re- 
 spective platoons. 
 
 16 sergeants, called aligners, whose duty it is to mark the positions of 
 the flanks of the platoons in new formations, are posted behind the second 
 files from the flanks of each platoon 3 as far as regards the posting of these 
 sergeants, the color-guard is not regarded as belonging either to the 4th 
 or 5th platoon ; the rest of the sergeants are posted in the rank of file- 
 closers, at equal intervals apart. Among this number are : 1, the orderly 
 sergeants, who are the 2d file-closers from the right of the platoons, com- 
 manded by their captains ; 2, the reserve and vice markers, (for whom 
 see. under the head of markers,) who are also posted as file-closers. 
 
 The non-commissioned file-closers are two paces behind the rear rank. 
 
 THE COLOR-GUARD. 
 
 This consists of 6 color-sergeants and 4 color-files, (12 men.) The 
 color-sergeants are selected from among those of the battalion who are 
 most rigid in the performance of their duty, and who have the greatest 
 regularity in marching ; they are selected of the same height as much as 
 possible. 
 
216 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The honor of bearing the color is reserved for the sergeant who has 
 performed the most meritorious services, choosing, if possible, one who is 
 decorated. The color-sergeants are formed in 2 ranks, — the color-bearei 
 and 2 sergeants l^one on each side of him) in the front rank, the remaiij- 
 ing 3 in the rear rank ; as will be seen under the head of markers, the 
 centre rank is filled by 3 sergeants, who are markers. 
 
 The color-sergeants are posted in the centre of the battalion between 
 the color-files, and belong to the 5th platoon, with which they execute all 
 the movements. 
 
 The sergeant covering, the color-bearer in the rear rank is called the 
 assistant. Ensigns may be detailed as assistants if sufficiently well drilled. 
 
 Two color-files are placed on each side of the color-sergeants; they are 
 separated from the 4th platoon by a sergeant, but are alongside of the 
 commander of the 5th platoon. 
 
 In battalions of 6 platoons the color sergeants and files are as just ex- 
 plained ; in battalions of 4 platoons the color-files are as before, but there 
 are only 4 color-sergeants, of whom 1 is color-bearer, another on his left, 
 the remaining 2 in the rear rank. 
 
 Every battalion has a color. 
 
 MARKERS. 
 
 As markers there are selected adroit, active, and intelligent sergeants 
 and privates, — ^in preference, those who can read and write. The rules 
 observed in the choice of color-sergeants also apply to the markers. There 
 should be 8 markers in each battalion, i.e. 2 for each company, of whom 
 1 is a sergeant, the other a private ; the privates are called vice markers. 
 Of the 4 sergeants, 3 have guidons, but the 4th, called the reserve 
 marJcer, has none. Those with guidons cover the color-sergeants in the 
 centre rank; they wear no knapsacks, and carry the guidon-staff in the 
 muzzle of their muskets. The three markers with guidons are numbered 
 as 1, 2, and 3, from right to left; No. 1 marks the new position of the 
 right flank of the battalion, No. 2 the centre, No. 3 the left flank : if the 
 battalion is in column, they are similarly employed in marking the new 
 position of the head of the column. 
 
 The reserve and vice markers are in the general line of file-closers, 
 armed and equipped as the rest of the battalion. 
 
 In battaflions of 6 platoons the markers are posted as just explained, 
 but in those of 4 platoons those with guidons are in one rank, in rear of 
 the centre of the 3d platoon, 2 paces behind the rank of non-commissioned 
 file-closers. 
 
 In regiments of more than two battalions an officer is detailed as 
 marker ; his post has already been given. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 217 
 
 When the regiments have but two battalions each, an officer is detailed 
 in each brigade as marker. 
 
 A senior officer is always detailed in each division to direct the markers. 
 
 MUSICIANS. 
 
 The band is posted 4 paces on the right of the first battalion, on the 
 alignment of the centre rank. 
 
 The field music of the first battalion is on the right of the band ; in the 
 other battalions it is 4 paces from the right flank of its battalion. 
 
 THE GENERAL INSTRUCTION OF THE REGIMENT. 
 
 The colonel, or, in his absence, the officer next in rank in the regiment, 
 is responsible for the general instruction of the officers, sergeants, and 
 men of the regiment. 
 
 INSTRUCTION OF THE OFFICERS. 
 
 Every officer must know every thing in the infantry tactics ; the mere 
 knowledge is insufficient : they must be able to explain the rules, and 
 teach the soldiers all that is Required of them, beginning with the posi- 
 tion, facings, marching, manual, &c. 
 
 The colonel must maintain a constant eye to this, and assemble the 
 officers himself, or cause the commanders of battalions to do so, for sepa- 
 rate instruction. 
 
 INSTRUCTION OF THE SERGEANTS. 
 
 They are required to know every thing in the schools of the recruit and 
 the company, the skirmish drill, and outpost duty; they must also be able 
 to instruct the men in these subjects, and must know their duties in the 
 battalion drill. The captains are immediately responsible for this instruc- 
 tion, under the supervision of the commanders of battalions. 
 
 INSTRUCTION OF RECRUITS. 
 
 The first year of a recruit's service is the most difficult, and the most 
 important, as forming his future character as a soldier ; his instruction in 
 the drill ought not to be pressed until he fully comprehends the first 
 principles. 
 
 1st month. — ^Instruction similar to that of the cavalry recruit. 
 
 2d month. — The recruits begin to learn to chant the signals for skir- 
 mishers, commencing with the simplest ; they learn to march in common 
 time, quick time, and the run ; are taught the skirmish drill without arms, 
 first by commands, then by signals, always placing platoon opposite platoon, 
 that they may the more readily understand the relation of their move- 
 ments to the enemy. They are also taught some of the field duties, such 
 
218 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 • 
 as the nature of guard duty, of advanced posts, patrols, and the duty of 
 a sentinel in the event of the appearance of the enemy. 
 
 Especial care is taken to exact a proper soldierly bearing only by 
 degrees; for too much attention to it in the beginning produces stiffness 
 in the position, facings, and marching, exhausts the men, and does more 
 harm than good. Every day, except on days of rest and feasts, the 
 recruits are assembled by companies, half an hour before dinner or 
 supper, and the signals are blown for their instruction. 
 
 Sd month. — The recruits are carefully and correctly taught the facings, 
 marching, loading as skirmishers without the motions. 
 
 After this the instruction proceeds regularly, as laid down in the school 
 of the recruit. 
 
 There should be two drills each day ; each drill lasting not longer than 
 from one hour to one hour and a haif. 
 
 The position of the soldier is essentially the same as in the United 
 States tactics. 
 
 The facings are made by turning on the left heel, steadying the cartridge- 
 box with the right hand. 
 
 The about-face is made to the left, instead of to the right ; instead of 
 placing the right foot behind the left, it is carried forward until the heel 
 is against the joint of the left great toe; the turn is made on both heels, 
 and the right heel brought up on the same line with the left, on the com- 
 pletion of the movement. 
 
 MARCHING. 
 
 The recruit is instructed in marching by the numbers, first in 3 motions, 
 then in 2, finally in 1. 
 
 TO MARCH IN THREE MOTIONS. 
 
 1st motion. — (Fig. 112.) Without moving the body or hip, advance 
 the left foot just clear of the right, the toe touching the ground, heel a 
 little raised, knee straight. 
 
 2d motion. — '(Fig. 113.) Raise the left foot, and move it nearly 28 
 inches in front of the right heel, knee straight, foot parallel to, and 10^ 
 inches above, the ground. 
 
 Sd motion. — (Fig. 114.) Incline the body gently forward, plant the 
 left foot flat on the ground, 28 inches from the right, (from heel to heel,) 
 rest the weight of the body on the left leg, and bring the right foot to 
 the position shown in the engraving. 
 
 The right foot is then advanced, by the motions, as described for the 
 left foot. 
 
 The recruit, being well instructed in marching in 3 motions, is required 
 to execute the same thing in 2 motions : 
 
 1st motion. — Execute the first two motions of the preceding. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 219 
 
220 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 o 
 
 
 to 
 
 ^^^ 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 221 
 
 2d motion. — Execute tlie third motion of the preceding, with the dif- 
 ference that the right foot does not remain in rear, as shown in fig. 114, 
 but is at once moved forward. 
 
 The march in one motion is executed according to the principles just 
 laid down. 
 
 Common time is at the rate of from 70 to 72 steps per minute, each 
 step 28 inches, from heel to heel. 
 
 Quick time is at the rate of 110 steps per minute, and 28 inches long 
 
 The free step differs from the last only in a free swinging of the arms 
 being permitted j the musket is carried at a slope, the right arm swinging 
 freely, across the body, from the elbow down, in cadence with the step ; 
 this step is much used, even when passing in review. 
 
 The run is at the rate of 150 steps per minute, each step 28 inches; 
 the piece is carried at a trail, the left hand steadying the cartridge-box. 
 
 The individital oblique step does not differ essentially from that in 
 Scott's tactics. 
 
 The route step is at the rate of 100 steps a minute, and is of the usual 
 length of 28 inches, so that the men may march about 21 miles per hour. 
 The men are permitted to carry their arms at will, and to move easily, it 
 being only required that they keep their places, and do not lag behind ; 
 if bayonets are fixed, the muzzles must be up. 
 
 THE MANUAL OF ARMS. 
 
 This is generally so similar to that in the United States semce, that 
 merely some exceptions need be noted. 
 
 Present arms. — The piece is held in front of the left breast. 
 
 Charge bayonet. — Lock-plate half turned up, the right hand (grasping 
 the handle) is on the seam of the pants, the right arm being extended to 
 very nearly its full length ; hollow of the right foot against the left heel, 
 (Fig. 115.) 
 
 Right shoulder shift arms. — x\s in the United States rifle tactics, except 
 that the right hand grasps the small of the stock. 
 
 Slope arms. — ^The left hand is raised and thrown forward, so that the 
 stock rests on the shoulder just above the guard, the barrel at an angle of 
 about 45°, (Fig. 116.) 
 
 Parade rest. — The feet are not moved, the barrel is thrown across the 
 body, and rests in the hollow of the left forearm; the hands on the gun- 
 sling, left hand above the right. 
 
 Figs. 117 to 120 show one method of saluting by a sentinel at an. 
 order. 
 
 When the soldier hands his musket to the inspector, he holds it in his 
 
 left hand, at arm's length, the piece vertical, the lock towards the inspector,. 
 
 the left hand grasping it just above the lock, (Fig. 121.) 
 
 14 
 
222 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 SCHOOL OF THE COMPANY. 
 
 Each company of not less than 28 files is divided into 2 platoons ; if 
 the company consists of less than 28 files, it composes only a single pla- 
 toon. In the tactics a company of 2 platoons takes the name of division. 
 
 (Fig. 122.) In an isolated company, the officers, sergeants, &c., are 
 posted as follows : 
 
 The captain 15 paces in advance of the centre; the senior lieutenant 
 in the front rank on the right of the 1st platoon, which he commands ; 
 the 2d lieutenant on the left of the 2d platoon, which is his command ; 
 the 3d lieutenant is in the front rank, between the platoons; if there are 
 other lieutenants, they are posted as file-closers, the senior behind the 
 centre of the 1st platoon, the junior in rear of the 2d platoon. 
 
 If there is a deficiency in the number of officers, other than file-closers, 
 the number is made up by sergeants, beginning with the orderly sergeant. 
 The sergeants are posted as follows : 
 
 Four right and left guides of platoons ; when the company is in line, 
 the right guide of the 1st and both guides of the 2d platoon are in the 
 rear rank covering the officers ; but the left guide of the 1st platoon is in 
 the rank of file-closers, behind the left file of his platoon. 
 
 The 4 sergeants detailed as aligners (to mark the new front in the 
 different formations) are behind the 2d files from the flanks of the 
 platoons. 
 
 The orderly sergeant is the 2d file-closer from the right of the 1st 
 platoon. The remaining sergeants are posted as file-closers at equal 
 intervals from those already mentioned. 
 
 The drummers, fifers, and horn-players are formed in one rank, on the 
 alignment of the centre rank, 4 paces from the right of the company. 
 
 For instruction in the manual, &c., the company is sometimes formed 
 on three sides of a square, each rank forming one side. 
 
 In the difierent firings, the rear-rank men pass their pieces to those in 
 front of them. 
 
 The individual oblique step is never used for a distance greater than 
 ten paces ; for oblique movements longer than that, each man half faces 
 to the right or left. 
 
 To wheel a division (company of two platoons) to the right, on a fixed 
 pivot, the first platoon wheels to the right, and the second acts as pre- 
 scribed in the United States tactics for the second company of a battalion 
 changing front forward on the first company. The division also changes 
 front on the centre. 
 
 In route, troops march in column by platoons, half platoons, or sections. 
 The distance between the ranks, in this case, is from three and a half to 
 five feet. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 223 
 
 OP SKIRMISHERS. 
 
 Circumstances and the nature of the ground sometimes make it neces- 
 sary for infantry to act in scattered parties, instead of in close, compact 
 order; e.g., to occupy forests, copses, villages, or to protect different 
 movements of troops acting in close order, such as deployments, flank 
 marches, movements in advance or retreat, &c.; such service is called 
 skirmisMng. 
 
 As entire regiments are seldom deployed as skirmishers, there are in 
 each company forty-eight men who are perfectly instructed in that duty, 
 and are called skirmishers. Of this number, twenty-four are held in con- 
 stant readiness to act upon the first call for skirmishers, and are called 
 active skirmishers; the remaining twenty-four are held in readiness to 
 support or replace the others, in case of need, and are called reserve 
 skirmishers. 
 
 All the men of the regiment should, however, be instructed in skirmish 
 drill. Each captain selects from his company the four sergeants and 
 forty-eight privates who are most active and best fitted for the service of 
 skirmishers, and submits their names, through his chief of battalion, for 
 the approbation of the colonel; the latter, having satisfied himself 
 that they possess the qualities and knowledge necessary for skirmishers, 
 appoints them as such in regimental orders ; any vacancies are filled in 
 the same manner. 
 
 OF THE INSTRUCTION AND FORMATION OF SKIRMISHERS. 
 
 It is necessary that a skirmisher should be active, quick, fiilly informed 
 as to the object of his service, and a good marksman. 
 
 Although the skirmish drill itself augments the activity of the soldier, 
 yet it is very useful to oblige the men to climb fences and hedges 
 promptly and actively ; to leap streams, ditches, &c., in addition to in- 
 structing them in running, as a preparation for the drill. 
 
 The soldier being accustomed to move and act in close order, it is 
 necessary to impress upon him that, so soon as he finds himself in open 
 order, he need no longer trouble himself about the step or alignment, 
 but should execute every movement easily and lightly, turning his whole 
 attention towards the enemy, thinking how to injure them most with the 
 least inconvenience to himself, and availing himself of every feature of 
 the ground for cover. 
 
 For this purpose, in the instruction of skirmishers, the officers should 
 turn their attention to the advantages to be taken of the ground, and 
 explain to the men the manner of availing themselves of it : for example, 
 if they have hillocks in front of them, they may lie down or kneel behind 
 them ; when attacking in a forest, they should advance from tree to tree, 
 
224 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 and, having thus arrived near the enemy, endeavor to inflict such injury 
 upon him as to drive him from the place ; in a retreat through a forest, 
 they should cover themselves behind trees and bushes, thus defending the 
 position and their comrades ; they should also be instructed how to lie 
 down in ditches, behind fences, hedges, &c., and how to use their weapons 
 to advantage in all positions. 
 
 If the signal to lie down is given in broken and covered ground, the 
 officers must see that the men take the greatest advantage of the locality. 
 
 The skirmishers must mutually support each other, concentrating their 
 fire upon the points where they can do most damage to the enemy, as, 
 e.g., upon the officers, on masses of men, on the men and horses with- 
 the artillery, upon the points to be attacked, and in the defence, upon 
 points where the enemy presents himself in close order, such as cause- 
 ways, bridges, hoUow ways, &c. 
 
 The skirmishers must be impressed with the conviction that the ar- 
 tillery of 'the enemy can do them no harm; that in forests, ravines, 
 behind ditches, &c., cavalry cannot injure them; in exposed positions 
 they always have their own cavalry or infantry in close order to protect 
 them. 
 
 The men deployed as skirmishers must always be prepared to use the 
 bayonet,, especially against single horsemen. 
 
 Although it has been said above that skirmishers should move and act 
 freely, they should never lose their soldierly bearing. 
 
 In skirmishing order the men are not permitted to converse; all noise, 
 clamor, and even cheers, are strictly forbidden, unless special permission 
 is given. 
 
 The movements of skirmishers are made either at the free step or 
 the run. 
 
 The order of battle, as skirmishers, consists of a chain of skirmishers, 
 with a reserve in rear. The chain consists of pairs of men at a certain 
 interval apart; this interval will vary with circumstances, but should 
 never be greater than 15 paces. The intervals need not be equal, for 
 each pair must seek shelter; the different pairs may be as much as 10 
 paces in front or rear of the general line. In each pair, the rear-rank 
 man is 2 paces to the right and 3 in rear of his front-rank man, whether 
 moving or at a halt. 
 
 The duty of the chain is to weaken and harass the enemy by a well- 
 aimed fire, and thus prepare the way for a successful attack by the troops 
 in close order, or to cover their movements. 
 
 The reserve follows the movements of the chain at the distance of from 
 80 to 150 paces, availing itself of whatever cover the ground affords ; it 
 may be employed for protecting the flanks of the chain, or for turning 
 those of the enemy. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 225 
 
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226 THEARMIESOFEUROPE. 
 
 Fig. 125. Fig. 126. 
 
 Close column by platoons. 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 A lb di ^ 
 
 Double column on centre platoon. 
 
 Close column by divisions. 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 M til A lb & 
 
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 Double column on centre division. 
 
 lb lb 4 
 
 Column of attack. 
 (For scale, see p. 225.) 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY 
 
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 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
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 Square formed from deployed front. 
 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 Square formed from column of attack. 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 
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 (For scale, see p. 227.) 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 Fig. 134. 
 
 229 
 
 Square formed from double column on centre 
 platoon. 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
 Formation of skirmishers in a square formed 
 from deployed front. 
 
 cKCTrruOj 
 
 Formation of skirmishers in a square formed 
 from column of attack. 
 
 (For scale, see p. 227.) 
 
 ■ D-i 
 
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230 THE ARMIES OF EURO PK 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 
 
 Formation of skirmish- 
 ers in a close column 
 by platoons. 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
 Formation of skirmish- 
 ers in a column dou- 
 bled on the centre 
 platoon. 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
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 Formation of skirmishers in column of 
 attack. 
 
 (For scale, see p. 231.) 
 
T5E RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 231 
 
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232 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 233 
 
 Commands to skirmishers are given by the voice as much as possible. 
 In close order, the active skirmishers are posted in the rear rank, 12 in 
 each platoon, and on either flank; these 24 men, when ordered out as 
 skirmishers, first form a platoon in 2 ranks, of whom one-half are de- 
 ployed, the rest forming the reserve. 
 
 The reserve skirmishers are also in the rear rank, 12 in each platoon. 
 
 Skirmishers rally in circles to resist cavalry. 
 
 A company may be formed either in square or circle for the same 
 purpose. When the line in close order advances, the skirmishers fre- 
 quently lie down, continue firing to the last moment, allow the line to 
 pass over them, and then rise and take their places in the rear rank ; the 
 line thus meeting the enemy in 3 ranks. 
 
 SCHOOL OF THE BATTALION. 
 
 The formation of the battalion, the posts of the officers, sergeants, &c., 
 have already been given. 
 
 In figs. 123, 124, are given the posts of the officers, sergeants, &c., in 
 columns by platoons and by sections. 
 
 In figs. 125 to 129 are given the formation of the diff"erent close 
 columns employed; in close column the distance between subdivisions 
 is 4 paces, measured from front rank to front rank. 
 
 Columns are formed and deployed on the march as well as from 
 a halt. 
 
 In figs. 131 to 134 are given difi"erent squares. 
 
 In fig. 130 is given the formation of a column by divisions, at half 
 distance, for passing in review. 
 
 In figs. 135 to 140 are given examples of a deployed line, columns, 
 and squares, with the skirmishers formed ready for action, if needed. 
 The skirmishers sometimes move out directly through the captains' in- 
 tervals. 
 
 Fig. 141. The battalion is sometimes formed in a line of columns of 
 companies by platoons in two ranks, the grenadier company being held 
 in reserve; this formation is employed when the battalion is to operate in 
 obstructed localities, such as forests, &c., when many skirmishers are to 
 be employed. Each company column consists of 3 platoons, each in 2 
 ranks; the 1st platoon is composed of the front and centre ranks of the 
 1st platoon of the company; the 2d platoon, of the same ranks of the 2d 
 platoon; the 3d platoon, of the whole rear rank of the company. 
 
 Fig. 142 gives the order of battle of a battalion thus formed. 
 
 The square is moved in any direction without reducing it. When it 
 is in retreat, the rear rank of the rear face occasionally halts, faces about, 
 fires, and runs back to its place in the square. 
 
234 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 EVOLUTIONS OP THE LINE. 
 
 Battalions may be formed in a deployed line, in line of columns, or in 
 general column. 
 
 The interval between battalions in a deployed line is 20 paces. 
 
 A line of columns has either full or closed intervals. 
 
 Full intervals are those which permit the battalions to deploy, and 
 have the prescribed interval of 20 paces when the deployment is made. 
 
 The closed intervals are 45 paces for battalions formed in double column 
 on the centre platoon, and 20 paces for all other columns. 
 
 A general column is one in which the battalions follow each other, 
 every battalion being formed in columns; these may be open or close; in 
 the first case, the distance from one battalion to another is platoon dis- 
 tance, ^?ws 20 paces; in the latter case, it is 8 paces. 
 
 In general column the distance between battalions is counted from the 
 line of non-commissioned file-closers of the last subdivision of one bat-' 
 talion to the front rank of the next battalion. 
 
 Troops may be formed in one or several lines, and in one or two gene- 
 ral columns. Tl;ie distance between the lines, or columns, depends upon 
 the ground and the judgment of the commander. 
 
 For instruction in evolutions of the line the troops are usually formed 
 in 2 lines; the first, either deployed or in columns; the second, 200 
 paces in rear of the first, and usually in columns. The rules laid down 
 in the cavalry tactics for the assignment of commanders to the lines 
 apply here. 
 
 The generals of division are 80 paces in front of the division de- 
 ployed; generals of brigade, 50 paces; colonels, 30 paces in-front of the 
 centre of their commands. 
 
 Figs. 143 to 147 give the positions of the commanders in various 
 formations. 
 
 The column of attack is usually employed in the various movements 
 of changing front, passing defiles, &c., &c. 
 
 ORDERS OF BATTLE AND OF RESERVE, AND GENERAL COLUMNS. 
 
 When troops are formed in order of battle, or in general column, the 
 muskets and guns should be loaded. 
 
 An order of battle is an arrangement of troops which enables them to 
 attack or defend themselves successfully. 
 
 Infantry, with its artillery, may be formed in 4 orders of battle and 1 
 of reserve, (figs. 148 to 172.) 
 
 The orders of battle are named as follows : — 
 
 The first, or ordinary order of battle. 
 
 The second, or close order of battle. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 235 
 
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 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 
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 Positions of commanders in a brigade formed in two 
 lines of columns, with close intervals. 
 
 m 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 Positions of commanders, <fec., 
 in a brigade formed in one 
 general close column. 
 
 Fig. 147. 
 
 ff.v. 
 
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 Regiment in general close column, with loaded arms. 
 
THE^RUSSIAN ARMY. 237 
 
 The third, or extended order of battle. 
 
 The fourth, or reinforced order of battle. 
 
 Each order of battle usually consists of 2 lines of battle and a reserve. 
 
 The 1st and 2d orders of battle are peculiarly fundamental ; the large 
 number of troops held in reserve renders it possible, without changing the 
 order of the lines of battle, to pass to any other formation which circum- 
 stances may render necessary. 
 
 The 3d order of battle is nothing but a modification, according to cir- 
 cumstances, of the 1st or 2d, in which a part, or even the whole, of the 
 reserve, is employed to reinforce or extend the lines of battle. 
 
 The 4th order of battle is also a modification, according to circum- 
 stances, but with a different object, of the 1st or 2d. Here the lines of 
 battle are drawn closer together, and one-half the reserve is employed to 
 strengthen the 2d line of battle. 
 
 The employment of the different orders of battle will be more fully 
 explained under the head of their adaptation to the ground. 
 
 General rules for the formation of the orders of battle from general 
 column. — The orders of battle may be formed either with or without the 
 employment of markers. The order of reserve is always formed with 
 markers. 
 
 If the order of battle is formed under fire of the enemy, then the 
 positions of the battalions and batteries of the 1st line cannot be occupied 
 by the markers beforehand. In this case the general commanding first 
 establishes on the new line 1 or 2 battalions, and a part of the artillery, 
 in the desired direction, and then, under cover of skirmishers, places the • 
 rest of the troops in position. The batteries first thrown into position to 
 cover the formation of the infantry must remain at their posts until the 
 completion of the formation, although they are not opposite their inter- 
 vals ) they will move to their intervals by obliquing at a trot, when the 
 line of battle first advances or retreats. 
 
 The orders of battle will always be formed by means of markers : a, 
 when the troops are taking up a position for bivouac ; h, when forming 
 out of range of the enemy's fire ; and, finally," c, when taking up a new 
 position in rear of that first occupied, during movements in retreat. 
 
 In time of peace, troops will occasionally be exercised in the formations 
 without employing markers. 
 
 In general columns each battalion should be formed in double column, 
 on the centre platoon, closed in mass; the batteries in columns by sections. 
 
 The distance between the parts of the column should be 20 paces. In. 
 general column the troops move with the free step. 
 
 The remarks upon general columns in the cavalry tactics mostly apply- 
 to general columns of infantry. 
 
 In the 1st, 2d, and 3d orders of battle, the distance between the two- 
 
 15 
 
238 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 lines of battle is 200 paces ; in the 4tli order of battle, it is 100 paces. 
 The reserve is usually placed behind the centre of the lines of battle, and 
 in one or two lines 60 paces apart; in the 1st, 2d, and 3d orders, the 
 reserve is 400 paces from the 2d line of battle; in the 4th order, 300 
 paces. The distances between lines are estimated from the front rank of 
 the leading platoon of one line to the same point of the other line. 
 
 The general rule is that the junior regiments and brigades form the 1st 
 line ; circumstances may justify a departure from this rule. 
 
 If there are any heavy batteries present, at least one should always be 
 in the 1st line, so as to commence firing upon the enemy at the greatest 
 possible distance. 
 
 The formation of orders of battle near, or under the fire of, the enemy, 
 should always be effected under cover of a line of skirmishers. 
 
 Figs. 148 to 165 give the orders of battle and reserve for brigades 
 and divisions composed of regiments of four battalions. In this ease 
 each regiment forms in two lines; the regiment on the right flank 
 has its junior battalions in front; that on the left flank its senior bat- 
 talions in front. The exceptions to this rule are found in the fourth 
 order, where the regiment composing the centre of the second line is 
 formed in one line, and in the reserves of the third and fourth orders, 
 where the regiment in reserve is also formed in one line. 
 
 Figs. 161 to 165 show the formation of four-battalion regiments in gene- 
 ral column. 
 
 Figs. 166 to 168 give the order of reserve and the first and second 
 orders of battle for a division composed of regiments having three bat- 
 talions. 
 
 Figs. 169 to 172 give the same things for a brigade of three-battalion 
 regiments. 
 
 APPLICATION OF THE ORDERS OP BATTLE TO THE GROUND. 
 
 The orders of battle and of reserve, heretofore explained, should suffice 
 as a basis for all formations of infantry and its artillery. In every iso- 
 lated regiment, brigade, or division, its commander determines upon the 
 formation most suitable to the ground and the purpose in view. 
 
 The order of reserve is employed for troops in bivouac, out of action, 
 or in reserve. In this order the troops are arranged with the smallest 
 possible distances and intervals, in order to cover them, until coming into 
 action, behind accidents of the ground, from the view and fire of the 
 enemy; but all the parts are so arranged that any order of battle or general 
 column can readily be formed, and any portion be detached without dis- 
 turbing the general arrangement. 
 
 The first order of battle may be used with equal advantage in attack 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 245 
 
 and defence; it is employed, in preference, on open ground, or where the 
 enemy can be most injured by the fire of deployed battalions. 
 
 The second order of battle is of the same nature as the first, but it can 
 be employed on all kinds of ground, on account of the facility with which 
 the intervals between the battalions of the first line can be increased or 
 diminished. It is most frequently used in actual combat, particularly 
 where the ground does not present open plains, and where the troops 
 should occupy a greater space than in the first order. 
 
 The third order of battle is proper only for defence, on account of the 
 great extent of the lines of battle, and the insignificance, or sometimes 
 total absence, of a reserve. As a general rule, the use of the third order 
 is admissible only in cases where it is possible to support it by strong 
 reserves drawn from other troops, or where an extensive position is to be 
 occupied, for the defence of which a weak line is sufficient. 
 
 The fourth order of battle may be employed for an obstinate defence, or, 
 particularly, for a vigorous and decisive attack upon the enemy with both 
 lines of battle, which may in this case be regarded as one line, on account 
 of their short distance apart. 
 
 In all the orders of battle the 1st line of battle may be : (a) deployed, 
 for defensive purposes, if the ground in front is favorable for the action 
 of firearms in close order ; (h) in columns doubled on the centre, either 
 for attack or defence, if the ground in front permits the use of firearms 
 only in open order. 
 
 The 2d line of battle should always be formed in columns doubled on 
 the centre, since its destination is rather to serve as a support, reinforce- 
 ment, or relief to the first line, than to engage in the combat. 
 
 The reserve is always formed in columns doubled on the centre platoon, 
 until brought into action. 
 
 The lines of battle and the reserve may be formed in squares, to resist 
 cavalry. (Figs. 173 to 181.) 
 
 Since the exact formation of the orders of battle, according to the 
 tactics, is possible only in open and unobstructed countries, the generals 
 are permitted to make such partial changes as circumstances may require. 
 
 The skirmishers in front of the 1st line may be thrown far out, or 
 drawn close in, but should be so placed as to be covered by the accidents 
 of the ground from the fire of the enemy, and yet be able to injure him 
 by their own fire. 
 
 Those parts of the chain that are under cover should be thick, the 
 exposed portions should be thin. 
 
 The batteries serving in front of the 1st line should be posted at points 
 which command the ground, and from which the whole space in front 
 may be swept ; if such points are too far from the general position of the 
 battery, they are occupied by detachments. 
 
246 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
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 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 249 
 
 It follows from this that all the batteries need not be on the same line. 
 The number of guns serving with the 1st line may be increased oi 
 diminished according to circumstances. 
 
 In the 1st line several battalions may be thrown forward, or moved to 
 one side, to secure a more advantageous position ; if one of the batteries 
 of the 1st line moves to the right or left, on account of the ground or 
 other circumstances, the battalion which happens to be in rear of it 
 doubles the part screened by the battery, or forms into column j if neces- 
 sary, the general of brigade moves it to one side, provided the ground and 
 the formation of the other troops permit. If the battery moves the dis- 
 tance of a whole battalion front, the battalion may give up its place, and 
 occupy a new position in rear of that first held by the battery. 
 
 For these reasons, the intervals between the battalions are not always 
 equal, nor is the line of battle necessarily straight. In open country, 
 especially against an enemy superior in cavalry, the extreme battalions of 
 the 2d line may be placed behind the outer flank battalions of the let 
 line ; the formation of the battalions of the 1st line may also be changed 
 in conformity with circumstances and the ground, but without changing 
 the general order of battle ; for this purpose some of the battalions of the 
 1st line may be formed in line of company columns, for more convenient 
 action as skirmishers. The distance between the two lines of battle, as 
 well as that between the 2d line and the reserve, may be increased or 
 diminished, so as to be able to cover the troops from the view and fire of 
 the enemy, by means of the accidents of the ground. 
 
 The reserve may be placed in rear of those points which, om account of 
 their weakness, or being the key of the position, ought to be reinforced 
 at once if vigorously attacked by the enemy ; during an attack the reserves 
 follow in rear of the troops who are to attempt the key of the enemy^s 
 position ; such dispositions of the reserve should be carefully concealed 
 from the enemy. 
 
 If it is impossible, in such cases, to conceal the reserve behind acci- 
 dents of the ground, it is best to post it behind the centre of the lines of 
 battle. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE APPLICATION OF THE ORDERS OF BATTLE TO THE 
 
 GROUND. 
 
 (Fig. 182.) Application of the 1st order of battle, by a division com- 
 posed of regiments having four battalions. 
 
 It is supposed that the enemy occupies the position A B. 
 
 One division is to form in the 1st order of battle, on the position C D. 
 
 The nature of the ground requires the following changes in the order 
 of battle : 
 
 Three companies of the battalion on the right flank of the 1st line 
 
250 
 
 THE AEMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 occupy the village D, the fourth company remaining in reserve behind the 
 village. 
 
 Two pieces of the 1st light battery are also in this village, and enfilade 
 the ravine B E. The battalion on the left flank of the 1st line approaches 
 the woods C ; one company is detached to hold the woods. The battalion 
 
 Fig. 182. 
 
 Application of the 1st order of battle to the ground, in the case of a division of regiments 
 
 having 4 battalions. 
 
 on the right flank of the second line approaches the village D, to support 
 the battalion which holds it, should the enemy attack it. 
 
 The reserve is posted on both sides of the main road, 500 paces from 
 the 2d line. The remaining six pieces of the 1st light battery are with 
 the reserve, on the road, in column by sections. 
 
 (Fig. 183.) Application of the 1st order of battle, by a division com- 
 posed of regiments having three battalions. 
 
 It is supposed that the enemy is advancing in two columns, by the roads 
 A B and G B. 
 
THj: RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 251 
 
 One division, in the first order of battle, is to occupy the position D E. 
 In conformity with the ground, the following modifications are made in 
 the order of battle : 
 
 The 2d heavy battery and the light battery form one general battery, 
 and are posted on the height in front of the village F. " 
 
 Fig. 183. 
 
 imm,M 
 
 Application of the 1st order of battle to the ground, in the case of a division of regiments 
 
 having 3 battalions. 
 
 The light battery enfilades the road B C ; two guns of the heavy battery 
 sweep the bridge ; the remaining pieces of the heavy battery enfilade the 
 road A B. 
 
 The woods on the right flank of the position are occupied by one bat- 
 talion of the 4th regiment, formed in company columns. 
 
 To strengthen the left flank of the position, and defend the ford, there 
 are place^i in front of the windmill D four guns of the 1st heavy battery, 
 and on the slope of the hill two battalions of the 2d regiment, in columns 
 of attack; the remaining battalion of this regiment, and all the battalions 
 
252 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 of the 1st regiment, compose the reserve, which is posted, in a hollow, 200 
 paces behind the village F ; the remaining half battery of the 1st heavy 
 battery is posted in rear of the 1st regiment, in column by sections. 
 
 (Fig. 184.) Application of the 2d order of battle, by a division com- 
 posed of regiments having three battalions. 
 
 Fiff. 184. 
 
 Application of the 2d order of battle to the ground, in the case of a division of regiments 
 
 having 3 battalions, 
 
 The enemy occupies the position A B. 
 
 One division, in the 2d order of battle, is to occupy the position C T). 
 The nature of the locality requires the following modifications in the 
 normal order of battle. 
 
 The 2d heavy battery is posted on the hill to the right of the main 
 road. All three battalions of the 4th regiment are on the left of the road, 
 the 3d battalion being thrown back a little to withdraw it from the fire of 
 the enemy's artillery ; one company of this battalion, formed in company 
 column, holds the wood C. The 1st battalion of the 3d regiment is on the 
 right of the road, behind the right flank of the 2d heavy battery. 
 
THE RUSSIAN AR^Y. 
 
 253 
 
 The reserve is posted in a hollow, in rear of the left flank of the lines 
 of battle, in order to be able to reinforce this flank should it be attacked. 
 
 (Fig. 185.) Example of the application of the 3d order of battle, by a 
 division composed of regiments having 4 battalions. 
 
 Fig. 185. 
 
 Application of the 3d order of battle to the ground, in the case of a divi^on of regiments 
 , having 4 battalions. 
 
 It is supposed that the enemy occupies the position A B. One division,, 
 in the 3d order of battle, is to hold the position C F D. 
 
 The nature of the ground renders it necessary to make the following 
 changes in the order of battle : 
 
 The lines of battle consist of the 1st, 2d, and 3d regiments, the latter on 
 the right. The 3d battalion of the 3d regiment, formed in company 
 column, occupies the wood J) ; the 4th battalion of the same regiment, 
 formed in the same manner, hc^lds the village E ; the 3d battalion of the 
 1st regiment, in column of attack, is behind the building F. 
 
 16 
 
254 THE. ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The 2d battalion of the 2d regiment is behind the gardens of the vil- 
 lage C ; one company of this battalion occupies the gardens. The 2d light 
 battery is posted down the hill-slope, between the 1st and 2d regiments. 
 
 The 3d and 4th battalions of the 2d regiment are behind its 1st bat- 
 talion. The 4th regiment composes 'the reserve, and is posted in a hollow 
 in rear of the 2d battalion of the 1st regiment. ' 
 
 Extracts from the regulations for the field service of infantry hi time of 
 
 peace. 
 
 In time of peace, troops usually march by regiments, and in rare cases, 
 for short distances, by brigades or divisions. 
 
 The regiments seldom march entire, but generally by battalion, or by 
 company, for greater convenience. 
 
 Billeters are parties sent forward at the beginning of the day's march 
 to secure quarters for the command j they consist of 1 sergeant and 4 men 
 per company, and 1 officer per regiment j also, for the regimental staff, a 
 sergeant, 1 musician, 1 soldier of the train, 1 mechanic, and 1 hospital 
 attendant. 
 
 The billeters of an isolated battalion are under an officer, and have a 
 party for the battalion staff. 
 
 The billeters of a brigade are under its senior quartermaster. 
 
 The sergeants have the company guidons. (See cut, p. 293.) 
 
 When circumstances make it necessary to bake bread in advance of the 
 troops, two parties of bakers are sent forward for the purpose ) each party 
 consists of 1 sergeant and 8 men per company, with one officer for each 
 regiment, or separate battalion. 
 
 PREPARATIONS FOR THE MARCH. 
 
 About an hour before starting, the general is beaten, as a signal to pre- 
 pare to march. At this signal the men dress, and, if so directed, tuck 
 inwards the skirts of the overcoats as high as the knees, and, if it is rainy 
 weather, or muddy, tuck their pants in the boot-tops ; they then put on 
 their accoutrements*, the wagons are packed, and every thing is made ready 
 for starting. 
 
 When the assembly is beaten, the men put on their knapsacks, fall in at 
 the various rendezvous, and the troops are then formed on the markers in 
 the prescribed order. 
 
 The wagons are formed on the left flank of the troops, or in their rear, 
 according to the ground. With each money-wagon 1 sergeant and 2 men 
 are detailed as a guard ; the sergeant in front, and the men behind the 
 wagon. 
 
 Prayers are recited before leaving the general rendezvous. 
 
 On the march, the following arrangenients are made for the advanced 
 and rear guards : 
 
255 
 
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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 257 
 
 (a) For a company, they are at 100 paces from it, and consist, each, of 
 1 sergeant, 1 corporal, and 6 men. 
 
 Parties less than a company, but having more than 6 files, send out 
 advanced and rear guards of 1 corporal and 2 men, to the distance of 50 
 
 (b) For a battalion, they are at 150 paces, and consist respectively of a 
 half platoon, commanded by an officer, and have a drummer. 
 
 (c) For a regiment, at 200 paces, and consist of a platoon each. The 
 grenadier, rifle', and 5th platoons are not detailed on this duty. 
 
 (fZ) For a brigade, at 300 paces, and consist of a company each. The 
 grenadier and color companies are not liable to this detail. 
 
 (c) For a division, at 400 paces, and consist of a battalion each. 
 
 These guards are sent out from the main body as soon as it has left the 
 town or camp where it passed the night. As soon as they have reached 
 their positions, the commanders of the advanced and rear guards com- 
 mand — 
 
 PATROLS TO THE FRONT. 
 
 Upon this, — 
 
 (a) In the case of a company, the corporal, with 2 men behind him, 
 places himself 25 paces in front of the advanced guard ; the remaining 4 
 men form in 2 ranks, with the sergeant in front. In the rear guard, the 
 corporal and 2 men fall back 25 paces. 
 
 (6) In the case of a battalion, in the advanced guard 1 sergeant and 
 the 2 flank files are detached as patrollers ; the sergeant conducts the 2 
 front-rank men 50 paces to the front; the centre-rank men place them- 
 selves on the sides of the road, 6 paces in front of the half platoon ; the 
 rear-rank men, 6 paces in rear of it, also on the sides of the road. In the 
 rear guard, the sergeant falls back 50 paces, with the rear- rank men of the 
 flank files ; the centre-rank men fall back 6 paces, and place themselves 
 on the sides of the road ; the front-rank men advance 6 paces. 
 
 If the advanced and rear guards are formed by sections, then the patrol- 
 lers place themselves opposite the flanks of the leading and rear sections. 
 
 (c) Fig. 186. From the advanced and rear guards of a regiment, brigade, 
 or division, patrollers are detached, as in the case of a battalion. 
 
 As soon as the advanced and rear guards have quitted the main body 
 to take their posts, the parties of the day are posted ; in these, the officers 
 do not draw sabres ; their posts are as follows : 
 
 (a) In a company marching by itself, at 4 paces in rear of it comes the 
 sergeant of the day, and 2 paces behind him are the 4 privates of the day, 
 in one rank, having a drummer of the day on their right. There is 
 another drummer of the day at the head of the company. 
 
 (6) In a battalion marching by itself, the battalion officer of the day is 
 
258 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 4 paces in rear of the battalion ; 2 paces behind him are the 4 sergeants 
 of the day, (1 for each company,) in one rank, with a drummer of the 
 day on their right ', 2 paces in rear of the sergeants are the 16 privates of 
 the day, (4 for each company,) in four ranks, in the order of their 
 companies. There is a drummer of the day at the head of the battalion, 
 and another on the right of the color-guard. 
 
 (c) In the march of a regiment, (Fig. 186,) the parties of the day 
 are posted in each battalion as just explained; the regimental officer 
 of the day marches 4 paces in rear of the ambulances following the 
 regiment. 
 
 ((i) In the march of a brigade or division, the brigade or division officer 
 of the day follows the officer of the day of the last regiment. 
 
 In a division there is no brigade officer, of the day. 
 
 The brigade or division officers of the day are field officers. 
 
 When the guards and the parties of the day have moved to their posts, 
 the commander of the main body commands, — 
 
 1. Unfix bayonets. 2. Put on lock-covers. 
 
 At these commands, the officers return sabres; all the sergeants and 
 men unfix bayonets and put on their lock-covers ; the colors are covered. 
 
 If the overcoats are not already tucked up, it is now done, and in warm 
 weather the corners of the skirts are thrown back ; if it is wet, the pants 
 are tucked in the boot-tops. 
 
 In the advanced and rear guards, and the escorts of the money-wagons, 
 the officers do not return sabres, nor do the men unfix bayonets or put on 
 lock-covers; but they tuck up the overcoats, and arrange the pants at the 
 same time with the main body. 
 
 When the preparations are completed, the dificrent parts of the main 
 column close up and fill the places left vacant by the guards and the 
 parties of the day. 
 
 When the troops are ready to move, the commander directs the drum- 
 mers of the day to beat the field march, on which the troops start at the 
 route step, and in the order prescribed; in the main body, arms are 
 carried at will, but in the advanced and rear guards at a slope or on the 
 right shoulder. 
 
 In time of peace, the troops usually march by sections, right in front ; 
 in the winter, through deep snow, they may march by the flank. 
 
 If there are with the regiment recruits, supernumeraries, or weak men, 
 they march, under an officer, behind the last battalion, having the party 
 of the day in rear of them. 
 
 The wagon-train is arranged as in the cavalry regulations. 
 
 In the march of a battalion of sappers, the engineer-wagons are at the 
 head of the other wagons. 
 
THE.RUSSIAN ARMY. 259 
 
 RULES TO BE OBSERVED ON THE MARCH. 
 
 The officers and sergeants on the directing flank must preserve the 
 distances between the subdivisions of the column ; the men of the front 
 rank must not be in advance of the guides. 
 
 The ranks will march at from 1^ to 2 paces apart. 
 
 The men may march freely in ranks, but must not quit their places, 
 nor straggle. 
 
 On the march, the distances will be : between battalions, 50 paces ; 
 between regiments, 75 ; between brigades, 100 paces. 
 
 On good roads the march should not be slower than 21 miles per 
 hour. 
 
 One-half of the road must be left clear for persons passing by. 
 
 When passing over wooden or ponton bridges, the cadenced step will 
 never be used. 
 
 Before crossing rivers, the drums beat "the crossing." 
 
 In warm weather the men unhook their collars, take off their stocks, 
 and raise the chin-straps over the visors. 
 
 The officers must always march at their posts, and never collect at the 
 head or on the flanks of the column ; in bad weather they may throw 
 their cloaks over their shoulders, but they must never replace the helmet 
 by the forage cap. 
 
 On the march, the commanders of subdivisions must see that the men 
 quit their places under no pretext, and that they do not feign fatigue. 
 Some privates are sent with sick or tired men, and turn them over to the 
 battalion officer of the day, and return to theif posts. The battalion officer 
 of the day then sends them, under charge of some of the privates of the 
 day, to the surgeon of the day with the ambulances ; these privates of 
 the day remain in rear until the first halt, or the end of the march, if 
 there is no halt. 
 
 It is the duty of the advanced guard to inform the commander of all 
 obstacles encountered, and to take the proper measures for their re- 
 moval. 
 
 The rear guard take up all stragglers, and at the first halt, or at the 
 end of the march, turn them over to the regimental officer of the day. 
 
 That the men may rest, and set themselves to rights, a halt of 1 or 2 
 nours' duration is ipade about midway in the march. 
 
 If the march is long and difficult, two or more halts may be made. 
 
 The places for halts must be dry, near water, and, in warm weather, in 
 the shade of trees. Halts should not be made in villages, but near 
 them. 
 
 Having halted, arms are stacked, without fixing bayonets; the men 
 take off their knapsacks and belts, remove their helmets, and put on their 
 
260 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 forage caps ;f the drums are piled, and the colors leaned against them, 
 (figs. 187, 188.) 
 
 The parties of the day take oflP their knapsacks only ; in each company, 
 one of their number is posted over the stacks. 
 
 During the halt, the patrols and sentinels are relieved every 15 minutes. 
 
 When several regiments are marching together, the colonels, at the end 
 of a halt, give the order to take knapsacks, &c., in succession, so as not to 
 disturb the men prematurely, but give them more time to rest. 
 
 Fig. 188. 
 
 Fig. 187. 
 
 In addition to the main halt, short halts, of about 15 minutes* duration, 
 are made soon after the beginning of the march, and at 3 or 4 miles after 
 the main halt, to allow the men to put themselves to rights and satisfy 
 the calls of nature. During these halts the men remain in the road, in 
 the order of march, stack arms, and take off their knapsacks. 
 
 It is a general rule to omit no opportunity of endeavoring to preserve 
 the strength of the men, by always taking advantage of any slight chance 
 of relieving them of their load ; therefore, in crossing gi river, for instance, 
 while the leading sections are crossing, those in rear should stack arms 
 and take off their knapsacks. 
 
 The troops at the tail of the column being more fatigued than those at 
 the head, the regiments and battalions should alternate in their positions 
 in the column during long marches. This rule should be particularly 
 observed when the roads are bad. 
 
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 266 
 
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 r. 192. 
 
 268 
 
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 figs. 189, 190.J 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 269 
 
 Further details as to the conduct of marches, the duties of billeters, 
 &c., are to be found in the caValry regulations. 
 
 When the trflops approach their quarters for the night, the officer com- 
 manding the billeters goes out to meet them near the quarters, taking all 
 his men with him, except one from each company, who remain at the 
 company quarters with the guidons. . 
 
 When foot artillery is marching separately from the infantry, it sends 
 out its own advanced and rear guards. 
 
 In a brigade of foot artillery these guards consist, each, .of 1 officer, 
 1 drummer, 3 sergeants, and 20 men, at 200 paces from the batteries. 
 
 They form in 3 ranks, and detach patrollers as a battalion of in- 
 fantry. 
 
 A single battery sends out an advanced and rear guard, each, of 1 ser- 
 geant, 1 corporal, and 6 men, at 100 paces from the battery; they detach 
 patrollers as prescribed for the advanced and rear guards of a company 
 of infantry. 
 
 In most respects the rules laid down for the march of horse artillery 
 apply to the case of foot artillery 
 
 The detachments march at their posts; but in deep snow they are 
 allowed to follow the pieces. 
 
 OP ENCAMPMENTS. 
 
 The encampments of infantry may be arranged in two ways : in deep 
 order, i.e. in columns of attack ; or with a deployed front. 
 
 Figs. 189 to 192 show the order of encampment for regiments of 3 and 
 4 battalions, in both ways. 
 
 The encampments with a deployed front are used in warm climates, 
 and especially in cases where the troops are to remain a long time in the 
 same place. 
 
 The allowance of tents is as follows: 1 for every field officer, 1 for 
 every 2 company officers, 1 for every 15 sergeants and privates, 2 tents 
 for field guard, 2 for the camp guard, 1 for the quarter guard. 
 
 The details of encampments are as follows : — 
 
 1. The tents of the companies of each battalion are placed in the tac- 
 tical order of battle. 
 
 2. In the deep order, the tents of each company are in 4 ranks ; in 
 the deployed order, they are in 3 ranks. 
 
 3. A square of 7 paces on each side is allowed for every tent. 
 
 4. The intervals between the soldiers' tents are 4 paces. 
 
 5. The camp-lines are 3 lines of sods, occupying a width of 4 paces, 
 placed at the distance of 5 paces from the tents ; in the deployed order, 
 they are only in front of the camp ; in the deep order, in front and on 
 the flanks of each battalion. 
 
270 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 6. The pyramids of arms, (Fig. 193,) 1 for each battalion, are between 
 the lines and the tents. In deep order, 6 'pyramids are in front of each 
 battalion, and 5 on each flank; in deployed order, there 'are 2 pyramids 
 in front of each platoon. If the pyramids are not set up, the arms are 
 stacked, in good weather. 
 
 Fig. 194. 
 
 Fig. 193. 
 
 . ^<\i/^-^:\ ^ --. v ( .^<v;.-^\ 
 
 7. In the centre of each battalion, on the line of pyramids, the drums 
 are piled on a stand, and the colors placed in a rack in front of them. 
 (Fig. 194.) The drummers of the day place their drums on a separate 
 stand, on the left of the colors. 
 
 8. In the deployed camp of a single battalion, or in the 2d battalion 
 of regiments of 3 battalions, an interval of 20 paces is left between the 
 platoons of the color-company, for the tents of the camp guard. 
 
 9. The tents of the company officers are 7 paces in rear of the soldiers' 
 tents. ^ 
 
 10. Five paces farther in rear are the tents of the battalion com- 
 manders and the junior field officers; the battalion commanders in rear 
 of the centre of the right wing, the others in rear of the left wing of 
 their respective battalions. 
 
 11. The tent of the battalion adjutant is on the left of that of 
 the battalion commander. If there is no junior field officer, the tent 
 of the adjutant may occupy the place designated for that of the 
 former. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 271 
 
 12. The tents of the officers' servants are 4 paces in rear of those last 
 mentioned. 
 
 13. The tent of the colonel is behind the centre of the regiment, 25 
 paces in rear of those of the officers' servants. The regimental adjutant 
 on his left. 
 
 14. The musicians' tents are 32 paces behind the tent of the colonel. 
 
 15. Seven paces in rear of the musicians are placed the tents of the 
 commissioned staff, i.e. the paymaster, quartermaster, surgeons, judge 
 advocate, and chaplain ; in rear of these are their servants, the clerks of 
 the regimental office, &c. 
 
 16. In rear of these are the men of the company of the train; their 
 commander is in front of them. 
 
 The wagons are placed as follows : 
 
 1. The money-wagon on the right of the colonel's tent. 
 
 2. The cartridge-wagons with the field guard ] in deployed order they 
 are with the field guards of their respective battalions. 
 
 3. The ambulances, wagons with hospital stores, medicine, and tools, 
 the church-wagons, travelling forges, and other government wagons, also 
 the artel and baggage wagons of the regimental staff, are placed, in regi- 
 ments of 3 battalions, on the right of the regimental staff; in regiments 
 of 4 battalions, on both sides of it. These wagons are formed in 2 
 ranks : in the front rank those belonging to the officers and men of the 
 staff; in the 2d rank the government wagons. 
 
 4. The wagons belonging to the battalion, such as : provision-wagons, 
 tent, artel and officers' wagons, are placed in rear of the battalions, in 2 
 ranks; in the front rank, the provision and tent wagons; in the rear 
 rank, the artel and officers' wagons. 
 
 5. In deployed order the wagons are placed as in deep order, except 
 that they are in one rank. 
 
 6. Behind the wagons, not nearer than 30 paces, are the kitchens, 
 and near them the sod tables and seats for the men's messinor. 
 
 o 
 
 7. Forty paces in rear of the kitchens are the sinks. 
 The quarter guard is 30 paces behind the line of sinks. 
 According to the principles laid down above, in deep order, the camp 
 
 of a battalion occupies a front of 95 paces ; for a regiment of 3 battalions, 
 335 paces ; for a regiment of 4 battalions, 455 paces ; and the depth of 
 such a camp is 340 paces, from the front lines to the sinks. 
 
 In a deployed camp, a battalion occupies a front of 184 paces ; a regi- 
 ment of 3 battalions, 622 paces; a regiment of four battalions, 811 paces: 
 the depth of such a camp is 268 paces. 
 
 (Fig. 195.) In the camp of a sapper battalion, the engineer-wagons are 
 in front of the others. 
 
THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Camp of a hattalion of sappers. 
 
 Camp of a heavy foot hattery. 
 
 Fig. 196. 
 
 tf* ,|,. — ,[, — ,|, — ,|,.-....,,i,.>-,|^„.,|,_.,|, ^ 
 
 /20 
 
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 3^ — y,._g y...._y...._.y^__y j^ 
 
 (For references, see f). 273.) 
 
TH^ RUSSIAN ARMY 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 Camp of a ponton-train and company of sappers. 
 
 
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274 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Fig. 197 shows the arrangement of a park of pontons, with the camp 
 of the company of sappers serving with it. 
 
 Fig. 196 gives the details of the camp of a heavy battery ; that of a light 
 battery differs from it only m having 2 tents less. When two batteyies 
 are encamped side by side, an interval of 25 paces is left for the camp 
 guard. 
 
 If the troops are in huts, instead of tents, they are arranged according 
 to the rules for encampments, as shown in fig. 198. The battalions are 
 arranged in columns of attack, each platoon having a separate hut. 
 
 Many of the details of encampments, such as with regard to hospitals, 
 &c., as given in the cavalry regulations, apply to the infantry. 
 
 Fig. 199 shows the arrangement of a divisiorf of infantry, with its artil- 
 lery, in a camp in deep order. 
 
 Fig. 200 shows the arrangement of a similar camp for 2 divisions; the 
 regiments are supposed to be of 4 battalions, the artillery brigades of 4 
 batteries each. 
 
 The rules and dimensions which have been given are to be regarded 
 as standards, from which it is permitted to depart only in cases of abso- 
 lute necessity; circumstances may require the intervals to be increased 
 or diminished ; the disposition of the artillery to be changed ; the front 
 of the camp to be on a broken line, &c., &c. 
 
 To superintend the daily duty in camp, the following details are made 
 in a regiment : 
 
 1. A regimental officer of the day, who is one of the commanders of 
 companies. 
 
 2. A battalion officer of the day for each battalion, from among the 
 lieutenants. 
 
 3. In each company, 1 sergeant and 2 privates of the day. 
 
 4. A drummer of the day in each battalion. 
 
 5. Sergeants of the tiay in charge of the kitchens. 
 
 In an isolated battalion a similar detail is made, except that the bat- 
 talion officer of the day is one of the captains. 
 
 In an isolated brigade there is a brigade officer of the day; in every 
 division there is a division officer of the day, but none of brigade. 
 
 These officers are from the number of battalion commanders and junior 
 field officers. 
 
 When there are several divisions in camp, there is a camp officer of 
 the day, who is one of the commanders of the infantry brigades and regi- 
 ments, or of the artillery brigades. 
 
 If the commander approaches the camp, the privates of the day call 
 out, " Parties of the day on the lines !" at which they take post as follows : 
 the regimental officer of the day in front of the centre of the regiment, 
 15 paces from the lines; the battalion officers of the day in front of the 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY 
 
 275 
 
 ^ » 5S 
 
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 n Hut of camp guard. 
 
 b Soldiers' huts. 
 
 c Company oflBcers' huts. 
 
 d Hut of junior field oflBcers. 
 
 e Hut of commanders of battalions. 
 
 /Huts of battalion adjutants. 
 
 </ Huts of clerks. 
 
 h Huts of band. 
 
 i Hut of colonel. 
 
 k Hut of regimental adjutant. 
 
 I Kitchens, 
 
 VI Messing-huts. 
 
 n Wagons, workshops, storehouses, &( 
 
 o Stables. 
 
 p Sinks. 
 
276 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
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278 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 colors, 8 paces from the lines ; the sergeants and privates of the day at 
 the guidons of their companies; the drummer of the day by his drum. 
 (See ^igs. 189 to 192.) 
 
 OF HELD, CAMP, AND QUARTER GUARDS. 
 
 (Figs. 189 to 192.) When encamped, infantry post field, camp, and 
 quarter guards. The field guards protect the front of the camp by a 
 chain of double sentinels; the quarter guards supply a chain of single 
 sentinels in rear of the camp; the camp guards furnish the sentinels for 
 the interior of the camp. 
 
 In camps in deep order each regiment posts a field guard; in deployed 
 camps, each battalion; each regiment always posts a camp and quarter 
 guard. 
 
 Isolated battalions post field, camp, and quarter guards. 
 
 The field guards are placed about 200 paces in front of the camp ; the 
 quarter guards not less than 30 paces behind the sinks. 
 
 The chains of sentinels of the field and quarter guards are posted at 
 from 75 to 100 paces from the guards; they should be drawn in on both 
 flanks of the encampment. 
 
 The sentinels' posts are about 100 paces apart. 
 
 In the field guard the sentinels of the same pair are about 100 paces 
 apart. 
 
 The sentinels of the field and quarter guards carry their pieces at a 
 shoulder. 
 
 In the field chain the grenadiers, carbineers, and riflemen, do not stand 
 in the same pair with men of the other companies. 
 
 The camp guard is posted, in a separate battalion, in the interval be- 
 tween the two wings; in regiments having two or four battalions, in the 
 central interval of the regiment; in regiments of three battalions, in the 
 interval between the wings of the centre battalion. 
 
 By the camp guard sentinels are posted over the colors, arms, and at 
 the tents of the colonels and battalion commanders. The sentinels over 
 the colors, and at the tents of the battalion commanders, stand at an 
 order; those over the arms and at the colonel's tent, at a shoulder. 
 
 Men from the elite companies are posted over the colors. 
 
 In camp the arms of all the guards are stacked. 
 
 All the sentinels stand in front of the block on which their knapsacks 
 are placed. If there is no block, the knapsack is laid on the ground, one 
 pace in rear of the sentinel. In all cases the knapsack-flap is upwards, 
 the top towards the sentinel, and the straps rolled on top. In each regi- 
 ment, and also in each separate battalion, the field guard is senior to the 
 others, which are subordinate to it in all things. In regiments encamped 
 with deployed front, the difierent field guards are senior by turns. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 279 
 
 If tbere is more than one regiment in camp, then one of the field 
 guards is designated in turn as senior, and is called the " senior redant." 
 
 The field guards of separate battalions are never detailed as senior 
 redant. 
 
 In encampments the f6llowiiig rules are observed with regard to the 
 detail of men for guard duty : 
 
 1. In a regiment the Aien are detailed from all the battalions; and in 
 the battalions, from all the companies. 
 
 2. Each guard consists of men of the same battalion, except in the 
 camp guards of 4-battalion regiments, which are from two of the bat- 
 talions. 
 
 3. In deployed camps each battalion supplies its own field guard. 
 
 4. Field and camp guards are commanded by officers ] quarter guards, 
 by sergeants. The senior officers on guard are with the field guards; 
 with the senior rodant there are two officers. 
 
 5. There is a drummer with every field and camp guard; if there are 
 any riflemen on guard, then a horn-player is detailed ; when any of the 
 grenadiers or carbineers are on guard, a fifer is also detailed. At the 
 senior redant there are one drummer, one fifer, and one horn-player ; if 
 any riflemen are present, there are two horn-players. 
 
 At the guards the drums are laid on the ground ; the horns on the 
 left side of the knapsack-block of the sentinel at the guard-tent. If both 
 .drummei-s and horn-players are present, the horns are laid on the drums. 
 
 The regulations give minutely the strength of the various guards in 
 all cases; in this extract a few examples will be given. 
 
 GUARDS IN A DEEP CAMP OF A SINGLE BATTALION. 
 
 (a.) The field guard : 1 officer, 2 sergeants, 1 musician, 30 privates. 
 The following sentinels are posted : 
 
 At the guard-tent 1 
 
 In the chain, 4 pairs of sentinels 8 
 
 9 men in each relief. 
 
 For 3 reliefs 27 
 
 Corporals for posting reliefs ; 2 
 
 Private as orderly 1 
 
 Total 30 
 
 One of the sergeants makes the. necessary reports. 
 (h.) The camp guard : 1 officer, 2 sergeants, 1 musician, 24 privates. 
 This guard posts the following sentinels : 
 
 17 
 
280 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 At the guard-tents 1 
 
 Over the color 1 
 
 Over the arms 4 
 
 Over the tent of battalion commander 1 
 
 7 men in each relief. 
 
 For 3 reliefs ..^..... 21 
 
 Corporals to relieve sentinels 2 
 
 Private^ as orderly.. 1 
 
 Total 24 
 
 For a sapper battalion, 3 extra men may be detailed to furnish a senti- 
 nel over the engineer-wagons. 
 
 (c.) The quarter guard : 1 sergeant, 20 privates. 
 The following sentinels are posted ; 
 
 At the guard-tent 1 
 
 In the chain, 4 posts 4 
 
 5 men in each relief. 
 
 For 3 reliefs 15 
 
 Corporal to post sentinels 1 
 
 Corporal to make reports 1 
 
 Sentinels over prisoners 3 
 
 Total 20 
 
 GUARDS IN A DEPLOYED CAMP OF A REGIMENT HAVING FOUR BAT- 
 TALIONS. 
 
 (a.) The field guard in each battalion : 1 officer, 3 sergeants, 1 musi- 
 cian, 22 privates. 
 
 Each field guard posts the following sentinels : 
 
 At the guard-tents 1 
 
 In the chain, 3 pairs of sentinels *..,... 6 
 
 7 men in each relief. 
 
 For 3 reliefs 21 
 
 Private, as orderly 1 
 
 Total 22 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. ^ 281 
 
 (b.) The camp guard : 1 officer, 2 sergeants, 1 musician, 59 privates. 
 This guard posts the following sentinels : 
 
 At the guard-tents 1 
 
 Over the colors 4 
 
 Over the arms 8 
 
 Over the tents of commanders 5 
 
 18 men in each relief. 
 
 For 3 i:eliefs 54 
 
 Corporals for posting reliefs 4 
 
 Private, as orderly 1 
 
 Total 59 
 
 (c.) Quarter guard : 2 sergeants, 89 privates. 
 It posts the following sentinels : 
 
 At the guard-tents 1 
 
 In the chain, 10 posts 10 
 
 11 men in each relief 
 
 For 3 reliefs , 33 
 
 Corporals to post reliefs 2 
 
 Corporal to make reports 1 
 
 Over the prisoners 3 
 
 Total 39 
 
 The corporals are not regarded as non-commissioned officers; and, in 
 addition to those mentioned above, others are posted as sentinels at the 
 tents of commanders, &c. 
 
 In camp, prisoners are confined — officers at the camp guard, sergeants 
 and privates at the quarter guard. There is always a sentinel, at an 
 order, posted over the tent in which an officer or soldier is confined. The 
 commander-in-chief may replace the camp and quarter guards by ser- 
 geants' pickets. 
 
 The picket which replaces the camp guard will be of the following 
 strength : 
 
 In a separate battalion, 1 sergeant and 10 men. 
 
 In a regiment of four battalions, 1 sergeant and 19 men. 
 
 If there are prisoners under the charge of the picket, 3 men are added 
 to the numbers given above. 
 
282 THE ARMIES. OF EUROPE. 
 
 The strength of the picket which replaces the quarter guard must 
 
 depend upon circumstances and the number of prisoners under its charge. 
 
 In addition to the guards already mentioned, special guards are detailed 
 
 for those villages near the camp which are occupied as depots, quarters 
 
 for staff ofl&cers, &c. 
 
 The guards detailed by foot artillery do not differ essentially from those 
 prescribed for horse artillery in the cavalry regulations. 
 
 The guard detailed by a company of sappers serving with a ponton- 
 train is of 1 sergeant and 20 men, as follows : 
 
 At the guard-tent 1 
 
 Over the arms 2 
 
 Over the ponton-park 2 
 
 At the commander's tent 1 
 
 6 men in each relief. 
 
 For three reliefs •.. 18 
 
 Corporal to post sentinels 1 
 
 Corporal to make reports 1 
 
 Total ; 20 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances, the sentinels are relieved every two 
 hours. 
 
 The general rules for the performance of duty in camp, patrols, rounds, 
 care of arms, reports, alarms, precautions against fires, &c., &c., as given 
 in the cavalry regulations, apply to the case of infantry. • 
 
 BIVOUACS. 
 
 Fig. 201. Troops are said to bivouac when they pass the night 
 
 in the open air, or under shelters hastily constructed 
 of branches, brush, straw, &c. 
 ^fWlW When infantry are to bivouac, (fig. 198,) they are 
 
 formed on the ground they are to occupy in columns 
 of attack, but the distances between the platoons must 
 not be less than 20 paces, and the men open out well in 
 ranks; they then stack arms where they stand, hang 
 their belts and helmets on the stacks, (fig. 201,) and 
 lay the knapsacks on the ground behind the stacks. 
 
 In this manner the bivouac of a battalion occupies 
 a front of 60 paces and a depth of 80. 
 (iJmi^00^''%\^'^ In bivouac the colors remain at their posts, — i.e 
 between the stacks of the 4th and 5th platoons, — lean- 
 ing against the front of the pile of drums. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 283 
 
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284 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Bivouac of a regiment of 4 hattalions. 
 Pig. 203. 
 
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 (For references, see p. 283.) 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 285 
 
 The officers, band, and field music, are placed in rear of the battalions. 
 
 Fig. 202 shows the arrangement of a bivouac which is to be occupied for 
 some time, and when .the men are permitted to erect shelters. 
 
 In this case, as soon as the stacks are formed and the accoutrements 
 hung upon them, the half battalions face outwards, march out clear of 
 the stacks, and then face again to the front. 
 
 This manner of arranging the bivouac offers the advantage of giving 
 the men more room, but presents the inconvenience of requiring more 
 ground, for each battalion occupies a front of 120 paces ; this method can 
 therefore be employed only when the ground permits a great development. 
 In bivouac, the shelters should be arranged with a certain regularity, 
 leaving free passages between them. 
 
 Although, in figs. 202, 203, particular dimensions are given for the 
 front and depth of the bivouacs of battalions and the intervals between 
 them, yet, whenever circumstances permit, these dimensions may be 
 increased, so as to give the men more room ; but these dimensions should 
 never be decreased. 
 
 Regiments of 3 battalions bivouac in one line ; those of 4 battalions, in 
 two lines, 140 paces apart, counting between the heads of the battalions. 
 
 Batteries are placed in bivouac either deployed or in column, as shown 
 in figs. 204, 205. 
 
 In the front line, artillery bivouacs 120 paces in front of the infantry, 
 and is deployed ; in the rear line and reserves, it may be placed behind 
 the infantry, in columns by half batteries. 
 
 The front of the bivouac of a deployed battery is 120 paces ; when in 
 column, by half batteries, it is 60 paces. 
 
 An interval of 40 paces is left between the bivouacs of batteries and 
 the nearest battalions. 
 
 "When in rear of the infantry, artillery is not placed less than 100 paces 
 from it, counting from the rear of the infantry to the line of guns. 
 
 Batteries in .bivouac in front of infantry, even if in reserve, should 
 always be unlimbered; those in rear of the infantry should always be 
 limbered up. 
 
 Figs. 206 to 211 give examples of the arrangement of the bivouacs of 
 brigades and divisions, both in the line of battle and in reserve. 
 
 The examples of bivouacs given should be regarded only as guides; 
 for the ground, and other circumstances, may often make it necessary to 
 depart from them, both in the distribution of the troops and with regard 
 to the intervals between them. 
 
 The troops of the advanced guard, when in sight of the enemy, always 
 bivouac in the order of battle ; therefore the arrangements of their 
 bivouac must depend upon the nature of the ground, and cannot be de- 
 termined by any arbitrary rules. 
 
286 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 mFT.BIVOUAd 
 
 Bivouac of a "battery deployed. 
 Fig. 201. 
 
 OH — 4 — '^^ 
 
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 (For references, see p. 287.) 
 
TH.E RUSSIAN ARMY. 287 
 
 Bivouac of a battery in column. 
 
 Fig. 205. a Line of pieces. 
 
 'tif—'* « — -*•« I Line of limbers. 
 
 t ^ — ^ J. — . J, 
 
 ^ ^ ^ I c Line of caissons. 
 
 p ^ ^ ^ I d Line of artillery-wagons. 
 
 1 „ „ i c Bivouac of soldiers. 
 
 le I ^ ^^ I ^ / Bivouac of battery ofl&cers. 
 
 I j. — -J. ^ ^ J ^ Bivouac of 2d in command. 
 
 H^ 4t ^ ^ ^ Bivouac of commander of the battery. 
 
 ^ ^ ^ ;jjj j|j ^ ^ Drummers and mechanics. 
 
 \^~-^ — ^ — ^ ^ Q^^^ g^^j.^^ 
 
 <? ^ -i "i-— "i ,i ^ Baggage-wagfins. 
 
 j|,,_„.j^ — ^ — ^ j^ Harness. 
 
 i j t n Picket-ropes, 
 
 gy"^ a^A^J^ o Forage-stacks. 
 
 IB " Bli Officer of the day. 
 
 1^ • BIB •• Sergeant and privates of the day. 
 
 /•U"*a ^"mJ^- * Sentmel^ 
 
 LZZj:!^^H ^ Bivouac-fires. 
 
 ^ BMm (For scale, see p. 286.) 
 
 ®0 
 
288 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
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THE BUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 289 
 
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290 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Bivouac of a division of regiments of 3 hattaliom. 
 
 Fig. 209. 
 
 4« U *t- 
 
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 -T t 1 
 
 \eo\ 
 
 T\ 
 
 3II 
 
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 (For scale, see p. 291.) 
 
 ,/ 
 
THE^ RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 291 
 
 Bivouac of a division of 
 S -battalion regiments. 
 
 Pig. 210. 
 
 Bivouac of a division of 
 4:-battalion regiments. 
 
 r 
 
 III' 
 
 ■4 '8< 
 
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 Fig. 211. 
 
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292 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 If tlie troops are to pass the night in readiness for action, they are 
 placed in bivouac a little in rear of the position for battle ; the diflferent 
 parts may also be closed a little nearer together, so as to hold them better 
 in hand. 
 
 In bivouac, the cartridge-wagons of the advanced guard and lines of 
 battle are placed with the quarter guards, instead of with the field guards ; 
 in this case, care must be taken to have the kitchen and other fires at a safe 
 distance. 
 
 The rest of the wagons are arranged as prescribed in the cavalry regu- 
 lations. 
 
 In bivouac, guards are posted as in encampments, observing what follows : 
 
 1. In divisions arranged in two lines, (figs. 208, 209,) the regiments 
 of the 1st line post field guards, those of the 2d line post quarter guards; 
 in addition, there may be, if necessary, sergeants' guards on the flanks, 
 to connect the chains of the field and quarter guards. 
 
 2. In divisions posted in reserve, (figs. 210, 211,) the 4th regiment 
 posts field guards, the 1st regiment posts quarter guards, the 2d and 3d 
 post field guards on the flanks. 
 
 3. Camp guards are 10 paces in front of the centre of the troops post- 
 ing them. 
 
 4. In regiments of 4 battalions, arranged in 2 lines, the camp guard is 
 posted opposite the interval between the battalions of the 1st line; if 
 there is a battery in this interval, the guard is posted on its right. 
 
 5. The sentinels posted over the arms, at the angles of the battalions, 
 (figs. 202, 203,) are arranged as in encampments, with the difference, that, 
 for a regiment of 4 battalions, in two lines, (fig. 203,) two posts are 
 .necessary for the exterior angles of the 2d and 3d battalions. 
 
 6. In bivouac, there is a sentinel at the hut of the battalion commander. 
 A guard may be posted at the quarters of detached commanders. 
 
 In all other respects the rules for cavalry bivouacs apply to those of 
 infantry. 
 
 ARMS, ACCOUTREMENTS, ETC., OF THE INFANTRY. 
 
 The mass of the infantry are armed simply with the musket and bayonet; 
 all sergeants, some of the regiments of the guard, and the ^lite companies 
 of all regiments, have a short sabre. 
 
 The rifle battalion have a rifle, with sword bayonet. 
 
 In the old pattern of belts, still in general use, there were two thin, 
 broad shoulder-belts, — one for the cartridge-box, the other for the bayonet 
 and sword scabbards; the cap-pouch on the front of the cartridge-box 
 belt ; no waist-belt. 
 
 In the new pattern, there is a single shoulder-belt for the cartridge-box, 
 and a waist-belt, to which the bayonet and sword scabbards are attached; 
 the cap-pouch is on the end of the cartridge-box. 
 
THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 293 
 
 The cartridge-box contains 60 rounds. 
 
 The knapsack is of hide, with the hair outside ; it has two belts, cross- 
 ing on the breast, and attached to the knapsack by swivels. 
 
 The canteen is a tin Fig. 213. 
 bottle, of the shape and sj^" 
 
 dimensions given in fig. ITTIM 
 
 Fig. 212. 
 
 "ffjr 
 
 K5 
 
 213; it has a tin cover 
 which serves as a cup ; it 
 is carried strapped to the 
 back of the knapsack, as 
 shown in fig. 212. 
 
 The uniform coat, or 
 overcoat, is carried, in a 
 water-proof cylinder, on top of the knap- 
 sack; the forage cap in a linen pocket 
 on the front of the knapsack. 
 
 In the knapsack are carried : 2 shirts, 
 1 pair drawers, 2 extra pieces of linen for 
 wrapping the feet, leather for 1 pair of 
 -boots, 3 brushes, 1 pair of summer or 
 winter pants, and 4 days' bread or biscuit. 
 There is a little pocket in the knapsack 
 for a small rectangular tin box, containing spare percussion-caps. 
 
 The wiper, screw-driver, and ball-screw are carried in the cartridge- 
 box. 
 
 In the cartridge- wagons, 4 to each battalion', there are carried 40 
 rounds extra for each man. 
 
 The oflficers have a light sabre, with a leather scabbard. 
 The field music have drums and horns ; the elite companies have fifes. 
 The drums are of brass, 18" in diameter, 12" deep. 
 
 The transportation usually allowed is as follows : 1 small wagon for the 
 officers of each company ; 2 for the soldiers' tents ; 2 for 6 days' bread. 
 Cattle are driven on the hoof. 
 
 The old troops are seldom drilled, and are annoyed as little as possible; 
 target-firing is much practised. 
 
 The ordinary length of march is from 13 to 17 miles a day; it is usual 
 to halt one day out of every three or four. 
 
 Sergeant of billeters 
 
 THE MILITIA. 
 
 The organization of the militia dates from the commencement of the 
 recent war. They were, in fact, battalions of regular troops, raised foi 
 the period of the war, and with certain peculiarities of organization and 
 equipment to distinguish them from the standing army. They were 
 
294 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 organized in battalions, of a composition similar to those of the old army, 
 but were not necessarily formed into regiments. 
 
 The men were mostly serfs and crown peasants; the sergeants generally 
 from the old army; the officers had for the most part served in the old 
 army, and were principally selected from among the number of those who 
 had resigned their commissions or had been granted unlimited furloughs. 
 
 The old troops were much employed as drill-masters for the militia. 
 
 UNIFORM. 
 
 The dress of the militia was eminently national, having little or nothing 
 in common with the usual uniforms of Europe. 
 
 The coat, a Russian caftan, or long, loose, double-breasted frock-coat, 
 with no buttons visible. 
 
 The pants always tucked in the boot-tops. 
 
 The cap, not unlike the forage cap in use in the United States army 
 during the Mexican War, except that the top was somewhat higher and 
 stiffer, and the visor larger ; the only ornament upon the cap a brazen 
 Greek cross. 
 
 The coat, pants, and cap always of the same color; which was generally 
 a dark shade of brownish gray, sometimes almost black. 
 
 The facings usually of some very dark color. 
 
 Instead of overcoats^ they had blankets. 
 
 The men were not required to crop the hair, nor to shave the beard ; 
 both being worn long and full in the Russian style. 
 
 The uniform of the officers was similar to that of the men. 
 
 ARMS AND EQUIPMENT. 
 
 On account of the deficiency in the number of percussion muskets, 
 many of the battalions were armed with the flint-lock muskets. 
 
 The only belt was a black leather waist-belt, fastening by a buckle in 
 front. To this were attached : a cartridge-box of black leather, without 
 a frame; the bayonet-scabbard; and a leather case, containing a small 
 hand-axe. 
 
 Knapsack of black leather, and without frame; it was secured by 
 means of belts and swivels, as described for the knapsack of the old army. 
 
 Considering the very short time these troops had been in service, their 
 appearance and drill were very creditable, and they would, no doubt, have 
 proved to be very efficient troops. 
 
 There were large numbers of them at St. Petersburg and on the shores 
 of the Baltic. 
 
PRU>SSIAN CAVALRY. 295 
 
 PEUSSIAN CAVALRY. 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 The war establisliment of tte Prussian cavalry consists of the standing 
 army, the landwehr of the first levy, that of the second levy, the depot 
 squadrons, and the landsturm. 
 
 All able-bodied men, whatever their rank in life, are required to serve 
 5 years in the standing army, from their 20th to their 25th year. Of 
 these 6 years, the first 3 are j)assed with their regiments ; during the last 
 2 they are permitted to return to their, homes and compose the reserve of 
 the standing army, being liable to be called to join their regiments at any 
 moment, in the event of a war or other exigency. 
 
 They then pass into the landwehr of the 1st levy for 7 years ; then, for 
 7 more, into the landwehr of the 2d levy ; after which, they belong to the 
 landsturm. 
 
 The standing army performs garrison duty in time of peace. As a 
 general rule, the regiments are stationed in the districts where they are 
 recruited, unless there are special political reasons to the contrary. 
 
 The landwehr of the 1st levy is at once called out, upon the commence- 
 ment of a war, to reinforce the standing army and co-operate with it ; its 
 organization and composition are identical with those of the latter, there 
 being a regiment of landwehr cavalry to correspond to every one of the 
 cavalry of the line, and 2 landwehr regiments of the guard. In war they 
 are usually brigaded together j thus the 2d hussars of the line and the 
 2d hussars of the landwehr belong to the same brigade. 
 
 In peace, this levy is called out for drills and manoeuvres 2 weeks in 
 each year ; at other times merely a skeleton, consisting of 1 captain of the 
 line, 2 non-commissioned officers, and 2 men, is kept at the depot maga- 
 zine of each landwehr regiment, the complete clothing, armament, and 
 equipment of the regiment being kept in these magazines. 
 
 The landwehr of the 2d levy is not quite so numerous as that of the 
 1st. It is called out only in time of war, and is then employed in service 
 in the interior, or, if necessary, to reinforce the active army. 
 
 The landsturm has no regular organization ; it is called out only to repel 
 
 18 
 
296 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 invasion, and consists of all men less than 50 years old not in the army 
 or landwehr. 
 
 The depot squadrons are organized only in time of war. They consist 
 of supernumeraries from the reserve, men drafted from the landwehr, 
 and recruits who are to be drilled 6 months before joining their regiments. 
 
 Every regiment of the cavalry of the standing army has one depot 
 squadron in war; those of the guard are of the same strength as the 
 active squadrons; those of the line are 200 strong, since they serve as 
 depots for the corresponding regiments of landwehr of the first levy as 
 well as for those of the line. One hundred and twenty-five men and 
 horses belong to the line regiment; the remaining 75 are for the landwehr. 
 
 The war strength of these diff"erent kinds of cavalry amounts to 440 
 .squadrons, — 2,400 officers and about 65,000 men and horses; this is 
 exclusive of the landsturm. 
 
 The cavalry of the standing army consists of 38 regiments, of which 
 6 belong to the guards, 32 to the line. 
 
 The guard regiments are ; 2 regiments of cuirassiers, 1 of dragoons, 2 
 of lancers, and 1 of hussars. 
 
 The line regiments are : 8 of cuirassiers, 4 of dragoons, 8 of lancers, 
 and 12 of hussars. 
 
 Each regiment consists of 4 active squadrons. 
 
 Each squadron of the line regiments is composed of : 
 
 1 captain. 
 
 1 first lieutenant. 
 
 3 second lieutenants. 
 
 1 orderly sergeant. 
 
 1 ensign, a non-commissioned officer in the line of promotion. 
 
 1 quartermaster, a sergeant. 
 
 12 sergeants. 
 
 3 trumpeters. 
 
 127 privates, among whom are 20 corporals and re-enlisted soldiers : — 
 145 men and horses, exclusive of officers. 
 
 The regimental staff consists of 1 colonel, 1 junior field officer, 1 adju- 
 tant, (a second lieutenant,) 2 supernumerary captains, 1 paymaster, 1 
 surgeon, from 2 to 3 assistant surgeons, 1 chief trumpeter, 1 regi- 
 mental clerk, 4 veterinaries with the rank of orderly sergeant. The super- 
 numerary captains are for the purpose of commanding the skeleton of the 
 corresponding landwehr regiment and the depot squadron, as well as for 
 other detached service. 
 
 The junior field officer commands the corresponding landwehr regiment, 
 the captains and adjutant of which are also taken from the line. The 
 squadrons of the guard regiments are stronger by 5 privates than those 
 of the line. 
 
PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 297 
 
 TACTICS AND INSTRUCTION. 
 
 The riding drill is a separate work from the tactics proper; it is so very 
 similar to the Austrian that it need not be explained in this report. 
 
 The instruction on foot is embraced in the first 36 pages of the tactics, 
 and includes the drill of the recruit, the movements of the squadron and 
 regiment, and the formations for parade, review, &c. 
 
 The squadron is the unit of tactics, as well as of interior service. 
 When mounted, it is formed in two ranks, 1 pace apart, the rear-rank 
 covering their front-rank men, and is divided into 4 platoons, numbered 
 from right to left. 
 
 In each platoon the men call off by twos for mounting and dismounting; 
 by threes for manoeuvring. 
 
 The officers, non-commissioned officers, &c., are posted as follows : 
 
 The captain, 30 paces in front of the centre; the 1st lieutenant com- 
 mands the 3d platoon, and is 2 paces in front of its centre; the 2d lieu- 
 tenant commands the 4th platoon ; the 3d lieutenant is a file-closer, in rear 
 of the centre; the 4th lieutenant commands the 1st platoon; the 5th lieu- 
 tenant commands the 2d platoon. 
 
 The sketch on page 298 represents a squadron deployed. 
 
 If there is no 5th lieutenant, the 2d platoon is commanded by the 
 ensign, or a suitable sergeant. 
 
 If there are but 2 lieutenants present, they command the flank platoons. 
 
 The captain may change the arrangement of the officers, as given 
 above, if he thinks proper. 
 
 The sketch gives the positions of the non-commissioned officers and 
 trumpeters. 
 
 There must be one file-closer for each platoon ; if there is a deficiency 
 in the number of sergeants, corporals are detailed to supply their places. 
 
 To dismount^ the chiefs and left guides of platoons, and Nos. 1 of the 
 front rank, ride forward twice a horse's length, the chiefe of platoons then 
 face towards their men by making a right about ; the right guides, Nos. 
 2 of the front rank, and Nos. 1 of the rear rank, move forward a horse's 
 length; Nos. 2 of the rear rank and the file-closers stand fast; the 
 trumpeters act as prescribed for the rear rank. 
 
 Having dismounted, Nos. 2 of each rank and the right guides close up 
 alongside of the Nos. 1 of their own rank ; the* file-closers close up on the 
 rear rank ; the ranks are thus 4 paces apart. 
 
 To mount, the ranks are formed 4 paces apart, and the Nos. 1 of each 
 rank, with the left guides, move forward a horse's length. 
 
 Having mounted, the ranks are closed on the Nos. 1 of the front rank. 
 
 The movements of the squadron are by threes, — never by fours. 
 
298 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 Exjplanation of signs. 
 T — — Captain. 
 
 I Commander of platoon. 
 
 File-closer officer. 
 
 Right guide of platoon. 
 
 t 
 
 -• Left guide of platoon. 
 
 — File-closer non-commissioned officer. 
 
 — Orderly sergeant. 
 
 — Trumpeter. 
 
 * ? ? ? 
 
 2 ff 
 
 I I 
 
 I 
 
 f f 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
 Squadron deployed. 
 
PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 
 
 The annexed sketch shows the formation of a squadron gaining ground 
 to the right after having wheeled to the right by threes 
 in each rank. 
 
 The squadron may be re-formed into line either by 
 wheeling to the left by threes, or by forming to the front 
 into line ; in the latter case the front-rank men of the 
 leading set of threes move forward two horses' lengths 
 and halt, their rear-rank men take their places behind 
 them, and the other sets of threes gain their places by 
 obli^Juing to the left. 
 
 Platoons may be formed in the same manner. 
 
 The annexed sketch will serve to explain the pecuHarity 
 , in the column by threes, and the column by files ; in the 
 column by threes the rear-rank men, instead of cover- 
 ing their front-rank men, ride behind the intervals, as 
 shown in the sketch ; in the column by files, in which 
 each rear-rank man is alongside of his front-rank man, 
 the same thing is observed by the successive files. 
 
 In column by platoons, the non-commissioned file- 
 closers place themselves on the flanks of the rear 
 rank ; the officer acting as file-closer is on the flank of 
 the column opposite the guides, and opposite the middle 
 of the colujnn. 
 
 The half column is formed from line by causing all 
 the platoons to make, simultaneously, a quarter wheel 
 to the right, (or left,) and then all move straight for- 
 ward. 
 
 In a charge in line, 500 paces are passed over at the m. 
 walk and trot, 200 at the gallop, and 100 at the charge, j 
 
 Sometimes the 4th platoon charges in one rank, in j 
 open order, and is supported by the remaining platoons ' 
 in close order. g 
 
 Again, the 1st, 2d, and 4th platoons charge helter- ^ 
 skelter, as foragers, and are supported by the 3d platoon, 
 which remains in close order. 
 
 SKIRMISHERS. 
 
 The 4th platoon is usually employed for skirmishing-duty. 
 
 At the command of the captain the chief of this platoon conducts it to 
 a point from 150 to 200 paces in front of the centre of the squadron, and 
 there halts it. The four left files (or as many more as may be directed) 
 return sabres, or rest lances, and at once dash out about 100 paces to the; 
 
300 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 front at a gallop, and there form in one rank with sufficient intervals to 
 enable them to cover the wholo front of the squadron ; the rear-rank men 
 are on the left of,- and near to, their front-rank men. 
 
 One man of each file must always have his piece loaded. 
 
 They halt while firing, but keep moving while loading, describing a 
 figure jQ(Q as they ride. 
 
 Since the skirmishers are intended to cover the squadron, they, as well 
 as the rest of the platoon, must conform to all its movements. 
 
 When any party of cavalry is obliged to dismount to fight on foot, the 
 Nos. 3 of each rank remain mounted, and hold the horses of Nos. 1 anH 2. 
 
 The formation of a regiment deployed is with its 4 squadrons in line, 
 with intervals of 6 paces; the standard on the right of the 3d squadron; 
 the colonel, accompanied by the adjutant and 2 trumpeters, 60 paces in 
 front of the centre; the junior field officer 20 paces in rear of the centre 
 of the regiment. 
 
 A regiment may be formed in column by squadrons closed in mass, the 
 distance being platoon front plus 6 paces; by squadrons with full distance; 
 by platoons doubled on the central platoons ; and in line of columns of 
 squadrons by platoons. 
 
 A regiment being in line, the front is changed by squadrons : e.g.j to 
 change front forward 90° on the 1st squadron the 1st squadron wheels to 
 the right and halts, the other squadrons each make a half wheel to the 
 right, then march straight forward until they arrive opposite their respect- 
 ive places in the new line, when they again half wheel to the right into 
 their places. 
 
 To deploy a close column the leading squadron halts, the others wheel 
 by platoons to the left, (or right,) march straight forward until they 
 arrive opposite their places in line, when they wheel by platoon to the 
 right, (or left,) and advance in line to their posts. This deployment is 
 executed at a trot. 
 
 During a charge in line the standard-bearer falls back into the rear rank. 
 • If the ground over which a charge is to be made is not known, an 
 officer is sent forward to examine it and report to the colonel. 
 
 The entire force of a regiment should not charge, but some of the 
 flank platoons should be held in reserve. 
 
 Sometimes the 4th platoons of all the squadrons, or one entire squadron, 
 charge as foragers, supported by the rest of the regiment in close order. 
 
 Sometimes the 1st, 2d, and 4th platoons of all the squadrons charge, 
 while the 3d platoons, under the command of the junior field officer, are 
 held in reserve. 
 
 The charge by echelons is also employed. 
 
 A regiment being formed in column by squadrons, there are two 
 Jnethods of employing it in a charge ; 
 
PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 301 
 
 1st. The column being right in front, the 4th squadron leaves the 
 column and forms, the 1st and 2d platoons on the right, the 3d and 4th 
 on the left flank of the column, the commandants of these platoons being 
 on the alignment of the file-closers of the 3d squadron ; the column then 
 moves off at a trot, next at a gallop ; as soon as it takes the gallop the 1st 
 squadron charges ; when the colonel gives the command, haltj the 4th 
 squadron charges as foragers. 
 
 2d. The column being right in front, moves forward at a trot; the 1st , 
 squadron then charges, and afterwards retires by the flanks of the column 
 to the rear, where it re-forms ] the other squadrons then charge in suc- 
 cession in the same manner. 
 
 If skirmishers are to be deployed to cover the regiment, either the 4th 
 platoons of all the squadrons, or one entire squadron, are detailed for the 
 purpose^ 
 
 If the regiment is to dismount to fight on foot, it is eflfected upon the 
 principles explained for a single squadron. 
 
 In a brigade deployed, the interval between the regiments is 12 paces. 
 The general of brigade is 100 paces in front of the centre, and is accom- 
 panied by the brigade adjutant and two trumpeters. 
 
 HORSE EQUIPMENTS. 
 
 The cuirassiers use a heavy saddle, with a low pommel and cantle ; it 
 is covered with leather, and presents nothing worthy of imitation. 
 
 The rest of the cavalry have the Hungarian saddle ; it diffiers from the 
 Austrian model principally in the manner of attaching the equipment j 
 the forks are permanently bolted to the bars; there is more iron-work • 
 upon it, and small skirts are attached to it. 
 
 Eight sizes of trees are made ; the average weight of the bare tree is 
 seven pounds. 
 
 The English saddle is the uniform for officers; they use a girth of 
 hemp cords. ^ ^ 
 
 For the men, the valise is replaced by a flat bag, opening in the middle 
 of the lower side, which contains the clothes, and is laid on the tree, 
 under the schabraque, the man sitting on it. 
 
 The pouches are large and heavy ; they are attached to the saddle by 
 spring hooks, and contain many of the necessaries. 
 
 The pistol-holster is in one of the pouches; also a pocket for extra 
 cartridges ; to one pouch the hatchet is attached. 
 
 The cloak and forage-bag are strapped to the cantle ; the kettle, in a 
 leather case, is attached to the left side of the hind fork. The schabraque 
 is of blue cloth, with a lining of coarse linen ; it has pockets in the lining. 
 
 Cruppers and breast-straps are used; the surcingle is of leather, and 
 fastens in the Mexican style; the girth is also of leather, about 3 J inches 
 
302 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 wide, and with a large buckle ; it is in two parts, and is attached to the 
 bars by thongs of" raw hide. 
 
 The saddle-blanket is 8' by 6' 3" ; it is folded in 12 thicknesses. 
 
 The forage-bag is of white linen. 
 
 The forage-cord has an iron ring at one end. 
 
 The nose-bag is of coarse linen, the bottom bound and crossed with 
 broad linen tape. 
 
 The curry-comb is 6" by 4'', with four rows of teeth ; one pattern, for 
 field service, has a strap attached to the back, instead of a handle, the 
 hand being run under the strap. 
 
 The mane-comb is of horn; metallic combs have been tried and 
 abandoned. 
 
 The shoe-pouches, one ftn each side of the hind fork, contain, each, 1 fore 
 and 1 hind shoe, as well as 16 common and 4 ice nails, in a straw cushion. 
 
 The stirrups are of steel, and roughly made. 
 
 A hemp surcingle is used in the stable. 
 
 Two bits are used, both of steel ; the curb has straight branches, and 
 a heavy steel chain. 
 
 The headstall is single ; the curb is buckled to the cheek-pieces ; near 
 its lower end a strap about 2" long is sewed to one side of each cheek- 
 piece ; the snaffle is attached to a ring at the end of this strap by a chain 
 and toggle. 
 
 The curb-reins are 4' long. No martingale is used. 
 
 The halter presents nothing peculiar : the rope is 6' long, and is either 
 of hemp or hair ; in garrison a chain is sometimes used. By attaching a 
 snaffle-bit and rein, the halter serves as a watering-bridle. 
 
 The Russian bit is being tried : in this experiment the snaffle fastens to 
 the halter-headstall by a chain and toggle, while the curb-headstall, which 
 is very light, passes through loops on the halter. 
 
 All articles of each set of equipments are branded with the number of 
 the set. ^ 
 
 ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS. 
 
 Cuirassiers J sabre of the old French cuirassier pattern; 20 men in 
 each squadron have a smooth-bore carbine, with a barrel 15'' long; the 
 rest of the men a pistol, with a 9" barrel.* 
 
 Dragoons, light-cavalry sabre, blade 32" long, and 1^" wide at the 
 shoulder, considerably curved, guard and scabbard of steel; sergeants 
 and trumpeters, 1 pistol each; 50 men in each squadron have a rifled 
 carbine, the rest a smooth-bore carbine. 
 
 Lancers J sabre as for dragoons; lance 10^' long;, firearms as for 
 cuirassiers. 
 
 Hussars, armed as described for dragoons. 
 
 The cuirassiers have metallic helmet, breast and back pieces. 
 
PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 303 
 
 The sabre-belt is an ordinary Vaist-belt with slings; it fastens by 
 means of an (y^ book. 
 
 The cartridge-box is attached to a shoulder-belt; it contains 18 rounds; 
 it is filled by a wooden block, in which a hole is bored for every car- 
 tridge. 
 
 The carbine, or pistol, rammer is attached to the cartridge-box belt by 
 a thin strap, the rammer being slipped through two loops on the cartridge- 
 box. 
 
 The*carbine-sling is not peculiar. 
 
 On the march the carbine is carried in a boot, the small of the stock 
 being strapped to the pommel. 
 
 UNIFORM. 
 
 The dragoons wear a helmet of black leather, surmounted by a brass 
 spear-head. 
 
 The lancers have the ordinary lancers* cap, the czapka. 
 
 Tie hussars, a cylindrical shako of fur, without visor. 
 
 The forage-cap has no visor. 
 
 The clothing is of excellent material, and is well made ; it is made up 
 in the regiments. • 
 
 A short frock-coat is worn by all the cavalry. 
 
 Coat and pants are lined throughout. 
 
 The pants are re-enforced with black leather, and are split about 6" 
 from the bottom, along the outer seam, the slit fastening with hooks and 
 eyes ; straps of leather are sewed to the pants. 
 
 Boots are worn under 'the pants; steel spurs are permanently attached 
 to the boots. 
 
 The overcoat has a large rolling collar, and no cape ; it is of a dark- 
 gray color, nearly black. 
 
 The stock is of bombazine, lined with linen ; it has a flap in front, and 
 fastens by means of a buckle. 
 
 The buttons are plain. 
 
 Shirts, seeks, and cloth mittens are issued. * 
 
 HORSES. 
 
 There is a central commission at Berlin charged with the regulation of 
 the purchase of horses. 
 
 For this purpose, the monarchy is divided into three districts ; 1st, the 
 country east of the Vistula ; 2d, that from the Vistula to the Elbe ; 3d, 
 the Rhenish provinces. 
 
 There is a sub-commission for each of these (Jistricts, and several re- 
 mount depots. 
 
 The horses are purchased between the ages of 3 and 7, the preference 
 
p04 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 being given to young horses, which remain at the remount depots until 
 they are 4^ years old. 
 
 The horse is supposed to give 9 years' service, on the average ; there- 
 fore, each regiment is annually supplied with remount horses to the num- 
 ber of one-ninth of its total strength. 
 
 As an instance of the price of horses, it may be mentioned that in 
 1854, in the province of Pomerania, 733 horses were offered to the sub- 
 commission, 311 of which were purchased; the average price paid was 
 $85, the highest price $137. 
 
 Prussia is not now obliged to import horses for the army. 
 
 The horses are branded with the initials of the name and the number 
 of the regiment to which they belong, also with the sign of the province 
 where purchased. 
 
 The horses are generally good,Jbut by no means extraordinary. 
 
 The minimam height of horses for the garde du corps is 16 hands. 
 
 cuirassiers is 15 hands 2 inches. 
 
 light guard and lancers is.. .15 hands i incn. 
 
 dragoons and hussars is 14 hands 3x% inches- 
 
 The minimum height of artillery draught-horses is 16 hands. 
 
 ^ saddle-horses is 14 hands 3j^ inches. 
 
 From 2 to 4 spare horses are allowed each squadron. 
 
 Every lieutenant of cavalry receives a public horse once in 5 years ; if 
 he rides the same horse for that time, it becomes his private property at 
 the expiration of the period, unless he is promoted to a captaincy in the 
 interim. 
 
 If he does not avail himself of this privilege for 5 years, he receives 
 a compensation of from $100 to $110 at the expiration of that time. 
 
 If he loses his public horse in time of war, he receives a new one, and 
 is credited for the time he rode the first. 
 
 It is the duty of the colonels to see that the officers are properly 
 mounted. 
 
 In time of war, or in case of pressing necessity, the laws allow the 
 government to seize the horses of citizens ' for the use of the^army ; the 
 owners are paid a price determined by a board of officers. 
 
 RATIONS OF THE MEN. 
 
 In garrison, bread only is issued in kind, 1^ pounds to the ration; it 
 must have been baked at least 24 hours ^before issue, and is issued every 
 4 days. The rest of the food is purchased, by means of a small daily 
 allowance in money, by a commission consisting of the colonel, 1 cliptain, 
 1 lieutenant, and 4 sergeants. 
 
 The principal food is soup, with a small slice of meat. 
 
 No coffee is issued ; brandy or wine in lieu of it. 
 
PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 
 
 305 
 
 Tlie largest field ration consists of: 
 
 ^ pound of meat, or \ pound of salt pork ; 2 pounds of bread, or 1 
 pound of biscuit; ^ pound of rice, or J pound of peeled barley, or J 
 pound beans or peas, or i pound of meal, or li^ pounds of potatoes ; J 
 pint of brandy, and salt. 
 
 The bread is generally carried in the forage-sack; the brandy in a 
 flask. 
 
 The annexed sketch gives 
 the form and dimensions of 
 the kettle carried by each 
 man in the field ; it is in a 
 strong leather case, strapped 
 to the left side of the hind 
 fork; the kettle is of stout 
 tin. 
 
 A is the cover. 
 
 ,B, the kettle. 
 
 C, plan of the bottom. 
 
 D, pan, fitting in B. 
 E and F, section and plan 
 
 of cover, with rings to serve 
 as handles, and small tin 
 springs to keep it in place; 
 it is carried in the top, (A.) 
 
 G, handle of top (A) 
 when used as a stew-pan, 
 slipping into the receptacle 
 H; it is 4" long, and is 
 carried in D, slipping into I. 
 
 In garrison, mess-rooms are sometimes provided ; eacn man has a bowl 
 and wooden spoon ; the bread is kept in the quarters, each man having a 
 cupboard with a lock and key. 
 
 QUARTERS. 
 
 As the quarters have been described in treating of the infantry, it is 
 only necessary to say here that they are usually in separate buildings from 
 the stables. 
 
 The horse equipments are kept in the quarters. 
 
 FORAGE. 
 
 The ration is of two kinds, the heavy and the light; each of these 
 varies according to circumstances as follows : 
 
3 " 4 
 
 3 " 4 
 
 5 " 8 
 
 3 " 4 
 
 3 " 4 
 
 806 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Heavy ration, in garrison 9 quarts of oats, 5 pounds of hay, 8 pounds of straw. 
 
 on march, in peace lOJ 
 
 in the field, in war 11 J 
 Light ration, in garrison 7i 
 
 on march, in peace 9 
 
 in the field, in war 10 
 
 With, the consent of the minister of war, the ration as given above 
 may be changed, as follows : the oats may be replaced by rye, barley, bis- 
 cuit, hay, or straw, at the following rates : for each quart of oats 0.56 
 quart rye, or 0.8 quart barley, or f pound biscuit, or 2| pounds hay, or 
 6i pounds straw ; hay may be replaced by straw at the rate of 2 pounds 
 of straw for 1 pound of hay. 
 
 The straw, as given above in the garrison ration, is one-half fed, the 
 rest used for litter. 
 
 The heavy ration is issued to the cavalry of the guard, the horses of 
 the riding-school, the horse artillery of the guard, the draught-horses of 
 all the artillery, and the cuirassier regiments. 
 
 The light ration is issued to all other horses, except that the lancers 
 receive f quart of oats more than the quantity specified above for the 
 light ration. 
 
 From the day of their purchase until joining their regiments, the re- 
 mount horses receive from 7i to 9 quarts of oats, 7 pounds of hay, and 
 4 pounds of straw per diem. 
 
 STABLES. 
 
 The new and best stables are of brick, of one story, with a loft above. 
 They have a central passage-way, with a row of stalls on each side, and 
 usually accommodate the horses of an entire regiment. 
 
 In some cases, the stables are built on three sides of a rectangle; each 
 of the short sides for 1 squadron ; the long side for 2 squadrons, and 
 haying a riding-house in the middle; the barracks, detached, form the 
 fourth side. In other cases, the long side is for 1 squadron and the 
 riding-house, while there is a perpendicular wing for each of the other 
 squadrons. 
 
 The stalls are 5' 2" wide, 9' 6" long to the heel-post, V thence to the 
 drain; the central passage-way is 12' 4'' wide; the ceiling 15' high. 
 The interior of jthe stables is plastered, and the communication with the 
 loft is by means of trap-doors in convenient places for throwing down the 
 hay. 
 
 The passage-way is paved with cubical blocks of stone ; the stalls with 
 bricks set on the long edge. 
 
 The stalls are separated by swinging bars suspended by a hook at the 
 head of the stall and by a stem and socket in rear, as shown in the 
 sketch on page 305, in which A is the heel-post, B the swinging bar. 
 
PRUS^AN CAVALRY. 
 
 307 
 
 For every third stall there is a window 3' square, the sill being 8' 6" 
 above the floor; above the other stalls are ventilators, 10" square, that 
 can be opened and closed by means 
 of iron rods. The mangers are of P^'^Hv/^ 
 cast iron, 2! long, 11" wide, 8" deep ; 
 the top 4' above the floor. They 
 are supported by two iron stan- 
 chions under the middle; to the 
 one nearest the hofse he is at- 
 tached by a sliding ring. 
 
 Each horse has a separate iron 
 of which 
 
 rack, the bottom 
 
 9' 
 
 HI. 
 
 ii 
 
 m 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 ■V' 
 
 IS 
 
 above the manger ; it is 2' 6" long 
 
 and 18" deep. The hay is put in from below, after beiner sorted and 
 
 cleaned from dust. 
 
 There are pumps and vats in the stables. 
 
 From 1 to 4 days' forage is kept in the loft, there being forage- 
 magazines close at hand. 
 
 A board is nailed across from one heel-post to another, about T above 
 the floor ; on this is painted in large figures the number of the stall, and 
 on a black-board as follows : 
 
 Private John Smith. — Equipment No. 162. 
 
 Name of horse. 
 
 Tear of remount. 
 
 Sex. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Ziethen 
 
 1853 
 
 Male 
 
 4/ 11// 
 
 6 
 
 The age is that at the time of his joining the regiment, or at the year 
 of remount. 
 
 A black-board is hung up in the stable of each squadron, on which are 
 inscribed in chalk, daily, the names of the stable-guard, the number of 
 government horses for duty, the number of officers' horses for duty, the 
 number and names of the sick horses. 
 
 At convenient places there are banquette beds for the stable-guard. 
 
 Lanterns are swung from the ceiling along the middle of the passage- 
 way. • 
 
 The horse-hospital and the shoeing-shop are in separate buildings, the 
 former being enclosed by a wall. 
 
 In the stable-yard racks are provided for airing the litter. 
 
 STABLE-DUTY. 
 The stable-guard consists of 1 corporal and 8 men per squadron ; they 
 are on duty for 24 hours, sleep in the stable, feed the grain, and are re- 
 
308 JTHE ARMIES OF'EUROPE. 
 
 sponsible for the police and order of the stables between stable-calls. Two 
 of the number must be on duty and awake day and night. 
 
 The stable-guard and the stable-duty generally are under the direction 
 of the squadron officer of the day, the orderly sergeant and the squadron 
 sergeant of the day. 
 
 The ration of oats is divided into five equal portions. One of these 
 is given the first thing in the morning ; then the horse is cleaned and 
 watered; after this, another portion is given; about noon the horse 
 receives another portion, and is again watered ; soon after this he is 
 again rubbed down, and after that receives another portion; a little before 
 dark he is again watered, and receives the last portion. 
 
 The straw is generally chopped and fed with the oats, the greater part 
 being given with the last portion. ^ 
 
 The hay is fed one-half in the morning, the rest after the last evening 
 feed. 
 
 The grain is fed by tte stable-guard as follows : a box mounted on 
 wheels contains the feed, and is wheeled along by one man ; two others, 
 having dish-shaped baskets, each receive from the corporal the portion 
 for 1 horse, and pour it in the mangers on each side of the passage-way 
 as they proceed. The orderly sergeant and the sergeant of the day 
 superintend. 
 
 The men clean out the mangers of their own horses before the 
 feeding. 
 
 Each man provides his own horse with hay, which is shaken and freed 
 from dust, sticks, weeds, &c., before being placed in? the racks. 
 
 At stable-call, each man polices the stall of his own horse. Birch 
 brooms, wooden shovels bound with iron, and light forks are used in 
 policing the stables. 
 
 For every 10 horses there are allowed 1 bucket, 1 sieve, 1 shovel, 1 
 fork, and from 1 to 2 brooms. 
 
 The horses are sometimes blanketed in the stables. 
 
 FIELD SERVICE. 
 
 In the field, the following is the allowance of transportation for a 
 regiment of cavalry^ 
 
 1 four-horse wagon, containing regimental chest 300 pounds we 
 
 Paymaster's an^i other regimental books 40 " 
 
 Adjutant's desk 40 " 
 
 OflScers' mess-chest 100 " 
 
 " portmanteaus (captains 55, lieutenants 45 lbs., each) 1,340 " 
 
 Total'weight 1,820 " 
 
 ght. 
 
PRUS.SIAN CAVALRY. 309 
 
 1 two-horse wagon, containing armorer's tools 220 pounds weight. 
 
 Saddler's tools v 110 « " 
 
 Baggage of the surgeons ■ 100 " " 
 
 Medicines, &c 252 " « 
 
 • Totalweight. 682 « " 
 
 • Each squadron has a two-horse cart, loaded as follows : 
 
 Ofl&cers' mess-chest 30 pounds weight 
 
 Farriers' tools 60 " « 
 
 Spare equipment 173 " " 
 
 Blankets for sick men 27 " " 
 
 Baggage, <tc., of orderly sergeant 20 " " 
 
 Baggage, <fec., of the medical ^er«onneZ 60 " " 
 
 Money, when on detachment 50 " " 
 
 Totalweight ; 420 « " 
 
 So long a time has elapsed since the Prussian cavalry have seen any 
 serious field service on a large scale, that they have but little more than 
 theory and remote traditions in this regard ; it is probable that we have 
 but little to learn from them on this point. 
 
 Tents are not used in the Prussian army ; the troops being placed in 
 cantonments, huts, or bivouacs. 
 
 The huts are of wood or straw, and either square or round : the square 
 huts are 15' square in the interior, and are for l4 men with their equip- 
 ment ; the round huts are 20' in diameter, and contain 18 men with their 
 equipment. 
 
 The round huts are 36, the square 28, paces apart, from centre to 
 centre. 
 
 The huts of each squadron are in two rows, facing each other and 
 perpendicular to the fA)nt of the camp ; the width of the street varying 
 with the strength of the squadron. 
 
 The picket-ropes are stretched 3 paces in front of the lines of huts, 
 and parallel to them ; they are attached to picket-pins, driven firmly into 
 the ground, 2 paces apart; 4 J paces in rear of the picket-rope another 
 rope is stretched, parallel to it, to enclose the horses. The baggage is in 
 rear of the colonel's hut ; the kitchens 25 paces in rear of the baggage. 
 
 The kitchens are ditches 15 paces long, and 2' deep, one for each 
 squadron. 
 
 The latrines are 125 paces in rear of the kitchens ; those for the men 
 are ditches 30' long and 3' deep, which are renewed every 2 or 3 days in 
 summer. 
 
 A regiment of cavalry may bivouac either in line or with the rows of 
 horses perpendicular to the front, or in column by squadrons with half 
 distance. 
 
310 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 1. BIVOUAC IN LINE. 
 
 Each squadron is allowed a space 75 paces long, by 30 paces deep, 
 with intervals of 4 paces between the squadrons. 
 
 The kitchens are 10 paces behind the bivouac of the men; the 
 squadron officers 5 paces in rear of the kitchens ; the staff 10 paces in 
 rear of the squadron officers. 
 
 The parade-ground is in front of the bivouac, and must be at least 30 
 paces deep. 
 
 A bivouac of this kind occupies a front of 312 paces, and a depth of 
 80 paces, counting from the bivouac of the front rank to the baggage- 
 wagons, inclusive. 
 
 2. BIVOUAC WITH PICKET-ROPES PERPENDICULAR TO THE FRONT. 
 
 Each squadron is allowed a front of 50 paces, and a depth of 75, with 
 intervals of 10 paces between the squadrons. The arrangement of the 
 kitchens, &c., is similar to that in the preceding case. 
 
 The parade-ground is in front of the camp, and is 50 paces deep. 
 
 A bivouac of this kind occupies a front of 230 paces and a depth of 
 125, between the same points as in the last case. 
 
 3. BIVOUAC IN COLUMN BY SQUADRONS. 
 
 Each squadron is allowed a front of 75 paces, and a depth of 20, with 
 distances of 10 paces between the squadrons. 
 
 The kitchens are 10 paces from one flank of the column, the squadron 
 officers 5 paces beyond the kitchens ; the colonel and staff 20 paces behind 
 the last squadron. The parade-ground is on the opposite flank from the 
 kitchens ; a free space 50 paces deep is left in front of the bivouac and 
 parade-ground. * 
 
 This bivouac occupies a front of 165 paces, including the parade- 
 ground, and a depth of 145 paces between the same points as in the last 
 case. 
 
 In bivouac the sabres are stuck in the ground 3 paces in front of the 
 picket-ropes ; the shako and cartridge-box hung on it. 
 
 l^he horse equipments are placed 3 paces in rear of the horses. 
 
 In time of peace, cavalry usually march 14 miles each day, resting 
 every fourth day. * In good weather, and over good roads, they may 
 march 28 miles or more ; but such -long marches are to be avoided, as 
 injurious to the horses and equipment. 
 
 On good roads, and in good weather, the march is usually at the rate 
 of 3 miles per hour ; in a rough, broken country, about one-third more 
 time must be allowed. 
 
PRUSSJAN CAVALRY. 311 
 
 To place a squadron on a railway-train requires about 2 hours ; about 
 1 hour is needed to take them off. 
 
 2 locomotives and about 32 wagons are needed to transport a squadron. 
 
 SCHOOL OF EQUITATION, AT SCHWEDT. 
 
 Lieutenants and non-Qommissioned officers of cavalry and artillery are 
 sent to this school for instruction in equitation. 
 
 The course lasts two years } there is but one class of officers ; that is, 
 they all enter and leave the school at the same time, an entirely new set 
 entering every second year 3 one-half of the non-commissioned officers 
 leave every year. 
 
 One officer is sent from every brigade of cavalry, and one from every two 
 regiments of artillery. Two non-commissioned officers are sent from every 
 regiment of cavalry and of artillery. 
 
 Each officer brings 2 private horses with him, the school furnishing 
 him with a third; the non-commissioned officers come without horses, 
 and take back to their regiments the horse each one rode during the 
 last year. 
 
 The school consists of 1 field officer as director, 3 captains, or lieu- 
 tenants, as instructors, 2 riding-masters, 24 lieutenants and 94 non-com- 
 missioned officers as pupils, 1 paymaster, 1 orderly sergeant, 2 veterina- 
 ries, 1 quartermaster, 1 horse-breaker, 57 privates as grooms, 27 privates 
 as officers' servants. 
 
 The stables and riding-halls are ample, and well arranged. 
 
 The riding in the open air is performed on a drill-ground some dis- 
 tance from the town ; here they leap ditches, hurdles, &c., fire with the 
 carbine and pistol, run at the heads, &c. 
 
 The annexed sketch explains the manner of attaching the ^ — n. 
 head to the post; it avoids the necessity of keeping a man ^ ^ 
 
 at the post to replace the head. The head is shaped as in 
 the figure, and is partly covered with leather; at A it is 
 secured by a leather thong, so that when struck it moves 
 around that point as a hinge, and is stopped by the trian- 
 gular piece of wood, B; it thus resumes its first position. 
 They cut at balls on the ground on the right, never on the 
 left. 
 
 The pupils are taught to vault on and off the horse at a gallop. Their 
 time is fully occupied by constant exercises during the day. 
 
 The usual continental system of employing kickers is followed here ; 
 for this purpose two or three horses are taught to kick and plunge in 
 every possible way, when tied up close to two posts; the recruits are 
 mounted on these, without stirrups, and hold on, if they can, by means 
 of a couple of straps attached to the pommel. 
 
 19 
 
312 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The system pursued in breaking young horses is one of extreme care 
 and gentleness; violent measures are never resorted to; considerable at- 
 tention is paid to rendering the muscles of the head and neck pliable, in 
 order to gain full control over the horse; this, however, must not be un- 
 derstood as indicating approbation of the Baucher system, which here, as 
 well as elsewhere, has been tried and found to be unfit for cavalry 
 purposes. 
 
 THE VETERINARY SCHOOL AT BERLIN. 
 
 At this institution about 80 pupils are instructed as farriers and vete- 
 rinaries for the army, in addition to a number of civilian pupils. 
 
 It is very similar to the veterinary school at Vienna, described under 
 the head of the Austrian cavalry; but not quite so extensive, and perhaps 
 not so perfect. 
 
 It has lecture and dissecting rooms, operating-halls, museums of com- 
 parative anatomy, &c. 
 
 The stables accommodate about 80 horses, and are arranged for from 4 
 to 6 horses in each division. 
 
 The interior arrangement of the stables presents nothing peculiar, 
 except that there is but one row of stalls in each. There are boxes, in 
 separate stables, for glandered horses. The Russian steam-bath is used 
 in the establishment, but it is stated that the result is not generally bene- 
 ficial ; it has been applied in cases of rheumatism, colic, &c. 
 
 The horseshoeing department is under a special instructor. The shoes 
 and tools present nothing new or worthy of imitation, both being heavy 
 and awkward. 
 
 The shoes have no groove, but the nail-holes are countersunk ; there 
 are four nails on each side ; four sizes of shoes are used in the cavalry. 
 
 The method of shoeing is similar to that pursued in Austria, — one man 
 holding the horse, another his leg, a third putting on the shoe. 
 
 A vice is made use of in teaching the pupils to set and nail on a shoe; 
 the hoof and pastern of a horse recently deceased are placed in this vice, 
 which is attached to a bench, and so arranged as to admit of being thrown 
 into various positions. 
 
 Cows, pigs, dogs, and cats, are treated in this institution. The horses 
 of civilians are cured and shod upon moderate terms, in order to secure 
 the necessary amount of practice for the pupils. 
 
 The Prussian military literature is very rich, and is well worthy of 
 study. 
 
 Among the works relating to cavalry, which may be consulted with 
 advantage, are — 
 
 Kalkstein on the Prussian Army; Die Preussische Armee, nach ihren 
 reglementarischen Formen und Einrichtungen, &c., von R. v. Kalkstein ; 
 
PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 313 
 
 Minis' Aide-memoire; Hiilfsbuch beim theoretischen Unterricht des 
 Cavalleristen, von Minis — this gives the interior service in great detail. 
 
 Witzleben on Army Affairs ; Heerwesen und Infanteriedienst der K6- 
 niglieh Preussischen Armee, von A. von Witzleben ; Buschbeck's Field 
 Pocket-Book; Preussisches Feld-Taschenbuch fur Offiziere aller Waffen, 
 von F. Buschbeck ; the Hand-Book of Field Service for Cavalry Officers, 
 Handbuch des Felddienstes fur Cavallerie-Offiziere, von einem Cavallerie- 
 Offizier. 
 
 Schimmel's Partisan Warfare ; Compendium des kleinen Krieges, for 
 Infanterie- und Cavallerie-Offiziere, von Friederich Schimmel. 
 
 Seidler on Breaking Horses ; Seidler, Bearbeitung des Campagne-Pfer- 
 des, and Seidler, Dressur difficiler Pferde. 
 
 Prof. Hertwig's Works on the Veterinary Science; Praktisches 
 Handbuch der Chirurgie fur Thierarzte; Taschenbuch der gesammten 
 Pferdekunde; Praktische Arzneimittellehre fiir Thierarzte, von Dr. 
 C. H. Hertwig. 
 
 All these works are to be found in the library of the War Department. 
 
314 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 In the Austrian army there are 16 regiments of heavy cavalry — i.e. 
 8 of cuirassiers and 8 of dragoons; and 24 of light cavalry — i.e. 12 of 
 hussars and 12 of lancers. 
 
 Each regiment of the former consists of 6 active squadrons, the men 
 and horses being chiefly from the German provinces. 
 
 Each regiment of light cavalry has 8 active squadrons ; the men and 
 horses of the hussars being Hungarian and Transylvanian ; those of the 
 lancers are, for the most part, from Poland. 
 
 Each regiment has a colonel, one field officer for every two squadrons, 
 an adjutant, paymaster, quartermaster, and judge advocate. 
 
 The squadron is the unit for the administration and interior service ; 
 the division of 2 squadrons commanded by a field officer is the tactical 
 unit. Each division has a standard. 
 
 A squadron of heavy cavalry consists of: 
 1 capi^in commanding, called 1st captain. 
 
 1 2d captain. 
 
 2 lieutenants. 
 
 2 sub-lieutenants. 
 2 sergeants. 
 12 corporals. 
 1 trumpeter. • 
 
 1 saddler. 
 1 veterinary. 
 162 men and 150 government horses. 
 A squadron of light cavalry consists of: 
 1 captain commanding. 
 
 1 2d captain. 
 
 2 lieutenants. 
 
 2 sub-lieutenants. 
 2 sergeants. 
 12 corporals. 
 2 trumpeters. 
 1 saddler. 
 1 veterinary. 
 200 men and 201 government horses. 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 315 
 
 In addition to the numbers given above, 2 officers' servants are allowed 
 to each squadron. 
 
 The general rule is, that about 10 per cent, of the men are dismounted; 
 it is stated by some of their cavalry officers that 20 per cent, would, in 
 time of war, be a better proportion. 
 
 The dismounted men remain at the depot, or ride in the wagons; 
 they never use the horses of the other men, and do all the dismounted 
 duty, take care of the led horses, those of the sergeants, &c. 
 
 Each regiment has a depot, which, during peace, consists of 30 men ; 
 in time of war, it has the same strength as the other squadrons, and 
 supplies men to fill the vacancies which occur. The junior 1st cap- 
 tain of the regiment usually commands the depot, but after 2 years' 
 service with it he may demand to be replaced by a senior 1st captain. 
 
 In time of peace, the depot is usually with the head-quarters of the 
 regiment ; during • war, it is placed at some spot convenient to the line 
 of operations of the regiment. In war, the remount horses are kept 
 with the depot until they can join the service squadrons. During the 
 Hungarian war, there was one instance when there were 1,000 horses 
 with the depot of a regiment of lancers which formed part of the gar- 
 rison of the besieged place of Temesvar. 
 
 TACTICS AND INSTRUCTION. 
 
 In order to give an idea of the general tone of the tactics, a few ex- 
 tracts will be given, relating chiefly to the seat and the early instruction 
 of the recruits. 
 
 For the cavalry, equitation is of the greatest importance. 
 
 It consists not only in the ability to sit the horse, but also in knowing 
 how to conduct and use him under all circumstances. 
 
 The object of the cavalry instruction is to accomplish this purpose in 
 the shortest time, and in the simplest manner, suited to the mental and 
 physical qualities of the soldiers. 
 
 Therefore, no intricate system of equitation will answer the purpose; 
 although the instruction of the non-commissioned officers may be carried^ 
 further than that of the privates. 
 
 The instruction in the riding-school is intended to give the rider suffi- 
 cient skill to enable him, by means of the various aids, to control the- 
 horse, and cause him to execute all possible movements, and at the same 
 time to give such a position to the upper part of the body and the arms 
 as will cause the rider the least fatigue, and enable him to use his 
 weapons with the greatest efiect. 
 
 It is an absolute rule that the recriiit must never be passed from one 
 lesson to another until he fully comprehends, and can execute well, all. 
 that precedes. 
 
316 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Good judgment, tranquillity, patience, and mild treatment, are the 
 most important qualities in an instructor. 
 
 The strength of neither horse nor man should be over-taxed. 
 
 An experienced and skilful instructor will always go to work with 
 circumspection, and never allow himself to be induced by passion to 
 demand more of man or horse than they are in condition to perform 
 or the end in view requires. 
 
 The instruction must progress only according to proficiency; there- 
 fore, any practice in the various turns, or in passaging, while the requi- 
 site preliminary instruction is wanting, is not only useless, but injurious. 
 
 Besides teaching the recruit the ordinary care of his horse, he must 
 also be made familiar with the difiierent parts of his equipment, and be 
 taught how to saddle, pack, and bridle his horse. 
 
 In addition, before being taught to ride, he must receive some instruc- 
 tion in the position of the soldier, the facings and marching on foot 
 without weapons, since he acquires thereby a more unconstrained and 
 regular position, which facilitates the instruction in riding. 
 
 Finally, there are some exercises on foot which have special reference 
 to the position of the rider. Among these are : To throw back and lower 
 the shoulder-blades by crossing the arms behind the back ; turning the 
 wrists with the fingers closed ; to stand on an even floor, with the feet 
 parallel and the thighs apart; then to lower and raise the upper part of 
 the body by bending the knees ; by this means the necessary flexibility 
 of the knees and the vertical position of the haunches are obtained. 
 
 The recruit being on foot, the reins are placed in his hands, and he is 
 taught how to hold them; the use of the legs is explained to him at the 
 same time. 
 
 The recruits will also be greatly benefited by being frequently shown 
 a well-broken horse, fully packed, and mounted by a well-drilled soldier. 
 The time bestowed upon these preliminaries will not be thrown away, but 
 will be found to be amply repaid by the increased facility with which the 
 recruit will learn his duty, and the smaller amount of explanation required 
 from the instructor. 
 
 Quiet and well- broken horses must always be given to recruits. 
 
 Their instruction must never commence without stirrups, but they will 
 ride without stirrups only after they have acquired a firm, sure seat j it is 
 entirely inadmissible for the recruits to ride without stirrups in the lessons 
 with the longe. 
 
 All movements will be first taught at a walk j afterwards at the trot and 
 gallop. 
 
 The walk must be lively, free, and decided. 
 
 The trot must be decided, easy, united, uniform, long, and sure. 
 
 The gallop should be calm, united, long, and low. 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 817 
 
 A good instructor can drill 8 or 4 recruits ; but the same instructor 
 should always drill the same men. 
 
 The intelligence of the instructor, the progress of the recruits, and the 
 pressure of circumstances, must determine how long each lesson is to be 
 dwelt upon, and when to pass from one lesson to another. 
 
 OF THE SEAT. 
 
 On horseback, the body has three points of support, — ^the extremities 
 of the haunch-bones and the end of the spine ; therefore, the haunches 
 form the foundation of the seat, and on their direction depends the posi- 
 tion of the rider. 
 
 When the recruit mounts for the first time, his haunches, thighs, the 
 lower part of the legs, and the upper part of the body, must be placed in 
 position for him. 
 
 The haunches must be square on the saddle, and perpendicular to it, so 
 that both haunch-bones may rise alike, and the end of the spine be exactly 
 over the middle of the saddle. If the haunches are leaned too far back, 
 the waist is carried with them, the upper part of the body bent, and the 
 thighs raised ; if the haunches are leaned forward, the upper part of the 
 body loses its steady position, requires an effort to preserve its equilibrium, 
 and the thighs are thrown too far back. 
 
 The thighs must be so much turned out, and thrown forward with the 
 knees, that they may lie flat on the saddle. The extent to which this 
 may be carried is determined by the prescribed perpendicular position of 
 the haunches ; if the thighs are thrown too far forward, the haunches will 
 lean back ; and if the thighs are too far back, the body is raised from the 
 saddle. The lower part of the legs, from the knee down, must hang along 
 the sides of the horse quite naturally, and without constraint : they should 
 not be opened out, nor strongly raised or pressed together. The whole 
 surface of the foot must rest on the bottom of the stirrup. The heel must 
 be dropped so as to stretch the muscles of the thigh, but not so much as 
 to stretch the calf of the leg or the ankle-joint; for upon the mobility of 
 the ankle depends, not only keeping the stirrup, but also the falling back 
 of the thigh into its proper place after each step of the horse. Although 
 the whole inner surface of the thigh must be flat on the saddle, it must 
 not be stiff and constrained. 
 
 When the lower part of the leg hangs naturally, the toe is a little 
 turned out. 
 
 The foot is thrust into the stirrup as far as the ball of the great toe, 
 and must rest lightly on the bottom of the stirrup. The vertical plane 
 through the centre of gravity of the body must pass through the heels, by 
 which means the rider has more power, and the knees produce more effect. 
 
 In riding without stirrups, the thighs must be well extended and the 
 
318 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 knees lowered, so that tlie rider may irot cling to the horse with the 
 calves, and may have the buttocks firmly on the saddle. The spine should 
 be vertical above the hips. The back of the rider must be elastic, but 
 firm ; because this is necessary in using his weapons, and also to break 
 the violence of the blow caused by the motion of the horse, particularly 
 at a trot, and the rider is thus prevented from being tossed up from the 
 saddle, shaken, or strained. A firm back is also necessary to resist the 
 forward motion of the horse; and it is to be borne in mind that the 
 peculiar construction of the joints of the spine admits of a forward motion 
 to a much greater extent than in the opposite direction. Since the rider's 
 hands are in absolute connection with the mouth of the horse, he is pulled 
 forward by a horse heavy on the hand, or bearing on the bit, and finds 
 himself unable to control such an animal unless his back is firm. 
 
 In long marches, the fully-armed soldier is, in consequence of fatigue, 
 much inclined to throw the body forward. 
 
 These are good reasons for giving great attention to a good, upright, 
 firm, and elastic carriage of the spine. 
 
 The shoulders must be sunk, and both blades thrown back, not to such 
 an extent as to stretch the muscles of the breast, but merely to expand it 
 freely ; if the shoulders are raised, the breast is contracted, which is in- 
 jurious to the health. 
 
 If one shoulder is lower than the other, the corresponding hip is drawn 
 inward, and vice versa. The head must be carried easily on the shoulders, 
 and the chin slightly raised : if the head is thrown too far back, the posi- 
 tion of the spine is injured; if it is bent too far forward, the shoulders 
 are rounded, and the rider's field of view contracted. 
 
 In the beginning the reins are placed in both hands, each rein passing 
 through the whole hand. 
 
 The upper part of the arm, without pressing against the body, hangs 
 near it, naturally, straight, and freely ; if the elbow is pressed against the 
 body, the shoulder is raised, and the position of the hand becomes con- 
 strained and unnatural ; while, if the elbow is thrown out too far from 
 the body, the hand becomes unsteady. 
 
 The forearm is lightly closed on the body, the hands so rounded at 
 the wrists as to bring the thumbs opposite each other, and the little 
 fingers somewhat towards the body; the hands are held, with the fists 
 closed, 4 inches apart, and just above the pommel. The outer hand is 
 a hand's breadth higher than the inner. 
 
 To acquire a light, firm hand, the slight pressure of the forearm 
 against the body is necessary ; for if the recruit endeavors to gain it by 
 a strong pressure of the forearm against the body, he will acquire a 
 stifi", heavy hand. 
 
 In sitting the horse the body is divided into two movable parts, and one 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 319 
 
 immovable : the movable parts are from the hips upwards, and from the 
 knees downwards ; the immovable part is the thigh, which, to a certain 
 extent, is indivisible from the saddle, and should be as though glued to it. 
 
 The legs should hang with the full weight, so that the rider will 
 neither stand on the stirrups, nor close the knees unnaturally, because 
 this closing of the crotch throws up the knees, which fault increases with 
 every motion of the horse, especially at a trot or gallop. 
 
 The chief departures from a regular seat are : the ^plit, the forked, and 
 the stool seats. 
 
 In the first, the legs and knees are thrown too far back ; in the second, 
 they are too nearly vertical ; in the third, the hips are too far back, and 
 the knees too far forward. 
 
 In the first lessons the recruit must be allowed to take the position 
 which his build renders most convenient, and the instructor must not be 
 rigid in his corrections, but allow the men to acquire confidence. 
 
 The shape of the saddle, and the form and gait of the horse, have a de- 
 cided influence upon the seat; the Hungarian saddle is better than any 
 other for giving an upright and handsome seat, but great care must be 
 taken that the man does not acquire a split or forked seat. 
 
 A proper adaptation of man and horse, the discovery, judicious criti- 
 cism upon, and removal of the causes which prevent the recruit from 
 assuming a good seat, do more to hasten the instruction than loud halloo- 
 ing and chasing about for hours. 
 
 The icalh is the easiest gait for the rider, and the natural gait of the 
 horse ; it should be at the rate of about 120 steps per minute. 
 
 The trot is the most lasting pace of the horse, but the hardest for the 
 rider ; as it does much towards giving a good seat, the men should be 
 much exercised at it ; the common trot is at the rate of about 250, the 
 trot out 300 steps per minute. 
 
 The full gallop is at the rate of 500 steps per minute ) the hand gallop 
 somewhat slower. 
 
 The charge is at the rate of about 600 steps per minute. 
 
 SWIMMING. 
 
 Since it is often necessary for light troops to swim their horses, they 
 should be taught beforehand to throw the carbine over the shoulder, to 
 allow the curb-reins to hang loosely, and to guide the horse by the snaffle, 
 not straight across the stream, but a little against the current. 
 
 The rider must grasp the mane, and never look at the water, but at the 
 bank, lest he become giddy. 
 
 In the event of being swept from the saddle, he can still keep above 
 water by keeping hold of the mane; if he loses this advantage, he must 
 endeavor to seize the horse's tail, and allow the animal to take him ashore. 
 
320 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 The Division. 
 
 •^ 
 
 S 
 
 
 '^ 
 •^ 
 
 :^ 3^<i^ -^ [^ i^^l I^ 5S1 ^3 
 
 I^ 
 
 ?^J 
 
 (3 
 
 3 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 321 
 
 The figure on page 320 shows the formation of a division of 2 squadrons 
 in line, with the posts of all the ojfficers and non-commissioned officers. 
 
 It will be observed that there is no interval between the squadrons, 
 and that the officers, with the exception of the file-closers, are in the 
 front rank. In the difi'crent formations in column they retain their places 
 in the ranks. The field officer coipmanding the division, accompanied by 
 a trumpeter, is usually at a suitable distance in front of the centre, but 
 may move wherever he deems best. 
 
 The interval between divisions is 18 paces. 
 
 The files are told ofi" by fours, the column by fours being much em- 
 ployed ; they also form column by twos, half platoons, platoons, half 
 squadrons, half divisions, and divisions. 
 
 The front of a column of twos, &c., is increased in a manner similar to 
 that pursued in the Russian tactics. 
 
 The column by half squadrons, and the column doubled on the centre 
 half squadron, are the usual columns of manceuvre. 
 
 Columns are deployed by obliquing at the gallop ', in the oblique each 
 man brings his horse's head behind his neighbor's knee. 
 
 The order of battle of a regiment of heavy cavalry is a deployed line ; 
 the same formation is used when they are exposed to a heavy fire of 
 artillery. 
 
 If a regiment of light cavalry forms part of a large body of troops, all 
 four of its divisions are deployed in the order of battle, or when exposed 
 to a heavy artillery fire ; if the regiment is by itself, only three of its 
 divisions compose the line of battle, the 4th being held in reserve, in 
 column, 500 paces in rear of the centre. 
 
 A regiment of any kind, if not about to charge at once, or not under 
 the fire of artillery, is formed in line of columns. 
 
 It being supposed that heavy cavalry is never out of reach of the 
 support of other troops, the order of battle of a brigade of such cavalry 
 is, with all its divisions deployed in one line. 
 
 The order of battle of a brigade of light cavalry is, one regiment with 
 all its divisions deployed in line, the other formed in line of columns, 
 with closed intervals, 500 paces behind the centre of the front line. 
 
 Independently of the reserves above mentioned, every body of cavalry 
 which charges detaches, at the moment of taking the trot, a portion of 
 its own force to secure its flanks and rear. 
 
 When a single division charges, the flank platoons fall out, and form, in 
 columns by platoons, about 300 paces in rear of the centre j the captains 
 on the flanks close in on the charging platoons ; their whole duty is to 
 watch and protect the flanks of the charging body. 
 
 When a regiment charges, the flank squadrons act in the same manner, 
 but each squadron remains behind the flank to which it belongs. 
 
322 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 In the charge of a brigade of heavy cavalry, the flank divisions fall 
 out, and form in column by half squadrons behind the flanks of the 
 line. 
 
 In the manoeuvres of large bodies of cavalry, the Austrians form them 
 in one line, throwing in advance the artillery, and a few squadrons, 
 intended to make false attacks, and to clear the way for the main body : 
 their reason for this is, that if the 1st line is broken it is very apt to 
 carry the 2d with it. 
 
 DOUBLE COLUMNS. 
 
 A regiment of 4 divisions forms double column at full distance on the 
 left half squadron of the 2d division, and the right half squadron of the 
 3d division, without closing the interval between these divisions; thus 
 the 1st and 2d divisions are each in column left in front, the 3d and 4th 
 right in front. 
 
 A brigade forms double column, at half squadron distance, on the left 
 half squadron of the 1st regiment, and the right half squadron of the 
 2d ; the 1st regiment being thus formed in column left in front, the 2d 
 right in front ; the interval between the regiments is not closed. 
 
 ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS. 
 
 Hussars. — Sabre, pistol, and carbine. 
 
 Lancers. — Lance, sabre, and two pistols; 16 men in each squadron 
 have a carbine in the place of one of the pistols. 
 
 Cuirassiers. — Sabre and two pistols ; 16 men in each squadron carry a 
 carbine instead of one of the pistols ; a metallic helmet and breast-plate, 
 no back-piece. 
 
 Dragoons. — Sabre, pistol, and carbine; metallic helmet. 
 
 The light- cavalry sabre has a blade about 32 inches long, and not much 
 curved; the scabbard and guard of steel. 
 
 It is rather heavy, and not particularly well balanced. 
 
 The heavy-cavalry sabre is somewhat longer and straighter. 
 
 The lance has a point 8 inches long above the knob ; two iron straps 
 extend some 3 feet down the shaft, which is about 9 feet long ; the butt 
 tipped with iron ; pennon black and yellow ; the ordinary lance-sling. 
 
 The ordinary carbine and pistol present nothing remarkable ; the pistol 
 has no strap to the butt. 
 
 The pistol-carbine has been introduced, and will probably supplant the 
 old firearms. It is a long single-barrel pistol, with a carbine-stock, 
 which is attached by two spring catches, so that it may be used either as 
 a pistol or carbine; the stock, when detached, is carried in one of the 
 holsters. 
 
 The barrel of this weapon is rifled, with 4 shallow grooves, having | 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 323 
 
 of a trim, and is 10 J inches long; it tas the same calibre and lock as 
 the new-pattern infantry musket, which does not differ materially from 
 our own last model. 
 
 The sabre-belt is a plain leather waist-belt, with two slings, the shorter 
 of which may be lengthened or shortened by means of a buckle ; when 
 the man is mounted, the length of this sling is such that the pommel of 
 the sabre hangs about 1 inch below the waist-belt; on foot it is shortened, 
 so that the sabre may not drag upon the ground. The belt fastens with 
 an Qf^ hook for the officers, with a buckle for the men. 
 
 The carbine-sling is like our own ; the pistol, or carbine, rammer is 
 attached to a strap sewed to this sling. 
 
 The carbine is always carried on the sling, never being put in a boot 
 nor attached to the saddle. 
 
 The cartridge-box is of plain black leather, and slung to an ordinary 
 shoulder-belt; it contains 24 rounds, and has at one end a small com- 
 partment for cleaning-utensils. 
 
 The sabre-knot is flat, and of leather. 
 
 In the field the sabres are first ground, and afterwards whetted every 
 two or three weeks. I was informed that although the steel scabbard 
 dulls the sabre it is regarded as being, on the whole, better than wood, 
 as not being so hable to injury by fire, kicks, &c. 
 
 In time of war the lance-points are kept sharp by filing. The firearms 
 are only used on guard, vedette, &c., to give the alarm, it being taken 
 as a maxim to trust only to the steel. There were several instances 
 during the Hungarian war when the Hungarian hussars stopped to fire; 
 the result invariably was that they were ridden over by the lancers. 
 
 Many of the officers think that the sabre should be more curved, as 
 ttey prefer cutting to pointing. 
 
 It is a well-recognized principle that a dull sabre is entirely useless. 
 
 When lancers use the sabre, they rest the lance on the left arm. 
 
 No pains are spared to perfect the men in the use of their weapons ; 
 for they regard this and individual horsemanship as the most important 
 qualifications of the cavalry soldier. 
 
 The hussars wear a sabretasche attached to the waist-belt. 
 
 HORSE EQUIPMENTS. 
 
 The Hungarian saddle is used in most regiments. 
 
 The figure on page 324 represents a side view of that saddle. 
 
 It is of hard wood, entirely uncovered, and consists of the hars (c), the 
 front fork (a), the rear fork (6), and the saddle-seat or straining-strap 
 (cQ. The ends of the forks (e, e) are let into mortises in the bars, and 
 secured by raw-hide thongs passing through mortises Q), -p). 
 
 The saddle-seat, or straining-leather, is a stout strap of leather, frx)m 
 
324 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Ill to 13J inclies long, 4| inches broad at tlie hind fork, 3| to 4 in the 
 middle, 2 i to 3 at the front fork. 
 
 It is secured to the front fork by 4 flat-headed nails, a strip of leather 
 being first laid over the end of the strap, as seen at /. 
 
 As the greatest strain comes upon its junction with the hind fork, it is 
 secured to it differently. At each angle of the strap a stout thong is left 
 when cutting it out; this thong is passed around the neck of the fork, 
 and secured by a nail in rear ; 5 flat-h^ded nails are then driven through 
 the strap into the fork; under the head of each nail a round piece of 
 leather is placed, to prevent the strap from being cut or worn; /' shows 
 this arrangement. 
 
 The strap is attached to the bars by raw-hide thongs drawn tight, as 
 shown in the figure. The forks are strengthened by light iron plates 
 nailed to the front of the front fork and the rear of the hind fork. 
 
 The girth is attached to the bars by thongs passing through the holes 
 (^). The stirrup-leathers pass through the mortises (/i) and in the notch 
 (m), a groove being cut in the under surface of the bar to receive the 
 leather. The holes (i) are for the purpose of attaching the straps which 
 secure the holsters ; those at h for attaching the crupper. . Near the upper 
 end of each fork is a mortise; that in the front fork to receive the cloak- 
 strap, that in the rear fork to r.eceive the valise-strap. 
 
 On the*^front end of the right bar is the name of the horse; on the left 
 bar is the number of the horse, {e.g. 14,) and the government brand. 
 
 The girth is of leather, 3| inches broad, and fastens by a large buckle 
 on the left side. 
 
 Crupper and breast-strap present nothing unusual. 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 325 
 
 Tlie blanket generally used is a common white one, folded thrice 
 lengthwise, and four times in the other direction. 
 
 A thick felt saddle-cloth, of one thickness, is used in the riding-schools, 
 and is spoken of in the highest terms. 
 
 The men sometimes place a straw mat under the blanket 
 
 Four sizes of saddles are issued to the light cavalry; six to the heavy. 
 
 The surcingle is of black leather, and is fasteued in the Mexican style 
 by a thong and rings. 
 
 The stirrups are of steel, with a large, round, flat bottom, and a flat, 
 thin, and deep arch; in winter a little mat of straw is tied to the bottom 
 of the stirrup, to protect the feet against the cold. 
 
 One shoe-pouch, of black leather, is carried attached to the right side 
 of the rear fork; it contains 2 shoes and 32 nails; the nails are carried 
 stuck in a species of circular pin-cushion made of plaited straw. 
 
 Lance-boot, small, and of leather; one on each stirrup of lancers. 
 
 The two holsters are strapped to the saddle; two slits in the schabraque, 
 which may be closed by buckles, allow the pistols to be drawn. 
 
 Over the holsters are carried two bags of hair cloth, (called pack-tor- 
 nisters,) about 1 foot square. In the left-hand bag are carried : razor, 
 soap, shaving-brush, looking-glass in wooden frame, (4^" X 3"?) liair- 
 comb, beard-comb, wax for the moustache, thread of various colors, case 
 of needles, thimble, white wax, patches of cloth, buttons, pantaloon- 
 straps, spare rowels, button-loops, scissors, a curved and a straight awl, 
 shoemakers' thread and wax, colophony, sight-cover, clothes-brush, linen 
 cap -cover, iron halter-ring with screw, whetstone, tooth-brush, towel, a 
 pennon, i lb. bread, some oats, and on the outside a forage-cap and tent-pin. 
 
 In the right-hand bag are carried : curry-comb, horse-brush, a couple 
 of cloths, a fleam, paring-knife, mane-comb, five brushes for removing 
 the mud, waxing, polishing, coloring, and greasing the boots and horse 
 equipment, (each brush 5" X 2^",) wajL of 3 kinds, cork stopper, box of 
 grease, brick-dust, iron-filings, box of chalk, button-stick, brush for clean- 
 ing brass, rotten stone, pumice-stone, screw-driver, emery-stick, patches 
 of cloth, white chalk, bran, knife, fork, spoon, salt, herbs, handles of the 
 kettle, and slippers. 
 
 These, with a few other articles that it is scarcely worth while to name, 
 form a collection that would do credit to a well-supplied store, but seem 
 to be rather too numerous for the good of the horse. 
 
 The valise is of cloth, and is strapped to the cantle; in it are carried: 
 1 pair of pants, the uniform coat, or spencer, the overalls when not in 
 use, 2 shirts, 2 pairs of drawers, 1 pair of linen cloths for wrapping the feet, 
 1 pocket handkerchief, 1 pair of gloves. 
 
 The schabraque of cloth, with black lamb's-wool seat. 
 
 Four men in each platoon carry a hatchet, strapped to the left holster. 
 
326 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The bridle consists of a crown-piece, brow-band, tbroat-latcb, nose- 
 band, 2 cheek-pieces, and 2 pairs of reins; the front is ornamented by 
 diagonal plaited cords, as in the Russian service; the cheek-pieces are 
 single where they buckle to the crown-piece, and are split below, the 
 longer end buckling to the curb- bit, the shorter connecting with the 
 snaffle by a chain and toggle. 
 
 Both bits are of steel;, there are 3 patterns of curbs, of different degrees 
 of severity ; the curb-chain is also of steel. 
 
 The reins buckle to ordinary bit-rings. 
 
 The halter has a plain headstall, and a rope 6' long, of the thickness 
 of the little finger; by attaching the snaffle-bit it becomes a watering-bridle. 
 
 On the march, the halter is hung on the left side of the pommel. 
 
 Two forage-ropes are carried, hung to the cantle. 
 
 The forage-sack is a long linen bag, with a longitudinal opening in the 
 middle ; when empty, it is carried on the pommel. 
 
 On the march, it contains the oats and bread, equally divided between 
 the two ends ; in this case it is attached to the rear fork. 
 
 The hay is also attached to the rear fork. 
 
 The overcoat and stable-frock are on the pommel. 
 
 The stable-blanket girth is in the forage-sack. 
 
 The camp-kettle is carried on the end of the valise. 
 
 The picket-pins for light cavalry are of wood, 16" long, and 2" in 
 diameter ; there is a small iron ring near the head for attaching the halter- 
 rope ; each man carries one strapped to his right holster. 
 
 The picket-pins of the heavy cavalry are from 3^' to 4' long; the pin 
 is carried in a boot, attached by a long strap to the right holster, the butt 
 end being secured by means of a small strap from the surcingle. 
 
 The handle of the curry-comb unscrews. 
 
 Bridles are issued to the regiments cut out, but not sewed together. 
 
 In bivouac, the schabraque is used to cover the equipment. 
 
 The saddle-blanket is used as a horse-cover in bivouac during bad 
 weather, and in garrison in the daytime only. 
 
 The equipments and arms are kept in the corridors of the quarters. 
 
 Officers use the English saddle in the riding-schools, but on parade 
 they must appear with the Hungarian tree, which, for them, is covered 
 with leather. 
 
 The spurs are of steel, with short shanks, and are screwed permanently 
 to the heel of the boot 
 
 Martingales are exceptionally used, — for horses that will persist in 
 throwing up the head continually. 
 
 The men usually make a spare schabraque out of old blankets : this 
 alone is used at drill ; on the march it is placed on top of the other. 
 
 The saddle and equipment, packed, weigh 50 pounds. 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 327 
 
 The men always ride on the curb, passing the snaffle-reins through a 
 loop on the curb-reins, and allowing them to hang loose. 
 
 CLOTHING. 
 
 The clothing is well made, and of ipost excellent material. 
 
 In the issue of clothing, each article is supposed to be divided into a 
 certain number of portions, and every man is allowed a certain number 
 of portions per 'annum, which he may draw in whatever articles he 
 pleases. The clothing is issued to the squadron captains either made up, 
 without being trimmed, or merely in the shape of the raw material, — just 
 as they elect. 
 
 The system of portions is also pursued with regard to the horse equip- 
 ment, each captain drawing the number allowed his squadron in whatever 
 articles happen to be required. 
 
 The overcoat for all the cavalry is of thick white cloth, with" sleeves 
 and a long cape; it is made very long and loose. 
 
 It may here be stated thatthis white cloth, of which the uniform coats 
 of the infantry are also, made, is stated by the Austrian officers to be 
 excellent for the field; it is cleaned by washing and pipe-clay; and they 
 seem to prefer it to any other color. 
 
 The uniform coat is a short, double-breasted frock, with a standing 
 collar, cut away in front ; the lancers alone wear epaulettes. This coat is 
 white for the heavy cavalry ; dark green for the lancers ; light or dark 
 blue for the hussars. 
 
 A spencer, of the same color as the coat, is worn by all the cavalry on 
 certain occasions ; it has a rolling collar, and is made so loose that it may 
 be worn over the uniform coat. 
 
 The men may wear a vest if they please. 
 
 The pants are rather scant; those of the hussars fit perfectly tight to 
 the leg, and are worn under the boots ; those of the other cavalry are re- 
 enforced with leather as far up as the knee. 
 
 For the heavy cavalry the pants are light blue, with a red cord; for the 
 rest of the cavalry they are of thef color of the coat. 
 
 The hussars wear boots reaching nearly to the knee ; the rest of the 
 cavalry wear half-boots. No spare boots are carried on the march. 
 
 The stable-frock, neatly made of coarse white linen, serves as a uniform 
 coat in the summer. No linen pants are issued or worn. For service in 
 cold weather, gray clolii overalls are issued ; they button all the way up, 
 both on the inside and outside of the legs. On the march, in winter, the 
 men wear the vest, uniform coat, spencer, cloak, pants, and overalls. 
 
 Socks are not worn, but are replaced by linen bandages. 
 
 Shirts and drawers are issued. 
 
 The forage-cap is the same for all the cavalry ; it is of a very dark 
 
 20 
 
328 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 color, and is somewhat of tlie shape of the French kepis, the visor being 
 more peaked, and the top larger. 
 
 ' The heavy cavalry wear a metallic helmet, with a high crest. The 
 lancers wear the well-known Polish lancer hat. The hussars wear a 
 cylindrical shako, with a peaked visor. 
 
 The shoulders being bare, except for the lancers, the distinction of 
 grade is on the collar and cuffs. For officers, it is as follows : a 2d lieu- 
 tenant has one star, embroidered in gold or silver, on* each side of the 
 collar; a 1st lieutenant has two stars; a captain, three; a major has a 
 narrow strip of lace on the cuffs and on the front and upper edges of the 
 collar; also, one star on each side of the collar; a lieutenant-colonel has 
 the same lace, and two stars ; a colonel, the same lace, and three stars ; a 
 general of brigade has the cuff and collar wholly covered with plain lace, 
 and one star ; a general of division, the same lace, and two stars ; a full 
 general, the same lace, and three stars ; a field-marshal has the cuff and 
 collar partly covered with waving lace, and has three stars. 
 
 A sergeant has three stars on each side of his collar; a corporal has' 
 two ; a private of the 1st class, one. 
 
 On certain occasions the officers wear silk sashes, colored black and 
 yellow. 
 
 The stock, for both officers and men, has a flap, like the Russian ; the 
 upper edge of the stock is white. 
 
 Gloves, or mittens, of cloth, are issued to the men. 
 
 RATIONS. 
 
 The food of the Austrian soldier consists chiefly of bread and soup. 
 From I2 to 2 pounds of bread is the daily ration. 
 
 An allowance of from 5 to 10 cents per diem, according to the price 
 of food, is made to each man, to enable him to purchase meat (generally 
 i pound) and vegetables for soup. 
 
 In garrison, they have soup but once a 
 day, — about noon ; in camp, they also have 
 soup soon after reveille. 
 
 In the field, hard bread is generally used. 
 The men generally make their breakfast 
 and supper on a piece of bread and a little 
 glass of brandy purchased at the sutler's. 
 • 
 
 COOKING-UTENSILS. 
 
 Kettles of the annexed shape and dimen- 
 sions are used by the cavalry in garrison 
 and in the field. The handle of the kettle can be unhooked, and is carried 
 in one of the tornisters; there is also a -straight handle for the top, so 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. ■ 329 
 
 that it may be used as a frying-pan j this handle, also, is carried in the 
 tornister. 
 
 There is one of these kettles for every. six men. 
 
 It is carried by that man of the mess who has the strongest horse. A 
 linen bag is put over the valise, to keep it clean ; then the kettle is put on 
 one end, the cover on the other; a second ba^, over the whole, secures the 
 kettle. 
 
 Each man has a spoon, and they eat in common out of the kettle, in 
 the field. 
 
 In the field, ovens are made of wattling, mud, and straw, as described in 
 Laisnes's Aide-M^moire du Grenie. 
 
 HORSES. 
 
 The minimum height of the heavy-cavalry horses is 15 hands 1 inch. 
 Do. do. light do. • 14 « 1 " 
 
 Some of the light-cavalry horses are even below this mark. 
 
 Stallions. are not used in ranks.* 
 
 The horses are branded on the left hip with the initials of the emperor, 
 and of the province where purchased ; on the left side of the neck, under 
 the mane, is branded the number of the horse. They are purchased by a 
 commission of cavalry officers, and issued to the regiments as required. 
 If the captain objects to receiving a horse, he appeals to the colonel, who 
 decides. 
 
 Horses are received at the age of 5 years, as a general rule ; they are 
 broken in by old soldiers, under the direction of the 2d captain of the 
 squadron. 
 
 If a soldier rides the same horse for 8 years, he receives a gratuity of 
 about $7, and $2.50 for every additional year. If he rides him for 20 
 years, he becomes the owner of the horse and equipment, and may take 
 him away when he leaves the service. 
 
 The horses of the same squadron are not necessarily of the same 
 color. 
 
 Lieutenants and 2d captains are allowed one government horse each, 
 and forage for two private horses ; above the grade of 2d captain, officers 
 must own their own horses. If an officer allowed a government horse uses 
 him for 8 years, he becomes the property of the officer. 
 
 A colonel is allowed forage for 6 horses in peace, for 7 in campaign. 
 
 A lieutenant-colonel or major is allowed forage for 5 horses in peace, for 
 6 in campaign. 
 
 A first captain is allowed forage for 4 horses in peace, for 5 in campaign. 
 
 A second captain is allowed forage for 3 horses in peace, for 4 in cam- 
 paign. 
 
 A lieutenant is allowed forage for 3 horses in peace, for 3 in campaign. 
 
330 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 For a certain proportion of these horses commutation for forage may be 
 drawn, although fhe officer does not actually possess the horses. 
 
 In addition to the allowance qf forage, a certain monthly allowance in 
 money is given to assist the officer in keeping on hand the proper number 
 of horses ; this allowance is as follows : 
 
 For a colonel, about 8 10. • 
 
 For a lieutenant-colonel or major, about $8. » 
 
 For a 1st captain, about $6.50. - 
 
 For a 2d captain, about $4. 
 
 For a lieutenant, about $2.50. 
 
 Very few of the horses used in the army come from the government 
 breeding-establishments, these consisting mainly of good stallions, and 
 having for their object the improvement of the breed in the country. 
 
 The heavy-cavalry horses are principally from the G erman provinces ; 
 they are of fine appearance, but generally wanting in endurance, being 
 often long-legged and narrow-chested. 
 
 The light-cavalry horses are excellent; they are of fine appearance, 
 active, hardy, intelligent, and seldom vicious. They are mostly from 
 Hungary, Transylvania, and Poland. Large numbers are imported from 
 Bussia. 
 
 The average price of the cuirassier horses is $80. 
 Do. do. dragoon " 65. 
 
 Do. do. light-cavalry " 56. 
 
 FORAGE. 
 
 The ration of a heavy-cavalry horse is 6 pounds of oats, 10 pounds of hay, 
 2 pounds of straw ; for a light-cavalry horse it is 6 pounds of oats, 8 pounds 
 of hay, 2 pounds of straw. 
 
 Five days' rations are carried on the march. 
 
 The hay is twisted into a rope, and then coiled into a circle ; 2 men are 
 needed to twist it in different directions, first wetting it a little. 
 
 In barracks there are 3 equal feeds each day; one at reveille, another at 
 11 J, the last at dark. ' 
 
 The horses are watered 3 times a day. 
 
 As a general thing, the horses are not fed during a march. 
 
 In the field, sickles are carried. 
 
 The ration of straw mentioned above is for the litter. 
 
 STABLES, AND STABLE-MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The variations in the plan and arrangements of the stables are very 
 great. In some there is a single passage-way, with a row of stalls on one 
 side only; in others, a long hall, with a row of stalls on each side; in 
 another, two halls, with two rows of stalls on each side of each hall. 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 331 
 
 Some are for "8 horses, others for 16 ; others, again, for 200. 
 
 In some, the mangers are of wood ; in others, of wood, lined with iron ; 
 in others, of stone ; some of these mangers being continuous, others for a 
 single horse.' 
 
 The hay-racks are generally of iron; sometimes a lack for each horse, 
 in other cases one long rack for many stalls. 
 
 Single stone mangers, and iron racks, seem to be the best. 
 
 In Vienna the stalls are floored with plank, the head of the stall being 
 of clay, that the fore-feet may rest upon it ; a drain, covered with movable 
 boards, runs along behind each row of stalls. 
 
 In Verona there are stalls paved with small, round paving-stones. The 
 passages are sometimes paved with stones, sometimes with wooden blocks., 
 
 Thfe roof is supported by pillars. The stalls are separated by swinging 
 bars ; in the stables for ofi&cers' horses, cushions are suspended from these 
 bars. 
 
 There is a shelf over the rear of each stall ; a hook, or pin, on each 
 post. 
 ■ The name of the man to whom the horse belongs is over each stall. 
 
 As the quarters are usually ov^r the stables, the racks are filled from be- 
 low. The stalls are very large } in those of the stables of the 12th lancers, 
 at Vienna, they are 11' long, and 5' 4" wide, with a passage-way of 9'. 
 
 During the day the litter is generally laid on racks, under sheds, in 
 the yard; in the stables of the riding-schools, the litter is kept down 
 during the day. 
 
 The Stables are kept in good order; those of the riding-schools are 
 patterns of neatness. 
 
 No equipments are kept in the stables. 
 
 The stable-guard consists of 1 non-commissioned officer per squadron, 
 and 2 men per platoon ; one of the latter must always be awake. 
 
 Whenever any officer ^n uniform enters a stable, the man on duty at 
 once reports to him the condition of affairs. 
 
 In some of the stables the racks for drying the forage are of iron, with 
 sheet-iron roofs over them; these roofs can be turned up when the sun 
 is out. 
 
 Attached to one stable was a horse-l)ath, 6' deep, 18' wide, 30' long at 
 bottom, 61' long at top, approached by a ramp at each end, — these ramps 
 15' 6" long. 
 
 Each man feeds his own horse ; he stands at the foot of the stall, and 
 receives from the non-commissioned officer, as he passes down, the por- 
 tion for his horse. When all the men have received their portions, the 
 non-commissioned officer reports to the o$cer of the day, at whose com- 
 mand the men place the food in the manger and rack, and stand by their 
 horses while feeding. , 
 
332 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 DAILY DUTY IN GARRISON. 
 
 In summer and winter, reveille is at from 5 o'clock to 6 o'clock. 
 
 At reveille the men put on their pants and stable-frocks, fold up their 
 beds, and go to tha stable, one man remaining in ev6ry room to police it. 
 They then rub down the horses with straw, remove the litter, water and 
 feed, clean the horse with the brush while he is feeding. 
 
 In cleaning, the curry-comb is used only to clean the brush : it is never 
 applied to the horse. 
 
 They then return to the quarters, wash, dress, and take their breakfast, 
 which is a piece of bread and a glass of brandy. 
 
 At about 8 o'clock there is a drill, or else the horses are taken out for 
 exercise; in any event, the horses are saddled, that the men may have 
 some occupation, and keep the equipment in order. When the drill is 
 over, they unbridle, put on the halter, and loosen the girths, carry the 
 bridle and arms to the quarters, put on the stable-frock, return to the 
 stable, and unsaddle. 
 
 They then rub the horses down with straw; carry the saddles to the 
 quarters; clean them, as well as the bridfe, arms, &c. 
 
 At 11^ is the second feed. 
 
 After feeding the horses, the men have their dinner. 
 
 The guard and picket saddle up, and get ready for guard-mounting, 
 which is at 12 J. 
 
 The rest of the men sleep, or do what they please, until 2 o'clock; at 
 which hour the horses are cleai>ed with the brush. • 
 
 Until nearly dark the men are then at school, where they are taught 
 the duties of patrols, sentinels, &c., the names of the officers, &c., &c. 
 
 About dark they go to the stables, make down the litters, water the 
 horses, take off the blankets, give the last feed, and leave the horses 
 quiet with the stable-guard. 
 
 They then return to the quarters, whence they may be absent until 8 
 o'clock, unless they have a pass for a longer time. 
 
 Must be in bed at 9 o'clock. Before going to bed they grease their boots, 
 and stick them in the pants, so as to be ready in case of a sudden alarm. 
 
 At tattoo and reveille the roll-calls are by platoon. 
 
 A picket consisting of an officer and 10 men is always ready for patrol 
 duty; their horses are in a separate stable, saddled, but not bridled. 
 
 The sergeants and corporals do not clean their own horses; this is done 
 by the dismounted men. 
 
 While we were in Vienna, on the morning of the 9th January, at 6 A.M., 
 the 12th lancers were suddenly alarmed; in 40 minutes the regiment was 
 formed in marching-order, baggage packed, platoons told off, officers at 
 their posts, &c. This was considered sharp work for quarters. 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 333 
 
 The whole garrison was alarmed at the same moment; this is done, 
 not unfrequently, by the emperor. 
 
 QUARTERS. 
 
 The quarters are generally over the stables. 
 
 The rooms open upon a corridor; about 20 men are in each room. 
 
 The sergeants have a separate room ; the corporals are with the men 
 of their platoons. 
 
 Each man has an irob bedstead, a bed-sack filled with straw, (which is 
 renewed every three months,) a straw pillow, and 2 blankets : these arti- 
 cles of bedding all belong to the barrack^ and not to the man; they are 
 under the charge of a barrack-master. 
 
 The valise, tornisters, and cleaning-utensils are kept in the quarters. 
 
 The clothes are either iung upon pins at the head of the bed, or are 
 on a shelf. ^ 
 
 The name of each man is over his bed. 
 
 In every room are tables and benches for messing. 
 
 The arms and equipments are kept in the corridors, on racks and 
 stands; the carbines are hung on a pin by the guard, muzzles down. 
 
 Some of the officers are required to lodge in the barrack; the others 
 have quarters elsewhere, and receive a commutation. 
 
 DUTIES OF OFFICERS, ETC. 
 
 The 1st captain is responsible for the arms, horses, &c. ; he makes 
 returns to the colonel twice each year. He is the only squadron officer 
 who can inflict punishment, — except on detachment, when the detached 
 officer has equal powers. He may confine men for 48 hours in irons; he 
 can inflict 20 lashes; but if he abuses his power the colonel may pro- 
 hibit him from exercising it. . 
 
 The 2d captain is in general charge of the 2d half squadron, but is 
 more especially charged with the instruction of recruits and young horses. 
 
 Each lieutenant is in charge of a platoon, and is responsible for its 
 order, cleanliness, &c.; he can inflict no punishment; he forms part of 
 his platoon, and always" accompanies it on detachment, drill, &c. 
 
 The 1st sergeant has duties similar to those of the same grade in the 
 United States service; he is in charge of the papers, military duties, 
 details, &c. 
 
 The 2d sergeant is more particularly under the control of the 2d cap- 
 tain, in charge of the recruits and young horses. 
 
 The corporals are divided equally among the platoons, and are in 
 charge of the rooms, guards, &c., &c. 
 
 Muster-rolls are sent in by the captain every month ; they are checkedi 
 and countersigned by the paymaster, adjutant, and intendant. 
 
334 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The men are paid every five days. 
 
 Regular musters are held only once in each year, and not always so 
 often. They are made by the general of brigade and a military commis- 
 sary ; at these the roll is called, the horses counted, &c. 
 
 MARCHES, ETC. 
 Marches are condudted at the rate of from 3 to 4 miles per hour, (for 
 the most part at a walk,) and usually last about 5 hours. 
 
 Over very rough or steep ground the horses are generally led. 
 The hussars march long distances at the trot, and know no obstacles ; 
 rivers, marshes, mountains, and obstructed ground, check their course 
 but little. 
 
 About half an hour after startmg, a short halt is made, to allow the 
 horses to urinate j only those men dismount whose girths need tighten- 
 ing. At the^jniddle of the march a halt of half an hour is made. 
 The men are severely punished for not girthing tight. 
 As already remarked, the men ride on the • curb on the march, the 
 snaffle-reins hanging free. The stirrup-leathers are of such a length 
 that, the leg hanging naturally, the bottom of the stirrup shall be •!" 
 above the spur; with hard-gaited horses the stirrups are somewhat 
 shorter. 
 
 No tents are carried in the field ; the men hut themselves. 
 The officers seldom carry any mess-apparatus, but partake of the food 
 of the jnen. 
 
 The following wagons, &c., are allowed in campaign : 
 
 For each field officer, 1 wagon 5 wagons. 
 
 For medicines 1 " 
 
 Regimental chest 1 " 
 
 In each division, for spare shoes, saddles, &c., 1 wagon 4 " 
 Forge 1 " 
 
 Total of wagons for a regiment of 8 squadrons.... 12 •" . 
 Each squadron officer is allowed forage for 1 pack-horse ; on this he 
 places a small portmanteau, or pair of hair bags. .But these pack-animals 
 are often ordered to be left in depot; and in this case the baggage is put 
 on one of the spare horses. 
 
 Each officer's servant usually rides one of his master's spare horses. 
 The weight carried by a light-cavalry horse in the field is : 
 
 "Weight of saddle and equipment .*. 60 pounds. 
 
 5 days' hay (8 pounds for light cavalry) 40 " 
 
 5 days' oats (at 6 pounds) 30 " 
 
 5 days' bread (at 2 pounds) 10 " 
 
 Load of light-cavalry horse ItO " 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 335 
 
 This is exclusiye of the arms, ammmiitioii, and rider. 
 Before going into action, the men generally manage to throw away the 
 hay, and "bleed" the forage-bags. 
 
 SCHOOL OF EQUITATION. 
 
 The central cavalry school of equitation is at Vienna. A lieutenant 
 from every'regiment of cavalry is sent thither, — 40 in all. 
 
 Each ofl&cer brings a soldier with him to take care of his horses; but 
 this soldier receives no instruction. The practice of instructing non- 
 commissioned officers has been abandoned. The officer brings with him 
 his own "imperial service horse" and that of the soldier. 
 
 There are also about 100 horses belonging to the school, with 'grooms 
 especially for them. 
 
 The course of instruction lasts for 2 years ; one-half of the officers are 
 changed every year. 
 
 The instruction consists of equitation, stable-duty, fencing, and the 
 veterinary art ; for the latter they attend the veterinary school. 
 
 They ride several hours each day, almost always using the English 
 saddle, and frequently leaping, &c., without stirrups or girths. 
 
 They become excellent riders, and manage their horses well. 
 
 A good anatomical museum is attached to the school; it contains 
 natural preparations, the Augoux models, plates, &c. 
 
 There is also a good fencing-room. 
 
 There are two fine riding-halls ; one is 238' by 72', the other 175' 
 by 56'. . 
 
 The floor is a mixture of clay and sand. 
 
 The stables are excellent ; one, in particular, is probably the finest in 
 the world. 
 
 In this connection, it may be well to give the dimensions of the riding- 
 halls and stables of the school for artillery and engineers, now in course 
 of construction at Wiener Neustadt, near Vienna, as they are regarded 
 as models. 
 
 The riding-hall is to be 288' long, 62' wide, and 27' high. 
 
 The stables are to be for 144 horses ; the roof arched, with 2 stalls 
 under each arch. The ventilation and light over the stalls in the roof; 
 the forage and equipment to be kept in rooms over the corridor. 
 
 The corridor is 8' wide; stalls, 12' X 5', and 15' high; mangers, of 
 marble, 3' X 1', and 3' 8" above the floor; the racks, 5' 2" above the 
 floor, and 1' 6" high ; bottom of manger, 2' from the floor. 
 
 Open riding-grouifds are attached to every cavalry barrack. 
 
336 • THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 THE VETERINARY SCHOOL. 
 
 . This is at Vienna. Its chief purpose is to instruct veterinary surgeons 
 for the. army. 
 
 The full course is of 3 years ; for certain purposes, 2 years ; for ordi- 
 nary farriers, merely to learn to shoe the horse, 6 months. 
 
 It is much on the principle of that at Berlin, but is more extensive, 
 and better organized. 
 
 The collections of natural history and comparative anatomy are most 
 excellent J they embrace not only stuffed specimens of many animals, 
 birds, and fishes, skeletons, bones, jaws, teeth, &c., but also admirable 
 preparations of the muscles of the different parts of the horse, the veins, 
 arteries, &c., — diseased, as well as sound. 
 
 There is a fine collection of instruments for operations on the eye, ear, 
 urinary organs, &c., as well as for amputations, docking, bleeding, &c. 
 
 For bleeding in the neck, the spring lancet is used. 
 
 A laboratory, lecture-rooms, dissecting-rooms, rooms for the injection 
 of preparations, &c., are attached to the institution. 
 
 The apothecary establishment is very complete and well arranged; the 
 number of remedies in the pharmacopoeia is reduced to 160. 
 
 The stables are rooms opening upon a corridor; some of these rooms 
 are for single horses, others for two, four, six, and ten. 
 
 They are clean, but hot and badly ventilated. 
 
 The animals affected with internal diseases are in different stables from 
 those troubled with external diseases; glandered horses are kept in separate 
 stables. 
 
 Grlanders is regarded as incurable; they keep the horse long enough to 
 be certain that he is really afilicted with that disease, and then kill him. 
 
 In 1854, two of the students died of glanders; they died in about 8 
 months after being inoculated, the first symptom being an incurable ulcer 
 on the hand. 
 
 They never cauterize for the lampass, but administer purgatives and 
 green food, and bleed by drawing the lancet between the bars. 
 
 The forges, tools, and shoes are very rough and clumsy. 
 
 Formerly very complicated machinery was used in shoeing the horse, 
 but they have now learned that the very moderate number of 3 men will 
 suffice, without artificial aids : one man, by the assistance of a cavesson 
 and mesmerism, holds and controls the horse, another holds his foot, a third 
 puts on the shoe. It is possible that they may learn to dispense with one 
 or two of these assistants, as well as with mesmerism* 
 
 The shoe is always fitted and pUt on cold. 
 
 There are usually 6 nails in each* shoe. 
 
 In summer the shoe is plain, with neither toes nor heels; in winter it 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 337 
 
 has both. Tor the horses of the ofl&cers, in winter, one heel is firmly 
 attached to the shoe, the other can be unscrewed ; on leaving the stable, 
 the blunt movable heel is replaced by a pointed one. 
 
 The men pay for the shoeing of their horses; a very small daily allow- 
 ance is given them to cover this expenditure. 
 
 The greatest possible attention is paid in the regiments to the con- 
 dition of the shoes; it is justly regarded as one of the most important 
 points. 
 
 At the veterinary school, dogs, cows, sheep, &c., are treated. Sheep 
 are kept here to be inoculated for a disease quite similar in its phenomena 
 to the small-pox; the animal iS inoculated upon the bare lower surface of 
 the tail, the matter collected from the pustules and distributed among 
 the great sheep-proprietors of the country. 
 
 This disease formerly killed off some 40,000 per annum in the empire; 
 now scarcely one dies of it. 
 
 This veterinary school may be regarded as one of the very best in Europe,, 
 and is well worthy of imitation. 
 
 VETERINARY SURGEONS, ETC. 
 
 As has been already stated, each regiment has a senior veterinary 
 surgeon; each squadron a veterinary surgeon. 
 
 The first has the rank of a first sergeant, the second that of a corporal. 
 
 They are all educated at the veterinary school, and are either the chil- 
 dren of veterinaries, or else well-conducted soldiers whose original pursuit 
 was that of a horseshoer. 
 
 They generally shoe the horses themselves, as well as treat their 
 diseases; they always instruct three or four good men in the squadron, 
 who act as their assistants. 
 
 The pay of a senior veterinary surgeon is about 812 per month; the 
 squadron veterinaries receive about §9 per month. 
 
 Both are permitted to practise upon the horses of civilians, on their 
 own account, and also receive a small additional stipend for their services 
 in treating the squadron horses; this last amounts to from $9 to 81.0 per 
 month. 
 
 The horses are shod about once in five weeks. 
 
 The evening before a horse is to be shod, he is caused to stand in wet 
 clay; if no clay is to be had, a mixture of dung and mud is substituted, 
 or else the foot is wrapped in rags filled with dung. 
 
 The effect of this is to soften the hoof and fkcilitate the operation of 
 paring and shoeing; it is represented as being attended with the most 
 beneficial effect. 
 
 -Very little of the hoof and frog is cut away. 
 
338 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The number of medicines used in the regiments is very Smalt. JSTadosy's 
 " Equitations-Studien/' and Professor Kolls's works, contain the Austrian 
 views of the veterinary art. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 The imperfect sketch of the Austrian cavalry given in the preceding 
 pages will show that, as might have been expected, it presents many 
 things well worthy of imitation, and much to be. avoided. 
 
 The foundation of the efl&ciency -and well-deserved reputation of the 
 Austrian cavalry would seem to be the great perfection of the individual 
 instruction of the men : without this, no organization, however perfect it 
 maybe, can lead to good results; with it, the defects of a very bad organi- 
 zation may be overcome or lost sight of. 
 
 The system pursued in the purchase of horses is good. 
 . The manner of posting the officers in a division is worthy of the most 
 attentive consideration. There may well occur exceptional cases in which 
 it is absolutely necessary that the officers should be in front of the men 
 to lead and encourage them in desperate situations; but it would seem 
 that the Austrians have good reasons for placing the officers in the ranks. 
 They say that since the officers have, as a general rule, perfect control 
 over, their horses, they will keep them in the proper direction, and thus 
 prevent the men from opening out, the charge being thus rendered com- 
 pact and effective : they state that this formation results from the expe- 
 rience of actual charges upon an enemy. The general features of their 
 veterinary system might be followed in our service to great advantage. 
 
 Their system of depot squadrons is good, and produces good results. 
 The cooking-utensils seem to be well adapted to the end in view. The 
 tactical unit would appear to be entirely .too large to permit the great 
 mobility and celerity which are the essential conditions of the success of 
 cavalry'; this defect is probably overcome only by the perfection of indivi- 
 dual instruction. 
 
 The number of things carried by the men, and the excessive weight of 
 the equipment, seem pernicious and absurd in the extreme. I was in- 
 formed by cavalry officers that the men usually manage to throw away 
 the greater part of their load before many days passed in the field. 
 
 The nujnber of non-commissioned officers is too small, in comparison 
 with the number of privates. 
 
 The exercises preliminary to the instruction in equitation are worthy 
 of imitation ; while it would by no means be advisable to follow blindly 
 all their conditions for a good seat. 
 
 The articles of clothing would appear to be altogether too bulky : no 
 doubt the comfort of the man is a very important consideration ; but, if 
 
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 339 
 
 that object is gained at the expense of the efficiency of the horse, the result 
 cannot be doubtful. 
 
 In conclusion, I would state that much valuable information may be 
 deri); ed from the Cavalry Tactics, Nadosy's " Equitations-Stud ien," Half- 
 zensir's " Innern Dienst der Cavallerie," and other works ; those men- 
 tioned, are in the possession of the War Department, and should, by all 
 means, be consulted by any officers engaged in the preparation of a revised 
 system for our own cavalry. 
 
THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 FRENCH CAVALRY. 
 
 The French cavalry establishment consists of — 
 
 1 squadron of " Cent-Grardes/ 
 
 6 regiments of the guard. 
 
 of cuirassiers, 
 of dragoons. 
 
 12 regiments of reserve cavalry. 
 
 of lancers, 
 of chasseurs. 
 1 of guides, (hussars.) 
 
 1 squadron of gensdarmes. 
 
 2 of carbineers. 
 10 of cuirassiers. 
 
 20 
 
 ,«,,,. 12 of dragoons. 
 
 regiments 01 the hne.... •{ r> n ^ 
 
 8 01 lancers. 
 
 25 regiments of light cavalry... 
 
 12 of chasseurs. 
 9 of hussars. 
 4 of African chasseurs. 
 
 • 3 regiments of spahis. 
 9 remount companies. 
 
 1 cavalry school, at Saumur. « 
 
 The mounted gensdarmes. 
 Each regiment consists of 6 squadrons, with the exception of the 
 African chasseurs, which, during the late war, were increased to 8 squad- 
 rons, of which 4 remained in Africa and 4 served in the Crimea. 
 In time of war, each regiment has a depot squadron. 
 The duration of service is 7. years. 
 The regulation height of cavalry soldiers is as follows : 
 
 Carbineers minimum, 5'. 10".4. 
 
 Cuirassiers " 5' 9".2. 
 
 Dragoons and lancers " 5' 8" 
 
 Chasseurs and hussars " 5' 6". 8 
 
 African chasseurs " 5' 6".8 
 
 imu 
 
 m, 5' 10".4. 
 
 i( 
 
 5' 8".8. 
 
 u 
 
 5' 9".6. 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 341 
 
 The following is the composition of a regiment of three squadrons : 
 
 The staff : ^ 
 
 Colonel 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel 
 
 Chiefs of squadrons (fi«ld ofl&cers) 
 
 Major 
 
 Captain (instructor) 
 
 Adjutants (captains) a 
 
 Treasurer (captain) ." .', 
 
 Clothing officer (captain) 
 
 Assistant treasurer (sub-lieutenant) 
 
 Standard-bearer (sub-lieutenant) 
 
 Senior surgeon 
 
 Assistant surgeon 
 
 Sub-assistant surgeon 
 
 Veterinary of the first class 
 
 Total commissioned staff. 
 
 The non-commissioned staff : 
 
 Adjutants (sergeants) 
 
 -Adjutant, wagon-master (sergeant) 
 
 Assistant veterinaries 
 
 Chief trumpeter (sergeant) .•. 
 
 Trumpeter (corporal) 
 
 Trumpeters (for the depot squadron) * 
 
 Farriers (for the depot squadron) 
 
 Total non-^commissioned staflf" .-. 
 
 Platoon out of banks : 
 
 First clerk of treasurer (sergeant) 
 
 Sergeant in charge of clothing-magazine 
 
 Sergeant in charge of stables ,... 
 
 Sergeant»( fencing-master) ^ 
 
 Master armorer, master tailor, master boot-maker 
 
 (sergeants) 
 
 Master saddler (sergeant) /. 
 
 Quartermaster of the staff (sergeant) 
 
 Second clerk of treasurer (corporal) 
 
 Provosts (corporals) 
 
 Saddler (corporal) 
 
 Tailor and boot-maker (corporals) 
 
 Major's clerk (private) 
 
 Third clerk of treasurer (private) 
 
 Second clerk of clothing officer (private) 
 
 Attached to horse hospital (private) 
 
 Armorers (privates) 
 
 Saddlers (privates) 
 
 Tailors (privates') 
 
 Boot-makers (privates) 
 
 Enfant de troupe 
 
 The number of tailors and boot-makers varies with the 
 effective strength of the regiment. 
 
 IN WAK. 
 
 IN PEACE. 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 
 tt> 
 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 ^H 
 
 a 
 
 t-> 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 a 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 49 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 ,,, 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 ... 
 
 14 
 
 ... 
 
 14, 
 
 ... 
 
 12 
 
 "... 
 
 12 
 
 ..*. 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 54 
 
 _:-i_ 
 
 54 
 
 ... 
 
842 
 
 THE AKMIES OF EUROPE. 
 TABLE .— Continued. 
 
 Squadron op cavalry of reserve : 
 
 Captain commanding 
 
 Second captain 
 
 First lieutenant 
 
 Second lieutenant 
 
 Sub- lieutenants 
 
 Total commissioned officers of a squadron. 
 
 Orderly sergeant 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Quartermaster sergeant 
 
 Quartermaster corporal 
 
 Corporals .• 
 
 First-class privates.... 
 
 Second-class privates, {dismounted'. 
 
 Farriers (shoeing-smiths) 
 
 Trumpeters 
 
 Under instruction as trumpeters 
 
 infants de troupe 
 
 Total non-commissioned and privates ,. 174 
 
 IN WAR. IN PEACE 
 
 18 
 
 154 
 
 1 
 8 
 1 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 88 
 
 "3 
 4 
 
 151 
 
 1 
 6 
 1 
 1 
 
 12 
 32 
 69 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 128 
 
 On the war establishment, each squadron of cavalry of the line has 98 
 privates of the 2d class, and each squadron of light cavalry has 108. 
 
 
 IV WAR. 
 
 IN PEACE. 
 
 • 
 
 © 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Strength of a regiment of cavalry of reserve : 
 
 18 
 13 
 54 
 48 
 1,044 
 
 49 
 10 
 
 "1O8 
 924 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 54 
 
 42 
 
 906 
 
 29 
 
 Non-commissioned staflF. 
 
 8 
 
 Platoon out of ranks • 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 Non-commissioned officers, privates, &c 
 
 768 
 
 Total 
 
 1,177 
 
 1,091 
 
 1,027 
 
 859 
 
 
 
 INSTRUCTION AND TACTICS. 
 
 No change of apy importance has been made in the system since it was 
 adopted as the basis of our own; it is therefore unnecessary to remark 
 upon it. 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 343 
 
 ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS. 
 
 Carbineers and cuirassiers. — Metallic helmet, back and breast pieces, 
 pistol, and sabre. The sabre has a Montmorency blade, very slightly curved. 
 
 •Dragowis. — Sabre, pistol, and musket. The sabre is the same as that 
 of the cuirassiers. The musket has no bayonet; barrel, 36" long, and 
 weighs 7.9 pounds. On ordinary marches, on parade, &c., the musket is 
 carried with the hutt in a boot, attached to the right side of the pommel ; 
 this boot is 5" deep, 6" long,, and 2f" wide. The muzzle of the musket 
 rises about 3" above and behind the right shoulder, and is attached to the 
 pommel by a strap. When in expectation of meeting an enemy, the 
 musket is slung over the shoulder, muzzle up. 
 
 Lancers. — Light-cavalry sabre, pistol, lance, musketoon. It has been 
 proposed to' abandon the musketoon : I do not know whether that has be^n 
 done or not. • 
 
 Chasseurs. — Dragoon musket, light-cavalry sabre, and pistol. 
 • ^j/5sa/-s.— Musketoon, light^cavalry sabre, and pistol. The musketoon 
 has both boot and sling. 
 
 African chasseurs. — Armed as the other chasseurs, but always carry 
 the musket slung over the left shoulder, — never in a boot. 
 
 Spahis. — Musket and pistol is for the African chasseurs, but carry the 
 sabre attached to the saddle, in the Mexican fashion. 
 
 Cent-Gardes are cuirassiers, armed with a pistol, and a breech-loading 
 carbine, with sabre bayonet : this bayonet is a very long, light, and nearly 
 straight sabre, without guard ; alone, it is an excellent sabre ; when fixed 
 on the carbine, it may be used, as a lance when mounted; as an" ordinary 
 musket and bayonet on foot. 
 
 In all the cavalry, the pistol is attached to the saddle by means of a 
 strap fastened to a ring in the butt. 
 
 The cartridge-box has a shoulder-belt, and contains 20 rounds ; the men 
 carry spare packages of cartridges in their pouches, or wherever may be 
 most convenient. 
 
 The belts, &c., are quite like our own ; the sabre-belt fastens with an 
 
 (X) ^00^^- 
 
 A camp-hatchet is carried by the corporals and Ist-class privates. 
 
 • HORSE EQUIPMENTS. 
 
 Our own being at present but little else than modifications of those 
 generally in use in the French service, it is only necessary to describe 
 those of the African chasseurs, and a model very recently adopted. 
 
 The saddle of the African chasseurs is a plain wooden tree, with a pad 
 
 on top, and no skirts ; the model not unlike our own, (the Grimsley,) but 
 
 rather lower in the pommel and cantle. 
 
 21 
 
344 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The girth and surcingle are of leather; stirrups steel; no schabraque. 
 Two shoe-pouches of the usual kind, for 2 shoes and 32 nails each, at- 
 tached to the hind fork. Nose-bag of hair cloth. 
 
 The valise is replaced by canvas saddle-bags, re-enforced with leather. 
 The forage-bag and tente d'abri are fastened to the cantle. 
 
 The pistol is in the left pouch ; the cloak strapped over the pouphes ; 
 each man has a hatchet in his right pouch. 
 
 A common blanket is placed under the saddle. 
 
 The bridle has a single headstall and a Spanish bit, (with a ring around 
 the lower jaw,) the curb-reins attached by swivels, the snafl9.e-reins to 
 rings on the same bit; the bit buckles to the headstall. 
 
 Instead of a halter, a leather collar is used. 
 
 The new saddle is the invention of Captain Cogent, director of the 
 saddle-factory ^t Saumur. 
 
 The' tree is cut out of a single piece of white wood, the cantle only 
 being glued on ; a piece of walnut, the grain running across the tree, is 
 let into the pommel, and a thin strip veneered upon the front ends of the 
 bars ; the. pommel and cantle are lower than in the old model ; the whole 
 is covered with wet raw hide, glued on, and sewed at the edges ; no iron 
 bolts or fastenings are used. 
 
 The staples for the stirrup-leathers are fastened as usual. 
 
 The most important feature in this saddle is the manner of arranging 
 it so that a single size may be used for all horses, or for the same horses 
 when their condition changes. 
 
 The sketches on page 345 will explain the manner in which this is 
 effected. Two strips of cork, about 4" broad, ^" thick, and as long as 
 the bars of the saddle, are bent to the shape of the under surface of the 
 bars; to give them this shape, they are glued to the bars before the tree 
 is covered with hide ; they are removed when they have taken a perma- 
 nent set, trimmed, and covered. 
 
 They are covered with thick felt on the si^e towards the horse's back, 
 and with leather on the side towards the saddle ; a longitudinal slit being 
 left in the leather, in order to insert strips of felt, to increase the thick- 
 ness of the strips when necessary. The strips are attached to the saddle 
 by means of small pins with heads, shown in figs. A, E, and F ; these are 
 inserted in the holes in the iron plates G, and run forward into the slots ; 
 the pins (0) at the rear end of the strips have each a hole through the 
 neck ; the small keys (M) are run through the holes (N) in the rear ends 
 of the bars, and thus keep the strips firmly in position. 
 
 The fig. A represents the under surface of the saddle, with the iron 
 plates (Gr) let in ; the separate fig. Gr represents one of these plates, with 
 3 holes and slots to receive the pins of the strips, riveted or screwed to 
 the bars. Figs. B represent a plan and elevation of a strip; fig. E the 
 
friTnch cavalry. 
 
 345 
 
 front end of a strip, with its pins; fig. F the rear end, with a pin having 
 a hole through its neck to receive the key -pin. 
 
 Fig. C represents the cantle, N being the holes to receive the keys, and 
 M being the keys secured by a light chain. 
 
 ["S-^o: 
 
 Fig. D gives a front view of the saddle. 
 
 For a small horse, the pins are placed in the holes* nearest the axis of 
 the saddle ; for a large horse, in the outside holes ; if a horse is narrow 
 in the withers apd broad at the loins, the pins are placed in the inside 
 holes in front, and in the outside holes behind, and vice versa. 
 
 The tree is covered with leather, and has the ordinary skirts. The 
 girth, as adopted, is of black leather, and in two parts. 
 
 The upper part is 4" broad, is screwed to bars, passes over the tree, 
 under the cover, and projects equally on each side below the bars; at 
 
346 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 each end of this piece is an iron pin with a brass roller, as shown in the 
 annexed figure. 
 
 The other portion of the girth is a simple strap, 3" broad, 
 ""^J^^^^^ATAKAj with a large buckle at one end, and a tongue at the other. 
 The tongue of this strap is passed downwards behind the 
 roller on the near side of the horse, then upwards through 
 the roller on the off side, and buckled on the near side. 
 
 Captain Cogent prefers extending the saddle-skirts, attach- 
 ing the rollers to them, and. using the girth just described. 
 
 The saddle-blanket (which is also the horse-cover) is of thick felt 
 cloth ; it is atta^ed to the pommel by a small strap passing through 
 holes in the blanket, which is thus prevented from slipping back, and at 
 the same time raised so as to keep a free channel for the circulation of • 
 air over the horse's spine. 
 
 The valise is shaped on a former, hollowed out and covered with stiff 
 leather where it crosses the spine, so that it cannot touch; there are 
 pockets on the ends of the valise for the spare horseshoes and nails. 
 
 The pouches are as usual; the holster is of wood, covered with raw 
 hide, and is set inside of the left pouch. 
 
 The saddle is not blackened. 
 
 The new equipment weighs 15 lbs. less than the old. 
 
 I am not positive as to the bridle which has been adopted ; that pro- 
 posed by M. C6gent, and which I think has been accepted, is as follows : 
 
 There is a snaffle-bit, with branches; the mouth-piece in three 
 parts. 
 
 The curb has a cross-bar, and presents two striking peculiarities : 
 
 1st. The curb-chain acts upon the nose, instead of the chin : to 
 accomplish this, a ring is sewed to each side of the nose-band, close in 
 front of the cheek-pieces; the chain, resting on the nose-band, passes 
 through these rings, and then forward to the branches of the bit; the 
 requisite leverage is thus obtained. 
 
 2d. The mouth-piece is longer than the interval between the branches, 
 the latter sliding through holes in the mouth-piece; the projection of 
 the mouth-piece beyond the branches has a neck and head ; a ring catch 
 at the end of the cheek-piece goes over this neck, and keeps the mouth- 
 piece in its propef position; by raising these ring catches, the mouth- 
 piece is freed and may be slipped down to the bottom of the branches, so 
 that the horse can feed freely. 
 
 This arrangement did not strike me so favorably as the Russian : the 
 latter is simpler, and cannot get out of order. 
 
 There is in the possession of the War Department a pamphlet of Cap- 
 tain Cogent's, giving the drawings of his bridle and bit. 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 347 
 
 UNIFORM. • 
 
 This is so well known in our service that only a few remarks will be 
 necessary. 
 
 The frock-coat has not been adopted for the cavalry. 
 
 The pants are very loose, and are re^enforced with black leather. 
 
 Boots are worn, the spur being permanently attached to the heel. 
 
 All troops have both a full-dress and a forage cap j the former is often 
 left at home in time of war. 
 
 The full-dress cap varies with the corps ; the undress is usually the 
 kepis, which has a large straight visor and a loose conical top. 
 
 The African chasseurs wear their full-dress cap in the field ; it is much 
 like that of our infantry, rather smaller at top, and has no pompon ; their 
 undress cap is the fez, a close-fitting red felt skull-cap, with a tassel. 
 
 It should be remarked that the uniform and equipment of this admi- 
 rable corps are solely for service : there is no attempt at ornament, and 
 nothing superfluous is allowed. 
 
 HORgES. 
 
 In France there are 6, in Algiers 3, remount companies, each consist- 
 ing of 1 captain, 5 lieutenants, and a variable number of men; their 
 duty is the purchase and care of remount horses. 
 
 Except at Saumur, there are no haras, properly so called ; that is to 
 say, there are no breeding-studs to raise colts for the general service.^ At 
 each remount depot there are stallions of the race most suitable for cross- 
 ing with the mares of the vicinity; at the proper seasons of the year 
 these are distributed among the villages to cover the mares of the country 
 gratuitously. The proprietors of the colts are under no ^obligation to 
 offer them for sale to the government, but usually find it their interest to 
 do so. 
 
 Horses are purchased at from 4 to 7 years of age, and must be of 
 French origin. 
 
 The animal is brought to the commandant of .the remount depot, and 
 submitted to his inspection, without any price being named. If the com- 
 mandant finds him unsuitable, he is at once rejected ; if the contrary is 
 the case, he is brought before all the officers of the depot for a thorough 
 examination. 
 
 Each officer then writes his estimate of the value of the animal on a 
 slip of paper ; these papers are placed in a hat and shaken up, so that 
 the estimate of each officer may not be known ; the mean of these esti- 
 mates is then taken, and the commandant offers that price for the animal. 
 
 If the owner accepts the offer, the price is paid at once ; if he refuses, 
 the horse is at once sent away, for no bargaining is allowed. 
 
2'' 
 
 to 16 hands 
 
 1. 
 
 or 
 
 to 15 
 
 
 r 
 
 3" 
 
 to 15 
 
 
 ►or 
 
 sr 
 
 to 15 
 
 
 2" 
 
 !¥' 
 
 to 15 
 
 
 1" 
 
 S" 
 
 to 15 
 
 
 w 
 
 348 THE ARMIES OP EUROPE. 
 
 It often happens that the owner receives a larger price than he would 
 have demlinded. 
 
 This system is stated to work admirably. 
 
 The average price is fixed every year by the minister of war ; it is 
 usually about as follows : 
 
 For horses of the reserve cavalry $150 
 
 " " artillery and cavalry of the line 120 
 
 " " light cavalry 100 
 
 " " train of artillery, engineers, and baggage 100 
 
 For officers' horses 180 
 
 The average height is fixed as follows : 
 
 Reserve cavalry 15 hands 
 
 Artillery and cavalry of the line 15 " 
 
 Light cavalry 14 " 
 
 Trains 14 " 
 
 Pack-horses 14 " 
 
 Mules 13 " 
 
 Officers' horses a trifle larger than those of their men. 
 
 The minister of war may authorize the minimum to be reduced J", pro- 
 vided the general conformation and qualities of the animal are something 
 remarkable. 
 
 The government provides each officer with two horses; if an officer 
 keeps the same animal 7 years, it becomes his private property ; he may 
 have* an unfit horse exchanged by applying to the inspector-general at the 
 period of the general inspection, provided the inspector decides that the 
 horse is really unfit for service. 
 
 Captains and field officers are all allowed 2 government horses, and 
 forage for thS regulation number above two. 
 
 But little can be said in favor of the appear^mce of the French cavalry 
 horses ; those of the heavy cavalry are either heavy, slow, and awkward, 
 or else are long-legged, and have too much daylight under them; the 
 light-cavalry horses must be better' than they look, for they appear unable* 
 to do their work, yet they manage to get through with it. The Ijorses at 
 Saumur are generally excellent; and those of the African chasseurs are 
 exceptions to the rule ; they are entire Arabians, and are generally very 
 good. 
 
 RATIONS OF THE MEN. 
 
 The normal ration in the Crimea was : 
 
 1 lb. lOi ounces of bread, or 1 lb. 3 J ounces of biscuit; 1.05 ounce 
 of rice or beans; 2.1 ounces of the ChoUet prepared vegetables; 8f 
 ounces fresh meat or salt beef, or 7 ounces of salt pork ; 0.44 pint of 
 wine, or 0.11 pint of brandy. 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 
 
 349 
 
 'CoflFee and sngar were issued extra, and the other parts of the ration 
 
 were changed according to circumstances. 
 
 £ 13" 
 
 In the cavalry the messes consist of 5 men each; each mess having its 
 own cocfking-utensils, which the men cawy hy turns, strapped to the 
 saddle. These utensils consist of the marmite, represented in elevation and 
 plan by fig. A ; the gamelle, fig. B ; the bidon, shown in elevation and 
 plan of top in fig. D ; the frying-pan, fig. C ; the small gamelle, fig. E. 
 
 The marmite is for making soup ; the bidon merely to bring water for 
 cooking- purposes; the gamelle as a dish out of which they eat. Some- 
 times the small gamelle is substituted for the large one ; in this case each 
 man has a small gamelle; fig. E represents 3 small gamelles carried 
 
350 THE ARMIES. OF EUROPE. 
 
 by means of a strap ; each small gamelle has a tin cover, which is coun- 
 tersunk, and has a ring as a handle : the cover is attached to the gamelle 
 by a light chain. 
 
 The frying-pan is not always issued. 
 
 For each mess of 5, one marmite, one bidon, and one large gamelle are 
 habitually provided. 
 
 In garrison the cooking and messing are by squadron. 
 
 It may be remarked of the French, as of most other continental rations, 
 that they are insufficient, and Qught not to be taken as guides in our own 
 service. 
 
 The prepared Chollet vegetables are extensively used in the field, and 
 would be admirably adapted for issue in our long prairie marches. 
 
 QUARTERS. 
 
 These are sometimes in the same building with the stable, sometimes 
 separate. 
 
 In the new buildings the horse equipments are kept in the quarters, or 
 else in rooms in the stable-lofts. 
 
 The quarters are specially described in the report upon the infantry; 
 it will be sufficient to state here that the arrangement and police are by 
 no means such as to render them models to be followed. 
 
 FORAGE. 
 
 There are three kinds of rations : that in time of peace, that on an ordi- 
 nary march, and that in the field in war. 
 
 The regulation ration in time of war is as follows : 
 
 Hay, straw. Oats, 
 
 Carbineers and cuirassiers.. 15.4 pounds; 8.8 pounds; 8.36 pounds. 
 
 Dragoons and lancers 13.2 " 8.8 '' 8.36 " 
 
 Chasseurs and hussars 11 " 8.8 " 8.36 " 
 
 Pack-horses 15.4 '\ 8.8 " 8.36 " 
 
 Mules 11 " 8.8 " 8.36 " 
 
 In October, 1855, the ration in the Crimea was : for French horses, 
 9 pounds hay, 11 pounds barley ; for African horses, 6.05 pounds hay, 10 
 pounds barley. 
 
 The largest allowance for French horses during the campaign was : 11 
 pounds hay, 13.2 pounds barley. 
 
 The allowance for African horses, given above, was regarded as too 
 small. 
 
 The regulation allowance may be changed as follows : For hay, an equal 
 weight of clover, or double the weight of straw, or half the weight of oats, 
 may be substituted; for straw, half the weight of hay, or one-fourth of 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 351 
 
 oats, may be substituted ; for oats, double the weight of hay, four times 
 the weight of straw, 50 per cent, additional weight of bran, or 8 per cent, 
 of barley, may be substituted. 
 
 If the horse has no appetite, or the forage is of indifferent quality, the 
 food is sprinkled with salt water. 
 
 When it is necessary to feed the horse upon grass, he should be accus- 
 tomed to it by degrees, giving but a little at first, and increasing the 
 quantity as he becomes habituated to it. For the first few days the full 
 or half ration of grain should be issued. 
 
 As a last resort, the following substances may be employed for forage : 
 malty which fattens but does not strengthen the horse, and which renders 
 them liable to disease when they change it for other food, after having 
 become accustomed to it ] furze, which is very nutritious, but must be 
 crushed with, a hammer or in a mortar, on account of the roughness of its 
 leaves; the pods of the locust; flaxseed; the roots of grass, well washed ; 
 the bark of trees ; and, finally, even dry wood, cut into shavings. 
 
 Running water is given in preference to stagnant. Bad water may 
 be purified by charcoal, hydrochloric and acetic acids. If the water 
 contains leeches, or other similar things, the horses must drink with the 
 nose-bag on. 
 
 The water given to the horses ought to be, as nearly as possible, of 
 the same temperature as the air; therefore, in summer it may sometimes 
 be necessary to exjpose it to the sun, while in winter it should be given 
 immediately after being drawn. 
 
 STABLES. 
 
 The following are the regulations and arrangements of stables : 
 
 As far as possible, the horses of the same squadron should be placed in 
 the same building, divided by partition-walls or staircases, in to -stables of 
 equal capacity. 
 
 When windows can be arranged in both long walls, place the horses 
 head to head, separating the two rows of stalls by a longitudinal partition, 
 which should not be more than V higher than the top of the hay-rack, 
 betwee;i thepillarg which support the roof. 
 
 The interior width of a stable for 1 row of stalls is 20' ; for 2 rows, it 
 is 40', when they are head to head; 34' 8", wKen they are tail to tail; 
 height of ceiling, 16' 8". 
 
 Doors should be pierced in the gable ends, and in the transverse par- 
 tition-walls, to secure a longitudinal ventilation during the absence of the 
 horses. 
 
 The doors for ordinary use should be pierced in the long walls ; width, 
 6' 8"; height, at least 8' 8". 
 
 There should be a window, with an area of about 16 square feet, for 
 
352 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 every 3 stalls ; the* sill 10' above the floor ; the sash revolving around a 
 horizontal axis at the bottom, and opening by the simplest mechanism ; 
 wooden shutters to be provided, if necessary. 
 
 The recesses for the windows should extend to the floor, and be pro- 
 vided with hooks or racks for suspending the horse equipments ; in these 
 recesses, openings 8' 4" X 2' 4" should be made through the wall, for 
 throwing out the litter. 
 
 If necessary, ventilators may be cut through the roof in the middle of 
 the passage-ways behind the stalls ; ventilators near the floor should be 
 employed only in cases of absolute necessity. 
 
 The floor ought to be of hard stones, laid on a firm foundation, and the 
 joints filled with hydraulic mortar, cement, or asphalt; slope of floor of 
 stall, from two to three tenths of an inch in ten inches. 
 
 Mangers of wood, stone, or cast iron, placed on a mass of masonry, the 
 front surface of which, as well as that of the manger, has a reversed slope 
 of f . 
 
 The wooden mangers are divided by partitions : those of stone or iron 
 are hollowed out to the length of 2! for each horse, being solid between 
 the hollows ; depth 8'', width at top 1', at bottom 9". 6 ; top of manger 
 3' 8" above the floor. 
 
 The hay-racks of wood, and continuous, 3' 4" high, and placed 5' 4" 
 above the floor. The bars round, an,d capable of turning in their sockets, 
 each bar 1.2" in diameter, and placed 4'' apart; racks of iron may be 
 authorized. 
 
 The system of securing the horse consists of: 1st, a bar of round iron 
 bent at both ends, placed.up and down, parallel 
 to the face of the manger, the upper end se- 
 cured to the manger, the lower built into the 
 • masonry ; 2d, a ring sliding on this bar, and 
 having a chain 2' long, with a T at the free 
 end, attached to it; this T toggles to the 
 halter-ring. The annexed sketch shows this 
 arrangement. 
 
 Each horse is allowed a width of .4' 10'', 
 %W/''-/y^ f^ never less than 4' 8", so that he may have the 
 allowance of 70 cubic feet, and the space ne- 
 cessary for stable-guards, utensils, &c., may be preserved. 
 
 Stables which are less than 29' wide and 12' high can be used for two 
 rows of horses only as a temporary arrangement. 
 
 Among the French stables of all dates and varieties, one recently com- 
 pleted at Saumur, and the new ones at 'Lyons, are justly regarded as 
 models of excellence. 
 
 Their dimensions and general arrangements are in conformity with the 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY.. 
 
 353 
 
 regulations given atove : there are, however, some details worthy of notice ; 
 that at Saumur, being the most perfect, will be described in preference. 
 The stalls are 4' 10" wide in the clear, and 10' long to the heel-posts j 
 
 they are separated by swinging planks, suspended as shown in the foregoing 
 sketch. 
 
354 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The floors are of cubical blocks of stone, laid in cement. A sliallow 
 gutter in rear of each row of stalls allows the stale to drain off. The longi- 
 tudinal partition is of masonry, and about 10' high. The interior of the 
 stable is plastered; the wood-work painted oak color. In the window- 
 recesses there are racks, on which to hang the horse equipments when 
 saddling and unsaddling. 
 
 The equipments are kept in rooms in the loft, where the saddles are 
 placed on horizontal wooden pins, the bridles hung on hooks. The racks 
 are continuous and of wood ; the string-pieces, and each bar, are bound 
 with narrow strips of sheet iron. 
 
 The lower string-piece rests upon iron hooks, let into the wall; the upper 
 one is held firm by iron bars, also let into the wall. 
 
 The manger is a continuous mass of stone, with an excavation for each 
 animal; these excavations are 22" long, 12" deep, and 12" wide at top. 
 
 The building is divided into apartments, for about 20 horses each, by 
 transverse partitions and stairway-halls; there are large doors in these 
 partitions. In a central hall there are water-tanks. 
 
 The openings mentioned in the regulations for removing the litter do 
 not exist. 
 
 The halter-bars are arranged as described in the regulations ; but there 
 is another ring and chain, above the manger, for use in the daytime. 
 
 Forage for 3 or 4 days is kept in the loft, where there are also rooms, 
 for a few non-commissioned officers. 
 
 In the floor of the loft there are trap-doors, so that hay and straw may 
 be thrown down into the halls below. 
 
 The oats run down from the bin, through a wooden pipe, into a large 
 box on wheels. 
 
 On the outside of the walls there are rings for attaching the horses 
 while being groomed. 
 
 At Lyons, some of the stables had quarters in the second story ; this 
 is stated by many officers to be an admirable arrangement, and attended 
 with no inconvenience whatever; there are a few who object to it. 
 
 The hospital stables are always separate from the others, and have box 
 stalls. 
 
 STABLE-DUTY. 
 
 In each squadron, the stable-guard generally consists of a corporal and 
 1 man for every 20 horses. It is their duty to feed the horses, watch 
 over their safety during the night, and attend to the general police of 
 the stables, being assisted by an additional detail at the hours of stable- 
 call. 
 
 About one-half the litter is usually kept down during the day. 
 
 The oats is given in two feeds: one-half at morning stable-call, the 
 rest in the evening. 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. • 355 
 
 The hay is divided into three equal portions, — at morning, noon, and 
 night; in the forage-magazine it is put up in trusses of 1 ration each, 
 and thus received in the stable-loft; at each feed the stable-guard receive 
 these trusses, and divide each one among three horses. 
 
 If straw is fed, it is given either just before or just after the hay, — 
 always in the same order. 
 
 The horse is watered twice a day, either jusfe before or after his grain. 
 
 The horse is cleaned principally with a bouchon of straw and with the 
 brush ; the comb is used only to clean the brush. 
 
 FIELD SERVICE. 
 
 The allowance of transportation in the field is probably less for the 
 African chasseufs than for any other corps; it will, therefore, be given 
 as it was for the 4-squadron regiments in the Crimea : 
 For each regiment, 1 cart for money, papers, &c. 
 
 For the colonel 1 pack-animal. 
 
 For 2 chiefs of squadrons 2 " " 
 
 For 2 captains adjutant 2 " " 
 
 For 2 surgeons 1 " " 
 
 For 2 veterinaries 1 " ". 
 
 Fo J 2 adjutants (non-commissioned) 1 " " 
 
 For 1 treasurer 1 " " 
 
 For field ofi&cers' mess 1 " " 
 
 For medicines and instruments .^ 1 " " 
 
 For horse-medicines 1 " " 
 
 Total for staff of 4-squadron regiment 12 pack-animals. 
 
 In each squadron — 
 
 2 captains 2 pack-animals. 
 
 4 lieutenants 2 " " 
 
 Officers' mess 1 " " 
 
 Sergeants' mess, &e .... 1 " " 
 
 Total for each squadron 6 pack-animals. 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 Staff 1 12 pack-animab. 
 
 4 squadrons 24 " " 
 
 For ammunition, cacolets, and subsistence 12 " " 
 
 Total for a regiment of 4 squadrons. . .1 cart^nd 48 pack-animals. 
 
356 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 The led horses of the squadrons are used as pack-animals, and counted 
 in the number as given above ; officers are not usually permitted to pack 
 their spare riding-horses. 
 
 At the commencement of a campaign, each lieutenant of cavalry re- 
 ceives $125 for the purchase of his outfit; a captain receives $250; if a 
 lieutenant is promoted during the campaign, he receives the difference 
 between the two sums. 
 
 During a campaign the officers are permitted to draw rations from the 
 commissary department at cost prices, paying their bills monthly. 
 
 In the Crimea, the mass of the French troops had no other shelter 
 than the tente d'abri, (shelter-tent ;) as late as October, 1855, the African 
 chasseurs, the cuirassiers, some of the other cavalry, and most of the 
 infantry of the line, had only the shelter-tent; the imperial guard and 
 the artillery were provided with the regulation tent. During the first 
 winter, very few of the troops had more than the shelter-tent. This is 
 composed of pieces of linen 5' square, having button-holes along one 
 edge, and the buttons along the adjoining edge; each man carries one 
 piece. 
 
 The following sketch shows the manner of forming the shelter. The two 
 sticks, each about 4' long, are stuck in the ground a little more than 5' 
 apart; they are connected by a small cord, drawn tight, which js passed 
 around each about 3 J' above the ground; the ends of this cord are attached 
 
 to pins, as shown in the figure. The two pieces of cloth are then but- 
 toned together, and thrown over the rope between the sticks ; their lower 
 edges are secured to small pins : the roof of the shelter is thus complete. 
 Grenerally 3* men unite to form one shelter ; the third man arranges liis 
 piece of cloth over the end of the shelter which is most exposed to the 
 weather. If 5 men unite to form a shelter, it is made double the length 
 shown in the sketch. 
 
 Sometimes jointed sticks are carried to support the shelter; sometimes 
 stakes are cut on the ground ; occasionally the musket is used for the 
 purpose. 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 
 
 357 
 
 When the camp'is somewhat permanent, it is usual to dig a little cellar 
 and bank up the earth outsicJe. 
 
 In the Crimea, the cavalry usually encamped in line, with two rows of 
 picket-ropes, and a line of shelter-tents in front of and behind the picket- 
 ropes ; the arms and equipments between the shelters and the picket-ropes. 
 
 The picket-rope is stretched on the ground, and the horses secured to it 
 by a hobble on the right fore-foot; the hobble is of leather, and about 3' 
 long; it buckles around the pastern-joint; sometimes the hobble is attached 
 to a picket-pin, instead of a picket-rope. 
 
 '^^--^^ 
 
 The foregoing sketch shows this arrangement ; it is spoken of by the 
 French officers as being the best manner of securing the horses. 
 
 Officers' horses are on the flanks of the squadron picket-ropes ; those 
 of the field and staff are near the tents of their owners. 
 
 For the latter, rude stables are usually formed, by excavating to the 
 depth of a couple of feet, banking up the earth around three sides, and 
 then forming a roof and walls of brush. 
 
 When time and circumstances permitted, the same wa^ done for the 
 horses of the men, — especially in the winter. It was stated that a very 
 slight protection of this kind produced very marked beneficial result^. In 
 this connection, I would remark that companies of cavalry ought always to 
 be provided with a sufficient number of tools to enable them to improvise 
 some such shelter in any camp at all permanent : any thing which partially 
 protects the horses from the cold winds is of great service. 
 
 The French horses were blanketed in camp. 
 
 The sketch on page 358 is a section of the conical tent used by the French 
 staff officers ; it will be observed that it has low walls, and but one central 
 pole. 
 
 In the Crimea, the horses wer% fed 3 times each day; when the ration 
 
B58 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 was large, 4 times. They were watered twice a day, — early in the morning 
 and at about 3 p.m.; sometimes but once a day. 
 
 They were cleaned twice a day. 
 
 The men of the African chasseurs never go to bed without cleaning and 
 rubbing down their horses, whatever may be the weather and the hour of 
 night when they reach camp. 
 
 On the march, each man carries 4 days' barley, 2 days' hay, and 4 days* 
 rations for himself. 
 
 When going into action, the men, whenever it is possible, leave their 
 forage-rations, cooking-utensils, &c., in charge of a few men, or the dis- 
 mounted men, retaining only cloak, arms, and ammunition ; for a division 
 to effect this requires about half an hour. 
 
 There are always a number of dismounted men to take care of baggage- 
 animals, act as officers' servants, &c. 
 
 The daily service, manner of performing outpost duty, &c., vary with 
 circumstances, and are regulated in orders by the general of division. For 
 some six months, during the first winter in the Crimea, the horses were kept 
 saddled all day; in the fall of 1855 there was but one squadron on outpost 
 duty on the Tchernaya ; the horses of the other squadrons were at their 
 picket-ropes, unsaddled. Of the squadron on duty, one-half was in advance 
 of the Tchernaya, saddled and bridled; it threw out vedettes and pickets; 
 the other half remained in bivouac south of the stream, saddled, but 
 not bridled. The vedettes were always double, and relieved every hour, 
 or two Bours, — according to the weather; if any thing occurred, one 
 vedette rode in to inform the picket, the other remaining at his post to 
 watch. 
 
 In the African chasseurs, the men being old soldiers, Tess minute atten- 
 tion to details was required from the officers : for instance, if it was intended 
 to start at 4 ia the morning, it was only necessary to announce the fact to 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 359 
 
 the men ; the hour for rising, feeding the horses, hreakfasting, &c., need 
 not be specified, but the men can be trusted to be in the saddle at the hour 
 appointed. 
 
 In order to arrive at the end of a march sooner, and thus give the horses 
 more time to repose, a part of the march is usually made at the trot, not 
 faster than 5 miles an hour • the horses must be brought to a walk 20 
 minutes before every halt, and one hour before reaching camp. 
 
 In crossing long and steep slopes, the men dismount ; but they must not 
 dismount and mount very often. 
 
 The march ought not to be greater than from 25 to 31 miles. 
 
 Very full instructions as to the manner of conducting marches, and the 
 general duty in the field, are to be found in the French regulations ; in 
 practice, these regulations are followed as closely as circumstances will 
 permit. 
 
 The cacolets, mentioned when giving the allowance of transportation, 
 are mule-litters ; each mule carries two, slung on each side of an ordinary 
 pack-saddle; their frame is of jointed iron, and can be arranged either in 
 the form of a chair for those who are but slightly wounded, or as a couch 
 for more severe cases. They are well worthy of examination for adoption 
 in our own service, in cases where commands move without wagons ; they 
 will be found to be described in the report of another member of the 
 commission. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION OF MEN AND HORSES BY SEA. 
 
 The American vessels, the Great Republic and the Monarch of the Seas, 
 were fitted up at Marseilles by the French government as horse-transports, 
 and present good examples of the system pursued ; the arrangements were 
 the same in both. 
 
 The Great Republic is 317' by 53' over all, 30' hold, tonnage 3,424; 
 she has carried 497 horses and 500 men at the same time ; 240 horses on 
 each " between-decks," the rest on the spar-deck. 
 
 A donkey engine, of 8-horse power and 12" stroke, was employed to 
 hoist the horses in and* out ; a load of horses taken in, or discharged, at the 
 •rate of 1 horse per minute. 
 
 In one voyage, of 21 days, out of 497 animals, 9 horses and 4 mules 
 were lost ; most of these were sick when brought on board, and suffered 
 much from the heat at Malta. 
 
 Three additional ventilating-ports were cut on each side of each deck; 
 three weeks were occupied in putting up the stalls. 
 
 The Monarch of the Seas is of 2,360 tons burden. 
 
 She carries 300 horses, or 950 soldiers and 28 officers ; loads and dis- 
 charges, by means of a donkey engine of 8-horse power, at the same rate 
 
 as the Great Republic. The cost of putting up the stalls was about 68,000. 
 
 22 
 
360 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 On one voyage she lost about 20 horses out of 300. Out of 3,000 horses, 
 carried at different times, she lost about 30 in all. 
 
 In all the transports the government furnished the forage ; the ships 
 fed the men under a contract. 
 
 The loading was under the direction of government employes; the 
 captain of the vessel regulated the extinction of lights, &c. 
 
 It is considered best to transport horses on board of large sailing-ves- 
 sels, towed by steamers, thus avoiding the heat of the engine, &c. 
 
 The lower deck is regarded as best for the horses. 
 
 The horses are cleaned once a day ; fed and watered twice : these de- 
 tails are regulated by the officers of the troops. 
 
 The horse equipments, &c., are placed at the ends of the decks. 
 
 Horse medicines were brought on board by the veterinaries on duty 
 with the troops. 
 
 When the vessel is '^ end on" to the wharf, a bridge of decked flat- 
 boats is made from the shore, and the horses walked alongside; the slings 
 are then put on, and the animals hoisted in, with the saddle and entire 
 equipment on them. 
 
 The sling used on board ship does not differ materially from that em- 
 ployed in the English service; when used for hoisting in and out, a 
 breeching and breast-strap are employed. 
 
 On the voyage the sling is used only in bad weather, when the horses 
 become fatigued. 
 
 The sea-halters are of rope, with two halter-ropes. 
 
 The sketches on page 361 give the form and dimensions of the stalls. 
 
 The breast and tail boards are nailed to the stanchions, and are 3" 
 thick; the side-boards slip in grooves. The heads of the horses are 
 towards the middle of the ship. 
 
 The stalls are 28'^ wide, and 5' 10'' long in the clear between the pads. 
 
 The pads are of canvas, stuffed with hair ; they were too thin. 
 
 The feed-troughs of wood, and hung to hooks on the front of the 
 breast-board : they are 22" long, 7" deep, 10 2" wide at top, 7¥' wide at 
 bottom, — all these dimensions in the clear ; the edges covered with sheet 
 zinc. For each sling there are two sling bolts and rings, attached to planks* 
 spiked to the joists. 
 
 To each halter-ring two halter-ropes, of adjacent horses, are attached. 
 The flooring of the stalls is of inch boards, resting flat on the deck ; long 
 cleats in front and rear, as shown in the figures, and cross-cleats, parallel 
 to the length of the stall, under each side-board, are nailed to the floor ; 
 this flooring cannot be taken up while the horses are on board. 
 
 The stale passes out through the scuppers as best it can. The hatches 
 are always kept open. 
 
 It will be seen that the arrangement of the stalls is such that a single 
 
PEENCH CAVALRY. 
 
 361 
 
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362 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 horse cannot be removed from tlie middle of a row without first removing 
 all the others between him and one end, or else sawing off the breast- 
 board; this and the arrangement of the flooring are objectionable. 
 
 It will be seen hereafter that these defects are obviated in the English 
 system, which will be described in its proper place, and which may safely 
 be taken as a model. 
 
 When horses are carried on the spar-deck, they are placed in movable 
 box stalls. 
 
 The men sleep about the decks, as they best can, in their overcoats ; 
 blankets are sometimes given them, — especially if they are sick. Neither 
 bunks nor hammocks are provided. The rations of the men on board 
 ship are as follows : — 
 
 Breakfast, 6^ ounces of bread, J^j pint of brandy or rum, /^ ounce of 
 coffee, j^Q ounce of sugar. 
 
 Dinner, 6 J ounces of bread, y% pint of wine, either 8f ounces of salt 
 beef or 7y^(j ounces of pork, 2 J^ ounces of potatoes, peas, or beans, or 1 
 ounce of rice, or 4y2^ ounces of cheese. 
 
 Supper, 6i ounces of bread, -^^ pint of wine, A^^ ounces of Chollet 
 vegetables, or 2 ounces of rice. 
 
 VETERINARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 Of these there are three : one at Alfort, near Paris, one at Lyons, one 
 at Toulouse, — all under the minister of agriculture, commerce, and public 
 works. At Alfort there are 40 pupils, sent by the war department, who 
 supply about 40 veterinaries per annum for the army ; as this number is 
 insufficient, the graduates from civil life frequently receive appointments. 
 
 These institutions are all conducted on the same principles : that at 
 Alfort, however, is the most extensive, and probably the best ; a descrip- 
 tion of that at Lyons will give a sufficiently accurate idea of the general 
 nature of all. 
 
 At this there are 150 pupils, admitted between the ages of 17 and 25, 
 and paying $80 per annum. 
 
 They are required to pass a preliminary examination, at which they 
 must show that they can forge a shoe in two heats, that they understand 
 the French grammar, and can write, know arithmetic and the elements 
 of geometry, and have a general knowledge of the geography of Europe, 
 as well as a special acquaintance with that of France. 
 
 The pupils are divided into 4 classes, the course being of four years. 
 For the two junior classes the course is purely theoretical, and they are 
 required to study 8 hours a day ; in the two senior classes it is partly 
 practical, their presence in the study-rooms being required but 4 hours 
 per day. 
 
 The members of the two senior classes have, each, one or more sick 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 
 
 horses assigned to their care, to which they administer the requisite 
 medical treatment, under the supervision and according to the prescrip- 
 tions of the professors. There is a clinique, or dispensary, whither sick 
 horses are brought every day, the professors prescribing and making 
 remarks upon the cases ; each pupil has a book in which he records the 
 prescriptions, remarks, and whole history of the cases; he retains this 
 book when he leaves the school. 
 
 During the whole course the pupils are required to make shoes and to 
 shoe horses. 
 
 The academic staff is as follows : 
 
 1. The director, who is also professor of anatomy and external diseases. 
 
 2. A professor of external pathology, surgery, and shoeing. 
 
 3. A professor of internal pathology, and botany. 
 
 4. A professor of hygiene, physiology, and sanitary police. 
 
 5. A professor of physics, chemistry, and pharmacy. 
 In addition there are three assistant professors. 
 
 The pupils reside in the establishment, and are kept under very strict 
 discipline. When they pass their final examination they receive a 
 regular diploma as veterinary physicians. 
 
 In the practice at this institution, the glanders is regarded as incurable, 
 and the fleam is preferred to the spring lancet. 
 
 The boxes for very sick or large horses are 11' 4" wide, 14' 9" long, 
 with a passage-way of 5' in rear, and are about 15' high ; in front of the 
 stables there is an iron shed 10' 6" wide. 
 
 The mangers are of stone ; racks, of wood ; floors, of hard brick, laid 
 on the long edge ; the divisions between the stalls are solid, and swing on 
 pivots, so as to yield to the kick of the animal. 
 
 There are stables for cows ; kennels for dogs, cats, &c. 
 
 There are also dissecting-rooms, — animals being purchased and killed, 
 for the purpose. 
 
 The library has a reading-room attached, and contains general scientific 
 works, as well as those relating especially to the veterinary art. 
 
 The collection of instruments for experiments in natural philosophy is 
 fair. 
 
 There is a small anatomical museum, in which are found nearly all the 
 admirable models made by Dr. Augoux ; these represent the teeth, bones, 
 intestines, — in fact, all parts, — of the horse, as well as complete models 
 showing the whole external and internal structure of the animal. They 
 are made of a material not unlike papier-mache, and are durable and 
 accurate. 
 
 These models are in general use throughout Europe, and are regarded, 
 as indispensable in a veterinary school. 
 
 Specimens were purchased by the commission; and I would urgently 
 
364 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 recommend that complete sets be procured for the military academy, the 
 cavalry depot, and for general use in the service. 
 
 In the botanical garden are found specimens of all proper and noxious 
 aliments for the horse, medicinal plants, &c. 
 
 The forges in the shoeing-shop are of iron, and well arranged ; the tools 
 present nothing peculiar. 
 
 The method of cold-shoeing is pursued here, as is universally the case 
 in the French government establishments. This process will be fully 
 explained when describing the farrier school at Saumur. 
 
 CAVALRY SCHOOL AT SAUMUR. 
 
 This is the most perfect and extensive institution of the kind in 
 Europe, — ^perhaps the only one really deserving the title, the others being 
 more properly mere schools of equitation. 
 
 It is situated on the Loire, in the department of the Maine and Loire, 
 a region in which forage abounds, and where the climate is such that 
 exercises in the open air are seldom interrupted. 
 
 The organization and purposes of the school cannot be better described 
 than by giving extracts from the "Decree of Reorganization," dated 
 October, 1853 : 
 
 " The purpose of the cavalry school is to form instructors, intended to 
 diffuse through the corps a uniform system of instruction in every thing 
 relating to the principles of equitation, and other branches of knowledge 
 appropriate to the cavalry arm. 
 
 TITLE I. 
 
 OBJECT OP THE SCHOOL AND DIVISION OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Article 1. The instruction at the cavalry school is entirely military, 
 and is based upon the laws and regulations in force with regard to the 
 mounted troops. It includes — 
 
 1st. The regulations for interior service. 
 
 2d. The cavalry tactics. 
 
 3d. The regulations for garrison service. 
 
 4th. The regulations for field service applied, as far as possible, on the 
 ground, especially with regard to reconnoissances. 
 
 5th. A military and didactic course of equitation, comprising all the 
 theoretical and practical knowledge required for the proper and useful 
 employment of the horse, his breaking, application to the purposes of 
 war, and various civil exercises. 
 
 6th. A course of hippology, having for its object practical instruction, 
 by means of the model breeding-stud attached to the school, in the prin- 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 365 
 
 ciples which should serve as rules in crossing breeds and in raising colts, 
 to explain the phases of dentition, to point out the conformation of the 
 colt which indicates that he will become a good and solid horse, the 
 method to be pursued to bring the colt under subjection without resist- 
 ance, and, finally, to familiarize the officers and pupils with all the know- 
 ledge indispensable to an officer charged with the purchase and care of 
 remount horses. This course will also include notions concerning the 
 horse equipment, which will be derived from an examination of the saddle- 
 factory connected with the school. 
 
 7th. Vaulting, fencing, and swimming. 
 
 Article 2. The number of horses is fixed by the minister of war, 
 according to the wants of the service; the number of troop-horses is 
 fixed by table A, appended to this decree. 
 
 The number of young horses, for breaking, is fixed at 100 as a mini- 
 mum. These last horses, as soon as their education is complete, are sold 
 or given, according to the orders of the minister of war, to those officers 
 who need a remount, — in preference, to officers of the general staff and 
 staff corps, those of the artillery, and mounted officers of infantry. 
 
 These officers may also select from among the other horses of the 
 school, with the approval of the commandant of the school. 
 
 Article 3. The pupils at the school are : 
 
 1st. Officers for instruction. 
 
 2d. Sergeants for instruction. 
 
 3d. Corporals for instruction. 
 
 Article 4. The full number of the divisions of officers, sergeants, and 
 corporals for instruction is as follows : 
 
 Officers for instruction, 2 divisions (effective) 100 
 
 Sergeants " 1 " " 40 
 
 Corporals " 4 " « 240 
 
 Article 5. The pupils are sent to the school by order of the minister 
 of war. They continue to be counted in their corps, from which they 
 are considered detached during their stay at the school. They receive 
 additional pay. 
 
 TITLE II. 
 
 COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Article 6. The courses of instruction are divided into 2 years. 
 
 Upon their admission, the pupils take up the first year's course ; when 
 they have passed the examination at the close of that year, they enter upon 
 the course of the 2d and final year. 
 
 Article 7. In case of interruption from sickness, pupils may repeat 
 one year's course. No one can remain more than 3 years at the school. 
 
366 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Article 8. A council of instruction is charged with the direction of 
 the studies. They propose useful changes, and direct the progress of the 
 studies. They are charged with the examinations. 
 
 TITLE III. 
 
 THE DIVISIONS FOR INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Section 1. 
 
 Officers and sergeants for instruction. 
 
 Article 9. The officers for instruction are selected from the regiments 
 of cavalry and artillery, as well as from the squadrons of the trains of the 
 parks and military equipages. Every year the inspectors-general desig- 
 nate the lieutenants and sub-lieutenants who can profitably follow the 
 course at the school. The lieutenants selected must not be more than 36 
 years of age, the sub-lieutenants not more than 34. 
 
 The sub-lieutenants, who are graduates of the special military school, 
 must have served at least 2 years with their regiments before being sent 
 to the cavalry school. 
 
 Article 10. The sergeants for instruction are selected from the artil- 
 lery. Every two years the inspector-general designates sergeants of the 
 regiments of artillery and the squadrons of the park-trains to be detached 
 from their corps as sergeants for instruction. 
 
 Article 11. The officers and sergeants sent to the school for in- 
 struction take their horses with them, and use them in the military exer- 
 cises. 
 
 Article 12. Those who, after six months' trial at the school, are 
 found to be deficient in the necessary qualities, are sent back to their 
 regiments. 
 
 Article 13. Upon the recommendation of the inspector-general of 
 the school, the officers serving there as pupils compete for promotion by 
 choice with the officers of the corps from which they are detached. 
 
 Article 14. The cavalry lieutenant for instruction who graduates first 
 in his class is presented for the first vacancy as captain instructor that 
 occurs in the cavalry, provided he has the seniority in his grade demanded 
 by the law. 
 
 The cavalry lieutenant who graduates second obtains, under the same 
 conditions, the 2d vacancy of captain instructor, provided the division to 
 which he belonged consisted of more than 30 members. The sub-lieu- 
 tenant for instruction who graduates first of his grade, provided he is not 
 lower than 10th in the general classification of the officers of both grades, 
 is presented for promotion to the first vacant lieutenancy that occurs in 
 his regiment. 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 367 
 
 Article 15. Those who remain 3 years at the school are not entitled 
 to the benefits of the preceding article. 
 
 Section 2. 
 Corporals for instruction. 
 
 Article 16. They are designated every year, by the inspectors-gene- 
 ral, in the regiments of cavalry and the squadrons of military equipages, 
 from among those who have the greatest aptness for equitation, and are 
 most deserving on account of their conduct, instruction, zeal, and intelli- 
 gence; those who are recommended for promotion in their corps are 
 selected in preference. 
 
 They must not be more than 25 years old. 
 
 They are sent to the school, by order of the minister of war, on the 1st 
 of April of each year. 
 
 They remain connected with their corps, from which they are regarded 
 as detached, and leave their horses there. 
 
 Article 17. The corporals compose 2 squadrons, commanded by cap- 
 tains on the staff of the school, who have officers for instruction under 
 their orders. 
 
 Article 18, The corporals for instruction, although acting in the 
 ranks, continue to wear the distinctive marks of their grade, and receive 
 the pay of corporals of cuirassiers. 
 
 Article 19. Those corporals who, after spending 6 months at the 
 school, do not evince the necessary qualifications, are sent back to their 
 regiments. 
 
 Article 20. When they have passed their final examination, the cor- 
 porals for instruction are promoted to be sergeants, vacancies having been 
 reserved for them in their own regiments, to which they consequently 
 return. 
 
 Those who at the examination at the close of the first year are in the 
 highest third part of their class, and have distinguished tliemselves by 
 their zeal and good conduct, may be at once promoted to be sergeants in 
 their regiments, and perform the duties of that grade in the squadrons of 
 the school; they receive the pay and wear the distinctive marks of their 
 new grade. 
 
 Those corporals whose final examination is not satisfactory will be sent 
 back to their regiments as corporals, unless they are especially authorized 
 to spend an additional six months, or a year, at the school. 
 
 Article 21. The corporals who graduate among the first ten of their 
 class are placed on the list of sergeants for promotion as sub-lieutenants 
 as soon as they have completed the two years' service as sergeants required 
 bylaw. 
 
10 captains, instructors, 
 
 368 .THEARMIESOFEURO P E. 
 
 TITLE IV. 
 
 STAFF OF THE SCHOOL. 
 
 Section 1. 
 
 Composition of the staff. 
 
 Article 22. The staff of the school is composed as follows : 
 
 1 general officer, as commandant. 
 
 1 colonel, as 2d commandant. i 
 
 1 lieutenant-colonel. 
 
 1 chief of squadrons. 
 
 1 major. 
 
 ' of whom 3 command the squadrons. 
 
 2 perform the duty of captain adjutant. 
 
 2 in charge of the instruction of the officers. 
 
 1 in charge of the special course of the ser- 
 geants. 
 
 1 as assistant to the chief riding-master in the 
 school for breaking young horses. 
 
 1 supernumerary to supply vacancies. 
 1 captain, treasurer. 
 1 captain of clothing. 
 
 1 director of the saddlery, either a captain or lieutenant. 
 1 assistant treasurer, either a lieutenant or sub-lieutenant. 
 1 standard-bearer, either a lieutenant or sub-lieutenant. 
 1 veterinary of the 1st or 2d class. 
 1 assistant veterinary of the 1st or 2d class. 
 
 ( 3 for duty with the squadrons. 
 
 4 non-commissioned adjutants, < 1 wagon-master, also in charge of 
 
 I library. 
 
 C 3 for duty with the squadrons. 
 
 5 first sergeants, < 1 master farrier. 
 
 1 1 master saddler. 
 13 sergeants, one of whom is fencing-master. 
 4 quartermaster-sergeants, one of whom is attached to the saddlery. 
 
 1 corporal, trumpeter. 
 
 2 corporals, farriers. 
 
 2 corporals, saddlers. 
 
 3 corporals, provosts. 
 
 Article 23. The employes in the riding-halls, academy, and model 
 stud, are military or civil ; their rank and precedence are as follows : 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 
 
 1 chief riding-master, ranks as chief of squadrons. 
 5 riding-masters, who rank as captains j one of these may be the di- 
 rector of the stud, and professor of hippology. 
 
 3 assistant riding-masters, who rank as lieutenants or sub-lieutenants. 
 1 master of the riding-halls, ranks as non-commissioned adjutant. 
 
 4 assistant masters of the riding-halls, 1 of whom ranks as first sergeant, 
 
 the others as sergeants. 
 
 The direction of the breeding-stud, and the course of hippology, may 
 be intrusted to a civil or military professor other than a riding-master, or 
 to a military veterinary. 
 
 Article 24. The medical staflF is as follows : 
 
 1 chief surgeon. 
 
 1 surgeon of the 1st or 2d class. 
 
 1 assistant surgeon of the 1st or 2d class. 
 
 1 chief apothecary, or assistant apothecary. . 
 
 1 hospital intendant. 
 
 3 principal hospital attendants. 
 
 7 hospital attendants. 
 
 Article 25. There are attached to the school — 
 
 1 sergeant, as master armorer. 
 
 1 sergeant, as master saddler. 
 
 1 sergeant, as master tailor. 
 
 1 sergeant, as master boot-maker. 
 
 Article 26. The officers composing the staff are authorized to have the 
 number of horses allowed their grade, with the exception of the intend- 
 ants and medical officers, who are only authorized to have their govern- 
 ment horses. 
 
 Article 27. Upon the recommendation of the council of adminis- 
 tration, the minister of war determines the number and duties of the 
 administrative employes attached to the school ; also the number of sub- 
 ordinate agents." 
 
 For additional information I would refer to the copy of the decree of 
 reorganization accompanying this report. 
 
 The captains-instructor of the cavalry regiments, and the instructors of 
 equitation in the artillery regiments, are mostly selected from the gra- 
 duates of this institution. 
 
 In addition to the subjects mentioned in the decree, the non-commissioned 
 officers are instructed in the theory of administration and accountability. 
 
 The text-books are as follows : The Hippology of M. St. Ange ; the 
 Equitation of M. d'Aure ; the Tactics and Regulations. 
 
 The recitations are by sections of about 80 in each. 
 
 In reciting upon the general principles of tactics, equitation, hippology, 
 
370 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 &c., the manner is as at our Military Academy ; when Reciting upon the 
 movements in tactics, all the commands and explanations of the instructor 
 to the troops are repeated " verbatim et literatim," and in the tone and 
 pitch of voice used in the field. 
 
 Perfect uniformity of tone and manner is required, and thus obtained; 
 the object of reciting in this manner is to teach the pupils the proper 
 tone and pitch of voice, to accustom them to hear their own voices, and 
 to enable them to repeat the text literally at this pitch of voice, without 
 hesitation or mistake. 
 
 The course of hippology includes the structure of the horse, the cir- 
 culation of the blood, organs of respiration, &c., food, working-powers, 
 action, breeds, manner of taking care of him, ordinary ailments and 
 remedies, shoeing, lameness, saddling, sore backs, sanitary police, &c., but 
 does not comprise a complete veterinary course. 
 
 The Augoux models are employed, in preference, for demonstrations, 
 and are considered invaluable. 
 
 The officers on the staff of the school, and those for instruction, lodge 
 in the town ; the non-commissioned officers are quartered in the barrack. 
 The hospital is for both officers and non-commissioned officers. 
 In the kitchens, the Choumara marmites are used. 
 The stables have already been described. 
 
 In accordance with the system now adopted in France, the prison con- 
 sists of small cells, opening upon a corridor which communicates with the 
 guard-room ; the system of solitary confinement is resorted to as the only 
 one of any avail. Each prisoner has a bunk, mattress, pillow, and blanket, 
 belonging to the prison. At Saumur the prisoners are obliged to have some 
 of their text-books with them. 
 
 Forage-magazine. — The following sketch represents a section of the 
 forage-magazine; there is a staircase at each end. The oats are kept 
 
 loose on the floor, in a mass 
 about 3' deep; a winnowing- 
 machine is provided for clean- 
 ing it before issue. 
 
 The hay is purchased in 
 trusses of about 15 lbs. each, 
 and is put up, at the magazine, 
 in trusses of a ration each, 
 by hired men. The straw is 
 stacked in piles about 40' 
 high, in the open air; a wall 
 surrounds the whole establishment. Four months' supply is usually kept 
 on hand. The purchase and issue are in the hands of an officer of the 
 inten dance. 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 371 
 
 Riding-JiaUs. — There are three of these, the largest being 280' long, 
 105' wide, and 25' high. The roof-truss of wood, supported by wooden 
 arches, which extend nearly to the floor. 
 
 The galleries in the middle of the long sides, the entrance-doors at 
 the ends. There is no wainscot, nor are the corners rounded off. The 
 floor is of sand and tan. 
 
 The large riding-hall is stated to be too large for the mere riding-drill, 
 and is sufficient for instruction in the first two articles of the platoon 
 drill; it was also stated that it would be desirable to have it large enough 
 for all the lessons of the platoon drill. The second riding-hall is about 
 216' X 60', and is of a good size for the riding-drill. The best shape 
 for a riding-hall is said to be, — the width one-third of the length. Near 
 the large riding-hall there is a target, placed against a brick wall. They 
 practise at this with pistol, carbine, and musket; at first on foot, after- 
 wards on horseback. 
 
 The carbine is said to be worthless, because it is inaccurate and is apt 
 to burn the horse's ears. No very satisfactory results have been obtained 
 with the use of the musket on horseback. 
 
 Hurdles about 2 2 feet high are placed near the target; they are made 
 of very flexible withes, in order not to trip the horse if he strikes. 
 
 The practical exercises consist of: The ordinary riding-hall drill, 
 including vaulting, the " kickers," &c. ; the carri^re, or out-door riding 
 at speed, over hurdles, ditches, &c. ; cutting at heads; target-practice; 
 fencing; swimming; the usual military drills; skeleton squadron and 
 regimental drills ; rides in the country ; finally, in the summer, frequent 
 " carrousels" or tilts are held. 
 
 The English saddle and bridle are much used by the officers. The 
 saddle for the " kickers" has a high pommel and cantle, and no stirrups. 
 
 The Baucher system was fully tried at Saumur, and I was informed that 
 it proved to be inapplicable to the general service. Some few persons, 
 exceptions to the general rule, did wonders with it; but it generally did 
 harm, and is regarded as a very dangerous system in the hands of most 
 officers and men ; it is not at all in use at Saumur, or anywhere else in 
 the French service. I will here take occasion to repeat that I took 
 especial pains to make inquiries, in relation to the Baucher system, of the 
 cavalry officers of all the countries we visited, and that the reply was 
 uniformly the same: that is, that certain parts of the system (those 
 relating to obtaining command of the muscles of the head and neck) 
 were good, and could be applied with advantage by individual officers to 
 their own horses, but that the system would never answer for general 
 introduction in the service. 
 
 In addition to what is stated in the decree of reorganization, it should 
 be said that the non-commissioned officers sent to the school must have 
 
372 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 served as such at least one year; and that those who attend the school 
 as non-commissioned officers frequently return as officers for instruction, 
 and again in a higher grade on the staff of the school. The officer now 
 second in command has been at the school in every grade down to that 
 of lieutenant, inclusive. Officers transferred from the infantry to the 
 cavalry are generally sent to this school for a short time at least. 
 
 The veterinary surgeons of the lowest grade are sent here upon their 
 first appointment to receive instruction in equitation, to profit by the 
 study of the model stud, and to learn the routine of their duties with 
 the regiments; they form a separate class, under the direction of the 
 stud. In the Model Stud (Haras des Etudes) the number of animals 
 varies. There are usually two stallions and about twenty mares, in addi- 
 tion to those selected from time to time from among the riding-animals. 
 At the time of my visit one of the stallions was a superb Arab ; among 
 the mares were Arabs, English, Norman, &c. Each animal has a box 
 about 15' square. 
 
 The object of this establishment is explained in the ^^ decree." At- 
 tached to it is a botanical garden, more especially for useful and noxious 
 grasses and plants. 
 
 The horses of the school are divided into two sets, — one for the riding- 
 hall, the other for military drills ; there are about 240 of the former and 
 600 of the latter. The former are groomed by hired men, the others by 
 soldiers of the remount companies, who do not belong to any regiment. 
 
 Each man has four horses to take care of, and has nothing else to do. 
 The horses at the school have a somewhat larger allowance of forage than 
 in the regiments, and are far better animals than the majority in the 
 service. 
 
 SCHOOL FOR BREAKING YOUNG HORSES. 
 
 The object of this establishment is explained in the decree. The best 
 horses purchased at the remount depots are selected for the officers, and 
 «ent to this place to be trained. 
 
 A school for trumpeters existed at Saumur prior to the war; soon after 
 the commencement of the war it was broken up, — to the regret of all the 
 officers. 
 
 SCHOOL OF FARRIERS. 
 
 This is attached to the cavalry school, and is under the direction of 
 the commandant. Private soldiers who have served at least six months 
 with their regiments, and are blacksmiths or horseshoers by trade, com- 
 pose this school. There are usually two men from each mounted regiment; 
 during the war the number was reduced to one from each regiment. 
 The course lasts two years. It comprises: reading, writing, arithmetic, 
 equitation, the anatomy of the horse, thorough instruction as to all 
 diseases, injuries, and deformities of the foot, something of the veterinary 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 373 
 
 art in general, the selection of metals, making shoes, nails, tools, &c., 
 shoeing horses. 
 
 The printed work on farriery (Cours de Marechalerie, k Saumur) gives 
 the course as taught. 
 
 This establishment has a large shoeing shop and yard, with some 12 or 
 15 forges, a recitation-room, museum, and store-rooms. In the recitation- 
 room there are skeletons of horses, men, &c., as well as some admirable 
 specimens of natural preparations in comparative anatomy, a complete 
 collection- of shoeing-tools, specimens of many kinds of shoes, «fec. 
 
 In a recitation of the lowest section I heard a very good explanation 
 of the skeleton, muscles, foot, process of shoeing, use of the " perpen- 
 diculars," &c., from different pupils. 
 
 This school has been in existence since 1826, and has produced most 
 satisfactory results. Since that year the census returns have shown, it is 
 stated, a diminution of 40 per cent, in the number of lame horses in 
 France, — a result attributed to the good instruction spread through the 
 country by means of this school ; for the pupils, upon leaving the service, 
 generally establish themselves as farriers in their native villages. 
 
 All the horses of the school are shod here ; also those of the inhabit- 
 ants of the town and its vicinity; the money thus earned pays the' 
 expenses of the school. 
 
 The shoes are made altogether by hand, and are rather rough. 
 
 For small feet, 6 nails are used ; for those of medium size, 7 ;. for large 
 feet, such as those of cuirassier horses, 8. 
 
 As the regulations require the method of cold-shoeing to be used in 
 the French army, that alone is used here, and is as follows : 
 
 The old shoe is removed, and the foot prepared to receive the new 
 shoe. An exact impression of the foot is then taken on a sheet of paper, 
 which is laid against the sole of the foot, and pressed against the edge of 
 the foot by the hand. 
 
 The podometer (which is either a thin, flexible bar of lead, or a chain 
 of short, stiff, bar links) is now employed; this is bent to the exact 
 shape of the impression on the paper, and serves as a guide and measure 
 in forging the shoe. 
 
 This impression is taken once for all, for each horse. 
 
 In the regiments, each farrier has a register, at the head of each page 
 of which are inscribed the name and number of a horse; below are traced 
 the impressions of his fore and hind feet, which can always be reproduced 
 by means of the podometer, or a paper form. Any necessary remarks, as 
 to peculiarities of the horse's foot, and directions for shoeing him, are 
 inscribed by the veterinary. A note is made in the register every time 
 the horse is shod. 
 
 No shoe should remain on more than from 30 to 40 days. 
 
374 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 By means of this register the farrier prepares, at his leisure, four shoes 
 for each horse, which number should always be on hand ; the veterinary 
 inspects them, sees the nail-holes punched, and has them marked with 
 the number of the horse. 
 
 On the march, every man must be provided with 4 shoes thus fitted, 
 also with two sets of nails. 
 
 The horses are not taken to the forge to be shod, but the operation is 
 performed wherever they happen to be. 
 
 r\ 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
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 B 
 
 (On 
 
 n rfli 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 n 4 
 
 B 
 
 -J 
 
 
 __i$^MW« 
 
 w 
 
 b 
 
 
 cr 
 
 In garrison, they leave the stable only long enough to have the old 
 shoe removed, the hoof trimmed, and the new shoe nailed on. 
 
 At Saumur, the registers belong to the school, and not to the farriers ; 
 the horses, too, are generally taken to the shop to be shod. 
 
 Another register is kept here, in which is recorded the work done 
 every day, giving the names of the horses, or of their owners, the number 
 of shoes put on, and on what foot, also the names of the men doing the 
 work, so that they may be held responsible for any work badly done. 
 
 I observed at this school an arrangement for curing contracted heels; 
 
FRENCH CAVALRY. 375 
 
 it is said that by means of it very bad cases are permanently cured in a 
 few months. 
 
 The sketches on page 374 show the arrangement. 
 
 The instrument represented by figs. 1 and 2 is applied to the bars of 
 the hoof; turning the screw, the piece B recedes from A, and thus opens 
 the heel; a shoe, arranged with clips, as shown in the sketch, is then 
 put on, and the clips retain the bars in their new position. 
 
 The hoof is opened a very little at each shoeing ; it is necessary to be 
 very careful in the application, and not to open the heels too much at 
 once, — frojn jj^ to ygg of an inch at a time. It is sometimes necessary 
 to rasp down the hoof and soak it in oil, to render it more pliable. 
 
 I was informed that perfect success attends this operation : in fact, 
 they showed me the impressions of hoofs, badly contracted originally, 
 taken at different times during the process, and then one of the horses 
 with heels apparently in good condition, and without clips on the shoes. 
 
 It ought, however, to be stated that a similar process is referred to 
 by Youatt, (page 308, Skinner's edition,) and that his conclusions are 
 entirely against the efficiency of any such process. I give the thing for 
 what it may be worth. 
 
 Since I visited Saumur unaccompanied by the other members of the 
 commission, I feel that it would be improper to close my notes upon the 
 school without calling the attention of the Secretary of War to the ex- 
 treine courtesy and kindness I met with on the part of all the officers of 
 the school. By General de Rochefort, the commandant, and Colonel 
 Schmidt, the 2d commandant, I was placed under great obligations by 
 their personal attentions, and the patient kindness with which they — 
 especially the latter — accompanied me through the different parts of the 
 establishment, and laid open all things for my examination. 
 
 List of works, hy French authors, or translated into French, of especial 
 value to cavalry officers. 
 Bugeaud ; Instructions Pratiques, pour les Troupes en Campagne. 
 Bismajik; Tactique de la Cavalerie, (trad, par Schauenberg.) 
 Brack; Avant-Postes de Cavalerie Leg^re. 
 Cours d'Equitation Militaire de I'Ecole de Saumur. 
 Cours de Marechalerie de I'Ecole de Saumur. 
 Cours d'Hippologie — par St. Ange. 
 
 Decker; Tactique des Trois Armes, (trad, par de Brack.) 
 Decker ; Traite de la Petite Guerre. 
 
 FrMeric II (le Grand) ; Instructions aux Troupes Leg^res, &c. 
 Jacquinot de Presle ; Cours d'Art et d'Histoire Militaire. 
 La Roche Aymon ; Manuel de Cavalerie L^g^re en Campagne. 
 
 Maurice de Saxe ; Mes Reveries, ou Memoires sur 1' Art de Guerre. 
 
 23 
 
376 THE ARMIES OP EUROPE. 
 
 Memorial des Officiers d'lnfanterie et de Cavalerie. 
 
 Muller ; Th^orie sur TEscrime k Cheval. 
 
 Ordonnance sur le Service Int^rieur des Troupes k Cheval. 
 " " " des Armies en Cainpagne. 
 
 " " " de Cavalerie en Campagne. 
 
 '^ " " des Places — pour la Cavalerie. 
 
 Schauenberg ; De TEmploi de la Cavalerie k la Guerre. 
 
 Des Principes qui servent de Base k I'Instruction etc. de la Cavalerie 
 — ^par M. F. d'Ald^guier. 
 
 The following are standard works on the veterinary art : 
 
 Dictionnaire de M^decine, de Chirurgie, et d' Hygiene V^terinaire, 
 par M. Huetel d'Arboval, 6 volumes. 
 
 Traits de M^decine V^t^rinaire Pratique — ^par L. V. Delwast, 3 
 volumes. 
 
 Nouveau Dictionnaire Pratique de M^decine, de Chirurgie, et d'Hy- 
 gi^ne Y^t^rinaire, par MM. Bouley et Reynal. 
 
 Recueil de M^moires et d' Observations sur I'Hygi^ne et la M^decine 
 V6t4rinaire Militaire; public par ordfe du Ministre de la Gruerre, 6 volumes. 
 
 Dictionnaire d'Hjppiatrique et d'Equitation ; par Cardini, 2 volumes. 
 
 Much valuable and interesting information as to the history of the 
 horses and haras in France is to be found in a published report, entitled 
 Conseil Sup^rieur des Haras, Kapport sur les Travaux de la Session de 
 1850, fait par M. le G^n^ral de la Morici^re. 
 
ENGLISH CAVALRY. 377 
 
 ENGLISH CAVALRY. 
 
 The Englisli regular cavalry consists of: • 
 
 8 regiments of household troops — cuirassiers; 
 7 regiments of heavy dragoon guards; 
 
 3 regiments of heavy dragoons of the line; 
 
 4 regiments of light dragoons of the line; 
 
 5 regiments of hussars; 
 4 regiments of lancers; 
 
 1 regiment of Cape mounted riflemen. 
 
 The regiment of mounted riflemen has 12 troops; the other regiments 
 have 6 or 8 troops each, formed, respectively, into 3 or 4 squadrons. 
 
 The troop is the unit of interior service; the squadron is that of tactics. 
 
 The usual strength of a troop of the guards is : 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 
 1 cornet, 5 sergeants, 1 trumpeter, 1 farrier, and 42 corporals and privates; 
 in other regiments, serving at home, the number of corporals and privates 
 is increased to 58 ; regiments serving in India, and similar stations, have 
 1 additional lieutenant and 70 corporals and privates. 
 
 The regimental staff" consists of: 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant^colonel, 1 major, 
 1 paymaster, 1 adjutant, 1 quartermaster, 1 surgeon, 1 assistant surgeon, 
 1 veterinary surgeon, 1 sergeant major, 1 chief trumpeter, 1 armorer, 1 
 chief saddler, 1 schoolmaster sergeant, 1 hospital sergeant, 1 regimental 
 clerk, 1 paymaster's clerk. 
 
 Some regiments have 2 lieutenant-colonels and 2 majors. 
 
 TACTICS AND INSTRUCTION. 
 
 The squadron is composed of two troops, and is divided into 4 divisions. 
 It is formed in two ranks, half a horse's length (4') apart ; the files have 
 intervals of 6" from knee to knee. 
 
 The squadron-intervals are equal to the front of a division; tho^e be- 
 tween regiments are the same, allowing, in the order of parade, the addi- 
 tional space necessary for the band and staff. 
 
 In the squadron the officers, &c., are posted as follows : 
 
 The commander of the squadron, (who is the senior captain of troop, 
 and is called 1^ squadron-leader,") one-half a horse's length in front of the 
 
378 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE, 
 
 centre of thp squadron; the commandan'ts of the troops, (called ^'troop- 
 leaders/') at the same distance in front of the centres of the troops; the 
 4th officer is posted, as a file-closer, (he is called "squadron s^rrefile/') 
 one-half a horse's length in rear of the centre of the squadron ; the 5th and 
 6th officers, (called "troop serrefiles,") at the same distance behind the 
 centres of the troops; one sergeant, the standard-bearer, is in the front 
 rank between the troops; 8 sergeants are on the flanks of the divisions, 
 in the fropt rank, all covered by corporals or old soldiers;* the 10th 
 sergeant, as squadron-marker, is in the rank of file-closers, one horse's 
 length on the right of the squadron serrefile; the trumpeters are in the 
 rank of file-glosers, behind the second files from the flanks of the squadron ; 
 supernumerary officers and sergeants and the farriers are distributed in the 
 rank of file-closers. 
 
 The formations are by single file, by files, by sections of threes, and by 
 threes, as in the Russian system. 
 
 The front of column is increased or diminished as in our own tactics. 
 
 The English tactics being easily obtained, and copies of it being in the 
 possession of the War Department, it is deemed unnecessary to give 
 extracts from it. 
 
 Much of the preliminary instruction is worthy of consideration : it is 
 very concise; the commands are generally short, and it should by no 
 means be passed over by officers engaged in the revision of our own 
 tactics. 
 
 HORSE EQUIPMENTS, ETC. 
 
 The saddle has a lower cantle and pommel than our Grimsley saddle ; 
 it is covered with leather. • ' 
 
 The snaffle-bit is attached to the halter-headstall by a chain and T ; 
 the curb has a separate headstall, which, on the march, is sometimes taken 
 off and hung on the carbine-stock; the halter-shank is a chain, and is 
 worn in the field. 
 
 No schabraque is worn; the pouches, valise, &c., present nothing 
 peculiar. 
 
 There is a difference between the saddles for the heavy and light 
 cavalry. 
 
 The cavalry are arnied with the sabre, carbine, and pistol, with the 
 exception of the lancers, who have two pistols and a lance in lieu of the 
 carbine. 
 
 The sabre is long, and has a steel guard ; it is formed rather for cutting 
 than fot thrusting. 
 
 Large numbers of the Drane & Adams' revolvers were being made at 
 Li^ge for the English cavalry ; none had been issued in the Crimea. 
 
 The Cape mounted riflemen have a sabre, pistol, and a carbine with a 
 double barrel. 
 
• ENaLISH CAVALRY. 379 
 
 The carbine is carried in a boot, and has also a sling. 
 
 The cartridge-box is suspended from a shoulder-belt. 
 
 The heavy cavalry wear helmets; the light dragoons, shakos; the 
 hussars, fur cylindrical hats, or shakos ; the lancers,, the czapka. 
 
 The cuirassiers have both breast and back plate. 
 
 The frock-coat was in course of adoption, but had been issued in the 
 Crimea to only a few regiments. 
 
 In the Crimea, the cavalry had their full dress. 
 
 The horses of the English cavalry are large and excellent; for the 
 heavy cavalry they leave nothing to be desired. It may be a question 
 whether they have light cavalry, in the true sense of the term, except, 
 perhaps, some of the regiments who have been serving in India and are 
 mounted on Indian horses; for the men and horses of the light cavalry 
 are scarcely to be distinguished from those of the heavy, and it may be 
 doubted whether they would stand the severe work, exposure, and short 
 rations which usually fall to the lot of light cavalry in campaign, as well 
 as the less imposing but lighter and more active material of the light 
 cavalry of other nations. 
 
 The horses are usually purchased for each regiment. • 
 
 The animals in the Crimea in the fall of 1855 were mostly, I believe, 
 remount horses, sent out during the spring and sifmmer ; they were gene- 
 rally excellent animals, of great power and weight, but, although in fair 
 effective condition, they were hardly in the state that might have been 
 expected considering the small amount of work they were required to 
 perform. They were encamped upon broken ground, where but little 
 regularity could be perceived in their arrangement. 
 
 The men were under canvas, the horses generally blanketed at the 
 picket-ropes ; in some few cases, exceptions to the rule, rough stables had 
 been constructed. 
 
 The picket-ropes were about 2' from the ground, and fastened to stakes 
 some 20' apart ; the horses secured to them by the halter chain or rope. 
 
 The camp-equipage, coftking-utensils, &c., do not differ materially from 
 those of the infantry, which are described in their appropriate place. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION BY SEA. 
 
 The Himalaya was regarded as the most perfect horse-transport; the 
 following description is based upon notes taken during a visit to that 
 vessel in the harbor of Balaklava : • 
 
 She is an iron screw-ship of 3,000 tons and 700-horse power, and can 
 carry 380 horses, as follows : on the spar-deck 200, main deck 130, orlop- 
 deck 50 ; the corresponding number of troops can be carried at the same 
 time. 
 
 The Himalaya was purchased by the government, and commanded by 
 
380 
 
 THE ARMIES OF EUEOPE. 
 
 Captain Priest, R.N. To the courtesy of that very intelligent officer we 
 are indebted for the details contained herein. 
 
 Fig. 1 (page 381) is a section through the side-boards of a stall. 
 
 Fig. 2, a longitudinal section along the axis. 
 
 Fig. 3 is the plan of stall. 
 
 A represents the halter-rings. 
 
 B, the hook to which the sea-halter is hung when not in use. 
 
 C and E, projected buttons for securing the sling- ropes shown in fig. 5. 
 
 D, sling-bolt, for sling as shown 4n fig. 4. 
 
 F, hook to, which the land-halter is hung. 
 
 Fig. 4 represents the canvas sling used on the Himalaya. 
 Fig. 5 represents the sling as recommended by Captain Priest, 
 I and which he intended to adopt. 
 
 JL The tail-board, as shown in the sketch, is permanently 
 
 yy I Y ^ attached to the rear posts, and extends to the floor; it is 
 padded nearly to the bottom : it was intended to replace this 
 by a board of the same width as the side-boards, and rounded 
 off at top by a spar, 4^" in diameter. 
 
 The breast and side boards all slip in grooves. 
 The side-boards are padded on both sides; the breast-board 
 on top and towards the horse. 
 
 The material used is felt, or raw hide, (the latter objec- 
 tionable on account of the odor,) stuffed with cow's hair 
 wherever the animal can gnaw it, with straw in other parts; 
 the pads were from 2" to 3" thick. 
 
 The feed-trough is of wood, the edges bound with sheet 
 iron or zinc, and attached to the head-board by two hooks. 
 
 The feed-troughs, head-boards, and stalls are whitewashed 
 and numbered. 
 
 The floor of the stalls is raised above the deck on buttons, 
 and' is divided into separate platforms for every two stalls, 
 so that it can easily be raised to clean the deck beneath; 4 
 strong buttons are nailed across, to give the animals a foot- 
 hold. 
 
 In front of each head-post there is a halter-ring. 
 
 i fr .^ 1, The sea-halter is made of double canvas, 2" wide, and has 
 
 S two ropes, so that by fastening one to each post the animal's 
 
 jy I head may be kept still and he cannot interfere with his 
 
 neighbor. 
 
 The slings are^of canvas, of the shape- and dimensions given in the 
 
 figures. On the main and orlop decks the sling-ropes are attached to 
 
 sling-bolts; on the spar-deck, to a button. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
ENGLISH CAVALBY. 
 
 381 
 
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 hy 
 
 or. 
 
382 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 It was intended to adopt the arrangement shown in figure 5, as dimi- 
 nishing vibration. 
 
 At sea, the sling is used only in cases of necessity; that is, when the 
 animal shows signs of weakness in bad weather; in this case, about 1" 
 play is given to the sling, as it is only intended to prevent the animal 
 from falling. 
 
 The same sling, with the addition of a breast-strap and breeching, is 
 used for hoisting the animals in and out. 
 
 Whenever it is possible, a staging is erected alongside, that the horses 
 may be walked on and oflf the ship. 
 
 On the spar-deck the stalls are under sheds, every eight stalls forming 
 a separate set, so that they can readily be moved about when the decks 
 are to be cleaned. Water-proof curtains are provided for the front and 
 rear; a passage-way of 2', as a minimum, is left between the sheds and 
 the bulwarks. 
 
 The other arrangements are as on the other decks. 
 
 To place the animals in the stalls, all the side-boards are taken out, 
 except that at the end of the row ; a horse is then walked along the row 
 to the last stall, and the other side-board put up; then a second horse is 
 put in the next stall, in the same manner, &c. The horses should always 
 be placed in the stalls in the order in which they are accustomed to stand 
 in the stable or at the picket-rope. 
 
 If it is desired, during the voyage, to remove any horse from his stall,- 
 it is only necessary to remove the breast-board and walk him out. • 
 
 All wooden parts are washed with some disinfecting compound, or 
 simply whitewashed. Chloride of zinc is freely used. 
 
 The decks are washed every day, and the stalls cleaned after every feed, 
 — especially at 7 p.m. . • 
 
 From the spar and main decks the stale passes off through the scup- 
 pers; from the orlop-deck it passes to the hold, and is pumped off by the 
 engine. 
 
 Not the slightest disagreeable odor could be detected on the Himalaya, 
 
 The feed-troughs and the nostrils of the horses are washed every niorn- 
 ing and evening with vinegar. 
 
 For every 8 stalls a scraper, brush, and shovel arfe allowed. 
 
 The horse-guard always remain at their posts, and send for the farrier 
 or non-commissioned officers in case of necessity. 
 
 Great attention is paid to ventilation. Although the orlop-deck is so 
 hot that the animals perspire a great deal, the animals carried there came 
 off the voyage in better condition than the others. 
 
 The cavalry soldiers attend to the horses. So long as cleanliness is pre- 
 served, the commander of the ship does not interfere as to the hours of 
 feeding, &c. 
 
ENGLISH CAVALRY. 383 
 
 A supply of forage is always carried on board the ship. The veteri- 
 naries take their own medicines with them. 
 
 As a proof of the perfection of the system pursued on the Himalaya, it 
 should be mentioned that Captain Priest had transported 3,000 animals 
 while in command of her, — some of these dii;ect from England to Balaklava. 
 Out of this number but three (3) died. 
 
 The usual hours for feeding are 6 a.m., IT A.M., 5^ p.m.; if any horse 
 refuses his food, the fact is reported at once. The horses drink con- 
 densed steam. 
 
 The regulation ration at sea is: 10 pounds of hay, 6 pounds of oats, i 
 peck of bran, and 6 gallons of water, — as a maximum. 
 
 It was thought that this was generally too great, and that two-thirds 
 of this allowance, except the water, would be ample, as it is found that 
 there is great danger from over-feeding at sea. 
 
 No grain is given the day they come on board, — only a mash of bran, 
 which latter is regarded as the best habitual food at sea. 
 
 In concluding this subject of the transportation of horses at sea, I 
 would call attention to the little work of Lieut.-Col. Shirley on the sub- 
 ject; it contains many excellent hints; but it must be remembered that 
 the system just explained is founded on a larger experience than that of 
 Col. Shirley. 
 
 In regard to the transportation of men, bunks and hammocks are 
 generally used. Standing bunks are found to be very objectionable, on 
 account of the difficulty of keeping them clean; hammocks are regarded 
 as preferable for men in good health, while many officers consider it best 
 to provide neither hammocks nor bunks, but to allow the men to lie down 
 on the fore-decks with their blankets and overcoats.- 
 
 The following works may be consulted with advantage, as containing 
 useful ideas : 
 
 Cavalry Outpost Duty, by Lieut.-Col. Von Arentschildt. 
 
 The Cavalry Sword Exercise. 
 
 On the Training of Cavalry Remount Horses, by Capt. Nolan. 
 
 Cavalry, its History and Tactics, by Capt. Nolan. 
 
384 THE ARMIES OP EUROPE. 
 
 SARDINIAN CAVALRY. 
 
 This consists of: 
 
 4 regiments of cavalry of the line, (heavy cavalry.) 
 
 6 regiments of light cavalry. 
 
 Each regiment consists of 4 active and 1 depot squadrons, and has a 
 strength of about 35 officers and 600 men. 
 
 The staff of a regiment consists of: ,1 colonel or lieutenant-colonel, 1 
 major, 2 adjutants, 1 paymaster, 1 captain and 1 lieutenant of clothing 
 and supplies, 1 chaplain, 2 surgeons, 2 veterinaries, 18 non-commissioned 
 officers, &c. 
 
 Each active squadron is composed of : ' 
 
 1 captain, 2 1st lieutenants, 2 sub-lieutenants, 1 orderly sergeant, 4 
 sergeants, 11 corporals, 8 lance corporals, (or Ist-class privates,) 2 trum- 
 peters; 2 buglers, 1 farrier, 1 saddler,- 110 privates. 
 
 Each depot squadron consists of : 
 
 1 captain, 1 1st lieutenant, 1 sub-lieutenant, 1 orderly sergeant, 2 ser- 
 geants, 5 corporals, and 10 privates. . 
 
 There are, in addition to regiments mentioned above, 6 squadrons of 
 local cavalry in the island of Sardinia ; the composition of these is nearly 
 the same as that given above. 
 
 The. four regiments of heavy cavalry are armed with the sabre, lance, 
 and pistols j they wear helmets. 
 
 Of the five light regiments, two are lancers, armed with the sabre, 
 lance, and ^^ pistolon ;^' the other three are armed with sabre, pistol, and 
 rifle. 
 
 The sabre is 3' long, broad, and nearly straight ; it has a steel scabbard 
 and guard, the latter solid towards the blade; the gripe is unusually long.- 
 
 The pistol is an ordinary percussion horse-pistol, carried in the left 
 holster, and secured to the saddle by a leather strap attached to the 
 guard. 
 
 The rifle has a barrel 30'' long, and is carried slung over the left 
 shoulder. 
 
 The "pistolon" is a rifled carbine with a 12'' barrel; it carries a spheri- 
 cal ball, and gives a satisfactory range. 
 
SARDINIAN CAVALRY. 385 
 
 Ifc may be used either as a pistol or carbine, although the stock does 
 not detach ; it is habitually carried in the right holster, but there is also 
 a common carbine-sling for it ; there is also a hook on one side of the 
 stock, so that the men can hook it to the waist-belt when they dismount. 
 
 The lance is about 9^' long, with a bayonet-point, and a button at the 
 end of the shaft; a strap of steel, 5' long, is screwed to the shaft; pennon, 
 dark blue. 
 
 The sabre-belt is much like our own. 
 
 The cartridge-box contains 30 rounds, and is suspended by a shoulder- 
 belt ; the pistol-rammer is attached to this belt. 
 
 The saddle is a bare wooden tree, very similar to the Hungarian ; a 
 small pad and a schabraque are laid on top. A common blanket, folded 
 in 12 thicknesses, is placed under the saddle. Girth and surcingle of 
 leather ; stirrups of steel, and light. 
 
 • The snaffle is attached to the halter-headstall by a chain and T ; the 
 curb is also of steel, and has a separate headstall, to which it is buckled. 
 
 The valise is of cloth, and 24" long ; a shelter-tent, like that of the 
 French, is carried under the valise-flap. 
 
 Spurs of steel, and fastened permanently to the toots. 
 
 All the cavalry wear a dark-blue frock-coat, with short skirts ; pants 
 and overcoat very nearly of the same color as our own. The cap resem- 
 bles our dragoon shako very closely ; it has a yellow water-proof cover, 
 the hind flap of which ties over the shako, and a red spherical pompon ; 
 there is also a cover for the pompon. 
 
 The seat of the pants is re-enforced with cloth., the bottom of the legs 
 with leather ; the straps button on one side, and buckle on the other ; the 
 pants have a black stripe. 
 
 In the Crimea there were 4 squadrons of light cavalry, two of which 
 were lancers; the squadrons were about 130 strong. The ration of forage 
 was 11 pounds of hay, and 8 quarts of barley. 
 
 The horses were partly attached to the picket-rope by the right fore- 
 foot ; some of them by a rope or strap attached to a collar. 
 
 Their horses seemed to be excellent animals, but rather low in flesh ; 
 they were mostly Italian animals. 
 
 The appearance of the Sardinian cavalry, as indeed was that of their 
 whole army in the Crimea, was excellent; indeed, the general appearance 
 of their army was superior to that of either of their allies. 
 
 It will be observed that there are no cuirassiers' in the Sardinian army; 
 and that their heavy cavalry differs from the light only in the size of the 
 men and horses. 
 
UNITED STATES CAVALRY, 
 
 UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 
 
 The nature of cavalry service in the United States being quite different 
 from that performed by any in Europe, we ought not to follow blindly any 
 one system, but should endeavor to select the good features, and engraft 
 them upon a system of our own. 
 
 The proper organization of our cavalry must depend upon the con- 
 sideration of three, things: 1st, the nature of its* service against the 
 Indians; 2d, its employment against a civilized enemy invading our terri- 
 tory; 3d, its service in' an offensive war, carried on against pur neighbors. 
 
 The Indians, against whom our cavalry are brought to bear, are gene- 
 rally irregular light horsemen, sometimes fiving and acting altogether on 
 the plains, in other localities falling back into the broken country when 
 pursued: the difficulty, always, is to catch them; to do so, we must be as 
 light and quick as they are, and then superiority of weapons and dis- 
 cipline must uniformly give us the advantage. 
 
 Any army invading our territory must necessarily be deficient in 
 .cavalry; in addition, the nature of the parts of our frontiers most liable 
 to attack is not suited to the action of large bodies of cavalry, while in 
 partial operations, light cavalry, well handled, ought always to be superior 
 to heavy cavalry. 
 
 Canada, Central Mexico, and the West Indies, are also unsuited to the 
 operations of masses of cavalry, and in none of them are we likely to 
 encounter heavy cavalry, or large numbers of light cavalry; infantry aud 
 artillery must generally do most of the work, while light cavalry will 
 afford invaluable assistance, and in Northern Mexico play an important 
 part. 
 
 It would, therefore, seem that heavy cavalry would be worse than use- 
 less for our purposes, and that we need only light cavalry, in the true 
 and strictest sense of the term. 
 
 I would propose that the regiments serving in localities where they are 
 liable to be called upon to dismount, to follow the Indians on foot, be 
 armed with the sr.bre, of a light pattern, the revolver, and the pistol- 
 carbine, or else a rifled weapon, longer and more effective than the present 
 
unitedl states cavalry. 387. 
 
 carbine; that those serving on the plains be armed only with the sabre 
 and revolver, giving to about 10 men in each platoon the pistol-carbine, 
 or a long rifled carbine, in addition. 
 
 The accoutrements should be so arranged that when the men dismount 
 to fight on foot, they can hang the sabre to the saddle; the pistol should 
 always be carried on the person ; the carbine slung over the shoulder. 
 
 The horses should be purchased by cavalry officers, and be selected for 
 activity, "hardiness, and endurance. 
 
 The men ought to be light, active, and intelligent. 
 
 The tactical unit should be small, that it may be handled with the 
 greatest possible ease and celerity, and that it may never be broken. The 
 regiments, also, should be small, for the same reasons. 
 
 The FORMATION OUGHT TO BE IN ONE RANK, as covcring the greatest 
 extent of ground, admitting the most rapid movements, and bringing 
 every man to be^r to the. greatest advantage; suitable reserves should 
 always be held in hand. 
 
 I would propose, as the unit, for interior service, and tactical purposes, 
 the company, composed as follows : 
 
 1 captain. 
 
 3 lieutenants. 
 
 1 orderly sergeant. 
 
 1 quartermaster sergeant. 
 1* veterinary sergeant. 
 
 4 duty sergeants. 
 8 corporals, i 
 66 privates. 
 
 2 trumpeters. 
 1 farrier. 
 
 1 saddler. 
 
 Total, 4 officers, 85 non-commissioned officers and men. 
 
 Of this number, 6 privates and the saddler to be dismounted, leaving 
 the effective force of combatants, 4 officers,*78 men, and 78 government 
 horses. * * . • 
 
 It would be advantageous to create the grade of first-class privates, say 
 20 in- each company, as a means of rewarding good and faithful old 
 soldiers who are not fitted to become non-commissioned officers ; they 
 should receive somewhat more pay than the second-class privates. The 
 company to be divided into two platoons, four sections, and sets of fours. 
 The lieutenants and non-commissioned officers to be attached to the same 
 platoon and section, for the purposes of drill and interior service. 
 
 The posts of the officers, &c., to be as follows : 
 
 The captain in the rank, between the platoons; when necessary, he can 
 move to the front, his place being left vacant; the 1st lieutenant, com- 
 
.388 UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 
 
 manding the 1st platoon, on the right of the company; the 2d lieutenant, 
 commanding the 2d platoon, on the left of the company; the 3d lieu- 
 tenant, as file-closer, 4 paces in rear of the centre; this officer not to be 
 replaced if absent; the orderly sergeant, as file-closer, two paces behind 
 the right file; the quartermaster sergeant, two paces in rear of the left 
 file ; the veterinary sergeant, half-way between the orderly sergeant and 
 the 1st corporal; the 1st duty sergeant,- on the right of the 1st platoon; 
 the 2d, on the left of the 2d platoon; the 3d, on the left of the 1st pla- 
 toon; the 4th, on the right of the 2d platoon; the 1st corporal, as file- 
 closer, 2 paces in rear of the centre of the 1st section; the 2d, behind 
 the 4th section; the 3d, behind the 2d section; the 4th, behind the 3d 
 section; the 5th, to be the left file of the 1st section; the 6th, to be the 
 right file of the 4th ' section ; the 7th, to be the right file of the 2d sec- 
 tion; the 8th, to be the left file of the 3d section; the buglers, 2 paces 
 behind the 2d files from the inner flanks of the platoons; the farrier^ 
 half-way between the quartermaster sergeant and the 2d corporal; the. 
 saddler and the dismounted men to remain with the train. 
 
 It will be observed that the strength of the company is the same as now 
 authorized ; it requires another lieutenant, in place of the brevet 2d lieu- 
 tenant, and the addition of 2 sergeants, 1 veterinary, 4 corporals, and 1 
 saddler, while the number of privates is diminished by 8. 
 
 Regiments composed of 6 companies would be preferable to the present 
 organization ; by the addition of 2 companies to the 40 now in service, 7 
 effective regiments would be formed. 
 
 If this cannot be don'e, it would be well to decrease the number of 
 companies in a. regiment to 8, and form a 5th regiment of the 8 super- 
 fluous companies.' 
 
 If neither of these plans can be adopted, it is believed that the modifi- 
 cation proposed in the organization of the company will of itself produce 
 very beneficial results. 
 
 To the staff of each regiment there should be added a chief veterinary, 
 with the rank of sergeant major, or even as a commissioned officer, and a 
 chief saddler ; to the standard-cempany there should be allowed an addi- 
 tional sergeant as standard-bearer, and a corporal as assistant, or these two 
 non-commissioned officers might be attached to the staff. * 
 
 If a band is considered necessary, the men ought to be considered as 
 belonging to the staff, in addition to the usual strength of the regiment, 
 and not to be subtracted from the strength of the companies ; it should 
 be supported by the government, and not by the officers and regimental 
 fund.. 
 
 It would be advisable that the hospital attendants be placed on the same 
 footing ; and that a proper number of teamsters be authorized for the staff 
 and each company, to be enlisted or hired as such, and not detailed from 
 
UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 389 
 
 tlie companies } those for the companies should be under the sole control 
 of the captains. 
 
 The junior field officers should have a direct, specific, and well-defined 
 authority over a certain number of companies, the colonel taking the 
 general direction ; in a new organization it would be well to have 1 field 
 officer for every 2 companies. 
 
 It ought to be laid down that detachments shall always be composed of 
 men of the same company, and never of details from different companies; 
 in the same company platoons or sections with their own officers and non- 
 commissioned officers should, as far as practicable, be detached as units. 
 
 If legislation is called for, and obtained in effecting a reorganization 
 of our cavalry, I think that it would be advisable to call the unit a squad- 
 ron, instead of company, in order to distinguish it from 'the infantry unit 
 in reports, returns, &c., without the necessity of circumlocution. It is 
 also of importance to obtain authority to enlist supernumerary recruits, 
 who might be kept at the cavalry school, or the European system of depot 
 squadrons might be adopted ; in time of war this system will be found to 
 be absolutely necessary to maintain the cavalry regiments in a state of 
 efficiency, and the requisite laws should be obtained in time of peace, that 
 there may be no delay in taking the proper measures at the right time. 
 
 A proper organization would authorize a moderate number of super- 
 numerary officers of all grades, for detail upon detached duty, so that the 
 full number required by the tactics might always be present with the 
 regiments and companies. 
 
 The efficiency of the arm would be increased were there a general of 
 cavalry, whose duty it would be to inspect the troops of the arm, watch 
 over their interests, and secure uniformity in the serviced This officer 
 ought to have a number of aides-de-camp, all cavalry officers, who could 
 make, under his orders, more frequent inspections than any one man could 
 accomplish. 
 
 TACTICS. 
 
 The individual instruction of man and horse should be regarded as the 
 most important point of the whole system, and should be as simple as 
 possible ; the man should be taught to manage his horse with ease and 
 address over all kinds of ground and at all gaits, to swim rivers, to go 
 through certain gymnastic exercises, — such as vaulting, — to fence, to fire 
 very frequently at a mark, and to handle his weapon with accuracy and 
 effect at all gaits and in all situations. 
 
 Some of the preliminary instruction prescribed in the Russian and 
 Austrian tactics might be introduced advantageously. 
 
 Every thing in reference to heavy cavalry, lancers, hussars, &c., slj^ould 
 
 be omitted. 
 
 « 
 
 I would adopt the Russian sabre exercise as the basis of our own ; in- 
 
390 * UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 
 
 sist upon the sabre being kept sharp in the field, provide the men with 
 means of doing so, and lay it down as a rule that the strength of cavalry 
 is in the " spurs and sabre." 
 
 The instruction on foot should be carried no further than its true object 
 requires; that- is, to bring the men under discipline, improve their car- 
 riage, and enable them to comprehend the movements they are to execute 
 mounted. 
 
 The formation for review, parade, inspection, &c., to be : the companies 
 deployed in one line,. with intervals of 12 paces, or else in a line of col- 
 umns of companies by platoons, according to the ground. 
 
 The Russian tactics will suggest excellent arrangements for the orders 
 of battle of commands composed of regiments jtiaving ten, or fewer, com- 
 panies, also for the movements of brigades, divisions, &c. 
 
 It should be laid down as a fixed i-ule that no cavalry force should ever 
 charge without leaving a reserve behind it, and that against civilized 
 antagonists the compact charge in line should be used, in preference to 
 that as foragers. 
 
 Columns to be formed with wheeling distance, and closed in mass ; 
 when closed in mass, the file-closers close up to 1 pace from the rank, 
 and the distance between the subdivisions to be just enough to permit 
 each company to wheel by fours. 
 
 Marching columns to be by file, twos, fours, or platoons ; by fours and 
 platoons in preference when the ground permits. 
 
 Columns of manoeuvre to be by foursj platoons, companies, or in double 
 column ; the latter always a regimental column, and to be formed on the 
 two central companies, or platoons, without closing the interval between 
 them. 
 
 Deployments to be made habitually at a gallop, and the individual 
 oblique to be used as much as possible. 
 
 The instruction in two lines to be provided for. 
 
 The Russian tactics give a good basis for the system of skirmishers, and 
 charging as foragers. 
 
 For the use of the mounted rifles, and cavalry acting as such, there 
 
 should be a thorough g^ystem for dismounting rapidly, and fighting on 
 
 foot. 
 
 CAVALRY SCHOOL AND DEPOT. 
 
 1st. To afford the young officers of mounted regiments, before joining 
 their regiments, thorough instruction in the tactics, regulations for 
 interior service, the general principles of field service, all necessary 
 knowledge in regard to the horse, the use of weapons, &6. 
 
 2d. To perfect the instruction of lieutenants now serving with the 
 regiments in the same branches. 
 
 3d. The instruction of non-commissioned officers sent from the regi- 
 
UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 391 
 
 ments : it would be advisable to detail picked corporals, and insure, to 
 a certain number of the best, promotion as sergeants immediately upon 
 leaving the school. 
 
 4th. To instruct the recruits, that they may be well drilled and 
 thoroughly instructed before joining their regiments. 
 
 5th. To break the remount horse, so that each recruit may take a well- 
 broken horse with him when he joins his regiment, and that other re- 
 mount horses may also be broken before being sent to the regiments. 
 
 6th. A veterinary school should be attached to the establishment, for 
 the instruction of officers and veterinaries. 
 
 7th. A school for farriers. 
 
 8th. A school for trumpeters. 
 
 The systems of instruction and the organization of the French veteri- 
 nary schools, and of the cavalry school at Saumur, afford, perhaps, the 
 most accessible models for the basis of our own. The text-books there 
 in use can readily be adapted to our own purposes, until experience 
 enables us to have others of our own. 
 
 As a first step, we should have detailed special regulations for the use 
 of mounted troops in garrison and the field. 
 
 To establish the veterinary school, I would propose the following, as 
 probably the best and easiest plan : 
 
 Select an army surgeon who has served in the field with cavalry, is 
 a good judge of horses, has turned his attention somewhat to the subject, 
 and would be willing to assume the proposed duty ; place him at the head 
 of the veterinary school, and let him prepare the necessary course of in- 
 struction and text-books. In the first instance, at least, his assistants 
 should also be of the medical staff. 
 
 It is very certain that no officer of the line possesses the technical and 
 anatomical knowledge necessary to initiate an establishment of this kind. 
 
 Even if the school proposed cannot be er^tablished, there ought to be a 
 work prepared by some of the medical corps on the veterinary science, 
 for the use of cavalry officers. A small work on farriery would also be 
 very serviceable. 
 
 The pupils for the veterinary school might be selected from among the 
 best recruits ; indeed, it is not improbable that the advantages of such an 
 institution would induce excellent men to enlist, for the purpose of avail- 
 ing themselves of its benefits. Should such be found to be the result, it 
 would then be well to require them to enlist for longer than the usual 
 time, as a compensation for the time spent at the school. The pupils at 
 the farrier school should be recruits who are blacksmiths by trade. 
 
 All the advantages of extra-duty pay ought to be secured both to the 
 veterinaries and farriers. 
 
 24 
 
392 UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 
 
 PURCHASE OF HORSES. 
 
 It would be advantageous to detail officers of cavalry on this duty, just 
 as they now are for the recruiting service. In cases when cavalry officers 
 are recruiting in districts where horses abound, they could attend to both 
 duties at the same time. 
 
 It might at present be proper to select the purchasing officers for their 
 knowledge of horses ; but it is believed that the eifect of the education 
 received at the proposed cavalry school would be such that, in a few years, 
 all officers would be capable of purchasing. Animals bought in this 
 way, as occasion offered, and not in large numbers at a time, would be 
 obtained for a more moderate price, and more careful selections could be 
 made. 
 
 They should all be sent to the cavalry school, when the commandant, 
 and a certain number of the senior officers on duty there, would constitute 
 a proper commission to inspect the animals and direct the service. 
 
 There should be regulations determining approximately the height, age, 
 conformation, and qualities that the horses should possess ; also a maxi- 
 mum, or rather an average, price, varying from time to time, according to 
 the state of the market. 
 
 UNIFORM. 
 
 I would recommend that the epaulette be entirely dispensed with for 
 regimental officers ; it is useless, expensive, and inconvenient : the strap 
 on the undress uniform is a sufficient distinction' of rank. 
 
 For the men, I would replace the scales by a strap of cloth, of the same 
 shape as that on the old fatigue uniform, but sewed fast to the jacket. 
 
 They should also have a police-cap, without visor, and of such a nature 
 that it can be folded up, and carried in the pouch, or wherever may be 
 most convenient; the Scotch bonnet, Turkish fez, a Greek cap of knit or 
 woven wool, a flexible cap of the shape of the old forage-cap, — any of 
 these would answer. 
 
 For service on the prairies, the men should have a loose flannel coat, 
 leaving their uniform coat in garrison ; the ordinary dark-blue sailor's 
 shirt, cut open in front, and provided with a lining and pockets, is as good 
 as any thing that can be devised. 
 
 The French fashion of giving the men a merino scarf in the field, 
 instead of a stock, is worthy of consideration. 
 
 It would be well, on many accounts, to re-enforce the pants with thin 
 leather. 
 
 The amount of clothing to be carried by each man should be limited ; 
 I do not see that they need more than 2 pairs of drawers, 1 shirt, 2 pairs 
 of socks, a towel, soap, and hair-comb, in addition to what they wear; 
 
UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 393 
 
 during very long expeditions, extra clothing should be carried in the 
 train, — never on the horses. 
 
 The method of cold-shoeing, as described in the report upon the 
 French cavalry, should be enforced, and the shoes carried by each man 
 should have been previously fitted to the horse. 
 
 In difi"erent parts of this work will be found full information as to the 
 cooking-utensils carried in the field by the European cavalry ; it is very 
 important that competent cavalry officers should fully consider this sub- 
 ject, and adopt a set suitable to the requirements of our own service ; 
 the proper principle would be to have small messes in the field, each mess 
 consisting of the smallest number that are likely to be detached as a unit, 
 so that they may always have their cooking-utensils with them; the 
 utensils should be such that the men can habitually carry them on their 
 own horses with convenience. 
 
 I would recommend that the shelter-tent be adopted as a part of our 
 system. 
 
 The best model for a cavalry stable should be adopted, determining 
 minutely the interior arrangements and the general plan as far as possible; 
 and all stables built hereafter should be required to be in accordance with 
 this plan ; the drawings and descriptions furnished by the different members 
 of the commission will afford the means of doing this understandingly. 
 
 The English system for the transportation of horses by sea, as followed 
 in the Himalaya, is beyond doubt the most perfect that has been devised; 
 sketches and a full description of this will be forwarded in a few days, 
 and it is recommended that it be inserted in our regulations, and adopted 
 as our own system. 
 
 There are other suggestions as to the regulations and the service which 
 I have already made in official and unofficial communications; I will here 
 allude again only to the propriety of inscribing upon the colors of each 
 regiment the names of the actions in which it has borne an honorable 
 part, and of placing these same names on the army register, at the head 
 of the list of the officers of the regiment ; for few things are more im- 
 portant than those which tend to inspire and preserve a feeling of pride 
 in the regiment, on the part of all its officers and men. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR THE FIELD SERVICE 
 OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF TKOOPS IN THE VICINITY OF THE 
 
 ENEMY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 § 1. The principal differences between marclies near the enemy, and 
 those during peace, are : 
 
 1st. That in the former case the troops are not so much divided, but 
 move in larger bodies than in peace. 
 
 2d. That proper precautions are observed to guard against sudden 
 attacks. 
 
 Remark. — In time of war, troops so far from the enemy as to be in no 
 danger of attack observe only a part of the military precautions indicated 
 below, increasing them as they approach the enemy. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE MARCH. 
 
 Article 1. 
 General arrangements and remarks as to marches. 
 § 2. Military marches may in general be : 1. Offensive; 2. In retreat; 
 3. To the flank. 
 
 § 3. In each of these cases the troops may move in one or several 
 columns. 
 
 § 4. They move in several columns when in strong force, and having 
 convenient roads, neither far apart, nor separated by impassable obstacles. 
 But if it is necessary that a great number of troops follow the same road, 
 
 395 
 
396 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 the column should be divided into echelons, following each other at inter- 
 vals, in order to avoid delay from crowding. 
 
 § 5, It is impossible to determine with exactness the intervals between 
 different columns, or between the echelons of the same column; these 
 must depend upon the nature and relative positions of the roads, as well 
 as upon the strength and degree of independence of each column. But 
 it may be laid down as a general rule that these distances should be such 
 that the commander can concentrate and form the whole, or at least the 
 greater part, of his command before being seriously attacked. 
 
 § 6. For the details of the distribution of the troops in the several 
 columns and echelons, the rules laid down in the tactics for the formation 
 of general columns must be taken as guides ; observing that each fraction 
 of the entire force must be so arranged that it can always form promptly 
 to meet the enemy. 
 
 § 7. On the march, cavalry may move by twos or by fours, but in pre- 
 ference by platoons when the road permits. 
 
 Artillery marches by piece or by section. 
 
 In a retreat, those parts of the rear guard nearest the enemy will 
 always march by the rear rank. 
 
 § 8. On the march, the distances permitted are : between companies, 
 about 25 paces; between regiments, about 50 paces; between brigades, 
 about 100 paces. 
 
 Article 2. 
 
 Precautions against sudde^i attack to he observed on the march, 
 § 9. To secure troops, on the march, against sudden attacks, there are 
 sent out from the main body : an advanced guard ; a rear guard ; and 
 Jlank detachments y or guards. 
 
 § 10. During offensive marches, the advanced guard consists of one- 
 fourth, or one-fifth, of the whole force ; it may be increased or diminished 
 according to circumstances and the judgment of the commander. Its 
 purpose is, to march at some distance in advance of the main body, in 
 order : 
 
 1. To observe the enemy betimes, and give early information of his 
 appearance, strength, and direction of march. 
 
 2. Having discovered the enemy, to follow, never losing sight of him, 
 and endeavor to obtain all possible information concerning him. 
 
 3. Should the enemy approach and attack, to delay him long enough 
 to enable the main body to form in order of battle. 
 
 4. To examine the country in advance, and remove all obstacles from 
 the road. 
 
 5. During the arrangements of the main body for halting or encamp- 
 ing, to cover it on the side of the enemy. 
 
397 
 
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 The arrows indicate the directions in which patrols are sent. 
 
OF CAVALJIY IN TIME OF WAR. 399 
 
 § 11. On. the march, the advanced guard should be sovfar in front that, 
 without incurring too great risk, it may delay the enemy long enough 
 to enable the main body to prepare to receive him. Therefore, in pro- 
 portion as the advanced guard is stronger and more independent, and as 
 the time required for the formation of the main body is greater, the 
 farther should the advanced guard be pushed forward, up to one-half a 
 day's march, or farther. In small detachments, not requiring much time 
 to assemble and form, the advanced guard does not move farther than 
 from one and a half to three miles in front. 
 
 Remark. — When, under peculiar circumstances, the advanced guard is 
 pushed forward a considerable distance, and therefore exposed to a sepa- 
 rate defeat, or when the nature of the ground is such as to render its 
 retreat difficult, there is sent out from the main body an " intermediate 
 detachment," which holds itself in echelon between the two, to support 
 the advanced guard if suddenly attacked. This detachment is under the 
 orders of the commander of the advanced guard, who, upon meeting the 
 enemy, either orders it up to assist him, or falls back upon it, according 
 to circumstances. 
 
 § 12. For the protection of its own march, an advanced guard should 
 have an advanced guard of its own, consisting of one or more companies, 
 or a platoon, according to the strength of the party j and on its flanks, 
 flank guards, each of a platoon or section. 
 
 Remark. — The standard is always left with the main body of the 
 regiment. 
 
 § 13. The advanced and flank detachments keep themselves at from 
 500 to 1,000 paces from the head and flanks of the main advanced guard, 
 according to their strength and the nature of the country. 
 
 § 14. These detachments send out patrols in front and on the flanks, to 
 examine the country and obtain early intelligence of the enemy. These 
 patrols are usually at from 500 to 1,000 paces from their detachments, 
 and ought to regulate their intervals so as never to lose sight of each 
 other, and to form a continuous chain around the head and flanks of the 
 main advanced guard, 
 
 § 15. The general arrangement, without regard to the ground, of an 
 advanced guard, composed of 10 companies of cavalry and 6 pieces of 
 horse artillery, is shown in Fig. 1. 
 
 § 16. An advanced guard during a march in retreat consists of a small 
 number of troops, usually determined as in time of peace. 
 
 Its purpose is : 
 
 1. To open the way for the main body, and remove all obstacles from 
 the road. 
 
 2. To serve as the escort of the train, which should move, at least, as 
 
400 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 far in advance of the main body as it does in rear of it during an offensive 
 inarch. 
 
 § 17. In this case, the advanced guard sends out front and flank detach- 
 ments and patrols, which are arranged precisely as in offensive marches. 
 Here the principal object to be kept in view is that all the detachments 
 may be promptly united at any moment. 
 
 § 18. During an offensive march the rear guard is formed according to 
 the same principles as an advanced guard during a retreat. Its duty is as 
 follows : 
 
 1. To watch over the preservation of order in the rear of the column. 
 
 2. To pick up stragglers. 
 
 3. To protect the rear of the column and the train against sudden 
 attacks by parties of the enemy. 
 
 § 19. In a retreat, it is the duty of the rear guard to cover the move- 
 ments of the main body, as well as to repulse and delay the enemy in every 
 possible manner. In this case, its duty becomes as difficult as that of the 
 advanced guard in an offensive march, and sometimes more so, especially 
 when the retreat is effected in sight of the enemy. The rear guard must, 
 at every favorable point, use all means to check the enemy, and thus 
 render it possible for the main body to retreat without precipitation. To 
 effect this, it should always be much more independent than the advanced 
 guard in offensive marches; for the latter can always retreat upon the main 
 body, or be readily supported by it. 
 
 § 20. With regard to the safety of the main body, the rear guard in a 
 retreat observes the rules laid down in numbers 1, 2, and 5 of § 10. 
 
 § 21. The strength of the rear guard depends upon several circumstances : 
 
 1. Upon our own and the enemy's designs. 
 
 2. Upon the proximity of the enemy. 
 
 3. Upon the nature of his operations. 
 
 4. Upon the distance from the main body, and the order of march of 
 the latter. 
 
 If the enemy pursues vigorously, or if the main body ought to fall back 
 a great distance behind the rear guard, then the latter should be strong 
 enough to operate independently, and defend itself obstinately in all favor- 
 able positions. Such a rear guard should be one-fifth, or even one-third, 
 of the whole force. 
 
 § 22. The rear guard should cover its movements, both in the offensive 
 and retreat, in the manner laid down for the advanced guard in §§ 12, 13, 
 and 14. 
 
 § 23. If the main body marches in several columns, all the rear guards 
 should communicate with each other by means of patrols. They ought 
 also to move in line, — that is to say, on the same general line perpendicular 
 to the general direction of the march. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 401 
 
 § 24. To the advanced guard in all cases, and to the rear guard in 
 retreat, mounted engineer troops are attached ; in default of these, mounted 
 working-parties with tools : in the first case, to remove obstacles in the 
 road ; in the second case, to retard the pursuit of the enemy, by destroying 
 bridges, breaking up the road, &c. 
 
 § 25. The distance of the rear guard from the main body depends upon 
 its strength ; generally, in a retreat, the rear guard is held at such a dis- 
 tance from the main body that the latter, even when the enemy attacks in 
 force, may without precipitation or impediment select its own time and 
 place for halting or encamping, without making a forced march. But if 
 the rear guard is weak, and the enemy pursues vigorously, the main body 
 should remain near by to support it. If the main body is obliged to pass 
 defiles, or if its movements are in any way retarded, it must be at such a 
 distance from the rear guard as to give it time to move oflf a sufficient 
 distance, in spite of any unexpected delay. 
 
 § 26. If the main advanced and rear guards move at the distance of 
 some miles from the main body, each column of the latter detaches, in 
 addition, small advanced and rear parties, (one or two companies, or a 
 platoon,) which march at the distance of some few hundred paces from 
 each column, and perform the duties of advanced and rear guards in time 
 of peace. 
 
 § 27. In cases where the nature of the ground, on the flanks of the 
 roads, is such as to render the march of the columns insecure, small 
 detachments are sent out as flankers; and from these patrols on the 
 extreme flanks, as explained in §§ 12, 13, and 14. 
 
 Article 3. 
 Arrangements during a flank march. 
 
 § 28. In a march to the flank, if it is in the power of the enemy to 
 attack the flank of \hQ columns in march, all the parts should be so 
 arranged that they may promptly, and without a long movement, change 
 from the order of march to that of battle, either by wheeling into line, or 
 by changing the direction of the columns, and in such a manner as to be 
 able to resist his attack. Therefore, in such cases, certain troops are 
 designated who are to form the line of combatants in the order of battle, 
 others to form the reserve, and others to guard the trains, on the road 
 farthest from the enemy. 
 
 § 29. During flank marches, flank detachments are sent out towards the 
 enemy J they march parallel to the main column, watch the enemy, and, 
 if necessary, oppose him long enough to enable the main body to form in 
 order of battle. 
 
 § 30. The duties of these flank detachments correspond to those of 
 
402 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 advanced guards in offensive marches, and rear guards in retreat ; because 
 the flank detachments protect the main body against a sudden attack, and 
 enable them either to pass from one line of operations to another, or to 
 gain a position on the flank of the enemy, or, finally, to turn him. 
 
 It should be observed, however, that flank marches should always be 
 undertaken and executed with many precautions; for, when making 
 them, it is easy to lose our own communications and line of retreat, if we 
 have not time to gain the new line of operations. Therefore, that there 
 may be no impediment during the intended flank march, every thing 
 possible must be done to conceal it from the enemy, by taking advantage 
 of the ground, and by the movements of the flank guard, which should 
 be strong enough to offer an obstinate resistance, and keep the enemy 
 away from the main body until the completion of the movement. 
 
 § 31. The strength of the flank guard must be in proportion to the 
 duties it has to perform ; its strength must be determined upon the same 
 principles as that of advanced and rear guards. 
 
 § 32. The arrangements for the march, and the manner of operation of 
 a flank guard, depend entirely upon the position of the enemy, the nature 
 of the country, and the direction of the roads. To secure the march, 
 the flank guard pushes out detachments and patrols on the exposed side, 
 to cover the whole flank of the columns in march. The flank guard 
 itself either marches opposite the main body, or remains in position, to 
 occupy points where roads coming in from the side of the enemy would 
 enable him to disturb the march of our own troops. In the last case, 
 when the columns of the main body have passed beyond the point occupied 
 by the flank guard, the latter either occupies another point, covering the 
 march, by gradually sending troops there, or else places itself as a rear 
 guard behind the marching column, while, in the mean time, any other, 
 points to be occupied have been held by other flank guards detached 
 from the main body. 
 
 The first method is pursued when the ground permits the movement of 
 the flank guard to be made without danger, as, for instance, along the 
 banks of a stream over which there are few crossings ; the latter in all 
 cases where the march of the fractions of the flank guard would be ex- 
 posed to danger from the attack of the enemy. 
 
 § 33. The distance of the flank guard from the main body is regulated 
 as in the case of an advanced guard in an offensive march. 
 
 § 34. Fig. 2 gives an example, without reference to the ground, of 
 the flank march of a division of cavalry, under the protection of a flank 
 brigade and a battery of horse artillery. 
 
 § 35. In addition to the main flank guard sent out in the direction of 
 the enemy, each column of the main body detaches small advanced, flank, 
 and rear guards. 
 
403 
 
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OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 405 
 
 When necessary, a special guard is detailed for the trains, which, in 
 such cases, usually move in one body. 
 
 Article 4. 
 Arrangement and movement of the trains. 
 
 § 36. To avoid confusion and delay in the march of troops, from the 
 great number of wagons with them, the trains are divided into three 
 classes. 
 
 § 37. Trains of the first class, which are needed during the march, con- 
 sist of the ambulances, provided with the means of dressing wounds, and 
 accompanied by the surgeon of the day, an assistant surgeon, and a party 
 of hospital attendants. 
 
 In the artillery, the spare carriages accompany the train of the 1st 
 class ; in the mounted engineer troops, the ponton-wagons, if there is any 
 necessity for them. In addition to these, during marches near the enemy, 
 the ammunition-wagons accompany the trains of the 1st class, that the 
 troops may never be in want of cartridges. 
 
 § 38. Trains of the 1st class follow immediately after their regiments, 
 batteries, or other integral parts. 
 
 § 39. Trains of the 2d class, which are needed by the troops only when 
 in camp, consist of: the wagons for ammunition, money, papers and 
 records, tools, baggage, medicines, field-forges, artillery-wagons, staff 
 baggage- wagons, pack-animals of the field and company officers, wagons 
 of the office of the commander-in-chief, wagons carrying provisions and 
 forage for immediate distribution, and, finally, the sutlers' wagons. Ammu- 
 nition-wagons are separated from the others, and compose in each column 
 a separate section, marching near the troops: i.e. in an offensive march, 
 they move at the head of the trains of the 2d class, and in retreat, behind 
 them. The other wagons of the 2d class move by kinds, and in the order 
 named above. 
 
 § 40. Trains of the 2d class march behind the troops, in the interval 
 between the main body and the rear guard. 
 
 If there is no probability of meeting the enemy, or if the advanced 
 guard is at a great distance (e.g. one-half a day's march) from the main 
 body, then the wagons of the 2d class, belonging to the advanced guard, 
 may march immediately after it ; in like manner, if the general column 
 moves by echelon, with intervals of half a day's march, then the wagons 
 of the 2d class, belonging to each echelon, may march immediately be- 
 hind it. 
 
 But when an affair with the enemy is anticipated, all the trains of the 
 2d glass, except the ammunition-wagons, follow the main body, at a dis- 
 tance of not less than one-half a day's march ; so that in the event of a 
 retreat the wagons may not delay the movement. But in such cases the 
 
406 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 ammunition-wagons follow immediately after the troops to whom tliey 
 belong. In a general retreat, the trains of the 2d class should be placed 
 at least one-half a day's march in front of the troops, i.e. at such a dis- 
 tance that in no event can they impede or delay the movements of the 
 active troops. 
 
 § 41. Trains of the third class consist of those for which the troops have 
 no immediate or pressing necessity. They are composed of provision and 
 forage wagons, wagons loaded with hospital stores and equipments, ambu- 
 lances for the sick who are in the general hospital, &c., &c. 
 
 § 42. Trains of the 3d class always march in a distinct train, separate 
 from the troops, on the principal road, and under the protection of a 
 special escort; the strength of which depends upon the extent of the 
 train and the position of the enemy. 
 
 § 43. The number of wagons allowed in the 2d and 3d classes depends 
 upon circumstances, and special orders issued during the campaign. 
 Commanders of separate detachments may be allowed to vary the number 
 of wagons in each class according to circumstances. 
 
 § 44. In the march of a large number of wagons, any obstacle to a 
 section, or a single wagon, delays all that follow, and thus extends to the 
 whole train. To avoid this difficulty, large trains are divided into sections 
 of about 100 wagons each, which march about one-third of a mile apart. 
 
 § 45. If, in addition to the ammunition-wagons, there are some loaded 
 with loose powder, they are formed in separate sections and placed in the 
 part of the train least exposed to the enemy. No foreign matter is to be 
 placed on these wagons. 
 
 § 46. The head of each section must occasionally halt for a moment, 
 that the rear may keep closed up. 
 
 § 47. Detailed arrangements for the formation and march of trains 
 should be made. 
 
 Article 5. 
 The defence of trains. 
 
 § 48. The duties of troops detailed as the escort of a train are : 1st. 
 To enforce the preservation of order. 2d. To assist their rapid and unin- 
 terrupted march. 3d. To defend them if attacked. 
 
 § 49. A portion of the escort, detailed to watch over the order of 
 march, distributes itself as a chain along the whole length of the train. 
 If the escort is small, a certain number of privates, under the charge of 
 a non-commissioned officer, are placed in charge of a section, or certain 
 number of wagons, and are responsible for their order of march. 
 
 § 50. When the roads are very bad, some of the escort are dismouated, 
 in order to be in readiness to assist any wagons that may mire, break down, 
 or meet with any impediment. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 407 
 
 § 51. A working-party marches at the head of the escort to repair the 
 road. The strength of this party will depend upon the number of wagons, 
 the state of the road, &c. 
 
 § 52, The strength and composition of the escort of a train must de- 
 pend upon the probability of attack, the extent of the train, and, finally, 
 on the nature of the country through which the train is to pass. 
 
 § 53. If the escort is of infantry, a small party of cavalry must be 
 added to look out for the enemy, patrol, &c. 
 
 § 54. In all cases, the commander of the escort has absolute control 
 over all persons on duty with or accompanying the train. 
 
 § 55. The commander of the escort should possess accurate informa- 
 tion concerning the country through which the train is to pass, that he 
 may make the proper arrangements for its security. 
 
 § 56. A part of the escort always marches as an advanced guard, and 
 another portion as a rear guard. The main body is concentrated at points 
 determined by the danger; if necessary, it detaches flank guards, which 
 send out patrols. In an open country, and when there is no reason to 
 expect the enemy at any particular point, the main body of the escort 
 marches alongside of the centre of the train. Under other circumstances, 
 they are concentrated at the head or in rear of the train, according to 
 the direction in which the enemy is expected. 
 
 § 57. The advanced guard is thrown forward a sufl&cient distance to 
 remove all obstacles that would delay the train. By means of its patrols 
 it examines the woods, villages, and defiles ; keeps up its communication 
 with the main body, and reports to the commander of the escort every 
 thing observed. 
 
 § 58. The advanced guard selects suitable positions for halting-places, 
 camps, and for parking the train. 
 
 § 59. The advanced guard occupies all defiles and positions which 
 would enable the enemy to attack with advantage ; it does not abandon 
 them before the arrival of the main body of the escort, which last holds 
 them until the train arrives. If necessary, the escort is relieved by a 
 small flank detachment, or may itself remain in position until the whole 
 train has passed by and is out of danger. 
 
 § 60. If the enemy is expected from the rear, the suitable measures 
 are taken ; the rear guard destroying the bridges, dikes, &c., behind it, 
 and throwing all possible obstacles in the path of the enemy. The rear 
 guard should constantly keep up its communication with the main body 
 by means of patrols. 
 
 § 61. If the enemy threatens the flanks, and the ground is too much 
 broken for the action of cavalry, the defence of the train becomes diffi- 
 cult for that arm. In such cases, small parties of cavalry are with the 
 advanced and rear guards; but the main escort is composed of infantry, 
 
408 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 who occupy positions favorable for protecting the train before its head 
 arrives opposite to them, and do not abandon those positions until the 
 rear of the train has passed by. 
 
 § 62. Fig. 3 gives an example of the march of a train escorted by 
 10 companies of cavalry, 2 pieces of horse artillery, and 2 regiments of 
 infantry. 
 
 Article 6. 
 
 Of short halts during the inarch j halts for the night, and halts for an 
 
 entire day. 
 
 § 63. The length of a march near the enemy depends upon circum- 
 stances, and cannot be determined absolutely. 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances, the length of march may be about 17 
 miles ; but in case of necessity it may be extended to 30 miles. Small 
 detachments move with much greater rapidity than entire corps, or 
 armies. As a general rule, troops should not be exhausted by forced 
 marches. 
 
 Small detachments of cavalry may make marches of 40, 50, or even 70 
 miles ; but this refers only to exceptional cases, when the success of the 
 enterprise in hand depends upon the suddenness of their appearance. 
 
 The ordinary rate of march should be about 3 miles per hour. When 
 the roads are good, it is advisable to move at a moderate trot, walking for 
 some distance before each halt, and before reaching camp ; for it is proper 
 to give the horses as much time as possible to feed and rest in camp. 
 
 Generals and other officers, furnished with an escort of cavalry, should 
 regulate the rate of their march in accordance with what is laid down 
 above, and are not permitted, except in cases of absolute necessity, to 
 urge the escort to an immoderate speed for the sake of their own con- 
 venience. 
 
 § 64. Short halts are made from time to time, as prescribed for marches 
 in time of peace; that is, a halt for 10 or 15 minutes every hour, and in 
 long marches, one or two long halts of about an hour each. 
 
 § 65. When near the enemy, it is necessary to arrange the distances 
 between the camps, or bivouacs, so that the columns of the main body 
 can easily be assembled at the general point of rendezvous; then the 
 reserves are to be placed near the roads by which the enemy is expected, 
 in positions convenient to wood and water. 
 
 § 66. The various parts of the army are so arranged that, if the enemy 
 attacks, they can readily move out upon the roads, or quickly form in 
 order of battle in a position chosen beforehand, either in front or in the 
 rear of encampment or bivouac. 
 
 § 67. The main body should always be secure from a sudden attack: 
 therefore, (notwithstanding there is an advanced guard in front and a 
 
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OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 411 
 
 rear guard behind,) patrols are sent out from it, and a party is detailed, 
 which does not unsaddle, and always remains ready for action ; some- 
 times, to prevent being turned, separate posts are sent out on the flanks, 
 and sometimes the troops are protected in their camp by advanced posts, 
 arranged according to the rules laid down in Part II. 
 
 § 68. The advanced and rear guards take measures not only for their 
 own safety, but also for that of the main body, placing themselves for this 
 purpose in positions suitable for action, and watching all the roads lead- 
 ing from the enemy. 
 
 § 69. When it is perfectly certain that none of the enemy are in the 
 vicinity, each column may pass the night by itself, on the road by which 
 it marches. 
 
 § 70. In flank marches of several days' duration, the camps for the 
 night should be placed in such positions that the main body may be secure 
 from attack, and in case of the appearance of the enemy in superior force 
 be able to retreat, i.e. either to preserve the old road of march and com- 
 munication, or in some manner to gain a new one. The arrangements 
 for halts and camps for the night are the same as in ofi"ensive marches. 
 
 § 71. In regard to the short halts of trains the following rules are pre- 
 scribed : As in the case of cavalry, the head of the train occasionally 
 makes short halts to enable the rear to close up, and if the train is divided 
 into several sections, the head of each section does the same thing. 
 
 During these halts the wagons remain in the road, not turning to one 
 side, or changing the arrangement of the wagons and escort from what it 
 was during the march. 
 
 § 72. Long halts, during which the animals are fed, are made only 
 when the march is very long, or the roads very bad, and the animals 
 fatigued. When the object is not to overtake the troops when at a halt, 
 it is better to leave the train longer in camp, and then make the whole 
 march without a halt ; in this manner the animals are not kept so long in 
 harness, and can therefore rest and feed better. 
 
 § 73. During long halts, and camps for the night, the train is placed 
 more compactly than usual; for which purpose a proper place is selected 
 for placing all the wagons together, in order that, being less scattered, a 
 better watch may be kept upon them, and better order be preserved. 
 When danger is apprehended from the enemy, it is best to park the train 
 in column, because this formation is changed more quickly than any other, 
 and from it it is easier to take the road at the end of the halt, or when 
 leaving camp. 
 
 Remark. — In this formation the average interval of 8 yards in width 
 is allowed each wagon. The harness is either piled up behind the wagon, 
 or hung on the wheels, and the animals are attached to the pole. The 
 
412 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 distance between each row of wagons in the column may be fixed at 
 about 20 paces. 
 
 Light wagons of the 2d class, although they move in separate trains, 
 are not brought together in camp, but bivouac in rear of the corps to 
 which they belong. If there are wagons loaded with powder, cartridges, 
 or other combustibles, precautions must be taken to guard them from fire, 
 and it is, therefore, best to park them in a separate place, apart from the 
 rest of the train. The escort bivouacs at the head, or on the flanks, of 
 the train, as may be most convenient ; guards and sentinels are posted to 
 preserve order ; if the teamsters are not to be trusted, and desertions are 
 apprehended, the whole train is surrounded by a chain of sentinels. 
 
 § 74. When an attack is expected, the train should be corralled, or else 
 parked in a square with the hind-wheels outside, and the animals in the 
 centre. 
 
 In this case, the escort places itself in a suitable position, keeping in 
 view the defence of the position occupied by the park, and takes all the 
 military measures of precaution necessary to secure itself and the train 
 against a sudden attack. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 DUTIES OF THE COMMANDERS OF THE VARIOUS PARTS OF THE 
 TROOPS DURING MILITARY MARCHES. 
 
 Article 1. 
 
 Duties of the commander-in-chief. 
 
 § 75. The commander-in-chief must cause the roads by which he in- 
 tends to march, as well as the country on each side, to be examined by 
 ofl&cers of the general staff", or by patrols ; but if, from the proximity of 
 the enemy, or other causes, this is impossible, it is necessary, at least, to 
 obtain information concerning their nature and practicability by inquiries 
 of the inhabitants, &c. 
 
 § 76. He must take steps to procure a sufficient number of reliable 
 guides, so that each separate detachment may have its own ; this is espe- 
 cially important in thinly-inhabited districts, and in movements by cross- 
 roads. 
 
 § 77. In relation to seeking and employing guides, the following rules 
 are laid down : 1. To be watchful, lest the guides, for their own purposes, 
 prejudice us in any manner; 2. To select guides from among hunters, 
 woodsmen, stage or wagon drivers, and herdsmen, as well as peddlers and 
 travelling beggars, because the country is well known to these classes 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 418 
 
 of people; 3. To change the guides as seldom as possible, especially in 
 localities where parties of the enemy may be met with ; 4. To treat the 
 guides kindly and mildly, and to reward them well ; but to watch them 
 closely and prevent them from passing over to the enemy^ and to send 
 them back by the road over which they came. 
 
 § 78. He regulates the distribution of the troops, the order of march, 
 and the precautionary measures; he arranges the disposition of the troops 
 for the movement, by means of the maps of the country, and the inform- 
 ation obtained concerning it and the enemy. 
 
 § 79. The orders should be brief, clear, and positive. All minute 
 details, which might, in unforeseen cases, trammel the subordinate com- 
 manders in the execution of their orders, should be avoided. 
 
 § 80. The orders for the march should specify : 
 
 1. The number of columns; under whose command each column is to 
 be ; precisely where, and by what roads, the march is to be made. 
 
 2. The strength of each column, echelon, advanced, rear, and flank 
 guard. 
 
 3. At what hour each column or party is to move. 
 
 4. Where and when the train is to assemble and move, and under the 
 escort of what detachment. The road by which the train is to move 
 should be carefully considered, in order that in the event of a sudden 
 retreat the troops may find the most important roads clear. 
 
 5. The principal measures of precaution to be observed. 
 
 6. Where the commander-in-chief will be found during the march, so 
 that the subordinate commanders may know whither to send their reports. 
 
 7. Finally, every thing rendered necessary by the circumstances is 
 mentioned in the orders, and sometimes the general arrangements in case 
 of meeting the enemy. 
 
 § 81. In the distribution of the troops into several columns, for the 
 march, the commander-in-chief will observe the following rules : — 
 
 1. The number of columns must depend upon the whole number of 
 troops, and upon the number, nature, and degree of separation of the 
 roads. ♦ 
 
 2. The movement of a large body of troops, as, for instance, an army 
 corps, by one road, besides the difl&culty of supplying them, renders the 
 march difl&cult and slow ; and, in addition, a long column requires much 
 time to take up its order of battle. On the other hand, if the number 
 of columns is very great, it may be difficult to keep up the proper con- 
 nection ; besides, when there are many roads near and parallel to each 
 other, they are seldom of a nature favorable to the movements of large 
 bodies of troops. 
 
 3. The intervals between the columns should always be such that they 
 can give reciprocal support upon the appearance of the enemy, and not 
 
 25 
 
414 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 be in danger of being turned or separated. This interval will depend 
 upon the nature of the country : the more broken it is, the nearer should 
 the columns be to each other, for in this case more time is required to 
 concentrate ^he troops, the transmission of orders and information is 
 slower, and it is more difficult to watch the enemy. In addition to these 
 considerations, the intervals between the columns should be regulated 
 by the proximity of the enemy ; the nearer he is, the less should these 
 intervals be. 
 
 4. The principal masses of the troops move upon the roads on which 
 it is expected to meet the main body of the enemy, or by which the 
 principal attack is to be made upon him. 
 
 5. Each kind of troops is moved towards the locality best suited for 
 its operations. 
 
 6. If one flank is particularly threatened by the enemy, the columns 
 on that side are reinforced, and the reserves drawn near them. 
 
 § 82. To secure harmony of movement and the facility of mutual sup- 
 port, the commander-in-chief should — 
 
 1. Watch that the main columns are all equally advanced : therefore, 
 he equalizes the rate of march on different roads, slackens the gait of 
 certain columns, or increases the number and duration of the halts ; regu- 
 lating these things not only upon the length of march of each column, 
 but upon all the circumstances that may influence the velocity of the 
 movement, such as the nature of the road, the number of troops in the 
 several columns, and the obstacles that may be encountered. 
 
 2. Take care that the columns do not cross each other. 
 
 3. Maintain a constant communication between the columns by means 
 of patrols, which at the same time examine the intermediate country. 
 
 4. Take all precautions to enable the columns to iinite at any moment: 
 he therefore avoids separating the troops by insurmountable obstacles. 
 
 § 83. That he may, under all circumstances, have it in his power to . 
 place the troops in position, the commander-in-chief should know not 
 only where the troops ought to be at any given time, but also where they 
 actually are. For this purpose, he requires every^ommander of an ad- 
 vanced guard, or chief of a separate column, to report not only the ap- 
 pearance of the enemy, as well as particular events and delays, but also 
 his distance from known points on the road, and his arrival at halting- 
 places and camps. These reports should be made the more frequently in 
 proportion to the proximity of the enemy. 
 
 § 84. To watch over the order of march, the commanders of the main 
 and detached columns should occasionally halt and allow their commands 
 to pass by them, so as to see that the column i§ not too much lengthened 
 out, particularly in the march of large bodies on one road. 
 
 § 85. The commander-in-chief and the subordinate commanders see 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 415 
 
 that all persons belonging to the combatants, and for duty, march in the 
 proper places. The non-combatants, dismounted men, led horses of the 
 officers and men, march with the trains of the second class. 
 
 § 86. In parties near the enemy, i.e. advanced guards, front and flank 
 detachments, rear guards in retreat, patrols, &c., the firearms shourld be 
 loaded. In the main body, the arms are loaded only when an affair is 
 anticipated. 
 
 § 87. AVhen passing through towns or villages, by farms, inns, wells, 
 and such places, the commander-in-chief and the subordinate commanders 
 turn their attention to preventing disorder, by closely watching that no 
 one leaves the ranks. 
 
 § 88. In passing defiles and crossing rivers the commander-in-chief 
 watches — 
 
 1. That the troops do not crowd together at the entrance, or stretch 
 out in passing through, but that they preserve their proper distances. 
 
 2. That, in crossing rivers in boats or ferries, each party knows when 
 and after what other party it is to cross. 
 
 3. That, as soon as any troops have crossed, they form in conformity 
 with the orders they have received. 
 
 4. That the drivers of the artillery and train do not dismount without 
 orders. 
 
 5. That, in crossing fords, the men follow each other at the prescribed 
 distance ; that the wagons do not drive in one after another, but that each 
 waits until the one in front has gained a certain distance, or even reached 
 the opposite shore. In case of necessity, some officers are left to super- 
 intend the crossing. At difficult crossings a detachment may be left to 
 assist the artillery and train. 
 
 § 89. During secret or night marches, trumpet signals are not used ; 
 orders are given in a low tone of voice. In secret night marches, smoking 
 and striking fire are forbidden. 
 
 § 90. The commander-in-chief watches that, during halts, as well as on 
 the march, the troops are protected by advanced and rear guards, flank 
 detachments, and patrols ; also, when in camp, as explained hereafter in 
 Part II. 
 
 § 91. Upon approaching the place where the troops are to halt, bivouac, 
 or encamp, the commander-in-chief sends forward betimes officers of the 
 staff", with non-commissioned officers from every party, to mark the place 
 to be occupied by each. 
 
 § 92. Since the advanced and rear guards are more fatigued than the 
 other troops, on account of their continual state of vigilance and prepara- 
 tion, the commander-in-chief should relieve them by fresh troops from 
 time to time. 
 
416 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 Article 2. 
 Duties of the commander of the advanced guard. 
 
 § 93. Upon commencing the march, he sends out front and flank de- 
 tachments, as explained in §§ 12, 13, and 14. 
 
 § 94. He places an officer, or non-commissioned officer, in charge of 
 every party detached, and explains to them what patrols they are to send 
 out, and exactly in what direction, and gives them special instructions as 
 to what they are to do in different cases. 
 
 § 95. During the march he watches that the detachments and patrols 
 maintain their communication with each other and himself, and that they 
 perform their duties strictly. Not blindly trusting to the advanced and 
 flank detachments for security, he should see that his command marches 
 in the best order, and in the habitual formation, according to the nature 
 of the ground. 
 
 § 96. When in pursuit of the enemy, he should never lose sight of 
 him, follow all his movements promptly and continually, and ascertain his 
 strength, direction, and designs, as well as possible. 
 
 § 97. He should exert himself to obtain reliable and detailed informa- 
 tion concerning the enemy and the country in advance, by means of 
 patrols, spies, inquiries from prisoners and the inhabitants. 
 
 § 98. He interrogates deserters and prisoners as to — 
 
 1. The names and strength of their regiments, and the detachment to 
 which they belong. 
 
 2. What brigade, division, and army corps they belonged to; the names 
 of their commanders. 
 
 3. Where their corps are quartered. 
 
 4. What are the dispositions of their regiments, brigades, and divisions. 
 If the corps is in position, the strength of its advanced posts, and whether 
 it is carefully guarded. 
 
 5. What corps or divisions are near their own ; where they are, and at 
 what intervals. 
 
 6. When and where they left their regiments ; whether detachments 
 were sent out from the corps, in what force, and whether they expected 
 support. 
 
 7. Whether there were any orders or rumors in regard to intended 
 movements, and exactly what they were. 
 
 8. Whether provisions and supplies were abundant, and the situation 
 of the magazines. 
 
 9. Whether there was much sickness, or any epidemics, and the situa- 
 tions of the main and temporary hospitals. 
 
 In few words, endeavor to obtain information about every thing which 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 417 
 
 • 
 relates to the arrangements of the enemy, his strength, designs, and 
 means of all kinds. 
 
 § 99. It is impossible to place much reliance upon the testimony of 
 prisoners and deserters : on the one hand, they may be too ignorant to 
 give a definite answer ; on the other, they may, from fear, reply accord- 
 ing to the wishes of the questioner, or they may deliberately falsify. It 
 is therefore necessary frequently to repeat the same questions unexpectedly, 
 so as to compare the different answers, and also to compare the statements 
 of different individuals. 
 
 § 100. The commander of the advanced guard will, without, delay, 
 report to the commander-in-chief every thing observed with regard to the 
 enemy, every considerable detention, his arrival at remarkable points on 
 the road, (such as towns, rivers, &c.,) and his arrival at halting-places 
 and camps. 
 
 § 101. Upon occupying any town, the commander of the advanced guard 
 should take every means to obtain information as to military movements ; 
 for this purpose, he should at once seize the archives and papers of the 
 authorities of the place, and also the letters and papers in the post-office. 
 
 § 102. Upon receiving from the advanced parties or patrols any intel- 
 ligence, especially if it concerns the movements of the enemy, he should 
 endeavor to verify it in person, or by means of reliable officers, and then 
 make his own report positively and distinctly, so that no unfounded or 
 exaggerated report may unnecessarily alarm the main body and arrest its 
 march. The nearer he is to the enemy, the more frequently should he 
 send reports to the commander-in-chief. 
 
 § 103. These reports are made either verbally through aides, or in 
 pencil. The time and place whence the report is sent should be noted on 
 the paper. The greatest attention should always be paid to giving the 
 correct names of towns, villages, streams, &c. 
 
 § 104. Reports should be written with the greatest care and attention, 
 for upon the comparison of reports the movements of the main body must 
 depend. The most important qualities of the reports are clearness, per- 
 spicuity, precision, and reliability. They should contain only what the 
 sender has seen himself, or properly inquired into. Every thing which he 
 could not examine himself ought to be stated separately, with the degree 
 of confidence to be reposed in the source whence it was derived. 
 
 § 105. When sending a verbal report, the commander of the advanced 
 guard must satisfy himself not only that the bearer can repeat it 'word for 
 word, but that he comprehends its precise meaning. If possible, it is 
 best to send with all such despatches some of those who were ocular 
 witnesses of the subject of the report. If the report is important, and 
 there is danger of the bearer being captured, it is best to send a duplicate 
 after the lapse of a short interval. It is useful to number all reports, for 
 
418 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 • 
 should one be captured or arrive before another sent previously, the 
 series of numbers enables this to be detected. These remarks apply not 
 only to the reports sent by the commander of the advanced guard, but, in 
 general, to all reports sent in time of war. The adoption cf a simple 
 cipher will often be of advantage. 
 
 § 106. The commander of the advanced guard attends to the repairs 
 of the road, bridges, causeways, &c. If the repairs are heavy, and exceed 
 the means at his disposal, he promptly informs the commander-in-chief. 
 
 § 107. When the commander of the advanced guard is infdVmed of 
 the appearance of the enemy, he at once takes the measures rendered 
 proper by the object of the march and the orders he has received : i.e. 
 
 1. He takes up a position in order to keep the enemy in check until 
 the arrival of the main body ; or, 
 
 2. Marches to meet and attack the enemy ; or, finally, 
 
 3. Falls back upon the main body, endeavoring to delay the enemy as 
 long as possible, so as to give the main body time to fonn and change 
 from the order of march to that of battle. 
 
 § 108. For camps, the commander of the advanced guard selects places 
 advantageous for defence and secure against sudden attack. Entire 
 detachments should not be placed in woods, defiles, towns, or .villages, but 
 they should be occupied only by a part of the command, the rest remain- 
 ing near by. If there are defiles in advance, through which it is intended 
 to march, their debouches should be occupied in force, in order to secure 
 them for our ulterior movements. 
 
 § 109. The commander of the advanced guard secures his camp by 
 outposts. 
 
 Remark. — All the duties prescribed for the commander of the advanced 
 guard in offensive marches apply equally to the commander of the flank 
 guard during a march to the flank. 
 
 § 110. In a retreat, the commander of the advanced guard follows the 
 same rules as in the offensive, and,takes great pains to remove all obstacles 
 that might impede the march of the train and the main body. To repair 
 the road, he detaches mounted engineer troops or working-parties, with 
 the requisite tools, and pursues his march with the remainder of his com- 
 mand. 
 
 Article 3. 
 
 Duties of the commander of the rear guard. 
 
 § 111. His principal duties, during a pursuit by the enemy, consist — 
 
 1. In indefatigable vigilance. 
 
 2. In the preservation of the best order and most severe discipline. 
 
 3. In sustaining the courage and spirits of his troops. 
 
 § 112. He should use every exertion to ascertain the movements and 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. ■ 419 
 
 designs of the enemy, that he may be able to take in time the measures 
 necessary to thwart and oppose him. 
 
 § 113. He secures and guards his march as the advanced guard does 
 on the offensive. By a turning movement, the enemy may force the rear 
 guard to accelerate its march, and thus throw it into disorder ; for this 
 reason, the commander should pay especial attention to his flanks and to 
 the cross-roads, by which the enemy might turn and attack him ; if neces- 
 sary, he may send out, instead of the usual small detachments, large and 
 independent parties which can resist the attack. 
 
 § 114. The rear guard should always be in a condition to form in order 
 of battle; therefore, those portions near the enemy retreat by the rear 
 rank, so that they have only to face about. 
 
 § 115. That he may be able to preserve order in the rear guard when 
 retreating in sight of the enemy, •especially during the rigor of his pur- 
 suit, the commander ought not to conduct the retreat with all the troops 
 at once, but with one portion fighting to protect the other, which latter 
 in the mean time retreats, occupies an advantageous position in rear, and 
 then receives the shock of the enemy in turn, thus allowing the first por- 
 tion to pass by to the rear. 
 
 § 116. The portion of the rear guard covering such a retreat ought 
 to avoid engaging in a decisive combat, and merely check the enemy long 
 enough to enable the portion in retreat to gain its newly-chosen position. 
 
 § 117i The commander of a rear guard, in a retreat, should resort to 
 all means of retarding 4he pursuit of th'e enemy ; for this purpose, he 
 orders the roads to be broken up, bridges to be destroyed, defiles to be 
 blocked up, &c. 
 
 § 118. During an offensive march, if there is no danger of an attack 
 upon the rear of the column, the duties of the commander of the rear 
 guard are as in peace : he superintends the preservation of order in the 
 train, and picks up stragglers, &c. 
 
 § 119. In all cases, the commanders of rear guards ought to report to 
 the commander of the main body every thing that occurs to their party. 
 
 Article 4. 
 Duties of the commanders of advanced, Jlank, and rear detachments. 
 
 § 120. They send out patrols, as laid down in § 14, to examine the 
 greatest possible amount of ground on all sides, and to obtain information 
 of the enemy; the number of the patrols must depend upon circum- 
 stances and the nature of the country. 
 
 In open country they &re small, and at great intervals apart. In a 
 rough, broken country, in foggy or very rainy weather, in night marches, 
 the number of patrols is increased, and they remain near their detach- 
 
420 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 ments. Patrols are not sent out in very dark nights, unless it is abso- 
 lutely necessary. 
 
 § 121. The commanders of detachments upon sending out patrols 
 should instruct them in what direction to march, what intervals to pre- 
 serve, and to what objects and places their attention should chiefly be 
 directed. 
 
 § 122. If there are defiles, woods, villages, &c., in front, the advanced 
 and flank detachments should examine thei* by patrols before entering 
 them, lest they should be suddenly attacked and cut off". 
 
 § 123. On approaching a village, the commander of a detachment 
 orders his patrols to seize, in some way or other, some of the inhabitants 
 for interrogation, as to whether the enemy is concealed in the village, or 
 its vicinity; whether he has passed through it; if he has passed, in what 
 force, with what kind of troops, wherf, and in what direction. The in- 
 habitants seized should not be dismissed until the whole detachment has 
 left the village. 
 
 § 124. Commanders of advanced, flank, and rear detachments, upon 
 receiving reports from their patrols, should endeavor to verify them in 
 person, particularly in important cases, and ought not to make their own 
 reports until fully satisfied of the truth of those of the patrols. 
 
 § 125. Commanders of detachments should endeavor to maintain a con- 
 stant communication with the parties on their flanks by means of patrols. 
 Flank detachihents should not be long separated from their corps by im- 
 passable places, such as woods, marshes, lakes, &(C. ; but if these obstacles 
 are not very extensive, the detachment and its patrols march on the outer 
 side of them, in order to examine the country more fully. 
 
 § 126. If the enemy appears, or attacks in force, the commanders of 
 the advanced, flank, and rear detachments call in their patrols, and, with- 
 out accepting combat, retreat upon their column under cover of skir- 
 mishers, merely endeavoring to delay the enemy as long as possible. If, 
 however, an opportunity ofi'ers to capture one of the enemy's patrols, 
 without delaying its own march, the detachment should undoubtedly 
 avail itself of the chance. 
 
OF CAVAL]^Y IN TIME OF WAR. 421 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 DUTIES OF PATROLS DURING THE MARCH. 
 
 § 127. Patrols are parties of various strength detached either from 
 troops on the march to examine the country, or from troops in position 
 to obtain news of the enemy. 
 
 In this chapter, patrols of the first kind are alone treated of; the 
 duties of patrols sent out by troops in position will be given in Part II., 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 § 128. The principal duty of patrols is to discover the enemy betimes^ 
 and thus secure the detachment to which they belong, as well as the rest 
 of the army, against sudden attacks. 
 
 § 129. Patrols should not consist of less than 12 or 15 men; for they 
 ought to be able to attack the enemy's patrols by surprise, without too 
 much risk. 
 
 § 130. The men composing a patrol should not keep too close together, 
 but stretch out as much as the ground and the force of the patrol will 
 permit; never forgetting that it is very important that they should not 
 all be captured at once. 
 
 § 131. Patrols on the march move at a fixed distance from their de- 
 • tachment, keep up their communications, never lose sight of each other 
 if they can avoid it, and form a continuous protective chain around the 
 army. 
 
 § 132. In a patrol of 15 men, the commander arranges them as follows : 
 two or three of the most intelligent and best mounted men are sent in 
 advance; if one is sent back with a report, the others remain in advance, 
 and keep sight of the object reported. The rest of the patrol march ac- 
 cording to the arrangement indicated in fig. 4, at 150 or 200 paces behind 
 these advanced men, having their rear guard about 100 paces behind. 
 
 § 133. Fig. 5 shows the arrangement of a patrol of 30 men. 
 
 Remarks. — 1st. With every 10 men a non-commissioned officer is sent; 
 80 men and over are commanded by an officer. 
 
 2d. The men in front, on the flanks, and in rear of a patrol, are called 
 patr oilers. 
 
 § 134. The flank patrollers regulate themselves on the position of the 
 patrolj which is on the road, and endeavor not to lose sight of it. They 
 take care not to be separated from it by impassable obstacles ; for this 
 reason, when they meet with such places, they join the advanced patrollers, 
 or the main patrol itself, until the obstacle is passed. 
 
 § 135. During the night the patrols draw near to their detachment, 
 
422 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 and endeavor to connect with each other by a chain of men, that the 
 enemy may not slip through the intervals under cover of the darkness. 
 
 § 136. It is impossible to regulate with exactness the space to be 
 covered by patrols, but the following remarks will serve as guides : 
 Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 
 
 Patrols should cover and protect the march, but ought not to scatter so 
 much as to be unable to assemble quickly if they meet the enemy. In a 
 level country, where they can see a great distance in advance, there is 
 less danger in stretching out than in a broken, wooded, or mountainous 
 region. The main consideration is, that the patrol should be able to 
 survey at a glance the whole of the space confided to it; the extent of 
 this space will, therefore, depend upon the nature of the ground, as well 
 as upon the weather, and whether the march is at night or in the daytime. 
 
 § 137. A detachment destined to attack the enemy by surprise should 
 not send out its patrols so far as one intended merely to reconnoitre^ 
 because the enemy, being warned by the appearance of the patrols, would 
 be on the alert. 
 
 § 138. Patrollers should look around carefully on all sides, and often 
 halt to listen. If they hear the slightest suspicious noise, however in- 
 definite in its nature, particularly at night or in an obstructed country, 
 or if they observe dust, smoke, the glitter of arms, or any signs whatever 
 of the enemy, such as the sound of footsteps, rumbling of wheels, noise 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. .423 
 
 of horses, &c,, they at once inform the nearest non-commissioned officer, 
 who reports to the commander of the detachment. The whole party 
 then halts, the flank patrols face outwards, the rear guard faces to the 
 rear, and the march is arrested until the cause of the noise is ascertained, 
 or the object which attracted attention examined. 
 
 Remark. — Reports should be made in a clear, calm tone of voice. 
 
 § 139. The flank patrols ascend every eminence on the side of their 
 route, and remain there, facing outwards, until the detachment passes by 
 or sends another patrol to relieve them. 
 
 Remark. — In ascending a hill to reconnoitre, one man should precede 
 the others, riding very slowly; when near the top, he takes off his cap 
 and moves up just far enough to see over, covering himself by trees, 
 bushes, &c., as well as possible; in this manner he may see the enemy 
 without being discovered by them. 
 
 § 140. Patrols turn their attention to every thing which may dis- 
 close the movements of troops passing by, notice the direction of their 
 march, &c. 
 
 § 141. Patrols should examine carefully every thing which may con- 
 ceal the enemy, such as houses, woods, coppices, ravines, &c. In passing 
 by such places, the patrols endeavor to ascertain whether they are occu- 
 pied by the enemy, and then either occupy them themselves, or pass by 
 with the utmost precaution. Defiles, bridges, ravines, hollow ways, dikes, 
 and rivers, should be carefully examined ; having passed them, the front 
 patroUers should at once place themselves on the highest bank to observe 
 the environs. 
 
 § 142. A special patrol of 2 or 3 men is sent to examine any remark- 
 able object which is too far off to be visited by the flank patrollers; the 
 rest halt, and await their return : such patrols should move at a moderate 
 gait. 
 
 § 143. If it is necessary to pass through a village, the operation is con- 
 ducted as follows. One of the front patrollers approaches it. If it is in 
 the day, he rides through several streets and asks for the chief person of 
 the place; in the mean time the other front patrollers ride along the 
 skirts of the village. Having found the chief person of the place, the 
 front patroller conducts him to the commander of the advanced guard, 
 which now approaches the village ; the patroller then rides through the 
 village with his comrades, and halts on the farther side in some elevated 
 position. There they await the arrival of the advanced guard. 
 
 § 144. If a village is to be passed at night, the front patrollers go 
 quietly to the first house, call out its master, take him away, and obtain 
 the necessary information from him ; afterwards they go for the chief 
 person of the place. 
 
 § 145. Before entering a woods, the front patrollers must ascertain that 
 
424* REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 the enemy does not occupy the skirts, and one or two men should ride 
 around the whole woods, if it is not too extensive ; all the cross-roads 
 should be examined to the distance of several hundred paces by flank 
 patrols, who afterwards overtake the patrol. Before entering open fields 
 in a forest, patrollers should ride all around the edges. 
 
 § 146. The patrols detain all persons met on the road, and send them 
 to the commander of the detachment for examination. The commander 
 retains, under guard, all who are suspicious characters, as well as those 
 who have witnessed important movements, or whose testimony is of such 
 importance as to need verification. 
 
 § 147. Upon the appearance of hostile patrols and patrollers, flags. of 
 truce, or deserters, our own patrollers, even if in considerable force, at 
 once inform the commander of the patrol, who, satisfying himself of the 
 true state of the case, at once takes the necessary measures. 
 
 If he sees a weak patrol of the enemy, or single soldiers straggling off 
 for pillage, he quietly endeavors to seize and disarm them ; he stops the 
 flag of truce, blindfolds, and places him under the charge of a trustworthy 
 soldier, who, not allowing him to turn back, conducts him to the com- 
 mander of the detachment. 
 
 § 148. Whenever the commander of a patrol perceives, from a distance, 
 the approach of the enemy in strong force, he at once informs the com- 
 mander of the detachment, and at the same time endeavors to get nearer 
 the enemy to ascertain his strength, &c. ; finally, he retreats upon the 
 detachment without exposing himself. 
 
 Remark. — In this, and all similar cases, the party falling back should 
 move as slowly and in as good order as possible. 
 
 § 149. A patrol only gives notice of the approach of the enemy by 
 firing when it is suddenly driven in and has no time to send a report. 
 Therefore, a patrol should be in no hurry to fire when it discovers the 
 enemy ) for it may happen that we see him before he discovers us, and 
 then, if we are only engaged in watching him, we should endeavor to fall 
 back on the detachment without being observed. 
 
 § 150. Upon the first shot fired by the patrollers, the whole patrol 
 forms, and the commander acts according to circumstances. If the enemy 
 is the stronger, he falls back upon the detachment, covering himself 
 by skirmishers ; but, if it is possible, he endeavors to capture the enemy's 
 patrollers, and sends back those taken to the commander of the detach- 
 ment. 
 
 If attacked by surprise, the patrol should defend itself to the utmost, 
 and fire a few shots, even if in the air, to warn the detachment of its 
 danger. In such cases, it is not always advisable to retreat by the direct 
 road. 
 
 Remark. — The commanders of parties must bear in mind that there 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 425 
 
 are few feircumstances which can justify the surrender of cavalry ; proper 
 precautions on the march render a surprise next to impossible ; and when 
 a party of cavalry is attacked, no matter how suddenly, or by what supe- 
 riority of force, a determined and instantaneous charge will always enable 
 the greater part to escape in safety. Officers and men should therefore 
 always have their wits about them, and their weapons in constant readi- 
 ness for use. 
 
 § 151. During the march, patrols are not permitted to wander out of 
 the way, nor to halt to rest at their discretion. 
 
 § 152. To be certain that their orders are executed, the commanders 
 of patrols should be alternately at the head and on the flanks ; in a word, 
 everywhere, that they may see and superintend every thing for themselves. 
 
 § 153. Should it happen that two patrols or patrollerf meet on the 
 march, even if they belong to the same regiment, they should challenge 
 each other, as directed in § 337. 
 
 § 154. During halts, the patrols continue to secure the troops against 
 a sudden attack. Choosing positions from which it is easy to examine the 
 country around, they halt in the same order as that in which they marched, 
 and face outward. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 IN REFERENCE TO REGULATING MARCHES ACCORDING TO THE 
 
 LOCALITY. 
 
 0/ advanced guards. 
 
 § 155. It is but seldom that any one arm is exclusively employed when 
 near the enemy ; on the contrary, it is usual to operate with a combined 
 force of cavalry, infantry, and artillery, so that it may be always possible 
 to employ one or the other arm, according to circumstances and the 
 locality. 
 
 § 156. If the main body is composed of the different arms, then the 
 advanced guard is similarly constituted, that it may be able to act in all 
 localities. 
 
 § 157. The composition of such an advanced guard depends — 
 
 1st. Upon the object and nature of its intended operations. During 
 marches in pursuit it is reinforced by cavalry ; but if it is to make an 
 obstinate resistance, it is strengthened with much infantry and artillery. 
 In general, light cavalry are the best for advanced guards, wherever the 
 nature of the ground permits them to operate ; but infantry are necessary 
 to support them. Mounted rifles and mounted engineer troops are of 
 great service in advanced guards. 
 
426 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 2d. The composition of the advanced guard depends also upon the 
 locality : if the ground is broken, much infantry is required ; if it is open, 
 much cavalry, and, in general, light troops. 
 
 § 158. The order of march of an advanced guard depends, principally, 
 upon its composition, the order of march of the main body, the locality, 
 &c. The main rule is, that it should never be too much divided, so that 
 there may always be a considerable force in hand to seek the enemy more 
 boldly and detain him longer. Therefore, even when the main body 
 moves in several columns, the principal part of the advanced guard 
 marches on the main road, sending only small parties on the others to 
 watch the enemy and detach patrols as far as possible in all directions. 
 In an open, level country, the cavalry marches at the head ; in a broken 
 country, ther? is only a small detachment of cavalry at the head, to fur- 
 nish advanced detachments and patrols. An advanced detachment of 
 cavalry, which sends out patrols in front and on its flanks, moves at the 
 distance of a few miles in front of the advanced guard. Small detach- 
 ments of cavalry move in a line with it on the other roads ; also others 
 on the flanks of the main advanced guard, to secure it against being 
 turned. All the front and flank detachments maintain a constant mutual 
 communication by means of patrols, and thus keep in sight the whole 
 space in front of the main body over a great extent. But if the flank 
 columns of the main body march at a great distance from the main road 
 followed by the advanced guard, then, in addition to this last, each flank 
 column detaches a small advanced guard for its own security. 
 
 § 159. If the advanced guard is composed of diff"erent arms, its dis- 
 tance from the main body depends not only upon its strength, but also 
 on the following circumstances : 1. On its composition. Cavalry may 
 advance much farther than infantry. 2. Upon the locality. The more 
 fully the nature of the country secures the advanced guard against being 
 turned, the farther may it move from the main .body. 3. Upon the 
 object in view. Prior to defensive combats in position, it is advantageous 
 to have the advanced guard as far from the main body as possible, in 
 order to secure time for making the necessary arrangements ; but if tjie 
 main body is already concentrated for a decisive attack upon the enemy, 
 it is sometimes well to be entirely without an advanced guard ; during a 
 pursuit, the main body should follow the advanced guard as closely as 
 possible. 4. Upon the order of march of the main body. The longer 
 the time needed by the main body to form in order of battle, on account 
 of the intervals between the columns, the nature of the ground between 
 them, the length of the columns, &c., so much farther forward should 
 the advanced guard be pushed. In general, the distance of the advanced 
 guard from the head of the main body should be a little greater than the 
 interval between the outside columns of the main body. 
 
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C^F CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 429 
 
 • 
 
 § 160. Fig. 6 gives gin example of the arrangement of an advanced 
 guard composed of one brigade of light cavalry, 8 battalions of infantry, 
 one battalion of sappers, 6 pieces of horse artillery, and 12 pieces of foot 
 artillery; the main body following in 3 columns. Disregarding minute 
 details, this is established as the basis of the arrangement of an advanced 
 guard, without regard to the ground. 
 
 Whatever slight changes may be made necessary by the nature of the 
 country can easily be made with the aid of a map and the special inform- 
 ation obtained in other ways. 
 
 § 161. If the country is partially broken and obstructed, it is advan- 
 tageous to have four or five companies of infantry just behind the leading 
 detachment of cavalry, to examine places that are difficult or dangerous 
 for the latter. 
 
 § 162. Upon the plains the patrols are of cavalry; in a mountainous 
 region, of infantry. In the latter case, not only the advanced detach- 
 ments and patrols are of infantry, but also the head and rear of every 
 column ; the cavalry and artillery march in the middle, under the protec- 
 tion of the infantry. 
 
 § 163. In passing through a village, the infantry enter it first, if there 
 are any with the advanced guard ; the cavalry either ride rapidly around 
 it, or, according to circumstances, halt a little before reaching the village, 
 and wait until the infantry have passed through. 
 
 § 164. The passage of important bridges, ravines, and defiles, should 
 be efi*ected in the same manner, the infantry examining them. As soon 
 as the infantry have crossed and formed on the other side, the cavalry 
 send out patrols to a great distance to examine the ground in front, before 
 the main body of the advanced guard begins to cross. 
 
 The advanced guard, having crossed rapidly, forms in front of the 
 passage to cover the debouche of the main body. The distance of such 
 a position from the passage should be such that, in the event of being 
 attacked, the advanced guard may not be too quickly forced back upon 
 the main body while debouching, and that the latter may have ample 
 timer to form without disorder. 
 
 § 165. Since attacks should be most expected when passing through 
 defiles, or when issuing from them, they should be traversed rapidly, and 
 with the most extended front possible, to prevent the column from stretch- 
 ing out. In passing long defiles, the troops should occasionally halt for 
 a moment, to close up and re-establish order. 
 
 § 166. As for the rest, an advanced guard, possessing a certain degree of 
 independence, without neglecting any of the precautions here laid down, 
 should not be too appreheneive, and, in examining the country, ought not 
 to detain itself with objects which, from their nature, cannot conceal the 
 enemy in sufficient force to make him dangerous to the advanced guard. 
 
430 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERV.ICE 
 
 § 167. In very mountainous regions it is necessary to rely upon the 
 infantry alone; the cavalry and train remaining in rear, and not entering 
 the defiles until they have been occupied. Here the infantry patrols are 
 sent out as far as possible, and occupy the heights from which the direc- 
 tion of the columns may be seen, until relieved by the patrols of the 
 rear guard, which is also of infantry. In this manner the cavalry, which 
 the enemy would attack in such places in preference, is protected. Not 
 a gorge or defile should be left unexamined; for in the mountains an 
 attack may be expected at any moment. 
 
 § 168. In a wooded country the commander of the advanced guard 
 takes nearly the same precaution as in the mountains. 
 
 If the forest is deep, but not broad, detachments of cavalry ride along 
 the skirts, which are occupied by infantry skirmishers as supports ; if the 
 forest is dense, but not deep, the infantry lead. The infantry place 
 themselves along the skirts of the wood on both sides of the road ; the 
 cavalry then passes through at a fast trot, forms on the plain beyond, and 
 there awaits the rest of the column. 
 
 § 169. When the road passes through a country but little obstructed 
 by defiles, villages, or other obstacles to the movements of cavalry, and 
 there is no infantry with the advanced guard, mounted rifles are very 
 useful ; finally, the enemy, in retreating through such a country, leaves 
 infantry at these obstacles to arrest the pursuit of the cavalry, and delay 
 until the arrival of the infantry; in such cases mounted rifles or dis- 
 mounted dragoons will produce sure results by acting against the enemy's 
 infantry. 
 
 OP THE MAIN BODY. 
 
 § 170. It remains to be said, in reference to this, that the nature of the 
 country must determine its order of march, whether cavalry or infantry 
 are to lead. If the country is broken, particularly if It is wooded, there 
 is great danger in placing the cavalry at the head; for it may not only be 
 unable to act, but, if forced to retreat, may carry disorder into the 
 infantry following. 
 
 The artillery should march in the midst of the other troops; but a few 
 pieces may move with the head of the column, to protect it in case of 
 meeting the enemy suddenly. 
 
 § 171. If there are infantry, then in traversing extensive forests, in 
 which parties of the enemy may easily conceal themselves_, the flank 
 detachments and patrols qf cavalry are replaced by infantry. 
 
 OP THE REAR GUARD. 
 
 § 172. In § 19 the duties of a rear guard iti a retreat are described as 
 being important, and sometimes even more important fhan those of the 
 advanced guard in the off'ensive. Therefore, not only the force but the 
 
OF CAVALRy IN TIME OF WAR. 431 
 
 composition of the rear guard should correspond to the importance of its 
 duties ; if the main body consists of troops of the different arms, the rear 
 guard should be composed in like manner. 
 
 § 173. Its order of march must depend not only upon the locality, the 
 number, direction, and separation of the roads, and the degree of security 
 of the flanks, but also upon the order of march of the main body, and the 
 manner in which the pursuing enemy operates. Frequently the march 
 of the rear guard becomes a fighting retreat. If the enemy does not 
 follow directly on its heels, its arrangements will generally be nearly the 
 same as those of an advanced guard in the offensive; but in this case it 
 is necessary to turn the closest attention to the roads on the flanks, be- 
 cause the pursuing enemy usually endeavors to turn the retreating rear 
 guard with a part of his force, in order to keep it constantly in retreat 
 and prevent it from holding the positions it has selected. For this reason, 
 there should be on the flank roads not only patrols from the rear guard, 
 but parties strong enough to hold the enemy in check. 
 
 § 174. In districts where there are extensive plains, the rear of the 
 rear guard is reinforced by all its cavalry, so that the infantry may move 
 forward to occupy any hills, woods, or other favorable positions. 
 
 § 175. As in a mountainous, wooded, or broken country, the cavalry 
 of the advanced guard marches in rear of the other troops, so, in a rear 
 guard retreating through a similar country, the cavalry forms the head 
 of the column, marching under the protection of the infantry, with which 
 latter there is only a small party of cavalry for sending rapid information 
 of the approach of the enemy. 
 
 § 176. It is stated in § 115 that, to preserve the requisite good order, 
 the retreat of the rear guard should not be by all the troops at once, but 
 by alternate portions, so that one part may fight to protect the retreat 
 of the other. According to this, upon approaching a defile or bridge, 
 around which the cavalry cannot pass, the greatest part of it should be 
 sent on early to pass through. 
 
 A few guns are placed in front of such obstacles, under the protection 
 of a party of infantry, to keep the enemy at a distance, while the rest of 
 the infantry and artillery pass the defile, availing themselves of all the 
 heights on both sides to protect those in retreat against the attack of the 
 enemy, and to cover the flanks. Therefore, the ground should be ex- 
 amined early, that it may be occupied betimes for defence by infantry 
 and artillery. After having passed the defile, the cavalry forms in order 
 of battle, out of cannon range. 
 
 If the enemy endeavors to pursue the rear guard beyond the defile, the 
 cavalry should, if the ground permits, stop or delay his pursuit by an 
 attack upon the front and flanks of the head of his column, so as to give 
 the infantry and artillery time to gain the necessary ground. In such 
 
 26 
 
432 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 cases, there is an advantage in having passed the defile, so as to attack 
 with a superior front the head of the enemy's column as he debouches. 
 
 § 177. If a village is to be traversed, it is first occupied by a sufficient 
 force of infantry, and the cavalry then either passes around it, or, which 
 is quicker, rides rapidly through it, if this can be done without masking 
 the fire of the infantry. Having passed beyond the village, the cavalry 
 and horse artillery come into position to cover the retreat of the infantry. 
 
 § 178. In a retreat, dismounted rifles or dragoons, availing themselves 
 of the obstacles of the ground, may arrest the pursuit of the enemy, with- 
 out fearing, as in the case of infantry, to remain behind the main body 
 of the rear guard. 
 
 § 179. Finally, if the enemy acts imprudently, the rear guard may form 
 ambuscades for him, or force him to slacken the pursuit by resuming the 
 ofiiensive for a time. 
 
 § 180. The commander of the rear guard should always regulate him- 
 self upon the movements of the main body, always holding every position 
 as obstinately as possible, lest a premature retreat on his part should bring 
 the enemy suddenly upon the main body. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN CAMPS* FOR 
 SECURITY AGAINST THE ENEMY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DUTIES OF ALL PARTS OF THE OUTPOSTS. 
 
 Article 1. 
 Of the outposts in general. 
 
 § 181. The outposts are detachments upon whom is imposed the duty 
 of securing the other troops against sudden attacks. 
 
 § 182. They are independent of, and in addition to, the camp and 
 quarter guards, whose duty it is to watch over the interior order and 
 police of the camp. 
 
 § 183. Light cavalry are employed on outpost duty wherever the ground 
 permits them to act; in cases of absolute necessity, the outposts consist of 
 infantry. 
 
 (*) The term camp is here used in its most general sense, including all the arrange- 
 ments of the troops when halted, whether in tents, huts, bivouac, or villages, provided 
 they are not in cantonments or winter quarters. The term encampment refers particu- 
 larly to a camp of tents or huts. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 433 
 
 § 184. The outposts consist of: 
 
 1. A chain of double vedettes. 
 
 2. Pickets, which are the immediate supports of the vedettes. 
 
 3. Main guards, placed as supports in rear of the pickets. 
 
 § 185. If the outposts are pushed very far to the front, or if the nature 
 of the ground is such as to render their retreat difficult, parties, called 
 reserves of the outposts, are placed between the outposts and the troops 
 guarded, to serve as a reserve and support for the former. 
 
 § 186. The outposts should enclose all the places and observe all the 
 roads by which the enemy can approach the camp guarded. 
 
 § 187. The chain of outposts is placed in front of the general posi- 
 tion of the troops, so as to intersect all the roads leading towards the 
 enemy. It forms a curved line, falling back on the flanks. 
 
 § 188. The outposts should be pushed so far to the front that, while in 
 no danger of being cut off, they may give timely notice of the enemy's 
 approach, and keep him long enough in check to enable the troops guarded 
 to prepare to receive him. 
 
 For this purpose the chain of mounted vedettes is usually placed at not 
 more than three miles in front of the camp; the pickets not more than 
 three-fourths of a mile in rear of the vedettes; the main guards at about 
 the same distance behind the pickets. 
 
 § 189. The interval between the pairs of vedettes composing the chain 
 should be such that in the daytime they can see each other, and in the 
 night hear every thing that happens between them. 
 
 § 190. The object of the pickets and main guards being merely to receive 
 the chain, they are composed of small numbers of men. Therefore, a picket 
 consists of about a platoon, and a main guard of about a company. 
 
 § 191. The commander-in-chief determines approximately the general 
 direction and extent of the chain ; in conformity therewith, there are de- 
 tailed the number of men necessary to guard the space designated. The 
 subordinate commanders carry out the details as follows : 
 
 § 192. A field officer, or captain, commanding two companies, conducts 
 them to the place where the main guard is to be posted ; leaving one com- 
 pany there, he takes the other to form the pickets and vedettes, and 
 accompanies one of the platoons himself, to superintend the proper posting 
 of the vedettes. Separating gradually, — one moving to the right, the other 
 to the left, — the two platoons continue to move on until the interval 
 between them is about three-fourths of a mile, and their distance from the 
 main guard about the same ; they then halt. The commander of each 
 platoon, having cut off 6 men for patrols and carrying reports, divides the 
 rest of his platoon into 3 reliefs. 
 
 He then conducts the first relief to the chain. The non-commissioned 
 officer designated to post the vedettes accompanies the relief; if there is 
 
434 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 but one officer with the platoon, the senior non-commissioned officer takes 
 command of the picket until the return of the officer. 
 
 The commander of the picket having conducted the first relief to one 
 flank of the line he is to occupy, posts the vedettes so that they may be in 
 full communication with the vedettes of the neighboring pickets. The 
 captain of the company which furnishes the pickets will command the 
 more important of the two pickets. 
 
 § 193. Supposing each platoon to consist of 30 men, the main guard 
 will consist of 60, and each picket, deducting the six men for patrols, of 
 24 men; each picket will thus furnish 4 pairs of vedettes, the two 
 together 8 pairs ; supposing the intervals between the pairs of vedettes to 
 be from 300 to 500 paces, the line occupied will be from 2,400 to 4,000 
 paces. In this manner two companies, each 60 strong, will furnish a 
 main guard and two pickets, which may watch a space of about 2 miles. 
 (See fig. 7.) 
 
 Article 2. 
 Duties of the vedettes of the advanced chain. 
 
 § 194. In each pair of vedettes, one is designated as the chief vedette. 
 Both remain mounted ; the one in front has his carbine advanced, or pistol 
 drawn ; the vedette in rear is permitted to sling his carbine. 
 
 § 195. For the purpose of challenging all who approach the chain, the 
 vedettes are furnished with the countersign ; they are to remember it and 
 keep it secret. 
 
 § 196. They must be always vigilant and cautious ; therefore, every 
 thing which may in the least distract their attention is strictly forbidden, 
 such as talking, smoking, whistling, singing, &c.; even horses that are 
 much in the habit of neighing are not placed in the chain. 
 
 § 197. They must keep in view all the space between them, so that 
 individuals may not cross clandestinely. 
 
 Therefore, one man in each pair should, in turn, look and listen care- 
 fully, lest any thing occur in the direction of the enemy or of the next 
 pairs ; the other man places himself some paces behind the first, to relieve 
 the tension of sight and hearing. 
 
 During the day, in open country, they merely look towards the neigh- 
 boring pairs; in a rough, obstructed country, at night, or in a fog, when it 
 is impossible to see the next pairs, one man, in his turn, carrying his 
 weapons as prescribed for the front vedette in § 194, must constantly ride 
 along the chain to the next pair, or until meeting one of its members. 
 When they are posted in sight of the enemy, or very near him, they may 
 give each other preconcerted signals, (such as tapping the carbine, or some 
 such noise,) being careful, however, that the signals employed are of such 
 a nature as not to attract the attention of the enemy. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 
 
 435 
 
 § 198. Upon observing any thing whatever in the direction of the 
 enemy, as, for example, extraordinary movements, dust, noise, kindling or 
 
 JbMd^miU 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
 
 tSbmitM: milB 
 
 ';->«^ 
 
 Arrangement of the chain of vedettes, pickets, and main guard furnished by two 
 
 companies. 
 
 extinguishing fires, changes in his outposts, drawing them in or rein- 
 forcing them, &c., the chief vedette sends in the other to inform the com- 
 mander of the picket, remaining himself on the spot to continue watch- 
 ing what attracted his attention. 
 
436 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 In the daytime, when in full view of the picket, instead of one of the 
 vedettes riding in to report, they may, in certain cases, act as follows : If 
 any thing suspicious is observed in the direction of the enemy, such as 
 dust, glittering of arms, &c., one of the vedettes will move his horse in a 
 circle at a walk ; upon this, the commander of the picket will take 3 or 4 
 men and at once ride to the vedette to examine the matter for himself. If 
 the vedettes discover a party of the enemy advancing towards them, but at 
 a great distance, one of them will move his horse in a circle at a trot, on 
 which the officer will act as just prescribed. If the vedettes discover a 
 party of the enemy coming towards them, and not more than a mile oflF, 
 one of them will at once move his horse in a circle at a gallop, on which 
 the officer will act according to circumstances. 
 
 By both the vedettes riding in a circle at the same time, in the same 
 and opposite directions, and at the diflFerent gaits, the number of signals 
 may be much increased. 
 
 § 199. Unless they have special orders to the contrary, the vedettes 
 permit no on^, to cross the chain towards the enemy, except officers' de- 
 tachments and patrols personally known to them. If they observe any 
 one attempting to steal over, they detain him until the arrival of the 
 relief or patrol, and then send him to the commander of the picket. 
 
 § 200. If the commander of the picket approaches in the daytime, 
 they do not challenge him, but both vedettes advance carbine or draw 
 pistol, and the chief vedette alone reports whether any thing worthy of 
 the slightest attention has been observed. 
 
 § 201. If any person, not personally known to the vedettes, approaches 
 along the chain, the front vedette halts him at 50 paces from the post, by 
 crying, in a low tone, ^^Halt! Who comes there ?^' If the reply is satis- 
 factory, and the orders are to pass persons with the countersign, he then 
 cries, ^^ Advance, and give the countersign T' or, if it is a party that has 
 approached, he directs one person to advance and give the countersign, 
 not allowing him to approach nearer than ten paces for the purpose. If 
 the party challenged does not reply, and persists in attempting to pass the 
 chain, the front vedette cocks his piece, goes to meet him, aiming at him, 
 halts close to him, and twice repeats the challenge, ^^Halt! Who comes 
 there?" If the person does not reply to the third challenge, the vedette 
 shoots him. 
 
 Remark. — It is to be understood that vedettes fire only upon persons 
 who are armed, or resist ; with regard to others who approach the chain 
 without the countersign, they are merely stopped, and treated as directed 
 in the following section. 
 
 § 202. If the person approaching has the countersign, then, in the day- 
 time, the vedette allows him to pass, but not nearer than 10 paces to the 
 post ; if he has not the countersign, the vedette directs him to halt at 50 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 437 
 
 paces from the post, and turn his back to it, (if Ite is on horseback, he is 
 made to dismount,) and awaits the arrival of the relief or patrol, to whom 
 he turns him over as a prisoner, to be taken to the commander of the 
 picket. 
 
 § 203. In the night, when it is impossible to recognize the faces of 
 those approaching, the vedettes act in the following manner : If the reply 
 to the challenge, ^^ Halt I Who comes there. ^" is, a (/eneral, an officer j 
 patrol, relief, or rounds, the countersign is demanded, as already ex- 
 plained, and if it is properly given, the party is allowed to pass. If the 
 party does not know the countersign, one of the sentinels at once rides to 
 the commander of the picket and receives his orders. But other military 
 employes, and enlisted men, even if they have the countersign, are not 
 permitted to cross the chain at night, but are treated as is directed in the 
 preceding section for people who do not know the countersign in the day. 
 
 § 204. Whilst the chief vedette interrogates the person who has ap- 
 proached the chain, the other cocks his piece, and watches in all direc- 
 tions with redoubled attention. 
 
 § 205. If a flag of truce, or, in general, any one whose business is of 
 such a nature as not to permit him to await the arrival of a relief or 
 patrol, approaches the chain, the chief vedette sends in the other to 
 report to the commander of the picket. 
 
 Flags of truce are not received at night, except under very peculiar 
 circumstances. 
 
 § 206. If any one whatsoever approaches the post from the direction 
 of the enemy, even if of their own command, the vedettes halt them, 
 and do not allow them to approach within 50 paces; the junior vedette 
 then rides in to report to the commander of the picket. 
 
 The only exception to this rule is the case of a returning patrol, if it 
 consists of men of the same regiment as the vedettes, and if the latter 
 recognize the persons of the officer and men composing it. 
 
 § 207. If deserters from the enemy approach, the vedette halts them 
 also at 50 paces, orders them to lay down their arms, to dismount, if 
 mounted, and to retire a little beyond the 50 paces. 
 
 Then the junior vedette rides in to report to the commander of the 
 picket, while the other, cocking his piece, watches the new arrivals. 
 
 § 208. If the vedettes discover the approach of the enemy, they at 
 once inform the commander of the picket ; but if he appears suddenly in 
 front of the chain, they give the alarm by firing. They should fire only 
 when he approaches resolutely : to fire without necessity, and without 
 being satisfied that it is really the enemy, would be merely to create 
 useless alarm. 
 
 § 209. Upon hearing a shot, the other vedettes redouble their vigilance 
 and attention, exerting themselves to discover what is going on where 
 
438 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 the shot was fired, but not leaving their posts without receiving a signal 
 or special orders to do so, unless driven in, when they will rally on the 
 picket. 
 
 Article 3. 
 Duties of the commanders of the pickets. 
 
 § 210. With every picket there must be an officer and a trumpeter. 
 
 § 211. The officer detailed for duty with a picket should have the 
 'parole, watchwordj and countersign for the day. 
 
 Upon reaching his post, he communicates the countersign to all the 
 men ; he gives the watchword only to the non-commissioned officers who 
 are to be sent out with patrols and reliefs. 
 
 § 212. Having conducted his platoon to the position it is to occupy, 
 he acts as directed in § 192, and posts the 1st relief in person. The non- 
 commissioned officer who is to post the next relief rides with him; if 
 there is no other officer present, the senior non-commissioned officer re- 
 maining with the picket sees that all the men remain mounted and fully 
 ready to move, until the return of the commander. 
 
 § 213. The first relief is posted as in time of peace. 
 
 § 214. When posting each vedette, the commander of the picket gives 
 them their instructions where to stand, and to what their attention should 
 be chiefly directed; he points out the direction in which they are to 
 retreat in case of necessity, and designates the number of each post. He 
 designates the most reliable and experienced man of each pair of vedettes 
 as chief vedette. 
 
 § 215. In arranging the intervals between the pairs of vedettes, he 
 should endeavor to post them in positions whence they can see as far as 
 possible in all directions and at the same time be as little conspicuous to 
 the enemy as practicable ; for this purpose it is best to place them on the 
 heights during the day, and behind the hill, at its foot, during the night. 
 
 § 216. The intervals between the pairs should be such that they can 
 see all the ground between them ; no precise rules can be laid down in 
 respect to this, as in some cases the chain will be close, and in others 
 scattered; as in an open country there is no advantage in an unneces- 
 sarily close chain, so in an obstructed country it is improper to place the 
 vedettes far apart. In some localities it may be necessary to post them 
 not more than 100 paces apart, while in others the intervals may be 500 
 paces. 
 
 § 217. If the chain, or a portion of it, is placed in advance of a stream, 
 ravine, wide ditch, or other obstacle, the commander of the picket must 
 see that the passages across are in good condition, so that in case of 
 attack the vedettes can easily rally on the picket, and the latter have free 
 communication with its vedettes. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 439 
 
 § 218. It is also absolutely necessary that the commander of the picket 
 should see that no pair of vedettes is entirely composed of men ignorant 
 of the duty, but that as far as possible one of them should be an expe- 
 rienced and reliable soldier, to be designated as chief vedette; he should 
 also watch that no near-sighted person is placed on the chain during the 
 day, nor any one dull of hearing in the night. 
 
 § 219. Upon posting the chain of vedettes, it becomes evident whether 
 the picket can furnish a sufficient number of men to keep one-third on 
 duty J if there is a deficiency in the chain, the requisite number of men 
 are taken from the picket, which is reinforced from the main guard. If 
 there are more men than necessary, the commander of the picket dis- 
 poses of the supernumeraries in accordance with the orders of the com- 
 mander of the main guard. 
 
 § 220. Having posted the 1st relief of vedettes, the commander returns 
 to his picket, and places it in the best position ; that is to say, one con- 
 venient for receiving and supporting the vedettes, not visible from the 
 side of the enemy, and which the latter cannot pass around ; it is selected 
 in preference on a road leading towards the enemy, and especially at cross- 
 roads. 
 
 § 221. At the picket a sentinel is posted, mounted or dismounted 
 according to the locality, and so placed that he can see the whole or the 
 greater part of the chain, and observe what occurs there. If this sentinel 
 is mounted, he carries his weapons as directed for the front vedette in 
 §194. 
 
 § 222. After this, the commander orders the men to dismount; during 
 the day, one-half of the men at a time may be allowed to unbit and feed 
 their horses. In the night, all the hoi-ses ought to be bitted, and one- 
 half the men in perfect readiness to mount. One-half of the men may 
 be allowed to sleep in the daytime. Under certain circumstances it may 
 be necessary to keep the whole or a part of the picket mounted during 
 the night. 
 
 § 223. Having arranged the vedettes and picket, the commander reports 
 his dispositions, as well as every thing he has observed, to the commander 
 of the main guard, unless the latter was present at the time. 
 
 § 224. All reports concerning the outposts are made either verbally, 
 through a non-commissioned officer, or in pencil, with the most concise 
 expressions, and not observing the ordinary forms. Here the main point 
 is, that the report is well founded and clearly expressed. The report 
 should be numbered, state what party it refers to, and the date and hour 
 when sent. 
 
 § 225. For patrols and orderlies, 6 men are detailed from the picket, 
 independently of those who supply the vedettes ; two of these, besides 
 
440 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 any already sent out, should always be in readiness to start in an instant ; 
 the others may rest, and in the day unbit their horses. 
 
 § 226. The pickets should always be vigilant, careful, quiet, and ready 
 to move. The arms ought to be loaded, the men fully accoutred, all the 
 horses saddled, and the whole picket in an effective condition -, the horses 
 are sent to water in parties of two or three at a time, under charge of a 
 non-commissioned officer, and take every thing with them. The horses 
 should not be hobbled or picketed. The use of fire is forbidden, without 
 special permission. The men change their dress, from the uniform to the 
 overcoat, and the reverse, one at a time. Under peculiar circumstances, 
 in the night, one-half the men (by turns) may be allowed to take off their 
 shakos and sleep, but the rest must be on the alert, or stand to horse. 
 
 § 227. When a relief is sent out, which habitually is done every two 
 hours, but oftener in bad weather, severe cold, or after great fatigue, the 
 whole picket mounts, and so remains until the return of the relief. 
 
 § 228. It being easy for the enemy to approach the chain during the 
 night, in order to make a sudden attack at daybreak, the whole picket 
 should be mounted some time before dawn. 
 
 § 229. If it appears to be necessary to draw in the vedettes upon the 
 picket, or to close in the vedettes on each other for the night, then, by 
 the special order of the commander of the outposts, the chain removes 
 to its new position upon the approach of twilight. The decrease of the 
 intervals between the pairs of vedettes is regulated by the darkness of the 
 night and the weather; in a dark night, with heavy rain, a thick fog, or, 
 most especially, with a wind blowing towards the enemy, this interval is 
 made very small. The extra men needed in these cases are supplied by 
 the main guards or the reserve of the outposts. At daybreak, the chain 
 again advances to the position designated for it during the day. 
 
 § 230. If the ground occupied by the vedettes during the day is so 
 advantageous that it would be injurious to throw them back at night, 
 and it is necessary to decrease their distance from the picket, then the 
 chain is left where it stands, the intervals between the vedettes are di- 
 minished, and the picket moved up closer to the chain. 
 
 § 231. Besides the original posting of the chain, the commander of the 
 picket should also superintend its removal to the night position ; and if 
 the vedettes were originally posted at night, he should be present when 
 they take up their new position for the day, also when his picket is re- 
 lieved by other troops. The other reliefs of the vedettes not only 
 may, but ought to be made by non-commissioned officers, so as not to 
 take the commander from his picket, where his presence may be very 
 necessary. 
 
 § 232. All the men of a relief, while marching, carry their weapons ai 
 prescribed for the front vedette in § 194, and the act of relieving is per- 
 
OF CAVALIIY IN TIME OF WAR. 4n 
 
 formed as in time of peace; the instructions are given quietly, and all 
 orders in a low tone. 
 
 § 233. The returning relief is received at the picket as in time of 
 peace, with the difference that the whole picket is mounted. 
 
 § 234. When the rounds arrive at a picket, they are received as di- 
 rected below in Chapter III., on vmting the outposts; in this case, all 
 orders are given in a low tone, and the necessary quietness is preserved. 
 
 § 235. At the proper hours, the commander of the picket will send 
 out patrols to verify the exactness of the vedettes, (see Chapter III. j) he 
 should also despatch the reliefs punctually, and report to the commander 
 of the main guard after every relief, although there may be nothing new. 
 
 § 236. When a report comes in from the chain of the arrival of men 
 without the countersign, or in the night of those who (see § 203) are not 
 entitled to pass with it, the commander of the picket at once sends a non- 
 commissioned ofl&cer and two men to bring them in Upon their arrival, 
 he demands the parole, watchword, and countersign; and if all their 
 replies are correct, he permits them to .pass freely; but if they do not 
 know the parole, he sends them, under guard, to the commander of the 
 main guard. 
 
 § 237. If a flag of truce or deserters from the enemy arrive at the 
 chain, the commander of the picket goes there himself, taking with him 
 a non-commissioned officer and some privates. When near the flag of 
 truce, he demands who he is, by whom and to whom sent ; and then, 
 having blindfolded him, directs the non-commissioned officer and two 
 privates to conduct him to the commander of the main guard. If de- 
 serters have arrived, he directs his escort to take their arms, and bring 
 them within the chain ; he then calls up one of the deserters and ques- 
 tions him, and having ordered them all to be searched, lest they carry 
 concealed weapons, he sends them to the commander of the main guard, 
 with an escort in proportion to their number. 
 
 § 238. If a report arrives from the chain of any thing important in 
 the direction of the enemy, or of his appearance, the commander of the 
 picket verifies it in person, at once sends a report to the commander of 
 the main guard, and informs the neighboring pickets; in the mean time 
 the picket mounts. 
 
 § 239. If it appears that the enemy, in small force, merely alarms the 
 outposts, the vedettes commence firing, the pickets advance, and either 
 endeavor to overthrow the enemy's detachment or to keep him in check 
 until the arrival of the main guard or the reserve of the outposts. 
 
 § 240. If it appears that the enemy is not in superior force, then the 
 pickets should attack and drive him ofi"; afterwards they resume their 
 original positions. 
 
 § 241. If it is ascertained that the enemy attacks vigorously in force, 
 
442 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 and has already approached so near the chain that the vedettes are in 
 danger of being cut off, the commander of the picket gives them the sig- 
 nal to retreat, and, using them as a chain of skirmishers, he begins, if it 
 is necessary, his retreat upon the main guard, again reporting the state of 
 affairs to the commander of the latter, and the nearest pickets. 
 
 § 242. While retreating, he should endeavor to delay the enemy as 
 long as possible, also to observe, as well as he can, his force, kind of troops, 
 and direction, taking care, however, not to be cut off, 
 
 § 243. In the night the enemy does not see the strength of the picket, 
 and moves over ground with which he is unacquainted, while the picket 
 knows the ground. Therefore, it is sometimes advantageous for cavalry 
 pickets, in the night, to commence their retreat by attacking : if the 
 attack fails, nothing is lost, and the picket falls back upon the main guard ; 
 if it succeeds, even if it is impossible to drive the enemy off, his pursuit 
 is at least delayed, and his force more closely examined. 
 
 § 244. Upon hearing firing at the chain, the commander of the picket 
 at once sends to learn the cause, and causes the picket to mount : if the 
 enemy really attacks, the commander acts as directed above ; but if the 
 firing was only upon individuals, he at once sends word to the main guard 
 and neighboring pickets, to prevent unnecessary alarm. 
 
 § 245. The other pickets mount at once upon hearing firing at any 
 part of the chain ; and if the picket attacked retreats, they regulate their 
 movements on it, so as to keep up the communication and not be cut off, 
 and at once inform the next picket on the opposite side. 
 
 § 246. After every skirmish the commanders of the pickets make an 
 inspection to ascertain whether any of their men are captured or missing; 
 if there are any such cases, they at once inform the commander of the 
 main guard. Until the countersign is changed, the commanders of the 
 pickets forbid the vedettes to allow any one to cross the chain, even with 
 the old countersign ; this they do in all cases when a man is missing from 
 the vedettes or pickets, even if there has been no skirmish. 
 
 Article 4. 
 Duties of the commander of the main guard. 
 
 § 247. The main guard is commanded by a field ofl&cer or captain; 
 there must always be a trumpeter with him. 
 
 § 248. He communicates to the commanders of the pickets the parole, 
 watchword, and countersign. 
 
 § 249. Having reached the position designated for the main guard, its 
 commander details and sends forward the platoons that are to supply the 
 pickets and vedettes. Having turned over the command of the main 
 guard to the next in rank of those remaining with it, he goes himself 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 443 
 
 to the advanced chain, to superintend the posting of the pickets and 
 vedettes; he gives all the parties their instructions, how they are to act 
 upon the appearance of the enemy, and how in case of retreat; he care- 
 fully examines the ground. The main guard remains mounted until the 
 vedettes and pickets are posted. 
 
 § 250. If it is impossible for the commander of the main guard to be 
 present at the original posting of the pickets and vedettes, he should at 
 least ride over all the ground committed to his charge. 
 
 § 251. If in any of the pickets one relief is short of men, the com- 
 mander of the main guard supplies. the deficiency from it; if a picket has 
 more men than enough, he either directs the superfluous men to join the 
 main guard, or sends them to reinforce another picket which has not men 
 enough, or, finally, directs the picket which has the most men to occupy 
 a greater portion of the chain than its neighbors. 
 
 Remark. — In these cases, it is absolutely necessary to bear in mind 
 that the parties sent to the outposts must be units, so that their interior 
 organization may not be disturbed; especially that two companies of the 
 same regiment must furnish a main guard and the corresponding pickets 
 and vedettes. From this there will result greater unity in the conduct 
 of the outposts, and each officer, being with his own men, can assign them 
 to the particular duty best suited to the character and capacity of each. 
 
 § 252. In the disposition of the vedettes and pickets, the commander 
 of the main guard should look to the connection of the whole chain and 
 all the pickets under his charge, and particularly to the facility of com- 
 munication with the neighboring main guards. 
 
 § 253. Having returned to the main guard, its commander arranges it 
 as follows: the guard dismounts; during the day one-half, by turns, unbit 
 and feed their horses, holding them by the reins; the rest of the men 
 remain with their horses, in perfect readiness, some 20 to 50 paces in 
 front of those who are feeding. During the night all the horses must be 
 bitted, and one-half the men perfectly ready to mount. 
 
 § 254. Having arranged the main guard, its commander reports to the 
 commander of the outposts his- arrangements, and every thing of im- 
 portance that he has observed. 
 
 Remark. — Sketching the ground occupied by the outposts is a part 
 of the duty of the stafi* officers; but if there are none present, the com- 
 mander of the main guard should annex to his report a rough pencil 
 sketch of the ground, for the better elucidation of his arrangements. 
 
 § 255. A sentinel is placed at the main guard, as at the picket, (§ 221 ;) 
 he challenges all who approach in the same manner as the vedettes. All 
 other precautions are observed by the main guard as by the pickets. (§ 226.) 
 
 § 256. If it is necessary to cook in a covered place, and the commander 
 of the outposts has given permission to use a fire, the men do not leave 
 
444 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 their position to eat, but the food is brought to them, and they eat, a few 
 at a time. 
 
 § 257. The commander of the main guard receives the rounds in the 
 same manner as the commander of a picket does. (§ 234.) 
 
 § 258. If men without the countersign, flags of truce, or deserters 
 from the enemy, are sent in from the pickets, the commander of the main 
 guard interrogates them, and then sends them, under guard, to the 
 reserve, if there is any, or direct to the commander of the outposts. 
 
 § 259. Upon receiving from the pickets news of the approach of the 
 enemy, or on hearing firing at the chain, the commander of the main 
 guard at once sends an officer, or a sergeant, with two men, to ascertain 
 what is taking place, and reports to the commander of the outposts. That 
 part of the main guard whose horses are bitted mount and ride to the 
 front to receive or support the retreating pickets in case of necessity; in 
 the mean time the other portion prepare, and, if the firing continues, join 
 the advanced party. 
 
 § 260. If the commander of the main guard is satisfied that the enemy 
 attacks really and decidedly, he reports again to the commander of the 
 outposts, and acts according to the preceding instructions; that is, he 
 either endeavors to resist the enemy and hold his ground, or keeps up the 
 firing and retards his advance, or simply falls back upon the reserves. 
 
 § 261. In the night, the main guard may, as in the case of a picket, 
 (§ 243,) try an immediate attack; but this should be made by only a part 
 of the main guard, holding the rest in reserve to support the attacking 
 party. 
 
 § 262. The commander of each main guard should constantly keep 
 up his connection with his pickets and the nearest main guards by patrols; 
 if the enemy advance, he must regulate his movements in conformity 
 with those of the other main guards, so that, being as nearly as possible 
 on the same line, they may be in a condition to render mutual assistance. 
 
 § 263. The commander of a main guard should be very careful as to 
 his reports; upon receiving any news about the enemy from the pickets, 
 he should endeavor to verify it in person; if that is impracticable, it is 
 best to send to the commander of the outposts the original report received 
 from the picket. 
 
 § 264. If the same two companies remain upon outpost duty for several 
 days, the pickets are usually relieved every 24 hours. It is best to relieve 
 them in the morning, that the new pickets may be able to see the country. 
 If the two companies are detailed for 24 hours only, the pickets may be 
 relieved during the day, especially if they have been alarmed and have 
 not had time to unbit their horses. Such reliefs should be effected one 
 or two hours before sunset, to give the new reliefs time enough to become 
 acquainted with the ground. 
 
OF CAVALORY IN TIME OF WAR. 445 
 
 Article 5. 
 The reserves of the ovtposts. 
 § 265. These may be employed with two objects: 
 
 1. To facilitate the retreat of the outposts, if they are very distant 
 from the camp; or, 
 
 2. To retard the advance of the enemy if the outposts are close in. 
 
 In the first case, the reserve need not be very strong; if the ground 
 permits the action of cavalry, it is composed of that arm in preference; 
 from two to four companies or more may be detailed for the service. In 
 the second case, the composition of the reserve depends upon the ground 
 and the length of time it is desired to detain the enemy; in localities at 
 all favorable to infantry, the reserve is composed of that arm, and it is 
 of cavalry only on perfectly open plains; in this last case, the deficiency 
 in defensive strength is supplied by the addition of horse artillery. 
 
 § 266. In general a reserve of the outposts is detailed only for the pro- 
 tection of a considerable body of troops, as, for instance, 3 or 4 divisions. 
 For detachments consisting only of a division or so, there is no reserve 
 of the outposts; the detachment itself constitutes the reserve. 
 
 § 267. The bivouac of the reserve of the outposts is selected as near 
 as possible to water, wood, straw, forage, &c.; but in no case should any 
 military advantages be lost sight of, they being much more important in 
 such a case than any considerations of mere convenience. 
 
 § 268. An inlying picket, of from i to i of the entire reserve, is de- 
 tailed, which should be perfectly ready to mount, to support the outposts 
 if necessary. The inlying picket is placed a little in advance of the rest, 
 and acts as the guard of the artillery, if there is any; its men should wear 
 their accoutrements, and have their horses constantly saddled and bitted. 
 
 § 269. The rest of the horses are not unsaddled, but stand at the picket- 
 ropes, or are hobbled, except the horses of the guns, which are fed in 
 harness, and are unhitched only to go to water, and that by turns; the 
 caisson-horses may be unhitched. 
 
 § 270. The reserve always bivouacs in order of battle, — that is, with the 
 companies in line; the guns ought to be in position, in full readiness for 
 action, a little in advance. If the reserve is partly composed of infantry, 
 the cavalry is so placed that the party standing to horse may be covered 
 by the infantry. 
 
 § 271. The arms should be loaded. The men change their dress, and 
 unsaddle to examine their horses' backs, a few at a time; in a company 
 by section, in a regiment by companies. 
 
 The men who are reposing may take off their shakos, but not their 
 accoutrements. 
 
446 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 § 272. The use of fire is allowed, unless peculiar circumstances render 
 it improper. 
 
 § 273. The reserve secures itself by camp and quarter guards, posted 
 as in time of peace. The duty in the reserve is performed as in ordinary 
 bivouacs; guards and sentinels present arms as usual, but no signals by 
 drum or trumpet are allowed. 
 
 § 274. When the outposts take up their positions, if it becomes ne- 
 cessary to reinforce any of the main guards, or to establish new pickets, 
 it is done from the reserve. 
 
 § 275. The commander of the outposts is habitually with the reserve; 
 therefore, all reports from the main guards and independent pickets are 
 sent thither, that its movements may be regulated in conformity with the 
 reports received. 
 
 § 276. When the commander of the reserve receives a report of the 
 approach of the enemy, he acts according to circumstances; that is, he 
 either sends a reinforcement to the pickets, or advances to support them 
 with the whole reserve, or joining them himself does every thing that 
 is necessary or possible. It is the duty of the reserve to prevent the 
 enemy from falling suddenly in force upon the main body, and to use 
 every exertion to retard his advance, in order to aflPord the main body 
 time to prepare to receive him, and take the measures necessary under 
 the circumstances. The more vigorously the enemy attacks, the more 
 stubbornly must the reserve resist him, 
 
 § 277. The troops composing the reserve may relieve the main guards 
 and independent pickets; this relief is efiected once or twice in 24 hours. 
 The reserve itself is relieved by the special order of the commander of 
 the main body. 
 
 Article 6. 
 
 Independent pickets. 
 
 § 278. If there is near the advanced chain any point the occupation 
 of which is necessary or very advantageous, — for example, if it will 
 strengthen a flank of the chain not sufficiently secured by the nature of 
 the ground, if it commands an extensive view, or if the enemy must 
 necessarily pass over it, and its distance is such that the chain cannot 
 be extended to it without a considerable increase in the number of men, — 
 then this point is occupied by a special detachment, called an independent 
 picket. 
 
 § 279. They are sent out from the nearest main guard, or from the 
 reserve of the outposts, and are under the orders of the commander of 
 the outposts. They are posted as the ordinary pickets, with the difi'erence 
 that their vedettes are solely for their own security, and are so placed as 
 to prevent the enemy from attacking the picket unawares. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 447 
 
 § 280. Not having a direct connection with the other parties, they 
 must maintain it by means of patrols, and should also send patrols in 
 the direction of the enemy; therefore the strength of an independent 
 picket will be determined by the indispensable number of vedettes and 
 patrols to be furnished. For example, if it is necessary to post two pairs 
 of vedettes and one sentinel at the picket, and to send out patrols on two 
 roads leading towards the enemy, and on one towards the nearest picket, 
 then, each patrol consisting of two men, there will be 11 men in each 
 relief, or 33 privates in the whole picket. 
 
 § 281. The greater the distance of an independent picket from the 
 other parties of the outposts, the stronger should it be. In all cases it 
 should have a secure retreat. 
 
 § 282. It is the duty of independent, as of ordinary, pickets, to be 
 always prudent, to watch the enemy, to obtain information of his nearest 
 parties and distant movements; but as they are more exposed than the 
 others to be attacked and cut off, they should redouble their vigilance 
 and precautions. 
 
 Article 7. 
 The general duties of all parts of the outposts. 
 
 § 283. Precaution and indefatigable vigilance are the first duties of all 
 parts of the outposts. Independently of the security of the outposts 
 themselves, this duty assumes a peculiar importance from the fact that 
 upon its fulfilment depend the tranquillity, safety, and sometimes the 
 existence of the troops guarded. 
 
 § 284. If the positions of the outposts are not already occupied by our 
 own troops, the parties detailed for outpost duty will march to their posts 
 with all the usual military precautions ; that is, with advanced, flank, and 
 rear patrols. Besides this, it is well, upon approaching the ground, to 
 send out small patrols in all directions, to examine the country and ascer- 
 tain whether the enemy is concealed in the vicinity. It is safer not to 
 commence posting the chain until the return of the patrols; at all events, 
 not until they have occupied points whence they can see for a long dis- 
 tance in all directions. 
 
 § 285. At the outposts it is necessary to preserve quietness, and to 
 avoid every thing which might discover them to the enemy. For this 
 reason the use of trumpet signals is forbidden, except in case of a skir- 
 mish ; directions, orders, and challenges are given in a low tone ; the use 
 of fire is prohibited, except at the reserve, and is permitted there only 
 when there is no particular reason for forbidding it. 
 
 § 286. Every commander despatching a party for outpost duty under 
 his orders must give its chief detailed instructions ; he must satisfy him- 
 self that the instructions are fully understood, and must exercise the 
 
 27 
 
448 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 greatest personal vigilance in watching over their execution by his sub- 
 ordinates. 
 
 § 287. If it is impossible to carry out the instructions fully, the sub- 
 ordinate must at once report to his superior, explaining the cause of the 
 impossibility. 
 
 § 288. The gradation of subordination is as follows : the vedettes are 
 immediately subordinate to the pickets from which they are detached ; 
 the pickets to their main guards, the main guards and independent pickets 
 to the reserve of the outposts. The commander of the reserve is imme- 
 diately subordinate to the commander of the outposts ; the latter to the 
 commander of the advanced guard. 
 
 § 289. The commander of every post should at once report to his 
 immediate superior, and, if necessary, to the commanders of the nearest 
 parties, every thing he has observed in person, or learned through his 
 subordinates, especially what refers to the movements of the enemy. 
 
 § 290. The subordinate should always endeavor to verify the information 
 in person, and then make his report; always remembering that an un- 
 founded report may produce serious consequences to the whole army. 
 
 § 291. If it is impossible for him to verify the information in person, 
 he should forward to his superior the original report received. 
 
 § 292. Keports should be written clearly and with precision, especially 
 with regard to the force of the enemy, noting not only his numbers, but 
 of what arms, and the direction in which he marches. In reports positive 
 fa<Jts should be distinguished from probabilities, — noting the degree of 
 confidence to be reposed in the latter. 
 
 § 293. If it is unnecessary to forward the original report received, it 
 is preserved until, by the progress of events, it has lost all importance 
 and significance. 
 
 § 294. All reports to the commanders of main guards are of especial 
 importance, and those to the commander of the outposts still more so. 
 Every exaggerated or ill-founded report renders it necessary to turn out 
 and fatigue the troops uselessly; on the contrary, contempt for the 
 enemy, and tardiness in reporting, may not only compromise the one 
 making the report, but even endanger the security of the army and place 
 it in a precarious situation. 
 
 § 295. It is the duty of every party of the outposts to preserve its 
 connection and communication with the nearest corresponding parties, 
 with those subordinate to it, and with that to which it is immediately 
 subordinate. 
 
 § 296. The commander of every post should carefully examine, in per- 
 son, the ground in his vicinity, not only in reference to his relations with 
 the nearest posts, but in regard to his movements if attacked. He must 
 also find suitable watering-places. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 449 
 
 § 297. In case of an attack it is the duty of every party not only to 
 reinforce and support the parties immediately subordinate to it, but also 
 to assist the neighboring parties whenever it is necessary and possible. 
 If a retreat is ordered, or forced upon them, each party rallies on that to 
 which it is subordinate. 
 
 § 298. In conformity with what has been said before, if firing at the 
 chain is heard, the portions of the pickets and main guards ordered to be 
 in constant readiness at once move forward, even if they have received no 
 reports as to the advance of the enemy. In such cases, the reserve, 
 although fully ready to meet the enemy, makes no movement, without 
 orders, until the pickets and main guards are driven in. 
 
 § 299. Upon an attack by the enemy, the commander of every party 
 should regulate his movements in accordance with those of the nearest 
 parties, so that he may not expose them to be cut off by a premature 
 retreat on his part, or expose himself either by too tardy a retreat, or by 
 moving to the front with unnecessary rapidity. 
 
 § 300. It is the duty of all parties of the outposts and of all vedettes to 
 hold their positions as long as possible. In the event of an attack they 
 do not retreat without orders or pressing necessity; because, although 
 there may be no difl&culty in the retreat, and although the ground aban- 
 doned may easily be reoccupied, yet the enemy gains something of which 
 we cannot deprive him, — that is, a knowledge of the ground, which may 
 have been the only object of his attack. 
 
 §301. If any party is ordered to defend itself to the utmost, then, 
 although the enemy is in superior force, they resist him on the spot, and, 
 if necessary, unhesitatingly sacrifice themselves to the last man. 
 
 § 302. The commanders of all the posts should see that their subordi- 
 nates have betimes the parole, icatchword, and countersign. 
 
 § 303. The commanders of pickets allow all persons who know the parole, 
 watchword, and countersign to cross the chain in any direction, both by 
 day and night, without obstacle. Therefore, in time of war, the parole is not 
 given to the men, but only to those persons whose duty renders it necessary 
 for them to possess it, and they preserve it with the utmost secrecy. 
 
 § 304. On this principle the parole is given gnly to the commanders of 
 the main guards and pickets, and to those persons who are intrusted by 
 the proper authorities with missions which render it necessary for them 
 to cross the chain without detention. 
 
 The watchword is given only to the non-commissioned officers sent out 
 with patrols and reliefs, and serves for mutual challenges. 
 
 The countersign is given to all on duty at the outposts, and serves to 
 challenge all who approach the chain. 
 
 § 305. Upon the arrival at any post of people who, by the regulations, 
 or by special orders, are not to be allowed to pass, the commander of that 
 
450 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 post sends them to his immediate chief. Upon the arrival of flags of truce 
 he watches that they do not enter into conversation with any but the 
 authorized persons. 
 
 § 306. At the outposts arms are not presented, nor the men mounted, 
 for any of the commanders. Upon the approach of a superior officer, the 
 party on duty at once stand to horse, the commander of the post orders 
 the rest to do the same, and places himself in that position ; if the superior 
 stops at the post, its commander reports what he has observed. 
 
 § 307. Upon the approach of the commander of the advanced guard, 
 or of the main body, to the position of the outposts, he is met and accom- 
 panied only by the commander of the outposts; the commander of each 
 post remains with it. 
 
 § 308. When a post is relieved, the old commander will explain to the 
 new one every thing which is, in his opinion, of importance, and every 
 thing that he has observed in reference to the enemy and the locality. 
 
 § 309. If the commander of a party, newly placed on duty at the out- 
 posts, finds any thing wrong in the original arrangement of the vedettes, 
 pickets, or main guards, he must report it, through his immediate chief, 
 to the commander of the outposts, and ask his permission to rectify the 
 dispositions ; until he receives this permission, he preserves the former 
 arrangement. 
 
 § 310. The commanders of all posts watch over the punctual despatch 
 of the reliefs of vedettes and posts sent out from their commands. It is 
 best to relieve all the parties of the outposts before dawn ; for the enemy 
 can advantageously avail himself of the darkness to approach the chain, 
 in order to attack at daybreak, and the presence of the reliefs at this time 
 doubles the force of the outposts. 
 
 § 311. The commanders especially see that the required rounds and 
 patrols are sent at the proper times, never sending them at known hours 
 or regular intervals ; for, as they are sent to verify the exactness of the 
 posts, it is best that they should be constantly expected. 
 
 Article 8. 
 
 0/ the duties of the outposts in covering any march or change of position 
 of the troops under their guard. 
 
 § 312. If the troops, covered by the outposts, are ordered to make any 
 movement, then to avoid a change of troops the parties who have formed 
 the outposts constitute, if there is no special reason to the contrary, the 
 advanced guard, if the march is to the front ; the rear guard, if it is in 
 retreat; in the latter case, it is the duty of the vedettes and pickets to 
 cover the retreat of the rear guard. 
 
 § 313. If the movement is to be concealed from the enemy, particular 
 precautions are required on the part of the outposts. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 451 
 
 They must redouble their vigilance, and take measures to insure that 
 no one from the side of the enemy, neither patrols nor reconnoisj-ances, 
 penetrates our position ; and they must manage these measures of precau- 
 tion in such a way that the enemy may not observe what is going on 
 among us, or that any thing extraordinary is being undertaken. 
 
 § 314. Besides keeping all the posts perfectly ready for action, the 
 means of effecting this consist in not sending more patrols than usual in 
 front of the chain, but in sending them behind it as secretly and fre- 
 quently as possible, to prevent the enemy's patrols from crossing it. 
 
 In addition, if it is necessary to place a party of troops near the chain, 
 under cover, they should be in ambuscade, that they may attack the 
 enemy unexpectedly if he endeavors to break through the chain. 
 
 § 315. In these cases, the outposts are ordered to resist the enemy as 
 obstinately as possible, not only to prevent him from penetrating within 
 our lines, but to hinder him from seeing any thing. Sometimes, in order 
 to distract the attention of the enemy, attacks are made upon his outposts 
 during the retreat of our own troops. Such attacks promise greater success 
 in the night than in the day, because when, on the alarm, the supports 
 of the enemy's outposts approach the chain, they may thence perceive 
 things that were imperceptible, even to the strongest vision, from their 
 usual posts. 
 
 § 316. If a retreat is to be effected secretly, it is best not to relieve the 
 outposts by fresh troops before their retreat, because the sight of the new 
 troops may excite the attention of the enemy; while, on the contrary, the 
 sight of old troops and posts may tend to diminish his vigilance. 
 
 § 317. Secret retreats are usually made at night, during which time it 
 is endeavored to keep up the bivouac-fires, that the enemy may not 
 observe the absence of the troops. 
 
 § 318. To facilitate the retreat of the outposts themselves, should they 
 be attacked during the night, certain measures of precaution are adopted. 
 The officers should thoroughly acquaint themselves with the roads of 
 retreat, placing several posts on the roads, for greater security, and 
 especially at crossings of streams, on cross-roads, and in places where the 
 roads diverge. 
 
 § 319. A little before dawn, all the main guards are assembled and 
 gradually retreat in the required direction ; after them follow the pickets, 
 and finally, at dawn, the whole chain commences its retreat, joining the 
 pickets at a trot or gallop. 
 
 § 320. With a certain, although small, extension of the line of out- 
 posts, it is impossible for them all to retire by one road without serious 
 delay. Therefore there should, if possible, be designated for their retreat 
 several roads which unite with the main road, even if at a great distance ; 
 if this is impossible, it is best to concentrate them rapidly on one point, in 
 
462 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 order thus to form a detachment of sufficient strength to resist the 
 attempts of the enemy. 
 
 § 321. As a general rule, the moment when troops are breaking up 
 their camp is the most favorable for the enemy to attack; it is, therefore, 
 best to execute such things secretly, although there may be no other 
 reason than this. If the means thus adopted are successful, the main 
 body may sometimes accomplish the object of its movement before the 
 enemy perceives its absence. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 THE ARRANGEMENTS OF THE OUTPOSTS AT A DISTANCE FROM THE 
 
 ENEMY. 
 
 § 322. If the enemy is so far from us that he cannot pass over the in- 
 tervening space in a single march, and is, therefore, obliged to move by 
 the roads, it will be sufficient to limit the operations of the outposts to 
 watching the roads. 
 
 § 323. In such cases it is only necessary to send out independent 
 cavalry pickets on the roads leading towards the enemy; they communi- 
 cate with each other by means of patrols. 
 
 § 324. As far as regards obtaining information of the enemy, it is best 
 to push out these pickets as far as possible, but, on the other hand, it is 
 more dangerous for the pickets themselves; therefore they should not be 
 pushed so far in advance as to be in great danger of being cut off. 
 
 § 325. The distance to which they may be advanced will be increased 
 in proportion to the number of roads occupied, the difficulty which the 
 enemy must experience in moving secretly by each road, the distance to 
 which patrols are sent out from each post, and the distance of the enemy 
 from our position. It is necessary to be more cautious, and to draw in 
 the pickets as the enemy approaches. 
 
 § 326. The force of each independent picket must depend upon the 
 number of vedettes and patrols it is to furnish, and upon the degree of 
 strength it ought to possess. 
 
 § 327. Every such picket is posted according to the rules laid down in 
 §§ 220 and 221. The routine of duty and the measures of precaution 
 are exactly as in ordinary pickets. 
 
 § 328. As a general rule, they preserve their mutual communication by 
 patrols; in addition, they send out patrols as far as possible towards the 
 enemy, to obtain the earliest possible news of him. 
 
 § 329. If they are far from the army, they must be supported by small 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 453 
 
 detachments placed in reserve at points where several roads unite, or at 
 places whence it is easiest to afford prompt assistance to those pickets 
 which may be expected to be attacked first. 
 
 § 330. Intelligent irregular cavalry, mured to war, may be employed 
 advantageously as independent pickets and patrols ; but the supports must 
 always be of the regular cavalry. 
 
 § 331. Sometimes, even when at a great distance from the main body 
 of the enemy, there may arise the necessity for the greatest precautions ; 
 for example, when the population is disposed to insurrection, or when the 
 country is full of hostile partisans. 
 
 In such cases the precautions should be in proportion to the danger. 
 
 CHAPTER in. 
 
 OF VISITING THE OUTPOSTS. 
 
 § 332. Small parties, consisting of a non-commissioned officer and two 
 good men, are sent out by the pickets and main guards to ascertain 
 whether the vedettes observe the proper vigilance and precaution. These 
 parties are called patrols. Patrols also offer the advantage that they may 
 happen to stumble upon the enemy stealing across the chain. 
 
 § 333. The non-commissioned officer of the patrol must have the 
 watchword and countersign. 
 
 § 334. A patrol sent to visit the vedettes proceeds as follows : the non- 
 commissioned officer has his sabre at a carry ; the two men follow him 
 with carbines advanced, or pistols drawn and cocked. They proceed to 
 one flank of the chain belonging to their command ; cross to the outside 
 of the chain near the flank vedettes, and approach the chain silently from 
 the outside to test the vigilance of the vedettes. When the vedette chal- 
 lenges, the non-commissioned officer replies, ^^ patrol " and, at the com- 
 mand, " Advance, sergeant, with the countersign," advances to about 10 
 paces from the vedette, and gives the countersign in a low voice. The 
 patrol then proceeds, in the same manner, to the first vedette of the next 
 picket, or main guard, near which it recrosses to the interior of the chain, 
 returns to its party, and reports whatever has been observed. 
 
 § 335. If the non-commissioned officer finds the post of any pair of 
 vedettes abandoned, he leaves one of his own men there, and sends in a 
 man of the next pair to inform the commander of the picket. 
 
 § 336. The patrol must carry back with it all persons found detained at 
 the chain, and all met with without the countersign. 
 
454 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 § 337. If two patrols meet at night, and cannot recognize each other's 
 faces, the one which first perceives the other cries, ^^ Halt I Who comes 
 there?" and, having received the reply, '^ Patrol I" cries, ^^ Advance j ser- 
 geant j with the countersign I" the non-commissioned ofl&cer of the second 
 patrol gives the countersign, and, in his turn, then demands the watch- 
 word; if the replies are all correct, both patrols then proceed on their 
 march, each having informed the other of any thing extraordinary 
 observed or suspected. 
 
 § 338. Upon suddenly meeting the enemy, patrols act as prescribed for 
 vedettes. 
 
 § 339. The number of patrols sent to visit the vedettes must be increased 
 in proportion to the difl&culty of seeing the vedettes from the pickets, the 
 darkness of the night, the obstructions of the ground, the thinness of the 
 chain, and the fatigue of the men, whether arising from a long march or 
 a combat. 
 
 Under these circumstances, patrols are sent out continually, that is, on 
 the return of one, another is at once sent out. 
 
 In the daytime, in clear weather, and in open country, but few patrols 
 are despatched, though the vedettes must be kept in constant expectation 
 of them. 
 
 § 340. To inspect the pickets and main guards, the commander of the 
 outposts sends out " roundsj^ from time to time. 
 
 § 341. Rounds consist of an officer with two privates; all the main 
 guards and pickets should be informed betiiftes what officers are ordered 
 to make the rounds. 
 
 § 342. The officer making the rounds must know i\ie parole, watchwordj 
 and countersign. 
 
 § 343. In reply to the challenge of the sentinel at the main guard or 
 picket, the officer making the rounds answers, '•' Rounds !" 
 
 To receive the rounds, that part of the main guard or picket which is 
 ordered to be in constant readiness mounts, without drawing sabre ; those 
 reposing are not disturbed. In other regards the rounds are received as 
 in time of peace. 
 
 § 344. The commander of the party visited reports to the rounds the 
 number of men under his command, the arrangements of all his posts, 
 the number of men absent on duty, the number present, and every thing 
 that has been observed. 
 
 § 345. After this the officer making the rounds examines the command, 
 satisfies himself that they are in the required state of preparation, and 
 verifies the general number of men. Then, if he has been ordered to 
 test whether the whole command can be promptly in the saddle, he noti- 
 fies the commander of the post, who at once orders all the men to mount. 
 
 § 346. Every thing prescribed here should be done quietly, and all 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 465 
 
 orders be given in a low tone. After this the rounds proceed to the 
 next post; but the officer may demand an escort from the party just 
 inspected. 
 
 § 347. The rounds are not limited to visiting the main guards and 
 pickets, but may be required to visit the vedettes } in this case they act as 
 prescribed for patrols sent for the same purpose. 
 
 § 348. The rounds are not sent out at fixed hours; the hours of their 
 visits depend upon the judgment of the commander of the outposts, and 
 should be so regulated that the parties to be visited may not know when 
 to expect them; they are sent out most frequently at night, and just 
 before dawn. 
 
 § 349. Upon the return of the rounds the officer reports to the com- 
 mander of the outposts the condition in which he found affairs, and 
 every thing he observed. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF PATROLS. 
 
 § 350. The duties of patrols sent out hy troops on the march were 
 described in Part I., Chapter IL, Article 5. 
 
 In this chapter will be described the duties of patrols sent out hy troops 
 in camp. 
 
 § 351. Besides the patrols sent out to visit the vedettes, (§§ 332 to 
 339,) patrols are sent out for other purposes, namely : 
 
 1. To keep up the communication between the different parties of the 
 outposts. 
 
 2. To reconnoitre the enemy ; and, 
 
 3. To examine the country. 
 
 § 352. When a patrol is sent out to keep up the communication be- 
 tween different parties of the outposts, it rides to the post whither it is sent, 
 reports to the commander whatever it was directed to communicate, and 
 every thing observed on the way; having received his instructions, the 
 patrol returns to its party. 
 
 § 353. To insure the safety and tranquillity of the troops it is not suffi- 
 cient for the outposts merely to watch the space visible from the chain, 
 because the enemy may send out small parties to make partial attacks, in 
 order to exhaust the troops by forcing them to assemble on continual 
 alarms. To secure the outposts against such attacks, as well as to discover 
 the enemy and examine the country, patrols are sent out in advance of 
 the chain. 
 
456 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 § 354. Such patrols are divided into near and distant patrols ; they 
 are composed of light cavalry in preference. 
 
 § 355. JV^ear patrols consist of a non-commissioned officer with two or 
 three prompt men, and are sent out by all parties of the outposts. They 
 move on all the main roads leading towards the enemy, and do not go 
 more than one or two miles from the vedettes, so that they may give prompt 
 information of the approach of the enemy; they limit themselves to 
 watching him. These patrols are sent out the more frequently in pro- 
 portion as the enemy can approach more secretly; so that in an ob- 
 structed country, in thick fogs, dark nights, and close to the enemy, they 
 are sent out continually, — that is, one immediately upon the return of 
 another. 
 
 § 356. Distant patrols are sent out to discover the enemy and examine 
 the country at considerable distances, (from 2 to 10, and even more, 
 miles,) and are composed of a greater number of men, (of 10, 20, 30, 
 and more,) that they may sometimes be able to attack hostile patrols, and 
 make prisoners. They are usually commanded by an officer, to whom are 
 explained, in detail, the object of his mission, the means of accomplishing 
 it, and the direction he is to take ; he is also instructed whether to engage 
 the enemy's patrols or to avoid a combat. 
 
 § 357. Distant patrols sometimes consist of a company, or more, espe- 
 cially if they cannot return the same day. They are sent out by the 
 advance guard or main body, and take the name of flt/ing detachments. 
 As a general rule, all. distant patrols are under the orders of the com- 
 mander of the outposts. 
 
 § 358. The moment a patrol passes beyond the chain, it should detach 
 front, flank, and rear patrollers, to secure itself against sudden attack. 
 In figs. 4 and 5 are given examples of the arrangements of patrols of 15 
 and 30 men ; larger patrols are arranged according to the same prin- 
 ciples. Smaller patrols are arranged according to their strength : for 
 example, a patrol of five men sends out one in front, and one on each 
 side; a patrol of three men places one in front, the others move at a little 
 distance apart, — one watching to the right, the other to the left. 
 
 § 359. It is a great advantage for a patrol to see the enemy before 
 being discovered itself; this renders it possible to avoid a stronger force, 
 and to apprize the outposts of its approach, or to attack, by surprise, an 
 equal or inferior force. 
 
 § 360. In order to secure themselves against a sudden attack, patrols 
 should use all possible precautions, and observe the deepest silence ; the 
 patrollers carry their pieces cocked. In the night, and in thick weather, 
 all precautions are redoubled. The patrol should occasionally halt and 
 listen ; the men in front and on the flanks, dismounting by turns, place 
 the ear to the ground, &c. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 457 
 
 § 361. On their return march the patrols should be even more cau- 
 tious; because the enemy, having perceived them, may select this very 
 time for the attack, on the supposition that the outposts, being relieved 
 from apprehension by the return of the patrols, may somewhat relax their 
 vigilance. 
 
 § 362. The commander of a patrol should concert certain signals with 
 his jya trailers by which they are to indicate their discoveries. If the 
 necessary precautions are observed, it is impossible for the enemy to 
 attack unawares; therefore the commander of a patrol is always held 
 responsible for its loss. 
 
 § 363. In Part I., Chapter II., Article 5, are explained the precautions 
 to be observed by patrols sent out by troops on the march ; these measures 
 are equally applicable in the present case, and the following are prescribed 
 in addition : 
 
 § 364. If a patrol leaves in its rear defiles by which it is intended to 
 return, a few men should be left to hold them, — in preference, the men 
 having the worst horses. If these men are driven off by a superior force, 
 they can, by means of preconcerted signals, (such as rockets, lighted 
 straw on poles, &c.,) inform the patrol of the fact, so that it may seek 
 another line of retreat. 
 
 § 365. As these patrols are usually intended merely to discover the 
 enemy and examine the country, they should generally avoid a combat 
 unless success seems certain. 
 
 § 366. That he may be able to avoid the enemy when still unperceived 
 by him, the commander of a patrol pays special attention to the ground, 
 so that in case of necessity he may avail himself of its accidents for con- 
 cealment. 
 
 § 367. Upon meeting the enemy in superior force, the patrol should at 
 once commence its retreat if already discovered. 
 
 § 368. If a patrol suddenly stumbles upon the enemy in the night, it 
 is best to attack at once ; in the night the advantage is always on the side 
 of those who attack first, for to the habitual disorder following a sudden 
 attack is added the uncertainty as to the strength of the attacking party. 
 In such cases, decision and the advantage of the initiative insure success. 
 When the enemy is- beaten off and retreats, he ought not to be pursued 
 far, lest we fall into an ambuscade ; and it is best, not being allured by 
 success, to avail ourselves of it, and retreat in good order. 
 
 § 369. The guides of patrols ought to be chosen for their thorough 
 knowledge of the country and fidelity j but their suggestions should not 
 be blindly followed : to verify them, constant inquiries should be made 
 of the inhabitants, and of all persons met on the road ; for greater secu- 
 rity, the guides should be detained until the patrol is in perfect safety. 
 
 § 370. To rest and feed the horses, the patrol avails itself of some 
 
458 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 covered place oflf the road, as a forest, ravine, &c. During the halt, the 
 patrol secures itself by means of vedettes, small patrols, and the precau- 
 tions described for independent pickets. In these cases the use of fire is 
 rigorously forbidden, no matter how well concealed the place may be. 
 If any inhabitants are found on the spot, they must be detained until the 
 patrol departs. During the winter, halts are made at isolated houses, or 
 small hamlets, taking care that none of the inhabitants pass beyond the 
 chain of sentinels . established by the patrol. 
 
 § 371. Patrols being in small force, in order to avoid the danger of 
 being cut off, should never remain long in any one place. 
 
 § 372. All patrols, especially those intended to examine the country, 
 should, if possible, return by a different route from that by which they 
 advanced; besides thus increasing their own security, they examine a 
 greater space, and bring back information concerning two roads instead 
 of one. 
 
 § 373. It is very desirable that the commander of a patrol sent to 
 examine the country should make sketches of the ground passed over, or 
 at least describe in great detail all the objects met with of any import- 
 ance in a military point of view, such as roads, rivers, forests, and defiles. 
 Whether the roads are practicable for all kinds of troops ; the nature of 
 the road-bed ; whither the roads lead ; and whether they are the shortest. 
 The extent of the forests; whether they are dense or open, marshy or 
 dry. The size of the villages ; whether they are situated on heights or 
 in hollows ; whether they contain churches and mills ; whether a stream 
 runs through them in one channel, or in several branches, or around 
 them; whether the inhabitants have many cattle and much provisions. 
 With regard to rivers, he observes their depth, fords, and bridges; 
 whether the bottom is boggy or hard ; the declivity and height of the 
 banks ; which bank is the higher, and where it is easiest to cross. As 
 to marshes, he notes their extent; whether they are passable; whether 
 there are dikes across them, and of what kind. In reference to defiles, 
 he notes their length and breadth ; describes the adjacent country, and 
 whether the defiles can be turned. Where the commanders of patrols 
 cannot go in person, they interrogate the inhabitants concerning these 
 things, and compare the various replies received. 
 
 § 374. Since special acquirements are necessary for the successful 
 accomplishment of the object of these patrols, an officer of the staff is 
 sent with each of them, or is placed in command. 
 
 § 375. Sometimes patrols are sent out to alarm the enemy's outposts. 
 These attempts usually succeed when the latter are very much scattered ; for 
 then, to repulse the attack, he collects his posts ; but the patrol, having 
 gained its object, that is, having alarmed the enemy, in the mean while 
 retreats in safety. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 459 
 
 § 376. Such attacks are made in preference in the night, or in dark 
 and bad weather. The patrol, concealing its weakness, should silently 
 steal up to the enemy ; for on this depends its success. 
 
 Having approached the outposts, it should rapidly, noisily, and with 
 warm firing fall on them as foragers, create an alarm, seize, if possible, 
 some of the vedettes or pickets, and then retreat rapidly before the enemy 
 recovers. 
 
 § 377. As a conclusion to the rules laid down in this chapter, it may 
 be stated that the principal duties of the commander of a patrol are the 
 following : 
 
 1. To be always cautious. 
 
 2. Always to provide for the security of his retreat. 
 
 3. Never to allow himself to be surrounded and captured. 
 
 4. To examine the country carefully, and remember its features. 
 
 5. To obtain all possible information from the inhabitants. 
 
 6. To understand how to select guides and how to treat them ; and, 
 
 7. To endeavor to examine every thing in person. 
 
 § 378. As for the rest, it is impossible to give the commander of a 
 patrol instructions in sufficient detail to cover all the exceptional cases 
 that may arise ; therefore the success of his mission must depend chiefly 
 upon his discretion and presence of mind. 
 
 Rashness, equally with cowardice, both here and everywhere, fails to 
 secure the desired advantages. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE COMMAND OF THE OUTPOSTS. 
 
 § 379. In order to secure unity in the arrangements and operations of 
 the outposts, a field or general officer is detailed as the commander of the 
 outposts ; all the parties are under his command. 
 
 There is usually detailed for duty with him an officer of the staff, 
 whose particular duty it is to prepare an accurate and rapid description 
 of the ground. 
 
 § 380. The commander of the outposts may either be detailed for a 
 certain length of time, or be relieved at the same time with his troops ; 
 in the latter case, he is usually the senior officer of the troops detailed 
 for outpost duty. 
 
 § 381. Having received from the commander-in-chief, or the chief of 
 staff, instructions as to their operations, the general direction and extent 
 of the chain, information of the number of troops, and destination of 
 the parties detailed for the service, he sees to the prompt occupation of 
 
460 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 the places designated for the positions of the outposts, — making, in 
 general, such modifications of the arrangement as may appear necessary. 
 
 § 382. He receives every day from the commander-in-chief, in writing, 
 and under an envelope, the parole, watchword, and countersign ; he com- 
 municates these to the commanders of the main guards for the use of 
 their posts. 
 
 § 383. He gives the necessary instructions to the commanders of the 
 main guards, pickets, and other posts, and maintains a constant watch 
 over their punctuality and vigilance in the execution of their duty, and 
 sees that they keep up the necessary connection with each other. 
 
 § 384. He should be informed of every thing that happens at the 
 chain j nothing should escape his attention with respect to the posts, and 
 guarding the ground around them ; it is his duty not only to correct, but 
 anticipate, negligence, and to give all necessary directions. 
 
 § 385. He makes the distribution of patrols, determining from what 
 parties, by what roads, and how far they are to move; he despatches 
 distant patrols, and gives to their commanders detailed and precise orders. 
 
 § 386. He arranges the despatching of rounds to visit the outposts, 
 and also goes around in person. He informs betimes the commanders of 
 the main guards and pickets as to who will be sent on the rounds. The 
 hours of sending out the rounds depend upon his judgment; usually 
 they go out during the night and before dawn. 
 
 § 387. Upon the arrival of flags of truce, deserters, or strangers, he 
 acts according to the instructions received from the commander-in-chief, 
 or chief of staff, to whoni he ought to refer in all doubtful cases. 
 
 § 388. The post of the commander of the outposts is with the reserve, 
 whither all reports are sent from the outposts ; but if there is no reserve, 
 he places himself with the main guard which is nearest the centre of the 
 general position. In every case he notifies all the commanders where he 
 will be, that they may know where to send their reports. 
 
 § 389. But he so arranges matters that, if he is not found at the place 
 designated, the report, no matter what it is, may be forwarded direct to 
 the commander of the advanced guard, and also that this may in general 
 be carried out in cases where the point from which the report originates is 
 nearer to the commander of the advanced guard than to his own habitual 
 position; but he takes care that he himself shall, in all cases, be promptly 
 informed of every thing that occurs. 
 
 § 390. The commander of the outposts, having received reliable reports 
 from all his parties, regulates their operations in conformity with his 
 instructions, and conducts their movements, either so as to repulse the 
 attempts of the enemy, or to concentrate the parties, or to afford support 
 to any of them, or, finally, to make a general retreat. 
 
 § 391. He promptly reports to the commander-in-chief every thing 
 
OF CAVALJIY IN TIME OF WAR. 461 
 
 deserving attention that has been observed, and also sends him early 
 reports of his intentions. 
 
 § 392. Upon the arrival of the commander-in-chief at the outposts, 
 their commander accompanies him over the whole position. 
 
 CHAPTER YI. 
 
 OF THE DUTIES OF HUNTERS, FRIENDLY INDIANS, ETC., AT THE 
 
 OUTPOSTS* 
 
 § 393. Outpost service is performed by these kinds of troops rather 
 diflferently from the manner pursued in the regular cavalry. Adopting 
 for them the rules herein contained, and which can be explained to them 
 by their chiefs, they may be advantageously employed in advance of the 
 regular cavalry. 
 
 § 394. The main difference is, that the advanced chain does not consist 
 of double vedettes, relieved every two hours, but of pickets of 3 or 4 men 
 each, on duty for 24 hours, and relieving each other in the task of watch- 
 ing the enemy. 
 
 § 395. These pickets are placed at such a distance apart that they can 
 see each other, or at least that the enemy cannot slip through without 
 being seen by one or other of the pickets. 
 
 § 396. In each picket one man, mounted, or on foot, with his horse 
 bridled by his side, constantly watches the whole spaces committed to the 
 picket; another remains behind him in full readiness to mount; but the 
 others repose, feed their horses, lead them to water, and even go in search 
 of forage. 
 
 § 397. If the pickets are pushed very far in advance of the regular 
 cavalry, lines of supports are placed behind them. These supports are 
 placed in preference near roads, or points of special importance, where 
 they may serve as points of assembly for the chain of pickets. 
 
 § 398. The supports usually consist of from 6 to 12 men each. One 
 of them, usually standing to horse, places himself in sight of the chain 
 of pickets, also turning his attention to the ground on each side. Of the 
 rest of the men a part hold themselves in readiness, while the others rest, 
 feed and water their horses, and, if necessary, go for forage. 
 
 § 399. The remainder of the companies, or the regiment on duty, 
 usually form a reserve, about a mile in rear of the lines of supports, on 
 the principal road, or behind the centre of the chain. A part of this 
 
 * This chapter is taken from one in the Russian regulations, relating to the duty of 
 Cossa,ck8 at the outposts. 
 
462 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 reserve is held in readiness to mount, but the greater part repose, and even 
 hobble or picket their horses. 
 
 § 400. The quick sight, activity, and vigilance of the men, referred to 
 in this chapter, are such as to allow a greater interval between these 
 pickets than between the pairs of ordinary vedettes. The supports, not 
 being intended to relieve the chain, but merely to serve as rallying-points, 
 may also be placed farther apart than the pickets of regular cavalry. 
 Finally, instead of main guards, there is in this case but one main reserve. 
 From these facts it would appear that reliable men, of the kind alluded 
 to here, may guard a given space with a smaller number of men, and less 
 fatigue, than regular cavalry. Reserves of light cavalry should be posted 
 on a line with the main reserve of the irregulars. The Indian horses 
 being peculiarly capable of enduring the fatigue of outpost duty, the 
 friendly Indians, if there are any present, should compose the outposts in 
 preference. 
 
 § 401. During the night and in dark weather the intervals between the 
 irregular pickets must be decreased, as prescribed for vedettes. 
 
 § 402. Regular patrols and rounds need not be so much resorted to, 
 but each particular chief should often ride around the whole circuit of 
 his command. 
 
 § 403. The irregular reserve will from time to time send out patrols of 
 5, 10, or 15 men to reconnoitre in all directions. 
 
 CHAPTEK VIL 
 
 OF THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE OUTPOSTS ACCORDING TO THE 
 NATURE OF THE GROUND. 
 
 § 404. The art of arranging the outposts according to the nature of 
 the ground is founded upon : 1. The proper general direction of the 
 advanced chain; 2. The distribution of the supports; and, 3. The com- 
 position of the supports. The object to be gained is to discover the 
 enemy at the greatest possible distance with the smallest possible number 
 of men, without exposing any of the posts to be cut off. 
 
 § 405. The general line of the outposts is generally determined by 
 some natural objects, such as the banks of rivers, creeks, borders of 
 ravines, marshes, skirts of woods, crests of heights, &c. 
 
 § 406. The chain of vedettes should cross objects favoring the view of 
 the surrounding country, and its flanks should rest on impracticable 
 places. It should be neither too far advanced nor too close in : in the 
 first case, it would be difficult for the vedettes to retreat ; in the last case, 
 the troops guarded would not have the necessary time given them. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 463 
 
 § 407. The chain should not be so placed as to have close in front of it 
 covered places, villages, woods, and such objects; if it is not possible to 
 throw the chain in advance of these places without too great an exten- 
 sion, it is best to draw it a great deal to the rear. If this last cannot be 
 done, for want of space, it only remains to redouble vigilance and send 
 out more frequent patrols. 
 
 § 408. If the chain is placed behind an impassable object, such as a 
 broad river or a very bad marsh, it may be made thinner than usual, or 
 even be entirely dispensed with; in the latter case, patrols must be sent 
 out, more or less frequently, in proportion to the degree of impractica- 
 bility of the ground and the difficulty of examining it. In no case should 
 any portion of the ground remain entirely unwatched, however impracti- 
 cable it may appear to be. 
 
 § 409. In mountainous regions, where the broken nature of the country 
 embarrasses communications and facilitates the concealment of the enemy's 
 movements on all sides, the outposts draw nearer together than the speci- 
 fied normal distances, and sometimes the camp is entirely surrounded by a 
 chain of vedettes. 
 
 § 410. In the general line of the outposts there maybe places unfit for 
 the operations of cavalry; such portions are necessarily occupied by 
 infantry, all the rest by cavalry : in such cases, one part of the chain will 
 consist of mounted vedettes, the rest of pairs of infantry sentinels. In 
 this case, the outposts are formed of cavalry and infantry, each guarding 
 the ground destined for it according to the rules laid down for that arm ; 
 but such a chain of outposts should form one general whole, and the dif- 
 ferent parts must maintain a constant union, unless separated by wholly 
 impassable obstacles. 
 
 § 411. The vedettes should be posted at the points commanding the 
 most distant views ; in the day they are placed on the summits of the 
 hills, at night they fall back to the foot of the slope. They should also 
 be concealed by some natural object, which, at the same time, permits 
 them to see all around. Between the pairs of vedettes there should be 
 no covered places which might conceal the approach of the enemy. 
 
 § 412. In the distribution of the supports of the chain, that is, the 
 pickets, main guards, and reserves, they are posted in preference at places 
 around which the enemy cannot pass, or, at least, at places where he may 
 most probably be expected ; therefore, they are usually posted near the 
 roads, especially at cross-roads. 
 
 § 413. Another condition in the distribution of the supports is that 
 each should, if possible, see the parties directly subordinate to it, and to 
 which it ought to give immediate support. This is particularly important 
 for the pickets in relation to the vedettes, because on the approach of the 
 enemy the latter form part of the former. . 
 
464 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 § 414. A third condition for the proper distribution of the supports is 
 that they should be coDcealed until the moment for action arrives. 
 
 § 415. Finally, a fourth condition is that they should be placed in posi- 
 tions suitable for their operations ; that is, cavalry should have an open 
 unobstructed space in their front, but infantry, an obstructed country. 
 This condition is of peculiar importance in regard to the reserve, which 
 is expected to make a more obstinate resistance than the main guard and 
 pickets. 
 
 § 416. In order to preserve the general union between all parts of the 
 outposts,' and more especially between the outposts and the troops guarded 
 by them, there should be no impassable obstacles between them ; this is to 
 avoid exposing any party to being cut off and defeated separately. If 
 there is behind the chain of vedettes a place across which communication 
 is difficult, it is best to place the main guards or pickets near it, that they 
 may hold the crossings, and permit the fulfilment of the other conditions 
 for a good arrangement. 
 
 § 417. Pickets relieving vedettes should always be composed of the 
 same kind of troops as their vedettes ; the main guards and reserves are 
 composed according to the nature of the ground between the pickets and 
 the camp ; in places suitable for cavalry they consist of that arm, in 
 defensive positions they are of infantry. 
 
 § 418. To secure their greater independence, the reserves of the out- 
 posts may sometimes be composed of all three arms ; but in an open, 
 unobstructed country they may be of cavalry and horse artillery alone. 
 
 § 419. Example of the arrangement of outposts composed of cavalry 
 alone. (Fig. 8.) 
 
 It is supposed that an advanced guard, consisting of a brigade of cavalry 
 and a division of infantry, is in the village A, and that it is necessary to 
 guard it against the enemy, expected by the roads B. 
 
 § 420. To determine the line of observation to be occupied by the out- 
 posts, the whole ground between the position of the advanced guard and 
 the points accessible by the enemy must first be carefully examined on the 
 map ; from the selection of the line of observation results the composition 
 of the chain and its supports. 
 
 § 421. In this example, according to the conditions already mentioned, 
 the most advantageous line of observation is that proceeding from the 
 village L, through the villages M and N, thence following the ridge to 
 the lake P. This line is favorable, because : 
 
 • 1. The right flank, resting on the marsh near the village L, cannot be 
 turned, and requires no further extension. 
 
 2. The left flank, resting on the lake, allows us to observe from the 
 ridge the distant movements of the enemy ; the ridge also conceals our 
 own movements from the ene;ny in that direction. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 J.Ci 
 
 
 The aiivance<l guard A, composed of a brigade of cavalry and a division of infantry, 
 i> in the village A, and it is necessary to post outposts to guard it against the enemy, 
 expected by the roads B ; 10 companies of cavalry and 2 pieces of horse artillery are de- 
 tailed for the outposts and reserve. C is the reserve, consisting of 4 companies and 2 
 guns. D, D', and D" are the main guards, consisting of one company each. E, E, E', 
 E", E", E'", are the pickets, of a platoon each. H is an independent picket, of one 
 platoon, observing the road K. 
 
 _ Infantry. 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 • - -Cavalry vedettes. 
 
 /2 
 
 d Scale of miles. 
 
466 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 3. Without being too far off, the chain is at such a distance that every 
 movement of the enemy can be discovered in season to enable the advanced 
 guard to take all its measures for operating against him. 
 
 § 422. Upon the nature of the ground over which the line of observa- 
 tion extends must depend the kind of troops who are to hold it. 
 
 In this example, from the appearance of the ground towards the enemy 
 and towards the advanced guard, it seems that cavalry can act with advan- 
 tage ; therefore all the outposts are of that arm. 
 
 The extent of the line is a little more than 5 miles : therefore, accord- 
 ing to the estimate in § 193, 6 companies will be required for the vedettes, 
 pickets, and main guards. As the ground opposes no obstacles to the 
 action of cavalry, the reserve should also be of that arm. This reserve, 
 consisting of 4 companies of cavalry and 2 pieces of horse artillery, is 
 posted at the central point C, whence it can easily move to all parts of 
 the outposts. 
 
 § 423. In accordance with the principles just explained, the commander 
 of the advanced guard issues in this case instructions to the following 
 purport : 
 
 1. The Nth regiment of cavalry and 2 pieces of the Nth battery of horse 
 artillery are detailed for outpost duty. These troops will post a chain of 
 vedettes from the village L, through the villages M and N, and along the 
 ridge to the lake P. 
 
 2. Patrols will be sent out : from the village L to F ; from the picket 
 E'", along the road Gr; and from the other posts, in the direction in which 
 the enemy is expected. 
 
 3. If the enemy attacks in force, the outposts will fall back upon the 
 advanced guard. 
 
 With these instructions as a basis, the commander of the outposts 
 makes his assignments ; each company is directed where to take position, 
 and between what points to occupy the line of observation ; all the parties 
 axe posted as explained above and shown in Fig. 8. 
 
 § 424. If, in the example given in Fig. 8, the right flank of the 
 advanced guard is not regarded as sufficiently protected by the marsh, 
 then an independent picket, consisting of a platoon, is posted at H, to 
 watch the road leading through the village I j this picket posts two pairs 
 of vedettes. 
 
 § 425. Example of the arrangement of outposts composed of both 
 cavalry and infantry. (Fig. 9.) 
 
 It is supposed that the advanced guard A, consisting of a brigade of 
 cavalry and a division of infantry, is placed behind the village B, and 
 that outposts are to be posted to guard against an attack by the enemy 
 arriving from the direction of the village C. 
 
 § 426. With this arrangement of the advanced guard, it is best to place 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 
 
 467 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 *£■; _ , ^ 
 ^^^. 
 
 
 - ^ ^^:-':£4M^-ff' ^^^m^ j^^^ :.r^?"T^ - ^ 
 
 The advanced guard A, consisting of a brigade of cavalry and a division of infantry, 
 is placed behind the village B, and outposts are to be posted to guard against an attack 
 by the enemy arriving from the direction of the village C ; 4 companies of cavalry, 2 
 regiments of infantry, and 2 pieces of foot artillery are detailed to furnish the outposts 
 and reserve. 
 
 D is the reserve, consisting of li companies of cavalry, 11 companies of infantry, and 
 ? pieces of foot artillery. 
 
 E is a main guard of 3 companies of infantry, which famishes the two pickets F, each * 
 of which posts 5 pairs of sentinels. 
 
 E' is an infantry main guard of 2 companies, which supports the two cavalry pickets 
 H, each of which consists of a platoon and posts 3 pairs of vedettes. E" is an infantry 
 main guard of 2 companies, to support the cavalry picket H', which posts 4 vedettes, and 
 H ', which posts 1 vedette. E'" is an infantry main guard of 2 compsinies, which holds 
 the cemetery and supports the cavalry picket H'", posting 3 vedettes. 
 
 V^''<^-:f'mmi ^. 
 
 Infantry. 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 Scale of miles 
 
468 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 the outposts on the left side of the creek M, because if the line of posts 
 were limited by the stream it would be difficult to obtain information of 
 the movements of the enemy's advanced guard. 
 
 § 427. The best line of observation is from the lake N to the corner 
 of the village B, then along the edge of this village to the marsh Q. On 
 account of its shortness and the nature of the objects on which its flanks 
 rest, this line is very advantageous. From the lakq N to the village B 
 (about IJ mile) it may be held by cavalry; along the edge of the village, 
 (about f of a mile,) by infantry. 
 
 § 428. To prevent the line from being turned, independent pickets 
 must in this case be posted on the left flank, near the lake N and the 
 height 0, on the right flank on the road L ; to support the pickets and 
 defend the villages and crossings, it is best that all the main guards should 
 be of infantry. 
 
 § 429. Thus the line will consist of 2 cavalry and 2 infantry pickets, 
 holding the main line of observation, of 3 independent cavalry pickets, 
 and of 4 infantry main guards. To supply these, 5 platoons of cavalry 
 and about 9 companies of infantry will be necessary; so that for the 
 whole outpost service, including the reserve, there may be detailed 4 
 companies of cavalry, 2 battalions of infantry, and 2 pieces of foot artil- 
 lery. 
 
 § 430. On this basis the commander of the outposts receives the follow- 
 ing instructions : 
 
 1. Four companies of the Nth regiment of cavalry, the Mth and Nth 
 regiments of infantry, and 2 pieces of the Nth foot battery are detailed 
 for the outposts. 
 
 2. The cavalry will occupy the line of the outposts from the lake N, 
 along the ravine P, to the corner of the village B; the infantry, from this 
 last point, along the edge of the village to the marsh Q. 
 
 One independent cavalry picket will be posted near the village B, 
 another in front of the village I, a third on the road L. 
 
 3. The main guards will be of infantry, posted as follows: one, of 2 
 companies, in the cemetery near the end of the village B ; another, of 3 
 companies, in that village ; a third, of 2 companies, in the village G j a 
 fourth, of 2 companies, in the village I. 
 
 4. The rest of the troops detailed will form the reserve of the outposts, 
 and be posted at D, on the main road, behind the crossing over the 
 stream M. 
 
 5. As long as the enemy does not show a strong force of infantry, every 
 effort will be made to keep him beyond the villages. 
 
 Under the foregoing instructions the outposts may be arranged as shown 
 in Fig. 9. 
 
 § 431. Finally, among the examples of the disposition of outposts 
 
OF CAVALJIY IN TIME OF WAR. 469 
 
 according to the ground may be considered the case of a locality which 
 permits the enemy to approach only by a few passes. If he is separated 
 from us by a river, a marsh, rough hills, &c., and can approach only by 
 known fords, passages, or narrow defiles, then, if these points are occupied 
 by independent pickets, there will be no necessity for a continuous chain 
 of vedettes. 
 
 Remark. — ^Whenever the camp is behind a river, the outposts should 
 convey to their own side all the boats and other means of crossing. 
 
 § 432. In such cases, the independent pickets are posted at points 
 which the enemy cannot turn. 
 
 § 433. For their own safety, they post vedettes; if the ground permits, 
 they communicate with each other by means of patrols. 
 
 § 434. If it is necessary to support the independent pickets, reserves 
 are placed as directed in § 412. 
 
 § 435. Example of the arrangement of the outposts in a locality where 
 the enemy can approach only hy a few passes. (Fig. 10.) 
 
 It is supposed that a detachment, composed of a brigade of cavalry 
 and a division of infantry, is placed at the village A to guard, in connec- 
 tion with another detachment at B, the troops following from the north, 
 and that outposts are to'be posted; and that it is known that the advanced 
 troops of the enemy, approaching from the south, have not yet occupied 
 the village N, and that they cannot turn the passages over the stream P. 
 
 § 436. It is evident that it is unnecessary, in this case, to post a con- 
 tinuous chain of vedettes, and that it will be sufficient to place independent 
 pickets on the main roads, at proper distances from the advanced detach- 
 ment to be supported by it, and keep up the communication with the de- 
 tachment at B. 
 
 § 437. Upon examining the ground in front of A and B, it is evident 
 that the stream P is the most advantageous line of observation, and that 
 the main detachment will be perfectly secure if the crossings of the 
 stream are occupied by independent pickets. 
 
 § 438, The crossings are at the points Q, R, S, T, U, and V. Sup- 
 posing the crossing at Q to be occupied by a picket from the detachment 
 at B, and that each picket consists of a platoon, the detachment at 
 A must furnish 5 platoons, or 6 if the flank picket at K consists of a 
 company. 
 
 § 439. Main guards, consisting of a company each, are posted near 
 the villages F and I; and there may be a reserve of 4 or 5 companies 
 and a few guns at the village D. 
 
 § 440. The pickets posted near R, S, and T, should send out patrols to 
 the village N, and the pickets near U and V send patrols to the village 
 W ; a small detachment should be sent through the village X, to keep on 
 until it finds the enemy; this should be composed of a company. 
 
470 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 
 The enemy is beyond the village N ; our own detachments occupy A and B ; the force at 
 A consists of a brigade of cavalry and a division of infantry; 10 companies of cavalry 
 and two pieces of horse artillery are detailed from A to furnish the outposts and reserve. 
 C is the reserve, consisting of 5 companies and 2 guns. E is a main guard of 1 company, 
 supporting the pickets G and G', each of which posts a vedette at the crossings R and S 
 respectively. E' is a main guard of 1 company, supporting the pickets G", which post one 
 vedette at T and one at a crossing above, and G'", which posts a vedette at V. The 
 pickets G, Q', G", G'", each consist of a platoon. K is a picket, consisting of a company 
 which posts two vedettes near the village L, and patrols the road beyond. 
 
 M is a distant patrol, of one company, detached from the reserve to find the enemy. 
 is a picket belonging to the detachment B, which posts a vedette at the crossing Q. 
 
 m y^ m ^ 4 Infantry. 
 
 ^^^^g^^^ ^ _ 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 T t 1 
 
 Scale of miles 
 
OF CAVAL.RY IN TIME OF WAR. 47I 
 
 § 441. On these principles the commander of the outposts receives the 
 following instructions : 
 
 1. The Xth regiment of cavalry and 2 pieces of the Nth horse battery 
 are detailed for the outposts. 
 
 2. Until the enemy arrives at the village N, the outposts will keep 
 only independent pickets at the crossings of the stream P, at R, S, T, U, 
 and V; the main guards to be companies near F, I, and L; in order to 
 observe the enemy better, one company will be sent through the village 
 N, to keep on until it finds the enemy; the remainder of the cavalry and 
 the guns will be posted in reserve near the village D. Near patrols will 
 be sent out, a^ usual, from all the pickets, in the direction of the villages 
 N and W, and distant patrols to keep on until they find the enemy. 
 
 To carry out these instructions, the outposts may be arranged as shown 
 in fig. 10. 
 
 § 442. If the line observed by the independent pickets is very far 
 from the camp, and it is not intended to defend it, but they are restricted 
 to observation and giving notice of the enemy's approach, then this line 
 is occupied by cavalry alone, according to the rules for independent pickets. 
 
 § 443. But if the line is near the camp, or for other reasons it is 
 necessary to defend as well as observe it, then it should be occupied by 
 infantry in force proportionate to the importance of the case, or the possi- 
 bility of holding it long enough to permit oth#r troops to arrive. 
 
 § 444. Such posts are called independent defensive posts. 
 
 If an independent defensive post is far from camp, and it is only in- 
 tended to delay the advance of the head of the enemy's column, and then 
 fall back on the other troops, cavalry should occupy it in preference. 
 
 § 445. In such cases mounted riflemen are of great use, because they 
 repulse the enemy by acting as infantry, and can retreat with the rapidity 
 of cavalry when it becomes necessary; and, when covering the retreat 
 of other troops, they can act sometimes as infantry, sometimes as cavalry, 
 according to the nature of the ground and the necessity of the case. 
 
 § 446. In an independent defensive post, the party on duty dismounts 
 and occupies the point to be defended as infantry; the rest of the men 
 repose near the horses, observing the precautions prescribed for main 
 guards; they are placed in rear of the men acting as infantry, and keep 
 ihe horses bitted. 
 
 § 447. In all the cases mentioned in this chapter, precise instructions 
 are given to the commander of each party as to what is to be done in the 
 event of the appearance of the enemy. 
 
 § 448. As a conclusion to this chapter, it may be stated that, although 
 the disposition of the outposts, according to the nature of the ground, is 
 of the utmost importance, for the reason that success in watching the 
 enemy depends neither on the number nor strength of the outposts, but 
 
472 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 on their skilful aiTangement, all that can be said on the subject is limited 
 rather to an explanation of the general importance of objects than to 
 laying down any precise rules. In all cases theory must yield to the 
 judgment of the commander, for a blind and unconditional following of 
 rules may result in injury rather than advantage. 
 
 From all that precedes, it appears that troops may be guarded either 
 by continuous chains with lines of supports, or by independent posts, or 
 by patrols, or, finally, by all three methods combined. 
 
 But there is no doubt that, if we carefully conform to the priniiiples 
 laid down for each of these arrangements, one of them will often sufl&ce; 
 while, on the contrary, if we neglect these principles, the eiiiployment of 
 all three may be insufficient. 
 
 CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN THE CAMP OF THE 
 MAIN BODY. 
 
 § 449. To avoid fatiguing the troops by keeping all of them constantly 
 ready for a movement and combat, but at the same time to secure them 
 against attack, and be abj^ to afford prompt assistance to the outposts, a 
 portion of the main body is detailed as an inlying picket. 
 
 § 450. The inlying picket must always be ready for action on the first 
 order or signal. The men should therefore always be to the front, and 
 be dressed both by day and night; their arms should be loaded, and their 
 horses saddled but unbitted and picketed; they are taken to water by 
 turns, in parties. In the artillery, the men of the inlying picket are 
 always dressed, the horses have their collars on, and are taken to water 
 only by piece or by section. 
 
 § 451. It rests with the commander of the main body, according to the 
 news he has of the enemy, whether to direct additional precautions on 
 the, part of the inlying picket; for instance, that the men should wear 
 their accoutrements, &c. 
 
 § 452. The strength of the inlying picket is regulated by the com- 
 mander of the detachment, or army, in conformity with the degree of 
 danger, the proximity of the enemy, and his means of turning our posi- 
 tion. Approximately, the inlying picket is 4 or \ of the whole force. 
 
 § 453. In small detachments from which it is impossible to send out 
 many men on outpost duty, and in general near the enemy, the whole 
 detachment sometimes forms a kind of inlying picket ; in this case only 
 a small number are relieved at a time, according to the judgment of the 
 commander, but the greater portion remain in readiness for action. 
 
OF CAVAL^RY IN TIME OF WAR. 473 
 
 § 454. Upon receiving from the outposts news of the approach of the 
 enemy, the inlying picket at once moves to the front to receive the out- 
 posts and afford the other troops time to prepare. 
 
 § 455. For greater security, the inlying picket is sometimes posted a 
 little to the front, and then picket their horses somewhat in advance of 
 the general camp. This is done whenever there is any thing immediately 
 in front of the camp to cause delay. 
 
 § 456. The commander and all the officers of the inlying picket will 
 strictly superintend the observation of all the precautions required. 
 
 § 457. To prevent confusion in the camp in case of an alarm or an 
 attack, it is necessary to watch — 
 
 1. That all parts of the troops are arranged in conformity with the 
 movements they are to make, so that they can form in order of battle 
 without confusion, and without crossing each other's paths. 
 
 2. That all commanders, down to those of regiments and batteries, in- 
 clusive, know the places their commands are to occupy in the general 
 order of battle, if it is determined to accept battle at or near the camp. 
 
 3. That all impediments to the free communications and movements 
 of the troops are removed in season as far as practicable. 
 
 4. That the commander of the train is always informed whither to 
 direct it, in case of leaving camp suddenly. 
 
 5. That the parties of troops, from whom mixed detachments are sent 
 out for forage and other necessaries, are formed immediately after their 
 departure, to count and organize those remaining. 
 
 § 458. The commander of the main body should be well informed in 
 regard to all the country in the vicinity of his position, and especially as 
 to the roads and crossings of streams in the direction in which he expects 
 to move. 
 
 § 459. In camps of the main body, the inlying picket posts camp and 
 quarter guards immediately after reaching camp ; this is done as in time 
 of peace. 
 
 § 460. It is the duty of the sentinels of the camp and quarter guards 
 to see that no one leaves camp between evening twilight and reveille 
 without a special permit from the commander, unless on duty. 
 
 Men who are not known, and do not belong to the troops, or who 
 have not the necessary permission, are allowed to leave camp neither by 
 day nor night, but are stoppecf by the sentinels and sent to the guards, 
 by whom they are sent to the inlying picket. * * 
 
 § 461. In the night the sentinels of the camp and quarter guards chal- 
 lenge all who approach from the exterior, and act as prescribed for vedettes. 
 
 § 462. In general, all the rules laid do\yi for camp and garrison service 
 in time of peace are carried out as far" as possible in the camps of the 
 main body. 
 
474 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED FOR THE SECURITY OF 
 CANTONMENTS. 
 
 Article 1. 
 Of advanced detachments. 
 
 § 463. Troops in cantonments, being scattered over a great space, and 
 requiring much time to assemble, are not covered by a continuous chain 
 of outposts. In this case, the arrangements for the early discovery of the 
 approach of the enemy are made entirely by the cavalry, who must, by 
 means of their outposts, patrols, and parties, watch the whole space in 
 front of the cantonments towards the enemy. 
 
 § 464. These outposts consist entirely of independent posts, whose 
 arrangement depends altogether upon circumstances. It can only be said 
 that, as they are sent out to discover the enemy, they are posted in pre- 
 ference on the main roads, at the junctions of roads on which the enemy 
 must move, and in places favorable to defensive operations. If there is 
 any place on the flank of the cantonments offering advantages to the 
 enemy, it must be occupied. 
 
 § 465. The posts should be strong in proportion to the importance of 
 the road on which they are placed, their distance from the cantonments, 
 and the facility for defence offered by the ground. 
 
 § 466. The precautions to be observed by these posts have a twofold 
 object: (a) their own safety; (Jj) to afford timely information of the 
 approach of the enemy. -^In this matter they conform to what is pre- 
 scribed in Part II., Chapter I., Article 6, of these regulations. 
 
 § 467. The more extensive the space over which the outposts are 
 scattered, the more are they left to their own resources, and the more 
 must their success depend upon the good sense of the commander of each 
 party. His only means of obtaining news of the enemy are his own eyes, 
 sentinels, vedettes, patrols, and information from travellers and the inhabit- 
 ants; but it depends upon his own sagacity to apply them with the 
 greatest success. * 
 
 ^ 468. To suffport the independent pickets, there may be sent out main 
 guards, asid on the most important points of all the roads leading towards 
 the enemy main advanced detachments. 
 
 § 469. These last, being intended not only .to support the cavalry out- 
 posts and parties, but also to cli'eck the enemy long enough to enable the 
 troops in the cantonments to assemble at the designated rendezvous, should 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 475 
 
 possess a certain independent strength ; therefore they should consist of 
 all three arms, according to the importance of the point. 
 
 § 470. These detachments are pushed one or two marches from the 
 cantonments, and occupy strong positions, which they may sometimes 
 strengthen by field works. 
 
 § 471. If the intervals between them are considerable, smaller posts 
 are placed between them, to keep up the communication and secure the 
 cantonments from being alarmed by light detachments of the enemy. 
 
 § 472. The commander of a main advanced detachment must make 
 himself well acquainted with the country in the vicinity, examine all the 
 approaches by which the enfemy may arrive, and take all measures to 
 discover his movements betimes, as well as to secure the best possible 
 defence of the post. 
 
 § 473, All the outposts are subordinate to the commander of the main 
 advanced detachment ; he arranges their movements, and receives from 
 them all news of the enemy. 
 
 § 474. The main advanced detachments post camp and quarter guards. 
 All the men should be in readiness for action ; therefore the horses are 
 saddled at the picket-ropes, arms loaded, accoutrements close at hand, 
 and they do not undress at night ; their inlying pickets keep their horses 
 bridled and accoutrements on. The guns in position should be loaded, 
 artillery horses with their collars on, the detachments close to their 
 pieces. 
 
 § 475. All the posts mentioned in this article guard themselves by the 
 various dispositions for outpost service ; that is to say, they detach inde- 
 pendent posts or surround themselves by chains, according to their dis- 
 tance from the enemy. They send out patrols and flying detachments as 
 far as the position of the enemy, and also patrols to keep up their com- 
 munication with each other and with the cantonments. 
 
 § 476. In order to embarrass and retard his approach, preparations are 
 made betimes to take up the bridges, destroy the causeways, &c., in the 
 direction of the enemy, so that the advanced parties may accomplish the 
 purpose immediately upon their retreat across them. But the communica- 
 tions with the cantonments should be perfectly open ; therefore all obsta- 
 cles should be removed betimes. 
 
 § 477. If the commander of a main advanced detachment receives 
 news of the enemy, he at once reports it to the commander-in-chief, and, 
 if necessary, to the commanders of the nearest posts and detachments. 
 In such cases it is necessary to be unusually circumspect with regard to 
 reports; and in case of the appearance of the enemy, to endeavor to 
 ascertain his force and designs, in order to avoid alarming the canton- 
 ments without cause. 
 
 § 478. That the commander-in-chief may be constantly informed of 
 
476 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 what is going on at the outposts, the commanders of the main advanced 
 detachments send reports to him at the hours he may specify, several 
 times a day, even if nothing of importance has been observed. 
 
 § 479. Signal stations, telegraphs, &c., are established at convenient 
 points to convey prompt information of the approach of the enemy. 
 
 § 480. If a main advanced detachment is attacked, its movements must 
 depend upon the orders it has received from the commander-in-chief. 
 
 § 481. Only their wagons of the 1st class, with a par* of those of the 
 2d, are with the main advanced detachments. 
 
 If the enemy advances, the wagons at once move to the rear, so as not 
 to impede the movements of the troops if they are forced to retreat. 
 
 § 482. On account of the fatiguing nature of the outpost duty, the 
 troops should be relieved from time to time, according to th* judgment 
 of the commander-in-chief. 
 
 Article 2. 
 Precautions to he observed hy the main hody in cantonments. 
 
 § 483. In addition to the outposts and advanced detachments for guard- 
 ing the cantonments, certain measures of precaution are taken by the 
 main body itself, especially in reference to the rapid assembly of the 
 troops in the event of an attack. These measures are regulated by the 
 commander-in-chief, according to the proximity of the enemy and the 
 degree of the danger. 
 
 § 484. The troops nearest the enemy, being most exposed to attack, 
 are placed in crowded quarters to secure a prompt assembly; the others 
 may be placed farther apart and in more roomy quarters, for the greater 
 facility of obtaining supplies. 
 
 § 485. In the distribution of the troops, their position in the canton- 
 ments must correspond, as nearly as possible, with their position in the 
 order of battle. The artillery is placed near the points where it is 
 destined to act, the men and horses being in the same villages with 
 the parks. 
 
 § 486. If it is necessary, inlying pickets are detailed in the villages 
 nearest th^ enemy; the state of preparation in which they are kept is 
 regulated by the corftmander-in-chief according to circumstances. If 
 necessary, distant patrols are* sent out by these inlying pickets. 
 
 § 487. In addition to the guards at regimental head-quarters, and in 
 the diflferent parts of large villages, infantry guards are posted at the 
 outlets of the villages on the side of the enemy. These guards post 
 sentinels, and are ordered to prevent the passage of people without the 
 countersign at night, or both by day and night, according to circumstances. 
 
 § 488. Signal stations and telegraphs must be arranged in the canton- 
 ments. . The signals to turn out and form must be explained to the troops. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 477 
 
 § 489. That the troops may meet the enemy in force if he attacks, 
 points of rendezvous must be designated near the quarters for regiments, 
 divisions, and other parties. 
 
 § 490. In addition to the general rendezvous, there is a special one for 
 the troops in each village. This is chosen outside of the village, on the 
 side nearest the general rendezvous; and measures are taken betimes 
 that all the roads leading to the rendezvous may be open and free from 
 obstacles. 
 
 § 491. When the troops march to the rendezvous, only the wagons of 
 the 1st class accompany them; special rendezvous are given for the other 
 wagons, so that the troops may not be delayed or embarrassed by them 
 either when moving to the rendezvous or in case of retreat. 
 
 § 492. For the march of the troops to the rendezvous, roads are chosen 
 for each party, so that they may neither cross nor delay each other on 
 the march. 
 
 The roads should be examined and repaired betimes. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 OF THE PRINCIPAL OPERATIONS OF SPECIAL DE- 
 TACHMENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 OF SUDDEN ATTACKS UPON THE ENEMY. 
 
 § 493. Sudden attacks upon the enemy are made with several objects: 
 
 1. To alarm his posts; 
 
 2. To capture one or more of them; and, 
 
 3. To attack his quarters. 
 
 § 494. For all such enterprises, cavalry are chosen in preference. 
 Mounted rifles, or dragoons, uniting the defensive force of infantry with 
 the velocity of cavalry, may be of particular advantage in the last two 
 eases, especially in passing to the defensive and covering a retreat, in case 
 of a failure in the enterprise. 
 
 § 495. The principal conditions of success in all enterprises of this 
 kind maybe stated to be: 1. Complete knowledge of the ground, and 
 positive information as to the force and distribution of the enemy; 2. A 
 concealed approach to the point on which the attack is to be made; 3. 
 Rapidity of movement, seconded by the secrecy and unexpectedness of 
 the attack; and, 4. To keep the movements of the different parties as 
 closely united as possible until the last moment, so that no one of them 
 
478 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 may be delayed by unexpected obstacles, or discovered by the enemy on 
 account of having separated too soon; finally, the whole force must be 
 perfectly ready for action at a moment's notice. 
 
 § 496. In accomplishing a concealed approach to the point on which 
 the attack is to be made, we will be assisted by selecting the time when 
 the enemy least expects an attack, — that is, in the night, or thick weather; 
 by choosing the route afibrding the best cover; by announcing an enter- 
 prise of an entirely different nature; and, sometimes, by starting in the 
 opposite direction, that after having made a considerable circuit we may 
 finally come out in the real direction. 
 
 § 497. Besides the general conditions specified, there are also particular 
 conditions, relating to each of the cases specified in § 493, which are dis- 
 cussed in the following sections. 
 
 § 498. Attacks upon the enemy's outposts are undertaken either to 
 harass him, by obliging him to be in constant readiness for action, or to 
 divert his attention, in order to cover some movement favorable to us. 
 
 In this and the other cases, we should endeavor to extend the alarm over 
 ^the greatest possible space with the fewest possible men. 
 
 For this, it is advantageous to divide the party into several sections, 
 which, attacking at several points, either simultaneously or successively, 
 break through the chain, gallop up to the main guards, and, having 
 alarmed them, at once fall back; if successful, they seize some vedettes or 
 even pickets. In such an attack every section exerts itself to appear as 
 strong as possible;, they therefore scatter, and generally keep up a warm 
 firing and great noise. 
 
 § 499. Besides harassing the enemy, which is the direct object of these 
 attacks, they may procure the advantage of making the enemy careless if 
 they are frequently repeated, and thus facilitate the success of more im- 
 portant operations. 
 
 § 500. In making an attack for the purpose of capturing a post of the 
 enemy, it is well to divide the detachment detailed for the service into 
 three parts : one moves to the rear of the post, on its road of retreat and 
 reinforcement; another part makes the direct attack; the third is held in 
 reserve to support the attack, or, in case of failure, cover the retreat of 
 the other parts. If possible, it is well to conceal the reserve until the 
 moment when the enemy is allured to pursue the repulsed party; then the 
 reserve, acting as an ambuscade, endeavors to take the enemy in flank or 
 in rear, and seize the abandoned post. 
 
 § 501. If the post attacked is in a village, the place of assembly should 
 be ascertained, and a party of men sent there to seize the enemy as they 
 arrive singly upon the alarm. 
 
 § 502. In general, in attacking a post with the design of taking posses- 
 sion of it, the greatest silence should be observed, and the firing com- 
 
OF CAVALRY. IN TIME OF WAR. 479 
 
 menced only when the attacking party has been already discovered; then 
 rapidity and decision are necessary, so that the enemy may not have time 
 to recover; rapidity and audacity in the attack usually command success. 
 
 § 503. If the enemy retreats, then on the return march the reserve 
 usually marches in front with the prisoners; the attacking party follows; 
 the party which moved on the enemy's rear acts as a rear guard. 
 
 §504. If the ground permits, the attack may be combined with an 
 ambuscade. For this purpose veteran troops are detailed, who are con- 
 cealed with, the object of falling suddenly upon the enemy when he has 
 been decoyed to their position. In this case, success depends much upon 
 the conduct of the troops who act openly, and who should endeavor to 
 decoy the enemy into an imprudent pursuit, and draw him into the 
 ambuscade. 
 
 § 505. The success of the ambuscade itself depends chiefly upon seiz- 
 ing the proper moment for action. As a general rule, it should not begin 
 to act too soon, lest the enemy retreat without loss. It is best to allow 
 his leading parties to pass so far by that he may be attacked in flank, or, 
 still better, in rear and his retreat cut off. 
 
 § 506. Apart from the object of seizing important points, attacks are 
 sometimes made upon the enemy's posts with the special object of en- 
 couraging the military spirit of our own troops, and increasing their bold- 
 ness and self-confidence by partial successes. 
 
 In this case prudence requires progression in the undertakings; be- 
 ginning with those that require small numbers and at the same time pro- 
 mise full success, such as capturing single vedettes; then, upon success, 
 to undertake the capture of pickets, and finally to pass to more important 
 enterprises. Inital successes in a campaign are of particular importance; 
 they produce favorable impressions upon our own people, and depress the 
 courage of the enemy. 
 
 If the enemy is- at all negligent in guarding his horses, small parties 
 may accomplish important results by stampeding them at night. 
 
 § 507. The object of attacks upon the cantonments of the enemy may 
 be to alarm him, to capture important points, or to profit by his disper- 
 sion and attack in force so as to defeat him in detail. 
 
 § 508. In the first two cases the operations, although on a larger scale, 
 will be nearly like those for attacking the outposts. 
 
 In the last case, when the detachment making the attack succeeds in 
 carrying any important point, it should be at once supported by the co- 
 operation of other troops. Thus, not being delayed by the first success, 
 it can at once move on, and, taking advantage of the dispersion of the 
 enemy, endeavor to capture his troops before they are assembled and 
 ready for action, trusting to the troops in rear of it for a safe retreat. 
 
 § 509. It is evident that the strength of detachments detailed for 
 
 29 
 
480 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 sudden attacks must vary very much ; to capture a vedette 3 or 4 men are 
 enough, — the fewer the better. To capture a picket, and generally to 
 attack the enemy's outposts, parties of our own advanced troops may be 
 employed; to attack posts of importance, detachments of considerable 
 strength may be sent out; while to attack the cantonments of the enemy, 
 the whole of the main body is sometimes employed. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF RECONNOISSANCES. 
 
 § 510. A reconnoissance — that is, an ocular examination — should pre- 
 cede every military enterprise. It is always necessary to know before- 
 hand with what troops we have to deal, and the nature of the country in 
 which the operation is to be effected; this information can be fully obtained 
 neither by interrogation nor from maps; there is no other way than by a 
 reconnoissance. 
 
 § 511. Information obtained by a reconnoissance is preferable to that 
 by interrogation, as being more full, and generally obtained with less 
 delay. 
 
 § 512. If the enemy is so near that our own chain can see every thing, 
 the reconnoissance is made under its protection. In such a case the 
 reconnoitring officer either takes no escort, or a very small one, and, for 
 greater secrecy, leaves even that at some distance. 
 
 § 513. If the enemy is at some distance, distant patrols are detailed for 
 the reconnoissance; the duty is, according to its importance, intrusted 
 either to the commander of the patrol or to a special officer (sometimes 
 an officer of the staff) to whom the patrol is given as an escort. 
 
 § 514. If it is necessary to make a close reconnoissance of the position 
 and arrangements of the enemy, detachments of considerable strength 
 must be employed. Their composition must be such that they can drive 
 in the enemy's outposts, break through his lines to the required distance, 
 and remain long enough to gain satisfactory information. Such recon- 
 noissances made openly and in force are called forced reconnoissances. 
 Their object is sometimes not only to examine the ground and the 
 arrangements of the enemy, but also to ascertain his strength; conse- 
 quently, to alarm him to such a degree as to make him show the parties 
 at first concealed. 
 
 § 515. To insure the success of a reconnoissance, whatever its object 
 may be, it is necessary to attack suddenly and have a secure retreat. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 481 
 
 § 516. Small reconnoitriDg parties usually consist of cavalry alone; 
 but if a certain effort is required to seize any point, or if we must leave 
 it occupied while we pass beyond it, then artiljery and infantry must be 
 added. Here, as in all cases when it is necessary to combine rapidity of 
 movement with some defensive strength, mounted rifles may be advan- 
 tageously employed. 
 
 § 517. The strength of a reconnoitring party can only be determined 
 by its object and the obstacles it may be expected to encounter, not only 
 from the greater or less force of the enemy, but from the nature of the 
 ground, the distance of the place to be examined from our main body, 
 the degree of security of the retreat, &c. If the affair consists merely 
 in driving in an independent picket and holding its position long enough 
 to make an examination, a strong patrol will be sufficient } but if it is 
 necessary to examine a large portion of the enemy's position, or to ascer- 
 tain his strength, a considerable force may be required. But every thing 
 stated in this chapter relates more particularly to reconnoissances made 
 with small detachments. 
 
 § 518. Whatever may be the object of the reconnoissance and the 
 composition of the detachment, the first thing is to determine the point 
 from which the examination can be best made, and the principal effort 
 must be directed to the occupation of this point. This effort should not 
 be limited to a direct attack, but should be aided by several simultaneous 
 attacks upon other points, in order to distract the attention of the enemy, 
 divide his force, and throw him into irresolution. Such operations will 
 be particularly useful if the object is to ascertain the strength of the 
 enemy, for the partial attacks force him to show his whole force. 
 
 § 519. Having occupied the point from which the reconnoissance is to 
 be made, we should not be enticed into a pursuit of the beaten enemy, 
 but proceed at once to strengthen ourselves in the position ; that is, we 
 should take measures for meeting the enemy with- advantage when he 
 returns to the attack : with this view, the safety of the flanks must be 
 particularly attended to, to prevent the enemy from endangering the 
 retreat of the detachment by turning the position. 
 
 § 520. If the enemy makes a resolute attack before the reconnoissance 
 is completed, the degree of defence must depend upon the importance of 
 the object, that the sacrifice may be in proportion. A retreat commenced 
 at the wrong time may encounter peculiar difficulty : to commence the 
 retreat before the completion of the reconnoissance, is to abandon the 
 work when nearly finished ; remaining too long in position may expose us 
 to useless loss. Therefore, if the object is to ascertain the strength of the 
 enemy, the retreat should be commenced at once, because the enemy will 
 soon recover from the first attack and gain the means of assuming the 
 offensive. 
 
482 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 § 521. When a party has made a reconnoissance, its arrangements 
 during the retreat present nothing unusual; it should carefully guard 
 its flanks by strong parties or patrols, and always expect to be violently 
 attacked. 
 
 § 522. This is particularly to be anticipated when the object was to 
 ascertain the strength of the enemy, and the retreat was commenced late. 
 In such cases, prudence demands that we should place, beforehand, on 
 the road of retreat, separate supports of sufficient strength to stop the 
 pursuit and cover the retreat of the party. 
 
 § 523. When the supports of the reconnoitring party are shown, and 
 the enemy is near, it is prudent to have a considerable part, if not the 
 whole, of the main body ready for action. For it may easily happen that 
 the enemy, having been alarmed by the reconnoissance, and afterwards 
 excited by its repulse and pursuit, may "change his operations into a gene- 
 ral attack, especially if he observes the slightest negligence on our part ; 
 in this case, all the advantage would be on his side. 
 
 Remark. — There are two kinds of reconnoissances : those to ascertain 
 the general nature of the country, position and movements of the enemy, 
 &c. ] and those immediately preceding an action. The first should be 
 made with extreme minuteness, and as much time given to them as pos- 
 sible ; they may be well done by a man with but little genius and of a 
 careful, business turn of mind. The second require the highest order of 
 military genius, a rapid and unerring coup-d'odl, an accurate and instinct- 
 ive knowledge of the tactics of all arms; they must be made with 
 extreme rapidity, and acted upon at once. 
 
 There have been innumerable instances in military history, and not a 
 few in our own, where, on the one hand, invaluable time and opportunity 
 have been lost by the system of slow and minute reconnoissances in front 
 of the enemy, — obtaining the horizontal curves of a field of battle ; on 
 the other hand, pluBging headlong into action without a proper knowledge 
 of the ground. 
 
 The important points are : the strength of the enemy, the key-points 
 of his position, the nature of the ground between your own position and 
 his ; that is, is it passable, and for what arms ? Let the subordinate 
 commanders attend to minor obstacles. As soon as the proper information 
 is obtained on these points, act. The mere moral efi"ect of a rapid and 
 unhesitating movement is very great. During the ordinary marches and 
 intervals of rest, the cavalry and staff officers should collect every possible 
 item of information ; nothing is too trifling to be worth knowing ; if they 
 have done their duty properly, no general need hesitate more than a few 
 minutes when he finds himself in presence of the enemy. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 483 
 
 CHAPTER m. 
 
 OF CONVOYS. 
 
 Article 1. 
 
 The defence of convoys. 
 
 § 524. The rules for escorting trains, and the arrangements for securing 
 them against attack, were explained in Part I., Chapter I., Article 5 ; in 
 the present article will be explained the manner of defending the convoy 
 when attacked. . 
 
 § 525. The immediate defence of a very large train is, if not wholly 
 impossible, at least very difficult; for it involves an injurious division of 
 force. 
 
 § 526. The following rules are laid down as the most important : to 
 keep the force as much concentrated as possible, in order to act offensively, 
 leaving with the wagons only the number of men absolutely necessary ; 
 if this is impossible, an effort should be made to keep the enemy away 
 from the train as long as possible. 
 
 § 527. In accordance with this, on the approach of the enemy, if the 
 force of the escort is at all in proportion to that of the attacking party, 
 it is best to move out to meet the enemy with the greater part of the 
 escort, overthrow him, and clear the country in the direction of the march 
 of the train. Even if the escort is much weaker than the enemy, it 
 should move out to meet him, but must limit its subsequent operations to 
 the defensive, endeavoring to keep the enemy away from the train long 
 enough for it to gain a good defensive position. 
 
 § 528. In the latter case, the train is, if possible, parked in square, or 
 corralled. The escort, having kept off the enemy long enough to permit 
 this, retreats upon the train ; the defence, facilitated by the diminution 
 of the space occupied, is now conducted in accordance with the general 
 rules for the defence of the ground occupied, taking advantage of the 
 obstacle presented by the wagons. 
 
 § 529. If the attack is altogether by surprise, and is made on several 
 points at once, so that it is impossible to collect all the wagons in one 
 place, then each section of the train should be formed into a separate 
 column, square, or corral. 
 
 § 530. Any wagons loaded with powder or combustibles should be 
 placed by themselves inside the square, or else formed into a separate 
 park outside, placing them under cover of some defensible object. 
 
 § 531. In these cases, it is very necessary to watch the movements of 
 
484 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 the wagons, which should move to their places at such a gait as to render 
 confusion impossible. 
 
 Remarks. — At the commencement of the expedition, the commander 
 of the convoy should issue detailed instructions as to the manner of 
 forming square or corral in case of attack. In square, the hind wheels 
 of the wagons should be towards the exterior, the wagons should be fast- 
 ened together by the lock-chains, and in all cases intervals should be left 
 for the passage of the escort at proper points; these intervals should 
 be closed by chevaux-de-frise, chains, &c. 
 
 The train is most readily corralled when moving in two columns by 
 file and abreast. The leading wagons halt at a suitable distance apart, 
 the others oblique outwards, each wagon moving to the front as soon as it 
 clears the wagon next in front of it; each wagon then halts with its 
 inner hind wheel close to the outer fore wheel of the wagon which pre- 
 ceded it in the column, and these wheels are chained together; any 
 desirable shape may be given to the corral by throwing the pole of each 
 successive wagon more or less inward. 
 
 § 532. If there is a reasonable probability of saving the train by the 
 operation, it is best to concentrate it in a favorable position, and await 
 assistance; if the escort is altogether inferior in force, it may be best to 
 save the train by a retreat. 
 
 § 533. When the wagons are formed in column, square, or corral, their 
 defence devolves upon the infantry portion of the escort; the cavalry, 
 remaining outside the park, can only co-operate by endeavoring to take 
 the enemy in flank j &c. 
 
 § 534. The enemy may send out small detachments with the object of 
 alarming the convoy and delaying its march by forcing it to halt and form. 
 Such parties should be driven off by detachments from the escort, with- 
 out assembling the train, which should be parked only when the enemy 
 attacks decisively and in considerable force. Therefore patrols should be 
 sent out as far as possible, to discover the approach of the enemy and 
 ascertain his force betimes. 
 
 § 585. Having repulsed the enemy, the escort must not be induced to 
 pursue him too far from the wagons; it is only necessary to take measures 
 to allow the train to pursue its march. 
 
 § 536. If the convoy is attacked when halted, the defence is conducted 
 as already prescribed ; but in this case the defence is easier, because the 
 wagons are already formed and the escort in position. Even here it is 
 best to try to keep the enemy at a distance, or, if the forces are at all 
 equal, to defeat him, and then return to the train. 
 
 § 537. The selection of the positions for rests and camps will have a 
 great influence upon the success of the defence of the convoy. In the 
 selection, preference will be given to those places which are favorable to 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 485 
 
 the action of the troops composing the escort, or the greater part of it. 
 For parking the train, places must be chosen' at a distance from objects 
 which would conceal the approach of the enemy, and enable him to hold 
 a position dangerously near; on the other hand, it should be surrounded 
 by objects preventing easy access, but not interfering with observation. 
 
 § 538. At the park, the troops of the escort are posted as follows : the 
 infantry and artillery bivouac inside the square; the first places its parties 
 along the faces they are respectively detailed to defend, and posts guards 
 and a chain of sentinels around the park ; the guns are placed at the 
 angles, and generally at the weakest points, or where it is easiest to sweep 
 the ground in front. 
 
 The cavalry, bivouacked outside the park, places outposts and sends out 
 patrols according to the rules for outpost service. 
 
 The draught-animals should be collected in the centre, so as not to 
 interfere with the defence of the sides. 
 
 Article 2. 
 The attack of convoys. 
 
 § 539. An attack upon a convoy may be intended either to capture it, 
 to destroy it, or merely to alarm and delay it. 
 
 Independently of other considerations, the composition and force of the 
 attacking party must depend upon the object in view. 
 
 § 540. The general conditions for success in the attack of convoys are 
 usually the same as for sudden attacks. The most favorable moment for 
 attacking a convoy is when it is passing a defile, crossing hills, streams, &c. 
 
 § 541. The main eflbrt of the attack should be directed against the 
 escort, especially if it is marching in one body, not only to occupy its 
 attention, but also to separate it from the train if possible. At the same 
 time, small parties should move upon different parts of the train, to pre- 
 vent it from parking, carry it off, or destroy the wagons. A part of the 
 troops must be held in reserve. 
 
 § 542. If the train succeeds in parking, the operations against it become 
 difficult for cavalry alone ; in that case, the infantry and artillery must 
 act. 
 
 § 543. If the train or • a part of it is captured, and it is possible to 
 carry it oflf, the operations of the detachment change ; it then escorts the 
 wagons, as directed in Part I., Chapter I., Article 5, and acts as is laid 
 down in the preceding article. 
 
 § 544. When the attacking detachment is sent out merely to delay and 
 annoy the convoy, it passes in advance of it, destroys the roads, ruins the 
 crossings of streams, and alarms the convoy by partial attacks, particu- 
 larly during the night and at well-known places. 
 
486 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF FORAGING, AND ATTACKS UPON FORAGERS. 
 
 Article 1. 
 Of foraging. 
 
 § 545. Under the head of foraging are included the operations of 
 parties detailed to obtain not only forage, but supplies of all kinds. 
 
 § 546. Foraging is eflfected sometimes where there is no danger from the 
 enemy, sometimes in places where an attack may be expected, and, in cases 
 of extreme necessity, sometimes in places actually occupied by the enemy. 
 The manner of conducting the operation is Somewhat different in the 
 three cases. 
 
 Remark. — If the enemy is so near that an attack may be expected, the 
 artillery send out no foragers, so as not to break up the detachments with 
 the guns and interfere with their readiness for action. In such cases, 
 if it is not possible to supply the batteries from the temporary magazines, 
 their foraging is imposed upon the cavalry. 
 
 § 547. Foraging out of all danger from the enemy is effected as fol- 
 lows : a space for foraging is assigned to each party of the troops, and, if 
 it is expected to remain some time in the same position, the villages are 
 occupied by safeguards sent by the party in whose ground each falls. 
 The'foraging is commenced at the places nearest the enemy, falling back, 
 as he approaches, to those immediately in our front, and finally to those 
 in rear. 
 
 § 548. For foraging, parties of men, with the proper number of officers, 
 are detailed, and the necessary wagons sent with them ; if the forage is 
 to be packed on the troop horses, this is done as shown in figs. 11, 12. If 
 the foraging is to be effected in villages, severe measures must be taken 
 to prevent disorder and plundering on the part of the foragers. 
 
 § 549. In this case, it is best not to take the party into the village, 
 but to send for the chief persons and stipulate with them that the inhabit- 
 ants shall bring the required forage and other stores out to the troops. 
 If the inhabitants do not promptly comply with this moderate command, 
 it is necessary to take the party in. 
 
 § 550. In this event, all possible means must be taken to prevent dis- 
 order, as, for instance : 
 
 1. -A certain number of houses are assigned to each company, so that 
 the commander of the detachment may hold each company responsible for 
 the disorders committed within its limits. ^ 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 
 
 487 
 
 2. Guards are posted and patrols sent out, who arrest any foragers 
 guilty of disorder. 
 
 3. If the form of the village permits, a part of the detachment remains 
 at the centre to pack the horses and load the wagons as fast as the other 
 men bring the forage from the houses. 
 
 § 551. In places where an attack may be expected, the foraging is con- 
 ducted as follows : Either fatigue parties are sent with wagons, or parties 
 of cavalry with their own horses ; in both cases a special escort is added 
 for the protection of the foragers. 
 
 § 552. In all cases, the strength of the escort depends upon the degree 
 of danger, the space over which the foraging is to extend, and the dis- 
 tance from the enemy. 
 
 § 553. During the march of foragers to and from the foraging-ground, 
 if they consist of a fatigue party with wagons, an escort is added, which 
 ax3ts in conformity with the rules for escorting convoys. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 If the foragers consist only of cavalry with their own horses, then on 
 the outward march they move in one body, observing the precautions 
 prescribed for movements near the enemy ; on the return march, if the 
 horses of the foragers are packed and led, the detachment acting as escort 
 should not pack more than 40 pounds on their horses, so that the load 
 may not prevent them from acting against the enemy. 
 
 Remarks. — Hay is packed as shown in figs. 11, 12. 
 
 One hundred and twelve pounds may be packed on a horse, as shown 
 in fig. 11, and the horse must be led; 56 pounds are packed as 'shown 
 in fig. 12, in two trusses. 
 
 § 554. Sometimes the escort, or a part of it, may be sent out early to 
 
488 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 
 
 the foraging-ground, to take measures for the security of the foragers 
 before they arrive. 
 
 § 555. For the safety of the foragers when at their work, the escort is 
 divided into two or three parts, according to circumstances : one part 
 places a chain of outposts and sends out patrols, to guard the whole 
 ground ; another furnishes the supports of the outposts, and if there are 
 infantry or mounted rifles with it they occupy the points which cover the 
 approaches; the third part is placed in reserve near the centre of the 
 ground, that it may easily reach any point attacked. 
 
 § 556. If the enemy attacks while the foraging is going on, the escort 
 should go to meet him or defend itself in position, endeavoring to stop 
 him until the foragers have finished their work, and are drawn out on the 
 road for their return march ; then the escort commences its retreat, acting 
 as a rear guard, and endeavoring to keep the enemy as far from the 
 foragers as possible. If it is impossible to hold the enemy in check long 
 enough to finish the work, they should at least send forward and protect 
 all the foragers who have packed their horses or loaded their wagons ; 
 the rest join the escort. If there is a probability of driving off the enemy 
 by uniting all the foragers to the escort, it is best to abandon the forage 
 already packed, and to begin foraging anew after having repulsed the 
 enemy. It is permitted to abandon the forage entirely only in extreme 
 urgency, when there is absolutely no other way of saving the foragers. 
 
 § 557. If the enemy is repulsed, we must not be induced to pursue him 
 any farther than enough to prevent a renewal of the attack, but must 
 endeavor to complete the foraging. 
 
 § 558. The foraging must not be extended over any ground not guarded 
 by the escort. If the escort is too weak to cover the whole space desig- 
 nated for foraging, the ground is divided into parts, and the foraging 
 effected in the different portions successively. 
 
 § 559. If the foragers are attacked on their return march, the defence 
 is conducted as prescribed in the preceding chapter. 
 
 § 560. If the foraging-ground is at a considerable distance from the 
 camp, it will be a proper precaution to post a special detachment in sup- 
 port half-way. 
 
 § 561. Foraging in places occupied by the enemy is undertaken only 
 upon the entire exhaustion of the ground occupied by our own troops. 
 Such foraging is covered by offensive operations, so that, having driven 
 in the enemy's advanced troops or other parties, we niay rapidly seize all 
 the supplies to be found in the vicinity. This is called forced foraz/inff. 
 
 § 562. The strength and composition of a detachment for forced 
 foragitg must be such that it can overwhelm the enemy's troops, and 
 remain long enough in position to enable the accompanying detachment 
 of foragers to complete their work and retreat out of danger. 
 
OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 489 
 
 § 563. The main conditions of success in such an enterprise are sud- 
 denness, rapidity, and determination in the attack, promptness in the 
 work of the foragers, and tenacity in holding the positions taken from the 
 enemy as long as necessary. Success will be greatly facilitated by partial 
 attacks made upon diflFerent points of the enemy's position while the 
 foraging is going on. 
 
 Article 2. 
 Of attacks upon foragers. 
 
 § 564. Attacks upon foragers should be sudden and rapid, in order, by 
 not giving the escort time to defend the points attacked, to produce con- 
 fusion among the foragers and thus prevent them from working. 
 
 § 565. The approach of the attacking party should be concealed, rapid, 
 and compact ; that is, it should not send out parties to any great distance 
 in front or on the flanks, and, as a general rule, should not divide its force 
 prematurely, but only the moment before the attack. 
 
 § 566. The force of a detachment sent to attack foragers depends 
 chiefly upon the object of the attack ; that is, whether it is designed to 
 capture the foragers, or only to prevent them from foraging by alarming 
 them, or to prevent them from carrying off forage already packed. 
 
 § 567. It is in all cases advantageous to begin with several simulta- 
 neous false attacks by small parties, to perplex the enemy and oblige him 
 to divide the escort j then to direct the main party of the detachment 
 upon the principal point of the enemy's arrangements, overthrow his 
 weakened escort, and penetrate to the road of retreat, so as either to cut 
 off and destroy a part of the escort and foragers, or to force them to 
 abandon their work and fly, by threatening to cut them off. 
 
 § 568. If from the disproportion of force it is impossible to prevent the 
 foraging entirely, the attacking party confines itself to delaying the work : 
 its operations, therefore, should consist in partial attacks upon several 
 points, in order to alarm and disperse the foragers by breaking through 
 the outposts at several points. Upon meeting a considerable force of the 
 enemy, these attacking parties should at once retreat, and renew the attack 
 in a different place. In such operations a portion of the attacking detach- 
 ment should be kept together and held in reserve, as a support and 
 rallying-point for the small parties. 
 
 § 569. If they do not succeed in preventing the foraging, they may 
 try to attack the foragers on the return march; observing in this case 
 the rules laid down in the preceding chapter for attacks upon convoys. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Advanced guards, United States cavalry, in time of war 416, 425 
 
 Arms, &c., of Austrian cavalry 322 
 
 of French cavalry 343 
 
 of Prussian cavalry 302 
 
 infantry ^. 76 
 
 of Russian cavalry 202 
 
 infantry 292 
 
 militia 294 
 
 of Sardinian infantry 83 
 
 Army, Russian, composition 86 
 
 Army corps, Russian -. 92 
 
 Artel, Russian 110 
 
 Artillerv. Russian 91 
 
 AUSTRIAN CAVALRY : 
 
 Arms, &c 322 
 
 Clothing 327 
 
 Cooking-utensils , 328 
 
 Daily duty in garrison 332 
 
 Duties of- officers 333 
 
 Equitation, school of, at Vienna 335 
 
 Forage 330 
 
 Horses 329 
 
 Horse equipments 323 
 
 Marches, &c 334 
 
 Organization 314 
 
 Quarters 333 
 
 Rations 328 
 
 Stables 330 
 
 Swimming 319 
 
 Tactics, &c 315 
 
 Austrian engineer troops 48 
 
 infantry 63 
 
 pioneers 49 
 
 491 
 
492 INDEX. 
 
 B. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Battalion, school of, Russian infantry 233 
 
 Berlin, veterinary school at 312 
 
 Bivouacs of Prussian cavalry 310 
 
 Bivouacs of Russian infantry 282 
 
 Bridges, military, Prussian 46 
 
 Russian 37 
 
 C. 
 
 Camps, United States cavalry, in time of war 432, 472 
 
 Camp equipage, Sardinian infantry 84 
 
 Cantonments, United States cavalry, in time of war 474 
 
 Caucasus, army of the 99 
 
 Cavalry, Austrian 314 
 
 English 377 
 
 French 340 
 
 Prussian 295 
 
 Russian 90, 116, 200 
 
 Sardinian 384 
 
 United States • 386 
 
 Clothing of Austrian cavalry 327 
 
 Colonies, military, of Russia 105 
 
 Commander-in-chief, United States cavalry, in war 412 
 
 Commander of the advanced guard, United States cavalry, in war 416 
 
 of the rear guard, United States cavalry, in war 418 
 
 Company, school of, Russian infantry 222 
 
 Convoys, United States cavalry, in war 483 
 
 Cooking-utensils of Austrian cavalry 328 
 
 of Sardinian infantry ^ 84 
 
 Cossacks, &c 101, 207 
 
 Crimean War , », 9 
 
 D. 
 
 Defence of trains, United States cavalry, in war 406 
 
 Detachments, United States cavalry, in war 474 
 
 advanced, flank and rear, United States cavalry, in war 419 
 
 Dragoons, &c., Russian 207 
 
 Duties of Austrian cavalry officers, &c 333 
 
 E. 
 
 Emperor of Russia, grand staff of. 86 
 
 Encampments of Russian infantry 269 
 
 Engineer troops, Austrian 48 
 
INDEX. 493 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Engineer troops, English 55 
 
 French 55 
 
 Prussian 45 
 
 Kussian 36, 92 
 
 ENGLISH CAVALRY : 
 
 Organization 377 
 
 Horse equipments 378 
 
 Tactics, &c 377 
 
 Transportation by sea 379 
 
 Equipments, horse, Austrian cavalry 323 
 
 English cavalry 378 
 
 French cavalry 343 
 
 Prussian cavalry 301 
 
 Russian cavalry \ 200 
 
 Equitation, Austrian school of, at Vienna 335 
 
 Prussian school of, at Schwedt ». 311 
 
 Evolutions of the line, Russian cavalry 169 
 
 Russian infantry 234 
 
 F. 
 
 Farriers, school of, at Saumur 372 
 
 Field service of French cavalry 355 
 
 of Prussian cavalry 308 
 
 infantry 81 
 
 of Russian cavalrj' 206 
 
 of United States cavalry, in war, regulations for 395 
 
 Field works, Russian 39 
 
 Flank march, United States cavalry, in war 401 
 
 Forage of Austrian cavalry 330 
 
 of French cavalry 350 
 
 of Prussian cavalry 305 
 
 Foragers, United States cavalry, in war 489 
 
 Foraging, United States cavalry, in war 486 
 
 FRENCH CAVALRY : 
 
 Arms, &c 343 
 
 Field service 355 
 
 Forage 350 
 
 Horse equipments ." 343 
 
 Horses 347 
 
 Organization 340 
 
 Quarters 350 
 
 Rations • 348 
 
 Stables 351 
 
 Stable-duty 354 
 
 Tactics 342 
 
 Transportation by sea 359 
 
 Uniform 347 
 
494 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 French engineer troops 55 
 
 infantry 57 
 
 G. 
 
 Garrison, daily duty in, of Austrian cavalry 332 
 
 Generals, posts of, &c., Russian cavalry 170 
 
 General columns, Russian cavalry 196 
 
 Russian infantry 234 
 
 Guards, Russian infantry 278 
 
 H. 
 
 Halts of troops. United States cavalry, in war 408 
 
 Horse equipments of Austrian cavalry 323 
 
 * of English cavalry 378 
 
 of French cavalry 343 
 
 of Prussian cavalry 301 
 
 of Russian cavalry.. 200 
 
 Horses, Austrian 329 
 
 French 347 
 
 Prussian 303 
 
 Russian 204 
 
 purchase of, for United States cavalry 392 
 
 Hospitals, Russian 109 
 
 I. 
 
 Independent pickets, United States cavalry, in war 446 
 
 Infantry, Austrian 63 
 
 French 57 
 
 Prussian 69 
 
 Russian 89, 211 
 
 Sardinian , 82 
 
 Inspections of Russian army 108 
 
 Irregular troops, Russian 101 
 
 L. 
 
 Lancers, &g., Russian 207 
 
 M. 
 
 Main body. United States cavalry, in war 430, 472 
 
 guard. United States cavalry, in war 442 
 
 Marches, &c., of Austrian cavalry 334 
 
 Marches of troops, United States cavalry, in war 395 
 
 t 
 
INDEX. 495 
 
 VKQZ 
 
 Military schools, Russian 101 
 
 Militia, Russian 293 
 
 Mines, Russian 44 
 
 Model regiments, Russian 100 
 
 0. 
 
 Order of battle, Russian cavalry regiment 163 
 
 Orders of battle, Russian cavalry 187 
 
 of battle, Russian infantry 234 
 
 of reserve, Russian infantry 234 
 
 Organization of Austrian cavalry 314 
 
 of English cavalry 377 
 
 of French cavalry 340 
 
 of Prussian cavalry 295 
 
 infantry .-. 69 
 
 of Russian cavalry 90 
 
 infantry 89 
 
 of Sardinian cavalry 384 
 
 infantry 82 
 
 Outposts, United States cavalry, in war 432, 452, 453, 459, 461, 462 
 
 P. 
 
 Patrols, United States cavalry, in -war 421, 455 
 
 Pay of Russian army Ill 
 
 Pickets, United States cavalry, in war 438 
 
 Pickets, independent. United States cavalry, in war 446 
 
 Pioneers, Austrian 49 
 
 Platoon, school of, Russian cavaky 136 
 
 Pontons, leather, of Russian mounted engineer troops 38 
 
 PRUSSIAN CAVALRY: 
 
 Arms, &c 302 
 
 Bivouacs 310 
 
 Equitation, school of, at Schwedt 311 
 
 Field service 308 
 
 Forage 305 
 
 Horse equipments 301 
 
 Horses 303 
 
 Organization 295 
 
 Quarters 305 
 
 Rations 304 
 
 Skirmishers 299 
 
 Stables 306 
 
 Stable-duty 307 
 
 Tactics, &c '297 
 
 Uniform 303 
 
 Prussian engineer troops 45 
 
 infantry, arms, &c 76 
 
 30 
 
496 INDEX. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Prussian infantry, Field service 81 
 
 Organization 69 
 
 Quarters ; 80 
 
 Rations 80 
 
 Tactics, &c 74 
 
 Uniform 77 
 
 Quarters of Austrian cavalry 333 
 
 of French cavalry .' 350 
 
 of Prussian cavalry 305 
 
 infantry , 80 
 
 of Russian army 109 
 
 R. 
 
 Rations of Austrian cavalry soldiers 328 
 
 of French cavalry soldiers 348 
 
 of Prussian cavalry soldiers 304 
 
 infantry 80 
 
 of Russian army 110 
 
 Rear guard. United States cavalry, in war 418, 430 
 
 Reconnoissances, United States cavalry, in v^^ar 480 
 
 Recruit, school of, Russian cavalry 116 
 
 Recruiting, &c., of Russian army 102 
 
 Regiment, school of, Russian cavalry ; 158 
 
 RegulMions for field service of United States cavalry in war 395 
 
 Reserve, orders of, &c., Russian infantry 234 
 
 Reserve troops of the grand army of Russia 98 
 
 Reviews, Russian cavalry 168 
 
 Riding-houses, Russian 205 
 
 Rules for forming in order of battle, Russian cavalry 108 
 
 RUSSIAN ARMY : 
 
 Composition 86 
 
 Inspections 108 
 
 Irregular troops 101 
 
 Pay Ill 
 
 Quarters 109 
 
 Rations 110 
 
 Recruiting, &c 102 
 
 Reserve troops 98 
 
 Staff, general 88 
 
 Uniform 105 
 
 RUSSIAN CAVALRY: 
 
 Arms, &c 202 
 
 Equipment, &c 200 
 
INDEX. 49 
 
 RUSSIAN QANMjKY:— Continued. pa; 5 
 
 Evolutions of the line 169 
 
 Field service 206 
 
 Generals, posts of, &c 170 
 
 General columns , 196 
 
 Horses 204 
 
 Manage riding 118 
 
 Order of battle for a regiment 163 
 
 Orders of battle 187 
 
 Organization 90 
 
 Platoon, school of the 136 
 
 Recruit, school of the 116 
 
 Regiment, school of the 158 
 
 Reviews 168 
 
 Rules for forming in order of battle 198 
 
 Sabre exercise 124 
 
 Skirmishers 152 
 
 Squadron, school of the 140 
 
 Stables 305 
 
 Tactics, &o 116 
 
 Uniform 107 
 
 Russian emperor, grand staff of. 86 
 
 engineer troops 36, 92 
 
 RUSSIAN INFANTRY : 
 
 Arms, &c 292 
 
 Battalion, school of the 233 
 
 Bivouacs 282 
 
 Company, school of the 222 
 
 Encampments. 269 
 
 Evolutions of the line 234 
 
 General columns 234 
 
 Guards 278 
 
 Orders of battle "..... 234 
 
 Orders of reserve 234 
 
 Organization 89 
 
 Skirmishers 223 
 
 Tactics, &c 211 
 
 Uniform 107 
 
 S. 
 
 Sabre exercise, Russian 124 
 
 Saps, Prussian 46 
 
 Sardinian cavalry 384 
 
 infantry, Arms, &c 83 
 
 Camp equipage 84 
 
 Cooking-utensils 84 
 
 Organization 82 
 
 Uniform 83 
 
498 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Saumur, cavalry school at 364 
 
 Schools, company and battalion, of Russian engineer troops 36 
 
 Schwedt, school of equitation at 311 
 
 Siege materials, Russian 41 
 
 Siege operations, Russian 42 
 
 Skirmishers of Prussian cavalry 299 
 
 of Russian cavalry 152 
 
 of Russian infantry 223 
 
 Squadron, school of, Russian cavalry 140 
 
 Stables, Austrian 330 
 
 French 351 
 
 Stable-duty of French cavalry 354 
 
 Stables, Prussian 306 
 
 Stable-duty of Prussian cavalry 307 
 
 Stables, Russian 205 
 
 Staff, general, Russian army 88 
 
 Staff, grand, of the Russian emperor 86 
 
 Standards and their escort, Russian cavalry 164 
 
 Swimming, Austrian cavalry 319 
 
 T. 
 
 Tactics, &c., of Austrian cavalry 315 
 
 of English cavalry 377 
 
 of French cavalry 342 
 
 of Prussian cavalry 297 
 
 infantry 74 
 
 of Russian cavalry 116 
 
 infantry 211 
 
 of United States cavalry 389 
 
 Tents, Russian 109 
 
 Topographical corps, Russian 88 
 
 Trains, United States cavalry, in war 405 
 
 Transportation of English cavalry by sea 379 
 
 of French cavalry by sea 359 
 
 U. 
 
 Uniform of French cavalry 347 
 
 of Prussian cavalry 303 
 
 infantry 77 
 
 of Russian army 105 
 
 cavalry 107 
 
 infantry 107 
 
 militia 294 
 
 of Sardinian infantry 83 
 
 of United States cavalry.. 392 
 
, INDEX. 499 
 
 UNITED STATES CAVALRY : 
 
 proposed organization 387 
 
 system of tactics 389 
 
 school and depot 390 
 
 purchase of horses 392 
 
 V. 
 
 Vedettes, United States cavalry, in war 434 
 
 Veterinary school at Berlin .'. 312 
 
 schools of France 362 
 
 school at Vienna •.. 336 
 
 surgeons, &c., of Austrian cavalry 337 
 
 Vienna, schools of equitation, &c., at 335 
 
 Z. 
 Zouaves 61 
 
 THE END. 
 
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 Eegulations and Instructions for the Field Service of 
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 Hon. C. M, CoNBAD, Secretary of War. 
 
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 1861. By authority of the President of the United States and 
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