' U5z ^^i^^^j THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID CATECHISM OB, AN EASY INTRODUCTION TO THE Vegetable Kingdom : FOB THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES, BY WILLIAM MAYOR, L. L. D. AUTHOR OF TRAVELS, AND MANY OTHER POPULAR WORKS. With Alterations and Improvements- New- York : PUBLISHED BY SAMUEL WOOD & SONS, NO. 261, PEARL-STRSET; And Samuel S. Wood & Co. No. 2J2, Market-street, Baltimore. (COPY RIGHT SECURED.) wvvwwvwvwvwvwxwv ADVERTISEMENT. To expatiate in favour of an acquaintance with Bot- any, and to enumerate the superior advantages of the Linnaean arrangement, would be wholly unnecessary. Not only professional men, but most persons of educa- tion, of both sexes, either have obtained, or wish to ac- quire some knowledge of this fascinating science, which gives an interest to the most cultivated scenes ; but which is pursued and enjoyed with the greatest effect where , nature has been most unpropitious, and where only the shepherd and his flock diversify the landscape. It is in such situations indeed, on the mountain, or by the side of the stream, on the downs, and in the wood*, that the most curious and most inviting productions of nature, are to be found. As agriculture extends its in- fluence, the habitats of many plants are destroyed ; and the lover of Botany is obliged to seek for gratification where the charms of vegetable nature are unveiled in all their original variety of pleasing forms. The present humble performance is intended solely as an introduction to the science ; and has been drawn up with some care for the use of those to whom it is address- ed. As names and distinctions must be acquired, be- fore any further progress can be made in the study, and IV. PREFACE. as the tenacious memory of youth is peculiarly fitted for receiving and retaining them, a work of this kind can- not too early be put in their hands. It will be to Bot- any, what a grammar is to language the first step* though not the ultimate end. In the last chapter, how- ever, an attempt has been made to enlist curiosity in the service, by showing that Botany is not unproduct- ive of advantage ; and that it is not merely a science of names, as the ignorant and the idle have wished to represent it. If the fruits of the earth are applicable to so many valuable purposes, and if danger must arise to those who are not able to distinguish between the salu- tary and the noxious, no more need be said in favour of a study which equally recommends itself to our reason and to our fancy. W. MAYOR. Catechism of Botany. CHAP. I. DEFINITIONS. Tht Parts of Plants, &c. 1. Q. What is the definition of a vegeta- ble ? A. Vegetables which constitute the sec- ond kingdom of nature, according to the difinition of Linnaeus, " grow and live ;" or they may be described as organical bodies, which draw the matter of their nourishment and growth generally from the earth, by means of pores or vessels, placed on their external surface- 2. Q. Are not vegetables very extensive ? A. Not less than twenty thousand spe- cies have been described. They extend from the small mosses and other minute 6 plants which are intermixed with the com- mon grass, to the towering pine, and the majestic spreading oak. The various kinds of grasses which cover the earth, the grain from which we receive our nourishment, the flowers of all hues and forms, which capti- vate by their beauty, and exhale the most fragrant odours, the shrubs which adorn our gardens and plantations, and stately trees that fill our roads and forests, all belong to the vegetable kingdom. 3. Q,. Are all plants composed of the same principles ? A. When subjected to chemical analysis, they are all found to contain calcareous earth, oil, water, and air, with a small portion of iron, to which last principle they owe their beautiful colours. But though more or less of the same materials enter into the compo- sition of each, they are as much diversified in their qualities as in their forms. 4. Q,. Is the inward structure of plants the same ? A. Though (he inward structure must of necessity be as diversified as the external form, all plants on dissection, when viewed by the aid of microscopes, appear to be in- terwoven with complicated meshes, which vary in endless diversity, yet are perfectly regular in the same objects. 5. Q,. Are there not various natural di- visions of plants ? A. Without regarding the natural families of plants, as they are called, or such as re- semble each other in their general appear- ance, which it would lead me too far to par- ticularize in this place, plants may be divi- ded into such as are herbaceous, shrubby, or trees ; into such as are annual, biennial, or perennial; and info such as are indigen- ous or exotic . 6. Q,. Is not the knowledge of plants very useful ? A. Without some knowledge of plants, we should not be able to distinguish between such as are noxious and such as are good for food, or for the various purposes of life. 8 7. Q. How is the knowledge of plants be acquired ? A. By the study of botany ; a science which formerly implied an acquaintance with the nature, uses, and cultivation of vegetables ; but which in its modern accep- tation, is applied, in the first instance at least, to the classification of plants ; or that systematic arrangement by which, from general marks or characters, the botanist is enabled to refer them to their proper place in the system. Without this, all would be confusion. 8. Q,. Are not systems arbitrary ? A. In some measure they are ; and a va- riety of systems have been invented and re- jected ; but that of Linnaeus, as the simplest and most certain, and which is fouuded on the parts of fructification, which will here- after be explained, has gained, as it de- serves general adoption, under the name of the sexual system. 9. Q. Of how many parts does a plant consist ? A. Every perfect plant consists of a trunk, leaves, props, fructification, and in- floresence ; to which may be added the habit, and the bybernaculum. 10. Q,. Of how many parts does the root consist ? A. It consists of two parts, the caudex and the radicle. 11. Q,. What is the caudex? A. The caudex, orstuinp, is the body or stock of the root, from which the trunk or branches ascend, and the fibrous parts de- scend ; and, according to the nature of the plant, is either solid, as in trees ; bulbous, as in tulips ; or tuberose, as in piony. There are also some other distinctions as to roots. 12. Q. What is the radicle? A. The radicle or little root, is the fibrous part of the grand root, which, descending from it, enables it to draw nourishment from the earth, for the support of the plant ; and without which it could not live. 13. Q,. What is the trunk of plants ? 10 A. The trunk is that part which rises im- mediately from the caudex or root, and sup- ports the branches, leaves, Sowers, and fruit. It is either herbaceous, shrubby, or arbor- escent ; and according to its shape, sub- stance, surface, and other qualities, is called a caulis, a culmus, a scapus, or a stipes, all of which it is necessary to distinguish. 14. Q,. Please to inform me then what is a caulis. A. A caulis or stem, is the proper trunk of the plant, and serves to elevate the leaves and fructification. It is denominated sim- ple, when it does not divide, and compound, when it parts into branches. 15. Q,. What is a culmus ? A. Culmus, a straw, is the proper stem or trunk of grasses, aud serves both to elevate and support the leaves and fructification. Like the caulis it admits of various distinc- tions. 16. Q,. What is the scapus ? A. Scapus, or stalk, is an universal trunk, 11 raising the fructification, but not the leaves, and proceeds immediately from the root* 17. Q,. What is a stipes ? A. Stipes, which means the trunk or stock of plants in general, is applied by Lin- nseus only to palms, ferns, and fungi. It is also used to express that slender thread or foot-stalk which elevates the feathery or hairy down with which some seeds are fur- nished. 18. Q. Are there not various kinds of leaves ? A. Leaves are divided, generally, into simple and compound ; but these again re- ceive different denominations, according to their figure, situation, insertion, number, di- visions, &c. for which 1 must refer you to larger works. 19. Q. What is a simple leaf ? A. Simple leaves are such as adhere to the branch singly, or whose foot-stalks are parted by a single expansion. They have different names according to their shape, surface and divisions. 12 20. (. What is a compound leaf ? A. Compound leaves are when there are more than one on the same foot-stalk, anc are considered in regard to structure and degree. Leaves are the organs of respira- tion and motion. 21. Q. What are props ? A. Props or fulcra, express those small parts of plants, of which the chief use is to strengthen and support them. They may be either a petiolus, or foot-stalk, support- ing a leaf ; a pendunculus, or foot-stalk sup- porting a flower; a stipula, which is appli- ed to a sort of scale or small leaf, stationed on each side of the base of the foot-stalk of the petioles or peduncles, when they first appear, for the purpose of support ; a cir- rhus, clasper, or tendril, which denotes the fine spiral string or fibre, by which plants fasten themselves to some other body for support ; pubes, a term used to express the hair, down, beard, bristles, and glands, as well as several other substances, in different parts of plants, serving either for defence, 13 or vessels of secretion ; and femdece, or flo- ral leaves, which express not only the leaves situated on the stalk, nearest the lower parts of the flower, but also those which sometimes terminate the flower stalk. 22. Q,. What is the fructification ? A. As the Linnaean system is founded on the fructification of plants, this requires to be particularly described in the sequel. We shall therefore, proceed to the next con- stituent part of plants, namely,inflorescence. 23. Q,. What is meant by inflorescence ? A. It h the manner in which flowers are joined to their several peduncles ; and ad- mits of several varieties, all distinguished by appropriate names. Flowers may be com- plete, simple or aggregate. 24. Q,. What is a complete flower ? A. A flower is said to be complete, when all parts are present ; it is either simple or aggregate. 25. Q. What is a simple flower ? 2 14 A. It is so called when no part of (he fructification is common to more than one flower or floret. 26. Q,. What is an aggregate flower ? A. An aggregate flower consists of man) florets, collected into one head, by means of some parts of the fructification, common to them all. Of infloresence in general arise several distinctions, according to the struc- ture, disposition and other circumstances of the parts. 27. Q,. Will you name those distinctions ? A. The principal are the following, and they often serve to discriminate species which makes them the more necessary to be known. 1. Verticellate. When the flowers are pla- ced in whorls, at each joint round the common stalk. 2 Capitulate. When many flowers are collected into nearly a globular form or head, upon the summit of the common stalks, sometimes with, and sometimes without partial peduncles. 15 3. Spicate. When the flowers, having no partial peduncles, are arranged in spikes, alternately, round a common simple pe- duncle. 4. Corymbate. When the lesser pedun- cles of the flowers produced from differ- ent parts of the common peduncle or stalk in clusters, which, though of unequal lengths, and single or branched, form a regular surface at the top. 5. Thyrsate. This expresses a mode of flowering, resembling that of pines. 6. Paniculate. When the flowers are dis- persed among peduncles, variously subdi- vided, as is common in grasses. 7. Axillarate. When the flowers proceed from the angle formed by the leaf and the stem, as is most commonly the case. 8. Terminalate. When the flowers termin- ate the stalk or branch. 28. Q. What is meant by the habit of plants ? A. By the habit of plants, the old botan- ists expressed the whole external appearance of every part by which they formed their systematic arrangement ; but Linnaeus ap- plies this to the agreement of plants of the same genus or natural order, in particular circumstances. 29. Q. What is the hybernaculum of plants ? A. The hybernaculum, or winter lodg- ment, is that part of a plant which defends the embryo, or future shoot from external injuries during the winter, and is either a bulb or a bud. 30. Q,. How do you describe a bulb ? A. A bulb is a large sort of bud, if it may be so called, produced under ground, and placed on the caudex of certain herbaceous plants, hence termed bulbous, all of which are perennial, or perpetuated by their bulbs, as well as by seed. 31. Q. How do you describe a bud ? A. A bud may be denominated the em- bryo of the plant, and is seated on the stem of the branches, and covered with scales. Of buds in general, there are three kinds ; 17 that containing the flower only, as in poplar 5 ash, &c. that containing the leaves only, as in birch, &c. and that containing both flower and leaves, as is usual in the generality of plants. It is observable, however, that in hot climates few plants have buds ; because the plant is exposed to no danger from the coldest weather. 32. Q. What is meant by the sleep of plants ? A. It bears some resemblance to the pro- tection afforded by the buds, and may hap- pen various ways. The most common mode however, is that the young shoots, as well as the flowers, are defended from external injury, by the nearest leaves converging, and enclosing the tender parts. This hap- pens in several plants at the approach of night, and even of rain. 18 CHAP. II. The parts of fructification. 1. Q,. I think you said that the system of Linnaeus is founded on the parts of fructifi- cation ? A. I did ; and as they are the same in all parts of the globe, where vegetables grow, the classification founded on them affords a kind of universal language to botanists, by which they may be mutually understood. 2. Q,. What is meant by fructification ? A. By fructification we understand both the flower and fruit of plants, which, though not present at the same time, cannot be well separated. 3. Q,. How many parts of fructification are there ? A. Seven; 1. The calyx, empalement, or flower-cup. 2. The corolla, foliation, or the leaves of the flower. 3. The stami- na, or male organs of plants, consisting of threads called stamens or chives. 4. The 19 pistillum, or female organ of plants, called the pistil or pointal. 5. The pericarpium, or seed vessel. 6. Semina, or seeds them- selves, produced when the fructification dies away. 7. The receptaculnm, or base on which the fructification is seated. The first four are properly parts of the flower ; the three last parts of the fruit. 4. Q. Will you describe the calyx ? A. The calyx is the termination of the euter bark of a plant ; and its chief use con- sists in enclosing, supporting, and protect- ing the other parts of the fructification. It is called a perianthium, or flower-cup, when its station is close to the fructification ; an invohtcrum or cover, when stationed at the foot of an umbel, at a distance from the flow- er ; an amentum or catkin, when it proceeds from one common receptacle, like the chaff of an ear of corn ;a spatha, or sheathe, when it bursts lengthwise, and puts forth a flower- stalk ; agZwmo, or husk, as in grasses, which it folds over with its valves ; a catyplra, or veil, as in mosses, where it is placed over the other parts of fructification ; and a volva or enfolder, as in the mushroom tribe, where it is membranaceous and rent on all sides* 5. Q. What is the corolla ? A. The corolla is the termination of the inner bark of a plant, accompanying the fructification, in the new form of painted or coloured leaves, usually called the blossom, or flower. It is generally seated on the re- ceptacle, though sometimes on the calyx, and serves as an interior fence to the parts which it encloses. Its leaves are called pet- als ; and if the corolla consists only of one piece, it is called monopetalous ; if of two, dipetalous ; if of three, tripetalous ; and so on, according to the number of petals ; or polypetalous, when they are numerous* The corolla is also distinguished by the di- vision and shape of the leaves, by being in- ferior or superior to the gerrnen ; and by its duration. To it farther belongs the necta- rium, or nectary, containing the honey on which bees and other insects feed. This Appendage has various forms, which fre- 21 quently furnish essential characters of plants in the Linnsean arrangement. 6. Q,. What are the stamina? A. The stamens, formerly called chives, are the male part of the flower, and are de- fined by Linnaeus as an entrail of the plant, designed for the preparation of the fructify- ing dust or pollen. In most flowers, the stamens are placed on the receptacle within the corolla, and round the germen. They are chiefly distinguished by their number ; each consists of two parts, the filament and theantbera. 7. Q,. What is the filament ? A. The filament is the thread-shaped part of ilae stamen, that serves as a foot-sfalk to elevate the anthers ; and sometimes has jags or divisions, which are either two or nine. 8. Q, What are the anthera ? A. The anther, from a Greek word, sig- nifying flower, is emphatically so called from its great utility in the fructificafion, and is the summit or top of the filament, containing the impregnating meal or dust, called pollen. Tn.ttjumber of anthers to each fila ment, varies in different plants. Like the filament, they are also distinguished by their form, or figure, their proportion, and their situation. 9. Q. What is the pistillum ? A. The pistil, or the female part of the flower, proceeding from the pith of (he plant, is that erect column, which is usually placed in the centre of the flower, amidst the sta- mens, in order to receive the pollen ; and consists of three parts, the germen, the style and the stigma. 10. Q. What is the germen ? A. The germea is the base of the pistil, and supports the style. After some time it becomes a seed-vessel, and may therefore, be considered as the rudiment of the fruit accompanying the flower, but not yet arriv- ed at maturity. It is distinguished by shape, number, and situation. 11. Q.* What is the style ? A, The style is that part which serves to 23 elevate the stigma from the germen, in or- 3er to receive the influence of the stamens, ind to convey it to the germen as through a ube. It is distinguished in various ways, ind is often placed on the side of the ger- nen. 12. Q,. What is the stigma ? A. The stigma, when single, is generally placed on the summit of the style ; but, en several, they are placed upon the top, >r regularly disposed along the side, and :overed with moisture, that they may the setter retain the pollen. It is variously dis- inguished ; and in most plants, withers when he germen becomes a seed-vessel. 13. Q,. Have all plants anthers and pis- ils? A. No ; but such plants as want anthers re called female ; such as want pistils are ailed male; such as have them both, her- laphrodite ; and such as have neither, new- er. 14. Q. What is the pericarpium ? 24 A. The pericarpiurn, or seed-vessel, is the gernien, brought to maturity, and be corne a matrix. It is situated at the recep tacle of the flower. All plants, however, are not furnished with a seed-vessel ; and ic many, it is supplied by the calyx, which converging, encloses the seeds till they arrive at maturity ; and sometimes the receptacle^ and sometimes the nectary performs the office of seed-vessel. 15. Q,. Is not the pericarpium distin- guished by different names according to its structure? A. It is a capsule when hollow, and cleav- ing or parting in some determinate manner ; it is a silique, or pod, when consisting of two valves, wherein the seeds are fastened along both the sutures ; it is a legume, when it has two valves, with the seeds fastened along one suture only ; it is a conceptade, when it consists of a single valve, opening on one side lengthwise, without having the seeds fastened to it ; it is a drupa, when fleshy or pulpy, without valves, containing a stone ; it 25 is a pomum> when fleshy or pulpy, without valve, containing a capsule ; it is a feacca, or berry, when fleshy or pulpy, without valve, the seeds within having no other covering ; and it is a slrobilus, when formed of a catkin. 16. Q,. What are s em in a ? A. Semina, or seeds, are the essence of the fruit of every vegetable, and defined by the great Swedish botanist as a deciduous part of the plant, containing the rudiments of anew vegetable, fertilized by the ^sprinkling of the pollen. They are distinguished ac- cording to number, shape, texture, and vari- ous concomitant circumstances. Every seed properly so called, which is the rudi- ment of a future vegetable, consists of the corculum, or essence of the seed, and the principle of the future plant ; the cotyledons or the side lobes of the seed, of a porous sub- stance, and perishable ; the hilum, or exter- nal mark or scar on the seed, where it was fastened within the fruit, as in beans, &c. the arillus, or the proper exterior coat of 26 ' ; and the seed which falls off spontaneously ; the coronula or little crown of the seed, which is either a sort of calyx, adhering to the top of the seed like a little crown, or pappus, a down which is either feathery, or hairy, and assists the seed to fly, as in this- tles. To these distinctions may be added nuxj a nut, or seed enclosed in a hard woody substance called a shell ; and propago, a slip or shoot, without coat or cotyledon, as in the seeds of moss. 17. Q;. What is the receptaculum ? A. The receptacle is the base which con- nects and supports the other six parts of fructification ; and hence, it has been some- times called the nuptial bed of flowers ; but this term more properly belongs to the ca- Syx. 18. Q, Has not the receptacle received various names which are necessary to be known ? A. Several of the distinctions are of im- portance. A proper receptacle is when it Supports the parts of a single fructification 27 only ; a receptacle of the flower, when it is a base to which the parts of the flower only are fastened, without the germen ; a recep- tacle of the fruit, when it is the base of the fruit only, remote from the receptacle of the flower; and a receptacle of the seeds, when it is the base that fastens the seeds, within the pericarpiuni. It is also an umbel, or re ceptacle which, from a common centre, runs out into thread-shaped foot-stalks of propor- tional lengths ; a ci/mrt, or cyme, when the receptacle runs into long fastigate peduncles, proceeding from the same universal centre, but with irregular particulars ; and a spadix, which is applied to cuckoo-pint, palms, &c 28 CHAP. III. The Linnaan distribution of Vegetable founded on the Sexual System. 1. Q,. How has Linnseus divided the veg- etable kingdom ? A. Into classes, orders, genera, species, and varieties. 2. Q. How many classes are there ? A. Twenty-four. 3. Q. How are the names of the classes formed ? A. The names of the classes are derived from the Greek, and express the charac- teristics of each class. The first twelve are named from the Greek numerals, and the word andn"a,referring to the nmmber of their stamens. The fourteenth and fifteenth clas- ses are founded on the proportion of the sta- mens, and the next five on the connection of the stamens. From the twentieth to the twenty-third inclusive, the classes are forrn^ ed from the situation of the stamens. The 29 twenty-fourth consists of plants whose parts of fructification are less conspicuous, and less accurately known, and hence are called cryptogamus ; while the first twenty -three are styled phenogamus, for the contrary reason. 4. Q. From what are the orders formed ? A. In the first thirteen classes they are taken from the number of the female parts, in the same manner as the classes are from the male parts. In the fourteenth class, the orders are derived from a different source, and are divided into gymnospermia, com- prehending such as have naked seeds ; and angiospermia, including those that have their seeds covered, or enclosed in a capsule. The fifteenth class is divided into the sili- culosa, or such as have a short pod ; and the siliquosa, or those that have a longer one. The sixteenth, seventeenth, eigh- teenth and twentieth, derive their orders from the number of stamens. The orders of the nineteenth are variously formed. Those of the twenty-first are taken, partly 30 from the number of stamens, and partly from the names and characters peculiar to some of the other classes. The orders of the twenty-second class are founded on the num- ber, union and situation of the stamens in the male flowers. Those of the twenty-third are all taken from classical characters ; and the twenty-fourth class is divided into four orders, corresponding with the plants rang- ed under them. 5. (J. This is a good explanation, please now to give me the names of the classes, and the orders belonging to each. A. They will stand thus ; CLASSES. ORDERS. With examples under each. l.Monogynia- 2. Digy- 1. MONANDRIA. Ginger, Indian arrow-root. 2. DIANDRIA. Jessamine, privet, olive, lilac. nia. 1. Manogynia. 2. Digy- nia. 3. Trigynia S.TRIANDRIA. { Valerian, iris, and the < 1. Monogynia. 2, Digynia, grasses. ( 3. Trigynia. c r,< i. Mono] C 3. Trig 4. TETRANDRIA. Scabious, teazel, madder,-^ i. Monogynia. 2. Digynia. holly. C & Trigynia. 31 CLASSES. ORDERS, With examples under each. 5. PENTANDRIA. - f Bell-flower, bind-^ed, j mullen, periwinkle, cof- I 1. Monogynia. 2. Digynia. fee, the rough-leaved i 3. Trigynia. 4. Teiragy- plants, as potatoes, and I nia. 5. Pentagynia. 6, umbelliferous plants, as | Polygynia. carravvays. {. 6. HEXANDRIA. il. Monogynia. 2. Digy- Snow-drop, nnrcissus,tulip, J nia. 3 Trigynia. 4. aloe, hyacynth. ^ Tetragynia. 5. Polygy- f nia. 7. HEPTANDRIA. C 1. Monogynia. 2. Digynia. Horse-chestnut, wmter- < S. Tetragynia. 4. Hex- green. f agynia. 8. OCTANDRI A. ^ 1, Monogynia 2. Digynia. Indian cress, heath,French < 3. Trigynia. 4. Tetragy- willow. ( nia. 9. ENNEA.NDRIA. ^ 1, Monogynia. 2. Trigynia Bay, rhubarb, gladiole. \ 3. Hexagynia. 10. DECANDRIA. 1, Monogynia. 2. Digynia. Fraxinella, rue, lychnis,^ 3. Trigynia. 4. Pentagy- cassia, arbutis. 1 nia. 5. Decagynia. 11. DODECANDRIA. (1. Monogynia. Purslane, house-leek, agri- ,<^ 3. Trigynia. 4. Pentagy- niony, spurge. f nia. 5. Dodecagynia. 12. Icos ANDRI A. C 1. Monogynia. 2. Digynia Peach, medlar, apple,ro$e, < 3- Trigynia. 4. Pentagy- almonds. f nia. 5. Polygynia. f 1. Monogynia. 2. Digynia. 13. POLYANDHIA. \ 3. Trigynia. 4. Tetragy- Poppy, larkspur, colum-< nia. 5. Pentagynia. 6. bine, piony, tea, water- J Hexagynia, 7. Polygy- lily. V. nia. 32 CLASSES. ORDERS. With Examples under eaeli. 14. DYDYNAMIA. ( Hyssop, ground ivy, balm, 1 1. Gymnospermia. fox-glove, eye bright, j giospermia. 15. TETR ADYNAMIA. | Scurvy-grass, candy tuft, water Cress,stock, woad, * cabbage, turnips. 16. MONl-PELPHIA. Geranium, mallow, cotton, - althea frutex. 17. DlADELPHIA. Fumitory, milk-wort,peas, beans, vetches, 18. PotYADELPHIA. < 1. Orange, chocolate nut, St. ( John's wort. f"l, 19. SYNGENESIA. Violet, balsam, cardinal | flower, compound flow-*) ers in general, as this- | ties, succory, dandelion, tansy. 20. GYNANDKIA. Orchis, lady's slipper, ar- um, vanilla, birth wort, passion flower. 21. MONOECIA. Oak, mulberry, nettle, cy- prus, fir, cucumber, box, birch, beech, and various other trees. . Siliculosa. 2. Siliquo- sa. . Triandria. 2. Pentan- dria. 3.Octandria. 4. En- neandria. 5. Decandria. 6. Endecandria. 7.Dode- candria. 8. Polyandria. . Pentandria. 2. Hexan- dria. 3. Octandria. I.. Decandria. . Pentandria. 2. Icosaiv dria, S. Polyandria. Polygamia aequalis. 2. Polygamia superflua. 3. Polygamia frustranea. 4. Polygamia necessaria. 5. Polygamia segregata. 6. Monogamia. Diandria. 2. Triandria. 3. Tetrandria. 4. Pen- tandria. 5. Hexandria. 6. Decandria. 7. Dode- candria. 8. Polyandria. , Monandria. 2. Dian- dria. 3. Triandria. 4. Tetrandria. 5. Pentan- dria. 6. Hexandria. 7. Heptandria. 8. Poly- andria. 9. Monadel- phia. 10. Syngenesia. 11. Gynandria. 33 CLASSES. ORDERS. With examples under each. f 1. Monandria. S.Diandria. 3-Triandria. 4. Tetran- dria. 5. Pentandria. 6. 22. DIOECIA. Willow, hop, spinach, pop- lar, mercury, juniper, butcher's broom, papaw, yew. Hexandria. T.Octandria 8. Enneandria. 9. De- candria. 10. Dodecan- dria. 11. Polyandria.12. Monadelphia. 13. Syn- genesia. 14. Gynandria. 23. POLYGAMIA. Cl. Monoecia. 2. Dioecia. Fig, pelitory, orach. 3. Tryoecia, 24. CRYPTOGAMIA. C Ferns, mosses, mushrooms, < 1. Filices. 2. Musci. 3. Al- ( gs. 4. Fung. APPENDIX Palmae, which are not reducible to either. 6. Q. Is this distribution of plants into twenty-four classes universally followed ? A. Some of the disciples of Linnasus, a- mong whom is Thunberg, his successor at Upsal, Jacquin in Germany, and Sibthorp and Whithering in England,, with many liv- ing botanists in different countries, have re- duced the classes to twenty, by distributing gynandria, monoecia, dioecia, and potyga* mia, among the rest. 7. Q. Is this a beneficial improvement ? A. If universally followed, it would un- doubtedly, simplify the study of botany but while some adhere to the original classi- fication, and some to the reformed, much confusion is introduced among the lovers of the science. It is probable, however, that the reformed system will ultimately prevail. 8. Q. In what does the essence of a plant consist? A. According to Linnaeus, the essence of a plant consists in the fructification ; the es- sence of the fructification in (he flower and fruit ; the essence of the flower in the an- thers and stigma ; and the essence of the fruit in the seed. ' Hence, he considers the fruit and the flower as the foundation of his generic distinctions. 9. Q,, What is a genus. A. A genus is an assemblage of several species of plants, resembling each other in their most essential parts. Hence, it may be aptly compared to a family, all of whom bear the same surname, though every indi- vidual is distinguished by a particular spe- cific name. 35 10. Q,. What constitutes the genus ? A- The presence or absence, the number, figure, proportion and situation of the seve- ral parts. But as there are few genera in which all the parts of natural character are constant in every species, Linnaeus found it necessary to fix on such circumstances as are constant in both genus and species ; and for this reason had recourse to the nec- tary and other permanent marks of distinc- tions. 11. Q,. What constitutes a species ? A. As generic differences depend on the form of the fructification, and are confined to that alone, so specific differences take their rise from any circumstance, wherein plants of the same genus are foujid to disa- gree, provided such circumstance is con- stant, and not liable to alteration by culture or other accidents. Hence, Linnaeus as- serts, that the species are as many as there were different forms of vegetables produced at the creation. The root, the trunk, the branches, the leaves, the props, may all 36 furnish specific differences, though all them agree in the essential generic charac ter. 12. Q,. Is it necessary to distinguisl: those differences J A. Without distinguishing them particu- larly, and being acquainted with the names by which they are expressed, it is impossi- ble to make any solid progress in botanical knowledge. 13. Q,. What are varieties ? A. All casual differences are to be con- sidered as varieties of the same species. These varieties are grounded chiefly on sex, magnitude, time of flowering, colour, scent, taste, virtues, and uses, duration, mul- titude, pubescence, leaves, and monstrous flowers. 14. Q. What is meant by monstrous flow- ers ? A. Monstrous, or luxuriant flowers, are those in which the essential parts of fructi- fication are destroyed or effaced ; and there- fore^ however much they may delight flor- 37 sts, are disregarded by botanists. Flowers f this description may be multiplicate y full, r proliferous. 15. Q. What is meant by a multiplicate lower ? A. Flowers are said to be multiplicate vhen, by the increase of the corolla, onrly i part of the stamens are excluded. Poly- )etalous, or many leaved flowers, are the nost subject to multiplication. 16. Q,. What is meant by a full flower ? A. A full flower is, when the corolla is so ar multiplied as to exclude all the stamens. The fullness arises from the stamens running nto petals, with which the flower is so rowded as frequently to choak up the pis- ilium also. The parts essential to genera ion, being thus destroyed, it is evident bey must be barren ; and this is known by ny person who cultivates a flower garden, o be the case with full, or, as they are usu- lly called, double flowers. 17. Q. What is meant by a proliferous lower 7 4 38 A. Flowers are said to be proliferous when one flower grows out of another, either from the centre or from the side. Instances of the former we see in pinks, anemones, and roses ; of the latter, in scabious, and partic- ularly in daisies. The hen-and-chicken daisy, as it is commonly called, is a prolife- rous flower. 39 CHAP. IV. Natural Orders. 1. Q,. Is there not a natural method of arranging vegetables which deserves to be noticed ? A. Notwithstanding the vast superiority of the sexual system, and its general adap- tion to botanical pursuits, various botanists, and among the rest, Linnaeus himself, have paid great attention to NATURE'S SYSTEM of arrangernen t, a knowledge of which has some peculiar advantages. On this princi- ple Linnaeus divides the vegetable kingdom into fifty nine natural classes, or orders. 2. Q,. Will you have the goodness to give me their names and examples ? A. Most readily ; but we must go through them in succession. 3. Q,. Which then is the first of the natu- ral orders ? A. Pa/mce, palms, and some genera that agree with them ; as the cocoa nut, the date iree, &c. 4. Q. Which is the second ? A. Piperitce, or pepper-bearing plants, and some others that resemble them; as arum, or cuckow-pint. 5. Q. Which is the third ? A. CalamariiZ) or reed like plants. In these the leaf is entire at the base, and they have no joints nor petals ; as rush-grass, &c, 6. Q. Which is the fourth ? A. Gramina, grasses ; as rye-grass, wheat, &c. 7. Q. Which is the fifth ? A. TripetaloidecR, plants with three pet- als ; as calamus, rush, c. 8. Q. Which is the sixth? A. Ensatce, plants with sword-shaped leaves ; as iris, or fleur-de-luce, corn-flag, &c. 9. Q, Which is 1he seventh ? A. Orchidece, orchises and such as re- semble them in habits, powers, and sensible 41 qualities ; as the orchis, ophrys, satyrium or lizard flower, &c. 10. (J. Which is the eighth ? A. ScitaminecB, aromatic plants, and some others which agree in habit, and afford agreeable fruit; as plaintain-tree, ginger, &c. 11. Q,. Which is the ninth ? A. Spathacece, plants whose flowers are contained within a spatha, or sheath; as narcissus, snow-drop, daffodil, &c. 12. Q. Which is the tenth? A. Coronariw, plants of the garland or lily tribe ; as tulip, lily, frittillary, hyacinth, &c. 13. Q,. Which is the eleventh ? A. Sarmentoscz, plants with climbing stems and branches ; as black briony, rough bind-weed, &c. 14. Q. Which is the twelfth ? A. HolorasceW) pot-herbs, or plants for the table, and other domestic uses ; as spin- ach, beet, orach, &c. 15. Q,. Which is the thirteenth I 42 A. Succulentce, succulent and flesh plants, as house-leek, stone-crop, cactus, &c. 16. Q. Which is the fourteenth ? A. Gruinales, plants supposed to resem- ble the crane, and like the geranium in hab- it ; as flax, sun-dew, wood-sorrel, geranium, &c. 17. Q. Which is the fifteenth ? A. Inundates, plants which grow in the water ; as mare's tail, pond-weed, &c. 18. Q,. Which is the sixteenth ?. A. Calyciflorce, plants with the stamens inserted into the calyx, and having no corol- la, with a pulpy fruit; as wild olive, sea buckthorn, &e. 19. Q. Which is the seventeenth ? A. Calycanthemm, plants with the corolla and stamens inserted into the calyx ; as wil- low-herb, evening primrose, &c. 20. Q,. Which is the eighteenth ? A. Bicornes, plants with horned anthers ; as heath, strawberry-tree, whortleberry, &c. 21. Q. Which is the nineteenth ? 43 A. Hesperidece, plants resembling the myrtle inhabit; as guayava, clove-tree, &c. 22. Q. Which is the twentieth ? A. Rojacea, plants with a flat wheel-sha- ped petal ; as pimpernel, gentian, &c. 23. Q,. Which is the twenty-first ? A. Precis, early flowering plants ; as the primrose, and others that agree in habit ; such as the cow-slip, sow-bread, water-violet, &c. 24. Q. Which is the twenty -second ? A. Paryophyllew, plants of the pink, or carnation tribe, and such as are allied to them ; as lychnis, sprattiing poppy, soap- wort, &c. 25.