THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
Scientific and Practical Treatise
AMERICAN FOOTBALL
Scboote ant> Colleges
BY
A. ALONZO STAGG
AND
HENRY L. WILLIAMS
HARTFORD, CONN.
Press of The Case, Lockwood & Brainard Company
1893
Copyright, 1893,
by
A. A. STAGG and H. L. WILLIAMS,
All rights reserved.
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Preface, 3
Introductory chapter for Beginners and Spectators, 7
Training, 12
The Center-rusher, . . . . . . . 18
The Guard 26
The Tackle, 34
The End-rusher, ....... 43
The Quarter-back, 50
The Half-backs and Full-back, . . . . 58
Plays, with diagrams, 75
Index of Plays, 216
Team Play, 221
Field Tactics, . . 233
Signals, ......... 257
Axioms, 262
Rules, 265
711196
PREFACE.
THE game of football is fast becoming the national
fall sport of the American youth. Among the
larger eastern colleges, where it has been fostered and
developed, football has now been raised to a definite
science, but in the west the game is, as yet, compara-
tively in its infancy
The demand has been rapidly increasing among the
smaller colleges and large preparatory schools from year
to year for competent coachers, and it is evident that
there is felt a wide-spread want for some source of
definite information which shall describe the manner of
executing the various evolutions, the methods of inter-
ference, and the more difficult and complicated points of
the game.
It is with the desire of meeting this want so far as
is possible, and with the hope of stimulating a love for
the game and of raising the standard of play among the
school-boys of this country, to whom the colleges and
universities must look for the material out of which to
construct their future elevens, that the authors have pre-
pared this volume.
The endeavor has been made to begin with simple
steps in the early development of the game and advance
by gradual stages to the most difficult evolutions and
scientific tactics which have been mastered up to the
(3)
present day. In working out this principle the aim
throughout has been clearness and precision.
While it is the primary desire to furnish in this work
a practical aid in the attainment of a higher standard
of play among the preparatory schools and colleges, still
it is hoped that the general public will find it an assist-
ance to the better understanding of American football,
which has come to hold such a prominent place in popu-
lar favor. THE AUTHORS.
September 15, 1893.
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INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER
FOR
BEGINNERS AND SPECTATORS.
American football is played on a rectangular field,
three hundred and thirty feet long and one hundred and
sixty feet wide, enclosed by heavy white lines marked in
lime upon the ground. For the convenience of the
referee in fulfilling his duties, the field is marked by ad-
ditional lines five yards apart crossing from side to side,
the fifth from either end being indicated by an especially
heavy one known as the ' ' twenty-five yard line. " The
" center of the field " is located at the middle point of the
eleventh line.
At the center of the goal lines at each end of the field
two goal posts, from fifteen to twenty feet high, are
erected eighteen and one-half feet apart, and connected
by a cross-bar ten feet from the ground. Two ' ' teams "
of eleven men each contest in the game. Seven of
them, called the rushers, or forwards, stand opposing a
corresponding seven of the opposite eleven, whenever
the ball is down for a " scrimmage." The one in the
middle is known as the center rusher, or center, and on
either side of him are the right and left guards, the right
and left tackles, and the right and left ends, respectively.
The four remaining players are the quarter-back, right
and left half-backs, and the full-back, who stand behind
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8
the line of rushers and occupy positions which vary ac-
cording to whether they or their opponents have the ball.
The positions which the players will occupy when about
to execute the different movements of the game are shown
by the diagrams in the chapter describing the various
evolutions. At the beginning of the game the ball is
placed at the center of the field. The side in possession
of the ball constitutes the side of attack, and endeavors
to carry it down the field by kicking or running with it,
in order to place it on the ground behind the opponents'
goal line. The other side, forced to act upon the defen-
sive, are drawn up in opposition, and strive to check their
advance and to get possession of the ball themselves, so
that they may no longer act upon the defensive, but
become, "in turn, the attacking party.
The rules of the game (see final chapter), place certain
restrictions upon the attacking side and upon the defense,
and it is the attempt made in accordance with these rules
by each side to retain the ball in their possession and
carry it down the field through all opposition, in order to
place it behind their opponents' goal, which furnishes in
rough outline the essential features of the American
game of football.
Before the game is to begin the captains of the re-
spective teams decide by a toss of the coin which side
shall first be given possession of the ball. The side having
the ball then places it down upon the center of the field
and arrange themselves in any formation which they de-
sire, behind the line on which the ball is placed, in prepa-
ration to force it into the enemy's territory. The side
acting on the defensive are obliged to withdraw ten yards
toward their own goal, and are there drawn up in oppo-
sition to await the attack of their opponents until after
the ball is put in play.
As the " center rusher" of the attacking side puts the
ball in play by touching it with his foot and passing it
back to some other player for a run, or a kick down the
field, the rushers upon the defensive side are at liberty to
charge forward to meet the attack. The clash following
this charge constitutes the first actual encounter of the
game.
When the runner with the ball is caught, or " tackled,"
thrown upon the ground, and there held so that he can
advance no further, he calls " down," whereupon the ball
is " dead" for the moment, and cannot be carried for-
ward or kicked until the center rusher again puts it in
play according to rule.
As soon as " down " is called, an imaginary line, cross-
ing the field from side to side and passing through the
center of the ball, immediately comes into existence.
Each player must remain on the side of this line toward
his own goal until after the ball is " put in play," and it is
one of the duties of the umpire rigidly to enforce this
regulation. Should any player cross this line and fail to
return before the ball is " snapped back " it constitutes an
" off side play," for which the rules provide a penalty.
To again put the ball in play the center rusher places
his hand upon it at the spot where " down " was called.
The rushers then "line up" opposing one another, the
line of attack being drawn closely together for a greater
concentration of energy, while the defensive rushers are
slightly spread apart to facilitate breaking through the
line and stopping the advance, when the ball shall be
put in play. The captain upon the attacking side then
shouts some signal, understood only by his own men
which indicates the evolution that he wishes his eleven to
execute ; whereupon the center rusher puts the ball in
play by " snapping it back," that is, by rolling it back
between his legs.
Immediately behind the center rusher the quarter-back
has taken his stand. He receives the ball as it is " snap-
ped back " and instantly passes it to one of the half-backs
or a man in the line, for a run, or to the full-back for a
kick down the field. Thereupon the first ' ' scrimmage " of
the game takes place as the opposing team attempts to
break through the line and stop the play.
One side is not allowed to retain indefinite possession
of the ball without making gain or loss. The rules pro-
vide that if the side having possession of the ball shall
fail to make an aggregate gain of five yards, or a loss of
twenty yards, in three consecutive "scrimmages", the
ball shall be forfeited to the other side at the spot where
it was last down.
Advances by running are made by the player directing
his course through one of the six openings in the rush line,
or around the ends, according as the signal may direct.
The signal also indicates the player who is to receive the
ball. The runner is assisted in his course by the players
who border on the opening through which he is to go.
These seek to enlarge the space by pushing their oppo-
nents to one side. He is further assisted by others of his
ow r n players, some of whom precede, to "block off" the
opponents from " tackling " him in front, while still others
follow to push him further if he is checked. The players
who are to precede and the players who are to follow
change with the play according as each man is enabled
by his position to adjust himself to it.
Four points are scored when one side carries the ball
across the goal line and makes a "touch down." The
side making the " touch down " is then allowed to carry
the ball out into the field as far as they may desire in a
line perpendicular to the goal line and passing through
the point where it was "touched down," in order that
one of their number may attempt to kick it between the
goal posts above the cross-bar. The other side mean-
while are obliged to take their positions behind the goal
line. Should the attempt be successful, it will constitute
a "goal," and two additional points be added to the score.
But whether the attempt be successful or not, the ball
must be delivered to the other side, who will take it to the
center of the field and put it in play in the same manner
as at the beginning of the game.
If the ball can be kicked between the posts and above
the cross-bar by a " drop-kick " or " place-kick " by any
one of the players, without having been previously carried
across the goal line, it will constitute a "goal from the
field," and will count five points.
In case the ball is kicked or carried across the boundary
line on either side it will be " out of bounds " and must
be brought into the field at right angles to the line at the
point where it crossed. This is done by the side which
first secures it after it passes out of bounds.
It is usual to bring the ball into the field from ten to
fifteen yards and then to place it upon the ground for a
" scrimmage " as from a regular down ; though the ball
may be passed to any one of the players, in at the point
where it went out, provided that it is thrown in at right
angles to the side line ; or it may be " touched in " at the
same point.
The game is divided into two halves of three-quarters
of an hour each, and the team succeeding in scoring the
greatest number of points during that time are declared
the winners.
The reader should thoroughly acquaint himself with the
rules in detail, before passing on to a study of the book.
TRAINING.
In the early days of college athletics and amateur
sports the popular belief was universally accepted that a
most rigorous diet must be entered upon if the young
aspirant for college honors would fit himself properly
to represent his alma mater in the boat, on the running
track, or in individual contests. Many an alumnus who
pulled an oar on the crew in the fifties and sixties, will
recall visions of raw beef, a limited bill of fare, and a
prescribed daily amount of water that made the train-
ing of thirty years ago a hardship for which dim dreams
of possible glory seemed a doubtful compensation.
These old ideas have now changed almost entirely,
and the young collegian of to-day, who secures a position
on any one of the college teams, and obtains a seat at
the " training table," is an object of envy rather than of
compassion to his classmates. The training table diet of
to-day is almost sumptuous, and few men in college en-
joy better living than the members of the university ath-
letic organizations. Roast beef, lamb chops, beef steak,
roast lamb, and broiled chicken, oatmeal, rice, mush,
and the cereals, potatoes served in all styles but fried,
stale bread, onions, garden vegetables in season, eggs,
dry toast, apple sauce, baked apples, prunes, grapes,
oranges, figs, dates, and fruits in season (with the ex-
ception of raw apples), rice and bread puddings, furnish
an abundant variety from which to choose.
A few things only are put upon the proscribed list :
Pies, cakes, salads, all forms of pork, veal, rich dress-
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rngs, fried food, ice-cream, confectionery, soda water,
so-called soft drinks, (and it is needless to say drinks of
a stronger nature,) tea, coffee, and chocolate, should be
cheerfully and absolutely given up. From the first day
of training it should be rigidly enforced that all pipes,
cigars, and cigarettes be laid aside, absolutely, until
the contests are over.
Regularity in all the daily habits of life is of the great-
est importance. The hours for rising, for meals, and for
retiring should not vary from day to day; and in so far
as it is practicable to do so, it would be advantageous to
have the regular practice come at that portion of the day
in which the important games of the season will take
place.
That the football player should have long hours of
restful sleep is a point too frequently overlooked. While
it is impossible to state a definite time that shall apply
to all cases, a sleep from ten o'clock in the evening
until seven the next morning, and a short walk before
an early breakfast, will be found to be of the greatest
benefit in all instances. Probably a large proportion of
the cases of over- training, that occur during the foot-
ball season, are caused by late iours, irregularity of
habits, and insufficient rest. Had these points been care-
fully attended to, the hard work upon the field would
have produced no hurtful result. When the recreation
period of the players makes it necessary that the daily
practice shall come immediately after the noon meal,
it will be found more healthful to have the practice hour
preceded by a light lunch, and postpone the hearty
dinner until night. But should the daily play come in
the morning, or in the middle of the afternoon, it will
be better to have the dinner hour at noon.
Over-training is something which is much easier to
prevent than to remedy when once it is an accomplished
fact. In preparatory schools, where a less violent and
less tiring system of training is followed, no thought need
be given to this point, but in the larger colleges one or
more cases of over-training among the valuable men is
apt to occur toward the end of a season of hard work.
Should any one of the players get into this condition,
he should be given an absolute rest for several days, and
then be allowed to play only part of the time during each
remaining day of practice. An immediate change of diet
with a removal of all training-table restrictions, will also
be found of value.
When a faithful worker finds himself coming upon the
field day after day with a worn and tired feeling, no
longer able to play with his former dash and energy,
and his speed gradually decreasing, he should at once
suspect that his muscles are becoming over-tired, and
so fatigued that they cannot recuperate between one
day's work and the next.
The practice of drinking water during the game is ex-
ceedingly bad, and never should be permitted, though
rinsing the mouth is admissible. The best results will
be obtained if no water whatever is swallowed until more
than an hour after the practice is over. The habit which
some players have of chewing gum during the game is
pernicious. After the first week or two has passed, the
mouth will be found to be far less dry where no gum is
used, than where a constant flow of saliva is kept up
by he act of mastication.
During the season there undoubtedly will be a number
of rainy days. These by no means should be lost. As a
rule, it is best to practice upon the field as usual, since the
most important game of the season may come in bad
weather, and the experience of having frequently played
in the mud with a wet and slippery ball will prove inval-
uable.
On special occasions light work in the gymnasium,
tackling the bag, and practicing the sjgnals indoors, may
be substituted with advantage. Every team should be
provided with a tackling-bag. This may be made of
leather or canvas, and should be from four to five feet
long, a foot in diameter and stuffed with hay, hair, or ex-
celsior, to represent the body of a man. No better prac-
tice can be had for low hard tackling than to have such a
bag suspended by a long rope from a rafter in the gym-
nasium over a number of floor mats, letting the men run
half the length of the floor and spring for it from some
ten feet away as it swings slowly backward and forward.
But except on such special occasions when no out-door
practice is taken for the day, indoor gymnasium work
should be given up, as the exercise upon the field de-
mands every energy.
During the last few weeks of the season, when the final
eleven has practically been decided upon, and team play
is being developed, an opportunity should be found each
day to send the eleven up and down the field in their reg-
ular positions, upon short runs of from five to fifteen
yards, with no opposing rush line drawn up against them,
in order that the signals may be thoroughly drilled into
each player and substitute, and all learn to work together
as one man. It is of the highest importance to have a
number of substitutes, each of whom is thoroughly ac-
quainted with the signals, as the replacing of a player in
case of accident by one in the slightest degree unfamiliar
with the signals will destroy team play and cause the
side a loss much greater than the value of the man who
has left the field.
The number of regular games a week a team can play
i6
to advantage cannot be definitely stated. The condition
of the men and their especial needs must determine this.
As a rule, more than two match games a week cannot be
played if the best results are to be obtained. A hard
game should not be played within less than a week be-
fore one which is considered to be of great importance,
if it can be avoided, on account of the danger of having
a valuable man disabled, and in order that there may be
an abundance of stored-up energy upon the day of the
important contest.
During the last few days before the final game, the
practice should, be short, but sharp while it lasts, with a
considerable amount of time devoted to practicing the
signals, falling upon the ball, and perfecting team play.
On the day immediately preceding the game an absolute
rest should be taken.
It is a mistake to attempt to play the full hour and
a half on each day of practice throughout the season.
About two half hours of sharp work, with a rest of
five minutes between, will produce the best results,
and in the earlier regular games each half should be
limited to thirty minutes.
The daily practice of the team upon the field will not
afford sufficient opportunity to the backs to become pro-
ficient in kicking and catching the ball. When it is pos-
sible; a half hour should be devoted by them at some other
portion of each day throughout the entire season to punt-
ing, catching, and goal kicking. Numerous minor sprains
and bruises will necessarily be received during the season,
for which hot water and flannel bandages will be the best
remedy.
In case of a sprained ankle or a serious bruise to
one of the muscles of the leg, a long period of disability
may result from continued playing, and the captain
'7
should insist that a player so hurt should leave the field
at once. A thin leather anklet had better be worn in-
side the shoe by each player in the team as a safeguard
and protection.
When a man has a bruised and sensitive knee, a moist-
tened sponge, the size of a fist, placed just under the
knee cap will afford relief and protection. Sprains and
bruises of a serious nature are more liable to occur
during the first few weeks of practice than at any other
time in the season. This is due to the fact that many
of the men have just returned from long vacations of
ease and idleness, and their muscles are not ready to
endure the sudden strains and wrenches to which they
immediately find themselves subjected. The careful
captain will see to it that the promising new candidates
for his team and the old men are all gathered together
from one to two weeks before the season of actual play-
ing is to begin, and put through a series of light exer-
cises, given short runs, made to pass, kick, and fall on
the ball, and are given such general light work for wind
and muscle as shall enable them to engage in the regular
practice without danger. Thick sweaters and overcoats
should always be in readiness to put on after playing,
and proper care taken to guard against catching cold.
Cleanliness is a hygienic necessity during the football
season, and every team should, if possible, have hot and
cold water shower baths connected with their dressing
rooms.
Long hot baths are weakening, and should be avoided;
though upon special occasions, when a cold has settled
in the muscles, a Turkish bath may prove of great
value.
The captain's word upon the field is absolute law, and
should be followed with unquestioning obedience.
THE CENTER-RUSHER.
The prevailing idea in time past has been that the
largest and heaviest man who could be procured should
be used for the center-rusher, or snapback of the eleven.
So universal has this idea become that it has long been a
common joke to say of an especially large and stout per-
son: " He would make a good center- rusher." Every
new team formed, as a rule, selects the center according
to this axiomatic fallacy. It is easy to see how this prin-
ciple of selection became established under the old push-
ing style of game, and it still should hold sway, provided
it brings with the selection certain qualities of mind, and
certain physical capacities, which will enable the center
to be one of the most active and effective agents on the
field.
The center occupies a unique position on the eleven in
that he starts the play after each down, and is the only
member of the team who cannot run with the ball from a
scrimmage, because it is impossible to make him a third
man advantageously. His work, therefore, is limited in
that particular. By reason, also, of his having to pro-
tect the quarter-back after he snaps the ball, and because
he is invariably entangled with the opponents, it is im-
possible for him to become a valuable running interferer.
What work in interference he is able to do is limited to
blocking the opponents from breaking through the line,
or running behind their own line to head off the runner
with the ball at one side. Possibly, when very clever and
swift, he may be able to cut across the field to interfere
with a half-back or the full-back. The center should
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make a practice of doing this latter work on every play
around the end, and on every play between the tackle
and end. Perhaps he may not be able to get ahead of
the runner, but he will be of valuable assistance by check-
ing some of the opponents from running behind their line
and tackling him. Now and then, also, he will be able to
get ahead of the runner and go down the field with him.
From these statements it might appear that it did not
matter especially whether the center rusher was a slow
runner or not, and that emphasis should be laid on his
possessing size and weight, which are understood as
necessary to the proper filling of that position. The truth
is, that while a slow runner, if he has cleverness for that
position and is strong and weighty, will be able to do
fairly well as a center, he cannot begin to be as service-
able to his team as if he were also a fast runner. Grant-
ing that a fast runner will not be able to do much inter-
fering, or running with the ball, he will still be able to
use his speed most helpfully in breaking through the line
to tackle ; in crossing over to one side to head off a run-
ner ; or in going down the field on a kick. Furthermore,
his speed will be most helpful in playing a quick game,
because he is thus able to follow the ball so closely that
there will be no delay in putting it in play. This is a
most important point in the center's play. He must be
on hand to receive the ball the instant it is down.
It is impossible to play a quick game where the center
lags, or to prevent one on the part of the opponents.
"When there are not many large men who are fast run-
ners it is better, perhaps, to place the speedy man in the
position of guard and take a slower man for center.
The ideal center will be one who is swift of foot in ad-
dition to his other powers. He should be a large man,
not a ponderous man, unless he is quick and strong. He
20
should be especially strong in his legs and back, for he
must stand steadily on his feet against the continuous
pushing and wrestling which he receives, directly from
the opponents, and incidentally from the guards on either
side of him. If he is easily moved, or toppled over, he
will be likely now and then to snap the ball poorly, thus
making the quarter-back uneasy and flurried in handling
it. Steadiness is a most necessary part of the center's
work and it cannot well be overlooked in the selection of
a man to fill that position. Further, as in every position
on the eleven endurance is a prime requisite, so is it in
this. More of it is needed, however, than in most
others, because the work is much harder. No short-
winded, fat man can long stand the hard work of that
position, if he does his duty. Not only is great physical
labor required of the center, but he must also be con-
stantly subjected to knocks and bruises from the plung-
ing and tearing of the rushers and half-backs as they try
to break through the line.
No man, therefore, can play in this position who is not
physically courageous, and who is not able to rise to his
work after each assault with new grit and determination.
He should be a man who is cool and collected at all times;
combative, but never losing control of his temper; one
who endures worrying without being rattled by it; one
who never gives up and is bound to conquer. Nowhere
in the line is there need for such steadiness as in the cen-
ter. From him every play starts, in a scrimmage, and a
little unsteadiness on his part will be likely to make havoc
with the quarter-back's work, and hence with the offensive
play of the whole team. Nothing can be more fatal to
quick and steady play, for it is sure to produce hesitancy
in action in some of the players, with hurried action in
others.
In assuming his position for a scrimmage, the center
may follow either of two methods of standing, when snap-
ping the ball : one, where one foot is placed back for a
brace, the ball being snapped between the legs and a little
to one side ; the other, where both feet are widely spread
to interfere with opponents, as they attempt to break
through, and to avoid getting into the way of the ball
which can be snapped straight back. Where the first
position is followed, the center should be able to work
equally well with either foot forward, in order to secure
certain advantages in handling his opponent. The center-
rusher should make a study of the best way of snapping
the ball back, and then hold it the same way every time.
He should confer with the quarter-back on this point, as
the latter is to handle the ball, and it may be easier to
take it when snapped in a particular way.
There are two methods followed in snapping the ball :
one, in which the ball is held on the small end and sent
back swiftly/with little effort, in such a way that the
quarter-back catches it in the air all ready to pass ; the
other, where the ball is laid on its side and rolled along
the ground to the point where it is stopped by the quarter-
back and then picked up in very good position for pass-
ing. This latter method is more generally used because it
does not require as delicate work on the part of the center
in giving the snap ; but speed is sacrificed by it and there
is greater liability that the ball shall be deflected from its
course by touching the legs. It would be well for the
center to learn to use either hand in snapping, for it will
often prove an advantage. The center-rusher will do well
to make a study of snapping the ball by both methods of
standing, and by both ways of holding it until he settles
on the one best suited to him. He should then practice
this against an opponent until he is able to stand firmly
22
on his feet and send the ball back accurately, at a uniform
rate of speed each time. In case the ball is placed on
end, it is better to have it lean toward the opposing center
at an angle of about sixty degrees. It can be held more
firmly in this position and can also be sent back more
swiftly, with a bound into the air. Care must be taken
not to send the ball too swiftly. While the center is
practising to secure steadiness, accuracy, and uniformity
in snapping the ball, he should likewise practise getting
his opponent out of the way.
In putting the ball in play, the center has the advan-
tage of being able to select the time to snap and he can
choose it to meet his own purpose. Besides, he knows
the exact instant when he intends to send the ball back
and can get the start of his opponent. The center, there-
fore, is master of the situation when he has the ball. It
is for these reasons that he can frequently be down the
field on a kick as soon as the ends, and yet not expose the
full-back to great danger in having the ball stopped.
There are various ways for the center to handle his
man and get him out of his way. He may plunge forward
at the instant he snaps the ball, carrying his opponent
before him ; he may lift him to one side or the other, ac-
cording to the play called for and the position of the op-
ponent ; he may fall on him if he is down too low ; or he
may get under him and lift him in the air, if his opponent
reaches over him.
In any one of these methods, the opportune moment
must be seized like a flash and the action be quick and
powerful. A slow, strong movement will never succeed.
Long and faithful practice is necessary before the center
can acquire this quickness and power. In his eagerness
to take advantage of his opponent, he must never fail to
wait for the quarter-back's signal before snapping the
2 3
ball. A little forgetfulness on this point might prove
disastrous.
The center can be a most valuable man in defensive
play if he understands his position. By giving his op-
ponents a quick pull forward or to one side at the instant
the latter snaps the ball ; by lifting him suddenly back-
ward ; or by grasping his arm, the center can frequently
break through more quickly than either guard or tackle.
Whenever he succeeds in getting through, he will be a
strong obstacle to all dashes between himself and the
guards, and he will sometimes be able to interfere with
the quarter-back's pass. Another way in which the cen-
ter may play on the defense is to spend all his energy for
a moment in getting his opponent out of his way and then
spring at the runner. In this case the center must throw
off his opponent quickly, and not allow himself to be
carried backward. At the same time he must not attempt
to break through the line.
When the play is around the end, or even at the tackle,
the center should move quickly from his position and
pass around behind his own line to meet and tackle the
runner. When the opposite side is about to kick, the
center should do his utmost to break through the line and
stop it ; but sometimes it may be better instead to make
an opening for the quarter-back. He is helped in doing
this, by the opposite center himself, as he plunges for-
ward to block him. In such a case a good opening can
be made for the quarter-back, if the center will place him-
self in front of his opponent a little to one side, and then
pull the latter forward to the right or left. The guard at
the side on which the opening is made should know of
this plan so that he may not spoil it, either by pushing
his opponent in the path or by getting in the way himself.
If there is danger of his doing this, it will be better for
him to help enlarge the opening for the quarter-back.
2 4
On the defensive the center may play a little to one side
or the other of his opponent, or directly in front, to suit
the situation. It is most unwise for the center to assume
the same position every time, for by so doing he gives the
opposite center only one problem to work out and that
one probably the same each time. Where the center takes
an extreme side position, unless he does it just before the
ball is snapped, he gives the captain of the other eleven
a fine chance to call for a play which will take advantage
of the situation.
There is abundant opportunity for the display of head-
work in outwitting the opposing center in breaking
through the line. The line is so compact at this point
that it is not an easy task to slip by, especially as the
opposing center is watching to take his man at a disad-
vantage Various methods are resorted to in breaking
through the line. Sometimes the center, acting on the
defense, is thrown head foremost to the ground by a
quick, hard pull, the attacking center stepping aside or
over him as he falls. He may also be turned sidewise
just enough to slip past him, or he may be lifted back
perhaps into the face of the runner. The most common
method employed by the center in getting through is to
catch the arm of the opponent on the side on which it is
desired to go through, give it a jerk, and dash into the
opening.
The center in defense must insist on the ball being
down where it belongs. Some center-rushers have a way
of moving the ball forward several inches further than
it should be. There is no occasion for generosity under
such circumstances, and the center must feel that it is his
duty to stand up for the rights of his team by constantly
guarding against any infringement of this kind. On the
other hand, a constant bickering over an inch or two of
25
ground may be made of such importance that the game
is interfered with and delayed to such an extent that a
much greater gain would have resulted were the ball
put in play the instant the signal called for it.
A good referee will see to it that the ball is snapped
each time from the proper spot.
It is always the duty of the center-rusher to keep close
to the opponent who brings the ball in from the side line,
in order to protect the rights of his team. Likewise, it is
well to " pace in " the opponent who brings the ball to the
twenty-five yard line, in order to prevent a quick play
being made when his own side are not in position. The
guards assist him in this.
THE GUARD.
The main work of the guards may be summed up as
blocking, that is, guarding; making openings for the pas-
sage of the runner whenever certain signals are given;
running behind the line to interfere for the man with the
ball; running with the ball occasionally; breaking through
the opposing line to interfere with the quarter-back in
passing the ball; and tackling the runner or stopping a
kick. The guards and the center have the most labo-
rious work on the eleven, if they do their duty, for they
practically have no respite from hard work. They must
bear the brunt of the heavy plunging of their opponents
through the center, and at the same time struggle to
break through the opposing line, which is doing its ut-
most to prevent them. They must do this without a let-
up just as long as the other side has the ball, and, more-
over, in that part of the line which is most compact.
Then, when their own side has the ball, they are expected
to use their strength and wits from the moment the ball
is put in play until it is again down, in blocking, making
openings, and in interfering for the player who is at-
tempting to run. Further, they have little time to catch
their wind, for almost the first point which should be
drummed into them by the captain or coach is to be al-
ways on hand the moment the ball is down, to make
or prevent a quick play. It can be truly said that no
team is well trained until the center part of the eleven, as
indeed the whole team, is prompt on this point. While
the guards have all this hard work, they seldom have a
(26)
2 7
chance to distinguish themselves, either by a run, a clean
tackle, or a fine interference which is apparent to the un-
trained eye of the spectator. On the other hand, it does
not take much yielding at the center to bring forth the
criticism that that part of the line is weak.
On account of the nature of their work, the guards
should be large and powerful, like the center. It is even
more necessary that they should be quick, agile, and
swift, than the center, because the guards should always
go through the line when the opponents have the ball.
On their success in doing this largely depends the strength
or weakness of the team's defense.
The chief point in defensive play is to tackle the runner
before he reaches the line, and the guards are large fac-
tors in doing this. Unless this is done, the ball can be
steadily carried down the field when not lost by a fumble,
for any team is able to gain five yards in three consecu-
tive trials when the runner is allowed to re'ach the line
each time before being tackled. Any means, therefore,
which the guards can employ to interfere with the
quarter-back before he has passed the ball, or the runner
before he has reached the line, should certainly be used.
All the strategy and tricks known in wrestling which can
be applied to the situation should be eagerly sought and
practiced. The great point to remember is to apply the
power quickly and hard, to summon all the strength for
the initial effort, and to work desperately until free from
interference. Only by doing this can the guards hope to
break through and secure the quarter-back or runner be-
hind the line. Slow pushing, however powerful, will ac-
complish little. If held in check until the runner and the
pushers strike the line it is only a question of how many
yards the runner will gain before the mass breaks and
falls forward.
28
In applying his power the guard, as well as his com-
panion rushers, has an immense advantage in being per-
mitted to use his hands and arms freely in getting his op-
ponent out of the way. This enables him to put into practice
all the skill he possesses in handling an opponent who is
allowed to block only with the body. The guard also
has another advantage in being free to move whenever he
pleases, but he must remember that the opening for the
runner may be made on either side of him and be careful
not to give his opponent help in making it. It assists the
guard greatly in breaking through if the tackle draws
out the opposing line as much as is wise in a good de-
fense. This separation should be wide enough to allow
the players in defense to break through easily without in-
terfering with each other. It is also usually helpful in
breaking through to be restless, but cautious at the same
time, in order not to give the opponent an advantage.
The guards and the tackles especially should watch for
signs which shall indicate what the play will be, and then
go through the line as low as possible for a tackle. They
should break through to the right or left of their op-
ponents as seems best at the moment. In order to
break through quickly they must have their eyes on the
ball when it is snapped and spring forward the instant it
is put in play. Quick glances may be cast at the oppo-
nents while still constantly watching the ball.
The guards, with the center, are usually called upon to
meet the heavy charges in the opening plays from the
center of the field. These, as a rule, come in the form of
wedges. Two points should be carefully regarded by
these center men in attacking a wedge: first, to approach
the wedge with the body bent in a position for greatest
power and for meeting the wedge low down; second, to
29
focus on the mass in such a way that it cannot break
through between them without being separated, and so
giving the guards a chance to tackle the runner. In do-
ing this it should be the aim to focus as nearly as possible
upon the point of the wedge, in order to check its ad-
vance and throw the forwards back on the runner. The
runner will then be forced to come out, if he has not al-
ready become entangled in the mass. In making the
attack the guards and center should run with dash and de-
termination, at the same time watching close!)' for the
runner and trying hard to tackle him.
Two successful ways of attacking a wedge have been
originated. One member of the center trio will some-
times jump over the heads of the forwards and try to
fall on the runner and thus secure him, or he will hurl
himself headlong at the feet of the oncoming wedge and
cause it to trip over him. To make either one of these
attacks well the player must be perfectly fearless, and
should also use good judgment. In the former case the
player must time his jump and not land short of the run-
ner, or he will be pushed quickly to the ground or carried
along on the heads of the forwards; neither must he
jump so far over that he will miss his man. If he throws
himself in front of the wedge he should not do it too
soon, lest the wedge will be able to avoid or step over
him.
When a wedge is formed in the line on a scrimmage the
guards and center must be sure to get low, or they will
be carried along before it. The point of the wedge must
be held in check. In resisting the attack of a revolving
wedge the guards should separate slightly from the
center and join with the tackle in trying to penetrate the
mass to secure the runner. This should be done in st i ch
30
a way that the defense shall not be weakened. Care
should also be taken by the side of the line away from
which the wedge revolves not to add impetus to it by push-
ing too far.
The position of the guard varies slightly in defense and
offense. In offense the first thought must be to protect
the quarter-back until he has passed the ball; his next
to block his man long enough to prevent him from reach-
ing the runner. His third thought, which may also influ-
ence the way he stands while he attends to the former
work, is to make the opening if the play is in his quarter.
His fourth thought, which will be influenced by his first
and second, is to get in his interference ahead of the
runner when practicable, or follow him as closely as pos-
sible and do what he can to assist. In fulfilling all these
duties he will be limited in his freedom of movement.
He cannot stand too far from the center rusher, and he
may be compelled to stand shoulder to shoulder with him.
Further, he will have to assume a position which best
enables him to carry out his duties.' It may be well for
him to stand with both feet on a line, or it may be better
to have one or the other foot behind, according to his pur-
pose. It is nearly always better for him to bend forward,
or even to get down very low if his opponent tries to get
under him. The bent-over position is better for meeting
attacks, because the weight is well forward and low
down and the body is better braced and not 'so much ex-
posed to effective handling. In this position, also, one
can move forward better for making an opening.
In blocking the legs should usually be spread widely
apart. They should not be spread so much, however,
that the guard will not be able to move quickly whenever
his opponent shifts his position. In blocking, as in break-
3i
ing through the line, the guard should try hard to get his
power into action before his opponent. This can be best
done by a shoulder check.
The general position of the guard must be determined
by the play in hand and the way the opponent stands.
He may be forced to move out a little because his oppo-
nent does so, but he must be careful that the opening be-
tween him and the center is not occupied by the quarter-
back or some other free player, in which case the tackle
will sometimes be obliged to step in and take the oppos-
ing guard. Neither the guard nor any other rusher
except the center should ever take a fixed position in
standing.
On the defensive much depends on strong blocking by
the guards, for weak blocking is fatal at the center of the
line. The quarter-back, being so near to the guards, is
in imminent danger in case of weak blocking, and he can
little afford the loss of a fraction of a second in handling
the ball, much less a fumble. Under these circumstances,
if a fumble occurs, the quarter-back must always fall on
the ball and not run any risks of losing it. Furthermore,
in weak blocking the runner has little chance on a dash
into the line, for in place of an opening he finds an oppo-
nent. " Block hard " has come to be one of the axioms
of the game. Blocking for a kick is treated fully in the
chapter on team play.
The guard has an advantage over the center in making
an opening for the runner in only one particular, and that
is that he is freer to move in his position. The center
rusher is largely dependent on the position which his op-
ponent takes in standing to help him out in this matter,
since he cannot move his relative position from the oppos-
ing center more than the latter allows; but he can often
3
32
influence that position to suit his own purpose. By clever
generalship and strategy he may be able to induce his op-
ponent to do the very thing he needs to help him out in
his play. Some of the ways of handling an opponent are
given in the description of the duties of the center
rusher.
When the guard is going to run with the ball he should
take a position which will enable him to get away from
his opponent quickly, but he should not make his inten-
tions evident. For this reason it is better for the guard,
as well as for the tackle, not to take a set position until
the signal is given; but if one is taken, let it be such that
it would not make it necessary to change in order to run
with the ball. The one who is to run with the ball should
seek in every way to conceal the purpose of the play.
The guard is in the most difficult position from which
to get under headway in order to run with the ball. As
commonly played, the guard swings round the quarter-
back and dives into an opening between the tackle and
guard on the other side of the center. The very begin-
ning of his run is the most difficult part. He cannot run
fast from his position, for he has only a step or two to
make before he must turn sharply around the quarter-
back and run in almost an opposite direction. If he runs
back too far he will be tackled before he reaches the line,
and if he turns in closely, he is likely to run against his
own men as they are struggling with their opponents.
It needs, therefore, careful judgment and a great deal of
practice to be able to run well from this position.
Long-legged guards, as a rule, find it easier to take a
long step backward with the foot next the center, and use
that as a purchase from which to circle around the quarter-
back. Some guards prefer to take three or four short,
33
quick steps in making the turn around the quarter-back.
Any way which will enable the guard to get under head-
way most quickly is the method which should be used.
It will be easy for the quarter-back to place the ball in
the guard's hands, and it will probably be better for him
to carry it under the arm away from the center.
When the guard runs around to interfere, he should
place himself so that he can get away quickly and not
" give the play away." If the guard is to run around in
order to interfere by getting ahead of the runners, the
quickest possible start is necessary. There must be no
delay whatever, even when the guard is a fast runner, or
else the runner with the ball will have to slow up so much
that he cannot make the play. Whenever the guard runs
around to interfere or to run with the ball, the tackle
should keep the opposing guard from following him.
The guard can sometimes do this himself by pushing his
opponent back just as he starts, but it must be done in
such a way that it will not delay him.
THE TACKLE.
The tackle occupies the most important position on the
rush line. It is possible to get along with a lumbering
center and slow guards if they are able to block well and
make good openings, but it is not possible to have slow
tackles and play good football at the same time. The po-
sition which the tackle occupies in the line explains this,
and it is best appreciated when it is understood that the
tackles should take part in more than half the defensive
work of the team.
The tackle occupies the most responsible position be-
cause he assists in checking two distinctly different styles
of play. On the side toward the center he is to help the
guard in blocking the heavy plunges which are frequently
aimed at that point of the line, while on the other side he
has to work with the end-rusher against all plays between
them and on all plays around the end. To play this po-
sition properly on the defensive, therefore, requires a
master mind and an equipment of physical capacity and
skill unequaled by any position on the eleven.
Next to the half-back the tackle, from his position in
the line, has the best opportunity for running with the
ball. In fact, he can be used with telling effect, if a good
runner, in supplementing and resting the half-backs.
Again, he is the end-rusher's chief assistant in going
down the field on all kicks, and he must be under the
ball almost as soon as the end himself, in order to prevent
the catcher from dodging inside the end men.
(34
35
The points mentioned are sufficient to show that the
tackle should be a man of considerable weight, because
he has to bear a great deal of the heavy plunging into the
line. The greater the weight the better, provided, of
course, that the other requirements are met. As a rule,
it is rare that a man weighing over one hundred and
eighty pounds can meet these requirements, and it is
more often that men weighing one hundred and sixty-five
or seventy pounds are selected for this position on the
best teams. The general build of the man also qualifies
his usefulness. The one hundred and sixty-five pounds
will be much more effective in a man from five feet six to
five feet ten inches in height than in one above that
height. In truth, the man of stocky build can usually
fill this position much better, because his weight is nearer
the ground and he is always in a position to make a low
tackle. As a great deal of his tackling should be dashing
and brilliant, right in the midst of interference where he
must throw himself instantly, a tall man would be at a
disadvantage. A thick-set, round-bodied man with large
arms and legs would also be a much harder man to stop
when running with the ball.
Of equal importance with weight, the points which
should determine the selection of the tackle are agility,
speed, and the ability to tackle in the face of interference.
The name of the position indicates the work of the
player. He is to tackle. Even speed can to a small de-
gree be dispensed with if the man is quick and agile and
is a sure tackier. Quickness in getting through the line,
agility in avoiding interference, sure tackling, getting
down the field on a kick, and running with the ball are
essential qualifications to look for in selecting a man to
fill the position of tackle.
36
The tackle must be endowed with more than the ordi-
nary amount of shrewdness and judgment. To a certain
extent this can be acquired by long practice, but the
tackle must be of quick perception and good judgment
naturally in order to play the position in the best manner.
When acting on the defensive the distance which he
should stand from the guard and the manner of going
through the line, either to the inside or outside of his op-
ponent, should be determined by previous judgment as
to where the play is to be made and influenced by an in-
stantaneous perception as the play starts. The position,
too, must be taken with the utmost caution and selected
at just the right distance from the guard to best meet the
play and still be able to defend his position on either
side. There is need of the closest and quickest observa-
tion and cleverest judgment.
Moreover, as many of the plays cannot be determined
beforehand, such a position must be taken as will best
enable the tackle to check any play which can be made.
He must then be on the alert for the very first indications
of the play and act on them, and at the same time he
must still keep the closest watch for later developments
which change the direction in which the ball will finally
be carried.
Playing up close to the guard is always dangerous un-
less it is necessary to do so in order to stop a wedge play,
for the tackle could then be blocked in very easily from
helping, if an attack were made on the space between him-
self and the end man, or in a play around the end. He
therefore would cut himself off from defending two-thirds
of his territory and the most defenseless part of the line.
Playing far away from the guard is also dangerous, for
he then leaves the part of his territory which is nearest
37
the opposing half-backs too much exposed and gives his
opponent a chance to block him off from defending it. Of
course, if the tackle were free from the checking of an
opponent, he could play some distance away from the
guard and still defend the space between them ; but the
fact that there is a player opposite who is giving all his
attention, wit, and energy to securing an advantage over
him, gives a turn to the problem which he cannot ignore
in making his calculations. The tackle takes a certain
position ; the opponent takes one also. It may be a little
to the right or a little to the left of him, or it may be
directly in front of him. The tackle may change his
position a little and then the opponent perhaps change
his, but their relative positions may, or may not, be
changed ; or possibly his opponent may remain in the
same place. Just this action or inaction on the part of
the opposing tackle is sufficient to help him determine
how he should play in his defense, and is one of the signs
to be considered in deciding upon his own position and
action.
The tackle should usually play right up to the line, on
the defense. Sometimes with a very quick opponent, it
may be better to play a little back from the line. He
should be restless, and on the alert for an opportunity to
go through on the side of his opponent offering the
best advantage. He should watch the ball closely and
spring the instant it is snapped. His course of action in
reference to his opponent must be to get him out of the
way as quickly as possible. It may often be best for the
tackle simply to drive his opponent back with hard, quick
pushes. This might frequently be best when the play is
between him and the guard, because the time for prepara-
tion to tackle is exceedingly short before the runner will
38
be going past, and the whole attention must be given to
securing a momentary freedom from interference, for a
quick.spring. The tackle has a great deal of this quick
tackling to do because the runs are so frequently made in
his region. Much of this also must be done right in the
midst of interference, when the only chance to get the
runner is by hurling himself headlong at him as he
passes.
On end plays the tackle must break away from his op-
ponent as quickly as possible. He will have no time then
to carry his man before him except, perhaps for an
instant, as he pushes him back to get by him. Yet he
must make sure to knock his opponent sufficiently off his
balance to prevent his following him and giving him a
shove at a critical moment. In defense on an end play,
everything depends on the tackle reaching the runner
before he begins to turn in order to circle the end, and
before he has swung in closely behind his interference.
The runner then has not yet gotten under full speed
and the interferers are somewhat scattered and looking
toward the end. The tackle has the best chance for de-
feating end runs ; in this he is ably seconded by the end
man, the two working together, in fine team play.
The tackle must go through the line on the defense.
The plan of waiting until it is seen where the run will be
made and then running behind his line to help, if the play
appears to be on the other side, is disastrous to a good de-
fensive game. It not only is dangerous, because it leaves
the way clear for a splendid run on a double pass, but it
is also especially harmful because it gets the tackle into
the habit of waiting for every play to become well start-
ed, and this is fatal to a strong defense. If the play is
around the other end, the tackle should follow the run-
39
ner around and try to overtake him. It is sometimes
possible for a fast runner to do this when he breaks
through quickly. In following the man with the ball, the
tackle must be on the watch constantly for a double pass.
If he suspects one is to be made, he must be sure not to
be drawn in or blocked as he runs behind the line. It
would be better, in that case, to go straight through.
The tackle can do more to defeat a double pass than any
other player, for, if he plays his position well, he will
meet the runner when there is not more than one inter-
ferer to combat. If he then does not tackle the runner,
he can force him to run so far back of the line that the
rest of the team will be able to come to his assistance be-
fore he circles the end.
When the opponents are going to kick, the tackle has
an especial burden resting on him because he is in a very
advantageous position for breaking through quickly and
stopping the ball. No other rusher should reach the full-
back so quickly, unless, perhaps, the guard, because none
other is so well placed and at the same time interfered
with so little.
He should, therefore, go through with all his strength
and speed, and jump high in the air to stop the ball.
His hands should be raised at the same time in order to
place as high an obstacle in the way of the ball as is
possible. The tackle on the same side as the kicking
foot has a better chance to stop the ball than his com-
panion on the other side, and he must, therefore, put
forth his utmost efforts. Frequently, the tackle, like the
guards and center, can work some clever team play in
conjunction with an extra man, whereby one or the other
can go through the line with little opposition.
There are a variety of tactics which can be employed
40
in getting through the line, and every tackle should be
able to use them at will. Those are best which enable
the tackle to get through quickly and at the same time
permit him to watch the runner closely. This is a point
which ought to be deeply impressed on the minds of all
the rushers. The situation changes so quickly when a
run is being made that it is not safe to have the eyes off
the runner for a second. The methods usually employed
in breaking through the line are : striking the opponent
in the chest quickly and hard, and following it up with
a shove to one side when he is off his balance ; whirl-
ing suddenly around him, using either foot as a pivot;
ducking quickly to one side ; making a feint to go one
side and going the other ; striking the opponent with
the head or shoulder and lifting him aside ; stepping a
little to one side as the opponent comes forward and
swinging him through behind him. The tackle can
sometimes secure an advantage for breaking through by
pushing his opponent back from the line just before the
ball is snapped. He must be very free to move, and go
through with a jump. It is better to keep as low down
as possible in doing this.
The position which the tackle should take on the
defense against mass plays from the center of the field is
shown in the diagrams further on. He should move off
from the guard sufficiently to protect the side of the field
and at the same time be able to spring back close to him on
any play directly forward. It is his special duty to tackle
the runner if he comes out at the side of the formation.
In case the runner does not come out before the oppos-
ing rushers meet, the tackle should dive in and secure
him, if possible, but in doing this he must be careful not
to leave too great a space between himself and the guard,
as an opening through which to send the runner may be
intended at that very point.
It is impossible to lay down rules of action for the
tackle on wedge plays in the line. He must work accord-
ing to his best judgment based on the situation ; but an
important factor in successful play will be to put in the
work low down. If he is caught by the wedge in an up-
right, or nearly upright position, he will be rendered
absolutely useless. For this reason, it is often best to
dive in at the side of the wedge about knee high and
try to tackle the runner, or cause him to fall over him.
If the wedge is revolving, it is often best for the tackle
to fall down in front of it. The tackle must consider it
his first duty to assist the center and guards in checking
the wedge, and leave the other players to attend to the
runner if he comes out from behind or at the side.
On the offense, the tackle cannot leave any unpro-
tected space between himself and the guard, if it be occu-
pied by an opponent. He must therefore always take
the inside man. This may require him to play close to
the guard. From this position he must do all his run-
ning with the ball, all his blocking, all his interference
for the runners, and make all his openings ; varying his
attitude toward his opponent to meet the special need of
the moment. In making his opening the tackle has to
outwit and combat a very free opponent, one who, as a
rule, is constantly changing his position. This renders it
difficult, sometimes, to make an opening because fre-
quently it has to be done while the opponent is changing
his position, and when, perhaps, the tackle himself is not
in a favorable position for making that particular open-
ing. Likewise, when trying to block his opponent, the
tackle must follow him closely and keep in front of him,.
42
and must be all on tiptoe to dart forward to get in a body
check before the opponent acts.
When the tackle runs with the ball or moves away
from his position to accompany the runner, he is much
more at liberty in choosing his place in the line. His
great aim should be to take a position which should not
be noticeable by its strong contrast to previous ones, and
yet, at the same time, be one which he can use to the
greatest advantage in the play in hand. Usually that
position should be up in the line not more than two or
three feet from the guard, but sometimes it is better to
stand a little behind the line.
It is most important to the tackle when he runs with
the ball that he get away from his opponent with the ut-
most quickness, and then, that he run with tremendous
speed and power. The secret of successful running
from any position lies in this. The practice given to im-
proving in this particular should be faithful and constant.
The run of the tackle cannot be successful until there is
added to the quick start and strong headway, such train-
ing in taking his course that he will neither run too near
the line, nor too far back from it ; and the ability to circle
around the quarter-back and take the ball from him
without a diminution in speed, and then plunge into his
opening with a force which cannot be stopped short of
several yards. Much depends on the course taken. The
tackle's failure in running often results from slowing
up to turn into the right opening and thus losing his
power. Instructions in running and holding the ball are
given in the chapter on the half-back and full-back.
THE END-RUSHER.
The end-rushers fill two of the most important positions
on the eleven. In defense, their especial duty is to pre-
vent the long runs of the game. It is an unusual thing
for a long run to be made through the center part of the
line on account of the support given the rushers by the
quarter-back and half-backs. Let a runner once get
around the end with one or two interferers ahead of him,
as is usually the case when such runs are made, and he is
likely to go a long distance down the field and not infre-
quently make a touchdown. In defending his territory
against these runs the end stands at the most remote part
of the field for assistance to be rendered him. He is at
the extreme part of the rush line and has no one close to
him to help him. His nearest neighbor, the tackle, must
be depended on for most of the assistance, and when he
cannot render it, the end is put to the test of tackling a
runner preceded by a group of interferers. In such an
emergency a deep responsibility rests upon the end-
rusher, because he is probably the last man left to pre-
vent a long run and perhaps a touchdown, producing a
sensation akin to that of the full-back when he alone
stands between the runner and the goal.
Moreover, the end-rusher has to meet the runner under
most trying circumstances^ The runner and the inter-
ferers have gotten well under way ; they have passed the
most dangerous spot in the line and are coming on at
great speed. The interference is now more focused and
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44
effective in arrangement than it has yet been. There are
more interferers and they are more closely bunched. At
the same time, the end well knows that he is an especial
mark on all sides. He realizes that a particular man is
appointed to do his utmost to check his play and that if
this man fails to do it, the work is to be attended to by
the other interferers who come immediately after. Under
these difficulties in tackling and maneuvering, it is not
strange that every captain is most careful in the selection
and training of his end men.
The kind of man who could play a brilliant game at
end, might not, perhaps, be able to fill any other position
in the rush line, yet this is not necessarily true. His
qualification would be questionable only as regards build
and weight. There are most brilliant end players who
only weigh about one hundred and fifty pounds, and
sometimes a little less, but the tendency now is toward
selecting slightly heavier players for that position in order
to gain more weight with which to meet the tremendous
on-rush of the interferers. - But it is not infrequent that
the light, agile, cat-like men are much more likely to
tackle the runner, and so are selected in preference to
those possessing plenty of weight but less skill. The
tackling of these light, quick men is necessarily most
brilliant, because they do not bore their way through to
the runner but seize a momentary opening to put in their
telling work. Such a man, as has been said, could not
play in any other position in the rush line, for he would
not be heavy enough to stand the hard pushing and
plunging to which, for example, the tackle is subjected.
With the exception of meeting .the end plays and plays
between the end and tackle, the end-rusher does not have
the hard, wearing work of the other rushers. Not that
45
he does not have plenty of work to do, but he is not con-
stantly combating an opponent and struggling with
might and main to get through the line, thus being sub-
jected to the little knocks and bruises which the other
rushers have to endure.
The end-rusher is at liberty to take any position he
chooses on the offense. His one thought, however, should
be to take that position from which he can best operate
in helping out the play. Many end-rushers fail to do
this. Some ends play up in the line and follow their op-
ponents wherever they move, no matter how far out they
go. Others take a stand a little back of the line, about a
yard or two from the tackle, shifting this now and then
as the play suggests and admits. This latter is generally
the best position which can be taken for helping in the
interference, and it is also a better position from which to
start if the end-rusher is to run with the ball himself.
Whenever the end-rusher is going to take the ball he
should carelessly assume a position a little nearer the
quarter-back perhaps almost behind the tackle. Other-
wise, the distance which he would be obliged to run be-
fore he reached his opening would be so great that the
opponents would have enough time in which to intercept
the play. On this play the quarter-back should give the
ball to him by a short pass and then run ahead to inter-
fere.
If the end-rusher plays up in the line he should always
take the inside man when acting on the offensive. This
is a point frequently forgotten, and oftentimes is the rea-
son why end runs are stopped before the runner reaches
the end. The end-rusher should also remember to help /
the tackle whenever the latter takes the ball. In this case
it may be necessary for the end-rusher to step in and
46
block the opposing tackle, but if the tackle can break
away from his opponent without assistance it is better
that the end should follow the tackle right around. When
the tackle is to go into the line the end can do no better
than place his hands on his hips and steer him into the
opening. If the end-rusher does this well he can be of
great assistance to the tackle in running, and at the same
time prevent him from being caught from the rear. The
best way to play the end position in making the different
evolutions, is shown in the chapter containing diagrams.
On kjcks into touch the end-rusher must cover the ball
well and secure it the instant the full-back puts him on
side. Whenever an opponent secures it the end-rusher
on that side must be on the watch to prevent his quickly
putting it in play at the point it crossed the line. He
should also be on the watch for all side-line tricks. The
other end man should return quickly to his position
to guard his field against a throw in from the side or any
quick play. The end-rushers must be sure to keep their
eyes on any outlying men who might receive the ball on
a.pass.
V/ " Be the first man down the field on a kick " is the
motto early instilled in the would-be end-rusher, and to
do that and be there in time to tackle the catcher before
he starts is no small accomplishment. It means that
with a good punter, who has perhaps the wind behind
him to propel the ball, the end must be exceedingly
quick in starting and very swift of foot. If the end fails
to get down the field in time, the ball will be carried or
kicked back, whereas a swift runner might be able to pre-
vent this. Moreover, the full-back ought not to be com-
pelled to limit his kick because of the slowness of the
end-rusher.
47
It requires long practice and much careful study to de-
termine just the direction the ball has taken almost at the
moment it is kicked without wasting time in turning
around or in looking over the head into the air. Likewise
it requires practice to decide upon the best way of ap-
proaching the man to whom the ball is kicked. It is a
common fault for end-rushers to run blindly down the
field without knowing the exact direction which the ball
has taken, when a little study of the faces and actions of
the half-backs will indicate in a second whither the ball is
going.
Another common fault with the end-rusher is the failure
to tackle the man who gets the ball. This results largely
from over running him. The player with the ball simply
jumps to one side at the proper moment and lets the end
go by in his headlong run, and then goes down the field.
The one remedy is that he should slacken speed a little
as he approaches and watch for a chance to tackle.
Care should be taken by the end-rusher as he runs
down the field to approach the player who has received
the ball so that he will be_Jorced to run on the inside of
him. Then, in case the end misses his tackle, "Tie will fall
into the hands of the other rushers, now near at hand.
The position of the end-rusher when a kick is about to
be made, should be such that he can protect the field.
Usually he draws off well from the tackle. This must be
done without fail when he has a large field to guard, that
is, when the other end of the line is near the side of the
field. The general form of the rush line as it advances
when a kick is to be made, is described in the chapter on
team play.
It may be said further, that usually the end-rusher
should start his line of direction slightly towards the side
4
lines until he gets the first inkling of the direction the
ball has taken. He should then bear in or out still far-
ther, according as seems best. This would not be good
advice to the end-rusher who stands close to the side line.
The reason for the end taking such a start is that he
should protect the whole field against a run, and the least
protected part should be attended to first. This sugges-
tion has especial weight when there is a great deal of
space between the end-rusher and the side line.
The end-rusher must be especially watchful at the start
for signs of a short kick, or for one which goes to the
side. Sometimes these are caused by inaccurate kicking, or
by the partial stopping of the ball by an opposing rusher.
In any event, he must be careful not to over-run the ball,
and must secure it whenever an opponent puts him on
side by touching the ball. If the end is in doubt where
the ball is, he should glance around quickly and find out.
The end-rushers must be especially careful when the ball
is kicked from near the side of the field, for it often hap-
pens that only one end can be near the opponent when
he catches.
The end-rusher should be under the ball when it falls,
and if the opponent is a good catcher he should usually
force him to make a fair catch. If, however, the end-
rusher is where he is absolutely sure of securing the
catcher if he should run, it may sometimes be better for
him to give the opponent a slight chance to run for the
sake of increasing his liability to drop the ball. This lia-
bility is further increased by a hard tackle just at the
moment the catcher starts. The end should be on the
watch to secure the ball at such times. He should also
make sure that the catcher does not pass the ball to a
companion near at hand.
49
There are many conditions to be met by the end as he
goes down the field on a kick which cannot be described.
He must note them as they come and act accordingly.
One of the hardest of these is to know how to handle
bounding and rolling balls. Observing the angle at
which the ball descends, also the way it acts for two or
three bounds after it strikes, will give some information
on which to base action, but there is a constant uncer-
tainty ; and in those cases where the ball is revolving on
an axis constantly shifting as it goes through the air,
there is no certainty of its action after it strikes the
ground. It therefore takes the most careful playing at
such times on the part of the end-rusher, for one of the oppo-
nents may dart in opportunely and seize the ball and go
sprinting up the field. If there is any chance for this,
and he is not well supported with helpers, the end-rusher
should immediately touch the ball and force a down for
the other side. Furthermore, when a kicked ball is likely
to go over the line in goal, the end-rusher should do his
utmost to touch it just before it reaches the five-yard line
so that it shall be down at that spot and shall not be
brought out to the twenty-five yard line.
THE QUARTER-BACK.
As popular opinion has always assigned the snap-back's
position to the largest man on the eleven, so likewise has
it given the quarter-back's position to the smallest man.
There is less reason in having the smallest man quarter-
back than the largest player at center. Indeed, there is
no question that a swift, agile man of one hundred and
sixty or one hundred and seventy pounds would be the
most useful quarter-back, if his other qualifications are
equal. The trouble is that the man of such a weight, who
was qualified to fill the quarter-back's position, would be
the man who would be most needed at tackle or end, or
as a running-back. There is rarely more than one man
with these qualifications on the best teams, while there
are usually several men of sufficient speed and agility
among the candidates, who perhaps could not be useful
in any other position, and yet are too skillful players to
loose. The result is that on university elevens the
quarter-back is usually a man who weighs from one hun-
dred and forty to one hundred and fifty-five pounds, is
agile and swift, is a hard worker, with great endurance
and unlimited pluck. Well does he need all of these
qualities, for he must always be in the thick of the fight.
No play can take place from a scrimmage without his
being a medium in its execution, not only in the passing
of the ball, but also, if he does his duty, in assisting the
runner on his way up the field. Not that he runs ahead
of the runner every time, for he is unable to go in front
on some plays, but he can always get behind to push if
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the runner is stopped, or to block off those who try to
tackle him from the rear.
The quarter-back's position demands a peculiarly heady
player at the same time that it calls for agility and quick-
ness. No other player on the eleven is forced to do as much
thinking and planning while in the midst of most skillful
and invaluable work. He has no chance to "soldier,"
either mentally or physically, as the rest of the eleven
may do, to a limited extent, occasionally during the pro-
gress of the game if so disposed. His brain must be as
clear as his muscles are quick and steady. He has to
translate with absolute exactness every signal which is
given, and as accurately carry it out by forwarding the
ball in the most advantageous manner possible to the
player who is to receive it. On no account, then, must a
man be selected for this position who is inclined to be-
come " rattled," for the position itself is enough to render
unsteady the coolest man.
When the quarter-back is appointed to give the signals
for the play a new duty emphasizes the importance of his
being a heady player, for he then is made the general of
the game. By having this duty to perform the chances
for his making a mistake in giving the ball to the wrong
player are perhaps slightly decreased, but the demand
for clever judgment and shrewdness in field tactics more
than offsets this.
The quarter-back must know no physical fear. He
must be fearlessly unconscious that there are several op-
ponents almost within reach of him who are doing their
utmost to fall upon him. No nervousness must enter in-
to his work ; else he is not the man for the position.
In assuming his position on a down, the quarter-back is
allowed considerable freedom. Some players prefer to
5 2
receive the ball close up to the center-rusher and then
move away as they pass it on to the runner ; others take
a position between the two, just as far away as is possi-
ble while still being able to reach the center conveniently
for giving the signal.
The quarter-back who plays close up to the center ren-
ders himself liable to be interfered with in his pass by the
opposite center and guards, who may reach over to check
his play ; at the same time he cannot so well take part in
the interference on end plays. On the other hand, the
quarter-back who takes his position far behind the center
is limited in some of his plays. He can be of more assist-
ance, perhaps, in helping on the end plays, but it will be
impossible for any of the guards and tackles to run with
the ball with any chance of gaining ground, because they
will have to run so far behind the line to receive the ball
that they will easily be tackled. When the quarter-back
takes this position he will have to give the signal in some
other way than that usually followed. It has been cus-
tomary for the quarter-back to press the calf of the center
rusher's leg, or some other part of his body, with his thumb
when he is ready for the ball ; but there are reasons why
some other signal would be better at times, and the giving
of the signal would be of little moment if there is to be
a decided advantage gained by playing so far behind the
center. It is accepted as the best way for the quarter-
back, in playing his position, to stand bent over, at arms
length from the center, with his eyes fixed on the ball.
He has already learned the position of the player who
is about to receive the ball as he glanced around at his
team when the signal for the play was given. The in-
stant that he gives the signal for the ball to come back
he turns quarter round, throwing his right or left foot
53
well behind for a brace, according as he wishes to pass
the ball to the right or left. The quarter-back must
not take his final position for receiving the ball before
the signal for the ball to come back is given ; otherwise
the opponents will have time to study out his method of
passing for the different plays and can guess in what
direction the run will be made. It is all done so quickly
in the other case that there will be no time to anticipate
the play.
The quarter-back should never give his private signal
for the ball until the captain has given the signal for the
play, and then only after he comprehends it himself. In
a well drilled eleven the quarter-back understands the
signal for a play the instant it is given, and yet it is not
a rare occurrence in important games for signals to be
mixed or the key numbers to be left out. In that case the
quarter-back should not signal for the ball until the signal
for the play is made plain or a new one given. It is now
a common practice for the quarter-back to give the signals
for the play himself, whether he is captain or not. This
has grown out of the fact that he is in one of the best
positions for observing the whole field, and also because
he will no longer need to interpret the signal after it is
given, but can call for the ball as soon as he thinks best.
This facilitates the play somewhat and lessens the liabil-
ity of making mistakes in translating the captain's signal.
There are three styles of passing a ball used by quarter-
backs. Two of these make use of only one arm in for-
warding the ball one by an overhand and straight-arm
movement especially valuable for passing long distances,
but too slow for ordinary use; the other by an underhand
pitch with an easy, natural swing of the arm. This lat-
ter style is the quickest of the three, for no time is lost in
54
raising the arm into a position for delivering the ball.
This pass supplements the movement of the ball along the
ground most quickly and naturally. In the third style of
passing both hands and arms are used and it is closely
allied to the one-arm underhand pass. This insures ac-
curacy, but places limitations on the distance the ball can
be thrown. It is commonly used in all short passing. It
would be of great advantage if a quarter-back could pass
accurately with either hand.
In receiving the ball from the center the quarter-back
should stop it with the hand which corresponds to the leg
already placed behind for a brace and immediately adjust
the other hand to it for a pass. This is done by placing
one end squarely in the hand from which the pass is to be
made and spreading out the fingers. The hand should
then be bent at the wrist until the ball rests against the
forearm. The ball is now in a position for a pass. Care
should be taken to have the hand squarely behind the
ball, also to have the long axis of the ball parallel with
the forearm. The easiest way to make a long pass is to
swing the arm at full length just below the level of the
shoulder.
The quarter-back must need give considerable time to
practicing all parts of his work in receiving, handling, and
passing the ball. It is no easy matter to receive the ball
as it comes bounding back from the center-rusher and
adapt it to the hands for accurate passing while quickly
turning into position to deliver it to the runner; but it is
necessary for the quarter-back to do this in order not to
be interfered with by the rushers who break through the
line, and also not to delay the runner. It requires long
practice, also, to be able to handle the ball and be off the
instant the ball is in the hands, but it is an achievement
55
which enables the quarter-back to be of great service in
end interference. Unless, however, there is the most
skillful handling of the ball it is impossible for the quarter-
back to get ahead of the runner without delaying him. It
requires much practice to be able to do quick and accurate
passing to be able to place the ball at just the right dis-
tance ahead of the runner and at just the right height and
at just the right speed, so that he shall not be delayed an
instant, and can give his whole thought to running and
dodging.
Too great stress cannot be laid upon quick work by the
quarter-back. It means success or defeat to some of the
plays. At the same time the quarter-back must be ex-
ceedingly careful in handling and passing the ball. It
is better to be a little slow than to be quick and unsteady.
He must never become excited and lose his self-control,
for that would be disastrous to all careful work and also
would be likely to cause him to make mistakes in signals.
On all dashes through the center it is better for the
quarter-back to make short passes of the ball at the run-
ner's waist. The ball must not be passed fast and it
must be most accurately placed, for the runner is bent
over for a plunge and is not in a position to handle it,
unless on a slow and accurate pass. These points are
worthy of the most careful consideration, for much of the
fumbling by the half-backs is due to poor passing. What
would ordinarily be an excellent pass if the half-back
were at some distance, would be a poor one when he is
coming forward at full speed, with his body somewhat
bent at the waist, and his attention partly on the ball and
partly on the opening he is to take. In this case, also,
a high pass is harder to catch than a low one, because
the hands will have to be raised quickly from their posi-
tion at the waist.
56
The quarter-back should also use the greatest care in
his pass to the full-back for a kick, for a poor pass will
most likely result in the opponents stopping the kick and
securing the ball on four downs, if not on a fumble. The
full-back can kick most quickly when the ball is passed
at his waist.
Some quarter-backs prefer to hand the ball to the run-
ner as he dashes by, whenever that is possible. This
method, without doubt, is best when the guard or tackle
runs around for a plunge through the line between center
and guard, or guard and tackle, on the other side of the
center. In this case the quarter-back will turn half
around, with his back to the center-rusher, the ball being
held by the ends between the extended hands. In most
other cases an advantage is gained \>y passing the ball,
because the quarter-back will not be in danger of being
tackled by the opposing rushers or quarter-back, as they
break through the line, and also because he will be free
after his pass to give his whole attention to helping the run-
ner. He may do this either by going through the opening
and pulling the runner after him ; by grasping him and
going through with him ; by shoving him hard when he
strikes the line; or by jumping into an opponent who has
broken through in the path of the runner. Occasionally
it may be better to hand the ball to the runner when the
quarter-back runs out to the side to interfere for him; but
even in that case, a short pass usually facilitates the play
because the quarter-back can run faster and do better in-
terference when free from the ball. It is of great assist-
ance in getting into the interference on end plays for the
quarter-back to be able to pass the ball accurately on the
run, for every fraction of a second counts in making a
helpful connection.
57
On the defense the quarter-back usually hovers in the
rear of the center and guards, watching his opportunity
to go through and tackle the opposing quarter or half-
backs.
A powerful style of defensive play has now, however,
been largely adopted, in which the quarter-back takes a
position behind one of the tackles, while a half-back is
brought up to a corresponding position behind the other
tackle. They there await the play without attempting to
go through on the instant the ball is snapped, and as the
line of their opponents separates for the play, the one on
whose side of the center the opening is made dives into
it to meet the runner before he can strike the line.
He must know just when to go through the line and
when to wait in order to see where to meet the play; also
through which opening in the line to go in order to best
check the play. Some shrewd guessing can be done , which
will help determine this by noting all the signs of the di-
rection of the play spoken of in the chapter on team play.
The center and guards, and sometimes the tackles, should
help the quarter-back find his opening and assist him in
getting through. The quarter-back should always be
helped through when the opposing team is going to kick,
since it will be much easier for htm to go through quickly
on account of his size and quickness in starting. If the
rushers and the quarter-back work together on the de-
fense the latter can be a most valuable adjunct to their
play, because he is free to move anywhere. When a run-
ner is checked or tackled, the quarter-back, as indeed all
the eleven, should endeavor to pull the ball out of his
hands before he calls " down." The quarter-back often
has a good chance to do this when the runner is entan-
gled in a mass.
THE HALF-BACKS AND FULL-BACK.
The half-backs and the full-back, who is practically a
third half-back, stand usually from two to four yards
behind the center of the line. They group themselves at
short distances from one another and in a way to best
assist in carrying out the play which is about to be made.
There is a difference in the latitude given the half-backs
and full-back on different teams in arranging themselves
for each play. Some captains require these men to
occupy the same position on every play, claiming that it
is of great advantage in obscuring the play to have a
fixed arrangement. On other teams the half-backs and
full-back are allowed to move about, and shift their
places to the position in which they think they can best
help out the play.
There is also a great difference among teams in the
placing of the half-backs and full-back in reference to
each other and also in reference to the rush line. In
general, the full-back is stationed behind the center and
usually about a yard or a yard and a half further from
the line than the half-backs. On some teams, these three
play close together, separated by not more than a yard
or a yard and a half ; on others, they are separated from
two yards to three yards and a half. There is also a
decided difference in the distance behind the line which
the backs play. This varies from two to five yards.
The arrangement of the backs should, in a measure,
depend on the style of game to be played ; and the style
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59
of game should be determined by the composition of the
team. That is to say, that if it is deemed wise to play a
center game, it can best be done by bunching the backs ;
while, on the other hand, the combinations can be best
made for an end game when the backs are more spread
apart.
Captains who are limited in the selection of their play-
ers will find it well worth their while to consider the
arrangement of the backs, both in regard to their relative
distance from each other, and also in regard to the
distance which they stand behind the line. Indeed, there
is an opportunity for fine generalship in deciding upon
the place for these ground gainers.
When the three men who are to occupy positions
behind the line have been decided upon, there is also
need of careful consideration in determining which posi-
tion each one of the three shall fill. The full-back is
usually selected for his ability to kick, and yet, it is some-
times better that the man occupying that position should
act as a half-back until the signal for a kick is given, and
then drop back ; while a half-back sometimes could do
more effective work in the middle position during the
general play. If one of the backs is slow, his best posi-
tion is usually at full-back, for there he receives the
greatest protection and help. The light, quick men can
succeed better at half-back than the slow, heavy men.
It frequently happens that one of the backs invariably
carries the ball under the right arm and is able to use
only the left effectively in blocking off, or vice versa.
This fact should be considered in determining which
position the men shall occupy.
It is unfortunate for a half-back to be so limited, but
many of them are r and they do not practice with the
6o
other arm enough to train it. Some naturally run in one
direction better than in another ; or some are surer and
stronger of foot, perhaps, when running around on a
particular side. A player is sometimes put in the right or
left position because the interference is stronger on that
side ; or possibly the arrangement is made to take ad-
vantage of a certain known strength or weakness in the
team which they are to meet.
The half-backs and full-backs are largely the ground
gainers for the team and most of the advances into the
enemy's territory are made by them. For this reason,
only men who possess special qualifications are selected
to fill these positions. In quickness and agility they
should equal the quarter-back ; in point of speed, ability
to dodge, courage, and dash, they should be unequaled
by any man on the team. Again and again they must
rush headlong into the line, oftentimes only to be hurled
back by the opposing rushers who plunge through upon
them. Yet, never losing courage, again and again they
must come to the rally, now attacking the opponent's
center by heavy plunging now trying to make a detour
around the wings.
Too great emphasis can not be placed on quick starting.
The inability to get under headway quickly is very often
the difference between a first-rate half-back and a second-
rate one. The second-rate half-back may be just as fast
a runner, and may be just as hard to stop when once
under way, but he does not get under headway nearly so
often, because he loses so much time on his start that he
is tackled before he passes the critical point in the run.
On all plunges into the line the utmost speed must be
used in conjunction with the quick start. The distance
is very short in which to get under headway, and there is
6i
need of the greatest force to project the runner through
the resistance, as well as need to reach that point of re-
sistance in the shortest time. It is common with many
elevens to have one heavy back to do the plunging into
the line, but frequently this man is so slow in his start
that he is not so effective for line-breaking, against a
strong defense, as the lighter man would be. It very
frequently happens that in choosing the half-backs, men
have to be selected who have only part of the qualifica-
tions for the position ; who perhaps can run fast, or, again,
are what are termed ' ' fighters," but lack some of the other
requisites When such is the case, the captain should
immediately take means to train these men in the other
necessary qualifications for good half-back play. It is
indispensable that a half-back should be able to run into
a line hard time and again, and with no fear or hesita-
tion. It is likewise most necessary that a half-back
should be a powerful runner and not easily stopped ; one
who does not fall easily but keeps his feet well when
tackled, and struggles on for the gain of a few feet. But
he would be a much more useful man if, at the same time
with this pluck, determination, and ability to stand on his
feet under difficulties, and keep struggling forward, he
also had the ability to dodge an opponent or ward him
off with the extended arm, instead of running straight
into him.
Dodging in running can be cultivated through the
study and practice of its points of deception. The un-
derlying principle is the quick movement of the body,
or portion of the body, from a point where it would
have been if it had continued in the same direction.
In the most simple form of dodging the runner sud-
denly changes his direction. As usually practiced, the
62
runner is obliged to slow up a great deal, in order to
change his course. In all dodging, the runner, if at
topmost speed, must slacken speed a little, just before he
reaches the tackier, in order to reduce the size of his
stride so that he may have a proper balance for project-
ing the body in another direction, or so that he may make
certain preliminary body motions which cannot be made
when at full speed.
There are several ways of dodging, but one man sel-
dom possesses more than one or two. The zigzag dodge,
which used to be so common when individual running
and poor tackling were in vogue, is performed by a com-
bination of leg and body feints. Its weakness is that it
retards tbe runner too much. In another dodge the run-
ner strides suddenly one side with a long step. This
is a very effective method for long-legged runners. In
another, the runner sways his body from one side to
the other, the legs being planted wide apart as each
step is taken in a zigzag course. The runner moves in
the same general direction until the opponent is reached
and then darts to one side. Still another dodge is made
by drawing the hips away, and in this dodge a clever vise
of the arm is valuable. It is one of the most effective,
since the hips are usually the part aimed at in tackling.
Another way is to duck under a tackier: by bending the
body low at the waist. This is practiced most effectively
by small men and is most valuable against high tackling.
Another method is to turn the body completely around
when about to be tackled, upon one foot as a pivot.
This comes into splendid use when the tackier has been
unable to grasp the runner with both hands. In another
form of avoiding a tackier, the runner, on being ap-
proached from the side, slows up a little ; whereupon
63
the opponent delays just long enough to allow him to
go around by putting on a burst of speed.
Good dodging is not complete unless there is added to
it the power to use the arms well in warding off. The
latter supplements the former most effectively when well
done. When the tackling is high, or when the runner is
well bent over, the arm should be extended against the
face or chest of the opponent. Often, on a long dive or
reach for the hips by the tackier, the runner can break
the hold by striking down with his arm. All the above
styles of dodging can be acquired by practice. It is bet-
ter to practice them with only one-or two men to act as
opponents, after the movement has been learned.
There is another requisite needed by the half-back in
addition to dodging, and that is the ability to follow an
interferer or interferers well. Half-backs differ greatly
in skill on this point. The work of escaping a tackier
should not rest wholly in the interferers' hands, as it so
often does. The half-back should supplement the latter's
work by taking advantage of the protection given him to
work every ruse and feint he knows. Where there are
several interferers, there is a chance for the runner to
move from one to the other as occasion suggests. It
needs quick wit and agility to follow interferers well, but
much can be learned by practice with or without oppo-
nents, and every half-back should devote himself to per-
fecting his play in this particular.
The half-backs must be good catchers, not only of
kicked balls, but also, and especially, of balls passed
from the quarter-back. Oftentimes, the fault of a muff
or a fumble can be laid to a poor pass, but if the quarter-
back is unsteady on his part, there is all the more reason
that the half-backs and full-back be skillful catchers. If
5
t
64
weak in catching, much practice should be given by the
half-backs to perfecting themselves. They should work
at this in conjunction with the quarter-back in order that
they may get used to each other. In catching short
passes, it is usually better to catch the ball with the
hands. This is surer because the hands can adapt them-
selves much better than the arms to the position and
shape of the ball when a man is running. In running
sidewise to the pass, as it is necessary to do in so many
plays, the arms could not be used without checking the
speed ; while there need be no diminution in speed when
the ball is caught in the hands, provided the quarter-back
does his work well.
There are three ways of carrying the ball, and each
has its proper occasions for use. When the play is
straight through the center the general order to the half-
back is to put the head down on a level with the waist,
gathering the ball up under the body with both arms, be-
cause there could be no use for an arm to ward off an
opponent until the line has been penetrated, and there is
great danger of losing the ball by the pulling and haul-
ing to which the runner is subjected. After the runner
is well through the line and has a chance to run freely, he
should transfer the ball to the side of the body opposite
the arm with which it is necessary to ward off. The
runner should look for opponents as he emerges from the
opening, and likewise for interferers. Where the play is
through the more open part of the line the runner should
usually carry the ball under the arm which is away from
the opponents who are likely to meet him first, shifting it
to the other arm when necessary. - In this case, likewise,
it is occasionally better to carry the ball in both hands
until there is need for warding off an opponent, at which
65
moment the bail can be easily shifted to whichever arm
it is desired. This provides for any emergency. This
way of carrying the ball is especially valuable in dodg-
ing, since the ball can be placed quickly under either arm
and a better defense made ; for if forced to dodge, the
runner may transfer the ball to the arm away from his
opponent and have the other free to ward off. By moving
the ball from one side to the other in front of the body
while running, the dodge will be made more effective.
In carrying the ball under the arm it should be held
well forward, because it can be held more tightly in this
position. The reason why the ball is often pulled out from
under the arm is that it is held so far back that the strong
muscles of the chest are of little assistance. When held
in this position the ball is often forced out from under the
arm when the runner is thrown to the ground. By test-
ing these two positions it will be easily seen which is the
safer way. If a runner is inclined to lose the ball he
should practice squeezing it in the most approved man-
ner until he has trained himself to hold it fast under all
circumstances.
We have already spoken of the runner getting under
headway quickly. It is also necessary that he should run
with all his speed ; whether he plunges into the center
part of the line or follows the interference out to the
wings (unless he is obliged to slow down in order to
receive the ball, to let a runner in ahead of him, or to get
by an opponent). No runner is so invincible in all his
play as he who rushes with all his strength ; who shows
by his every movement the determination and power
with which he is charged ; who inspires in his opponents
a hesitancy and dread of tackling him ; who never gives
up when tackled but keeps struggling on, twisting,
66
squirming, and wriggling himself out of the grasp of one
after another until he can no longer advance. Such a
man is worth a dozen who hesitate.
The dashing runner is the one who usually makes the
advances. If he goes through an opening he goes
through on a jump. Such a man, when checked, will
keep his feet and legs going like a treadmill and will bore
his way through in spite of resistance. This sort of
pushing accomplishes wonders. For effective applica-
tion of power it is worth vastly more than the same
amount of force applied slowly, for the attack is sudden
and continuous. Its effectiveness, however, is altogether
dependent on the head being well bent over, so that the
whole weight and impetus of the body is forward, for the
legs are then in a position tc exert the greatest power.
Another reason for running into the line well bent
over, is that it is much more difficult to tackle a runner
when in that attitude. It is impossible to get under a
short man in order to make a low tackle when he is com-
ing straight toward one, and the result is that the tackier
receives the runner's head in his stomach, or if he be good
in the use of his arm, he will very likely have a hand
thrust into his face or against his chest. At such times,
the runner is very often able to slip past.
Again, running with the head down enables the runner
always to fall forward when tackled. This usually means
a further gain of two or three yards.
In running low care should always be taken not to lose
the balance. After considerable practice the balance can
be very well kept when running much bent over and still
great speed be maintained. As soon as the line is cleared
and there are no opponents very near, the runner should
assume a more upright position so that he can run at his
utmost speed, lowering his head whenever he thinks best.
67
In making the end plays, the runner need not put his
head down except, perhaps, when it is necessary to duck
under a tackier. He must now put on speed up to the
full limit of the interferers, following them very closely,
now using this one and now that, according as the danger
shifts. He must constantly be on the alert for changing
his position to take advantage of every little help, or to
prevent being pocketed, at the same time being ready to
break away from his interferers if he sees he can gain
more by so doing. In general, the runner should keep
behind his helpers until the last, but now and then an
opportunity comes which he ought to accept.
The light-footed, agile man who can keep his balance
well is physically best capacitated for running behind in-
terferers. To do it well the runner should be able to
change his stride to meet the emergencies which arise in
passing from one iaterferer to another, or in following
very close when a long stride would cause him to stumble
over his interferers.
Another requirement which the backs, or at least one of
them, presumably the full-back, should have, is the ability
to kick. It would be well if all three possessed this
ability, for there are times, now and then, when conster-
nation could be brought to the opponents by the half-back
returning a kick. But this could happen only occasionally,
and it is much more important that the half-backs be
especially strong in running with the ball, for that will be
their main work. The full-back however, should be a
skillful kicker both in punting and drop-kicking.
It requires long practice to punt well. The oval shape
of the ball precludes simply tossing or dropping it from
the hands and then kicking it, to get the best results.
The mechanical construction and adjustment of the
68
muscles of the leg and body in their relation to kicking
require careful study. Long practice is necessary to be
able to regulate the power, and at the same time deter-
mine the angle and direction which the ball shall take.
All the practice which the full-back can get to acquire
skill in punting will be well repaid, for it will make him
of inestimable value to his eleven.
Where the full-back does not know how to punt, the
following directions will be found helpful : Hold the bal'
between the hands, the ends pointing to and from the
body, lacings up. Extend the arms horizontally in front
and bend forward with the body until the ball is held just
below the level of the waist. Take a short step forward
with the foot not used in kicking, and at the same time
drop the ball from the hands, and bring the kicking leg
quickly forward to meet the falling ball about knee high.
Do not try to kick hard at first. Attend simply to drop-
ping (not tossing) the ball without changing the relative
position of the> axis. This must be closely regarded or
there will never be any certainty as to where the ball will
go. The first point noticed by a novice will be that the
ball reaches the ground before his foot meets it. This
shows that the foot was not started forward soon enough.
One way to obviate that difficulty is to drop the ball from
a higher point ; but the best point has already been
selected and the tardy member must be trained to be on
time. It will also be noticed that sometimes the ball will
meet the leg above the ankle. The aim should be to have
the ball fit into the concave of the extended foot, and it
will probably be necessary to give the ball a slight toss
forward in order to make the kick powerfully. Care
should be taken when doing this that the ball is not
turned, or tossed so far that power is lost. In practicing
6 9
in this way it will at first be noticed that the whole force
of the blow will be given by using the leg from the knee
down. This, one can readily see, would weaken the
blow because the leverage is short and the muscles which
extend the lower leg not especially powerful, and at the
same time it is very trying to the knee joint. The most
powerfn kick would be one which had the leverage of
the full length of the leg, thus bringing into play the
strong abdominal muscles to add speed and power. In
making .this kick, the leg should be extended at full
length (with toes pointed) and should swing on the hips
as an axis. After the forward kick has been learned so
that it can be well executed, the side kick may be at-
tempted. In this case the ball is dropped a little to the
outside. The great advantage in the side kick is, that if
not too much on one side, a very considerable increase in
power can be gained, because a longer swing can be
given to tbe leg, and because the swing is further as :
sisted by some additional muscles which give increased
power. Another advantage is that the full-back can take
a step to the side and kick around an opponent.
In practicing, do not keep the leg rigid through all the
swing. The muscles must be sufficiently lax to make
the swing easy, the rigid contraction coming just before
the foot reaches the ball.
The angle at which the ball is kicked can be regulated
by elevating or lowering the point of the ball farthest
away from the body, or by dropping the ball in such a
way that the position of the foot in the arc described by
it shall regulate the direction which the ball shall take.
If the kicker wishes to make a high kick, he drops the
ball so that the foot reaches it when knee high or above,
and when he wishes to make a low kick he allows the ball
7 o
to get closer to the ground before his foot meets it. By
trial, it will be found that a point varying from about six
inches above to six inches below the height of the knee
is the place of greatest convenience and power.
After punting and drop kicking has once been learned,
the whole practice should be centered on kicking quickly.
The ball should be caught, adjusted, dropped, and kicked
just as quickly as possible. In practicing this, it will be
found expedient to have several balls for the quarter-
back to pass. After practicing for a few weeks in this
way the full-back will find that he can stand considerably
nearer the rush line and still avoid having the ball blocked.
The drop kick is made by dropping the ball on one of
the small ends and kicking it with the toe at the instant it
rises from the ground. Some kickers prefer to have the
ball lean toward them at a slight angle as it strikes, others
to have the ball lean slightly toward the goal, and still
others drop it with the long axis vertical. The latter style
is most commonly used. Practice in all these will deter-
mine in which position the foot meets the ball most nat-
urally. The ball should be kicked with a free and easy,
though quick, swing of the leg. If close under the goal
the kick may be made more quickly with a short half swing,
whereas in punting the leg is swung from the hip and the
large abdominal muscles of the body brought strongly into
play. In drop kicking very accurate, rapid, and effective
work can be accomplished when the swing is made almost
altogether from the knee joint with only a slight swing
from the hip. Beginners frequently make a great mis-
take in drawing the foot far back in preparation for a
long drop kick. By extending the leg below the knee
quickly and suddenly, so that the point of the toe will
meet the ball at the instant it rises from the ground, great
distance can be attained with little apparent outlay of
force.
It requires a great deal of practice to be quick and ac-
curate at the same time. The full back should place
himself a little farther from his rush line in attempting
the drop kick than in punting, because the ball starts
lower and it is not so easy to control the angle it takes.
In trying for a goal from a place kick the ball should
be brought out to a spot from which the angle to the goal
and the distance from it are most favorable for the trial.
If the touchdown is made directly behind the goal, or near
it, the ball should not be carried far out into the field. A
point should be selected where there will be no danger of
the opposing rushers stopping the ball and from which it
will be easy to kick the goal. Some men prefer to make
the trial from a point not more than ten yards away,
while others carry the ball out fifteen or twenty yards.
The former, always make a quick half swing of the leg in
kicking, lifting upward with the foot as they kick; the lat-
ter usually kick with the leg swinging full and free from
the hip.
The ball should be held between the outstretched hands
of the quarter-back or some other player as he lies ex-
tended flat upon his stomach. The best way of holding
the ball is to place the fingers of one hand behind it about
three inches from the lower end, the fingers of the other
hand being placed at a corresponding point at the top and
slightly in front of the ball. The ball should be held in
firm but easy balance, and the fingers should be so placed
that it will be easy to turn it and least interfere with it
when placing it down for a kick. Great care must be
given to holding the ball steady.
When the spot has been selected from which the trial
7 2
is to oe made, and the player who is to noli the ball has
prostrated himself in firm balance on the ground, at right
angles to the line of direction, and on the right or left side
of the kicker, according to the foot which he is to use, the
ball being properly held between the fingers with the
elbows resting on the ground, the kicker must proceed to
sight the ball. He first asks the holder to turn the lacing
of the ball toward him; next he tells him how he wishes
the ball to point and at what angle, if any, using such ex-
pressions as "head forward" and "head up," meaning
that the ball is to be tipped away from the kicker in the
first instance and held vertically in the second. Other ex-
pressions like "head out" and " head in " indicate that
the point of the ball is to be moved in or out in reference
to the player holding it.
The sighting of the ball toward the goal can be done
best by using the lacings as a guide, the holder being di-
rected to twist the ball out or in , in reference to himself,
by the expressions "lacings out," "lacings in." When
the ball has been well aimed and everything is ready the
kicker should tell the holder to " touch it down," at the
same time moving forward to kick. In touching the ball
down the holder must be very careful not to change the
position. As the ball touches the ground the lower hand
is removed in order not to interfere with its course. It is
well to remove beforehand all pebbles or tufts of grass at
the spot selected for placing the ball down, for a slight
unevenness is often sufficient to prevent a goal.
The kicker should keep his eye on some point on the
ball as he steps forward and aim to kick it in that
spot. Practice beforehand will determine the best place
to give the impetus. When the ball is vertical this spot
will be found by trial to be very near the ground ; when
73
the ball leans toward the kicker the best point for the
kick is just below the lacing. The height of the point
above the ground is nearly the same in both cases, but the
point on the ball changes as the ball leans. If there is a
wind blowing the kicker must take into consideration its
force and direction in pointing the ball.
In catching kicked balls and long passes, it is usually
better to catch them with the arms. Every effort should
be made to take the ball when about waist high, for at
that point the arms can be better adjusted to it. The
body also, here much softer, can at this part be drawn in
to form a sort of pocket, as it were, for the ball. Care
must be taken not to have the ball strike high up on the
chest, for it is then difficult to shape the arms well to re-
ceive it and the ball rebounds much quicker from its firm
walls.
There are two ways of catching with the arms. In
one, the arms work in conjunction with the body, the
latter being used to stop the ball while the arms close
around it. In this style, one hand and forearm should be
held lower than the point of contact with the body, while
the other hand and forearm should be held above that
point. The arms should be bent and should not usually
be extended far from the body. In the other case, the
ball is caught entirely with the arms and hands. This
can be done only when it is kicked well into the air. The
arms are held parallel in front of the body about six inches
apart, being half bent at the elbows and wrists. The in-
stant the ball strikes, the hands are curled forward over it.
The fault of catching in this way usually lies in the catcher
failing to bring his elbows near enough together and so
leaving a space for the ball to go through.
74
In nearly all plays the backs, from the nature of their
duties, are among the first men to start. Their position
behind the line renders their every motion conspicuous,
and the watchful rushers upon the opposing team will be
upon the constant lookout for some movement, glance, or
position of the body that betrays the direction of the
play which is about to be executed. On this account the
backs should take the greatest precaution to conceal their
intentions. It is of assistance sometimes in deceiving
the opponents to assume a position as if being about to go
in one direction when an entirely different move is in-
tended, but if this is practiced too frequently it will de-
feat its own end.
EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAMS.
Before passing on to consider the following plays, a
few words of explanation will be necessary.
The side of attack in every instance, when in their
regular positions, will be represented by the solid dots
( ), and the side acting on the defensive by rings
(O O O). When it is desired to represent a player in a
position other than that which he originally occupies
the figures O O O will be used. The broken line
( ) will represent the course of the ball in
the pass and the direction taken by the runner who
receives it.
A simple dotted line ( ) will be used to in-
dicate that a player is to follow the runner with the ball,
while the solid line ( ) indicates that the man
shall pass in front to act as a line-breaker or interferer.
The arrows indicate the direction which the players shall
take.
The men represented by the letters given in the
diagrams are as follows : c, indicates the center ; Q B, the
quarter-back; R H, LH, RE, and L E, the right and left
half-backs and right and left ends respectively ; the right
and left tackles are indicated by R T and L T ; while F-B
represents the full-back.
It must be distinctly understood that the drawings
are in a measure diagramatical and do not in all in-
stances represent accurately the relative distance be-
tween the players.
For example : in the diagramatical representation,
wide spaces are left between the individual men in the
rush line, while as a matter of fact, when the game is in
progress, the rushers stand so closely together that they
can easily touch one another and are frequently placed
shoulder to shoulder. This manner of representation has
(75)
76
been decided upon as conducive to greater clearness in
showing the relative positions and directions where a
number of men are obliged to pass through one opening,
and in case the beginner is misled by this in any way,
his error will be readily corrected by careful study in
other parts of the book.
In arranging the positions of the side acting upon the
defensive, the quarter-back has been placed immediately
behind one of the tackles while a half-back has been
brought forward and stationed behind the other tackle.
The abilities of the two half-backs should determine
which position they shall occupy ; the points to be con-
sidered being the ability to catch the ball when it is
kicked, and the qualification for meeting the heavy tack-
ling in the line.
Sometimes it is preferable upon the third down, or
when the ball is to be kicked, that the half-back stationed
behind the tackle should immediately return to his
proper position. At all other times the quarter-back and
half-back usually remain directly behind their respective
tackles as indicated, after the ball is snapped, until it be-
comes clearly apparent through which one of the openings
the opposing side is to make their attack, and then to
spring forward directly into this breach and meet the on-
coming runner in the line.
This is considered a safer and more powerful defense
than to have either one of these men attempt to break
through, in the hope of meeting the runner behind his
own line before he reaches the opening, and is the
method adopted by the leading college football teams in
the country. When opposed to a team using the running
game almost altogether, both half-backs may be sent for-
ward to support the line, the full-back alone remaining
well behind the line for safety.
77
It will be noticed that the ends upon the side acting on
the offense are placed near the tackles and are drawn
slightly back from the line. We believe that the ends
are in the strongest possible position for an attack in any
direction when they stand about a yard and a half from
the tackles, and about a yard back from the line. From
this position they are of equal value in blocking, should
the play be made around their end, while in plays
through the center and around the opposite end, their
position back from the line enables them to get into the
play with far greater rapidity, and wellnigh doubles
their efficiency. From a position in the line the running
of the end, with the ball, which may be made a power-
ful play, would be extremely difficult.
Nearly every diagram represents two plays or more,
and it should be borne in mind that, whereas in the
diagram a play may be represented as made to the left,
the same play may also be made to the right, and vice
versa.
In representing the arrangement of the men in the
wedges and in the opening plays from the center of the
field, the formation is given which in the majority of
cases would seem to be most advantageous. But this
arrangement need not be considered fixed and may be
changed at the discretion of the captain.
For special reason, too, it may in some instances seem
best to alter the arrangement of the interference so that
the positions of the preceding and following runners shall
be interchanged. When there is sufficient reason for
doing so, there should be no hesitation in making the
alteration. When nothing is said as to duties of a player
in the description of the diagrams, it will be understood
that the player blocks his man.
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j between RH and FB, with head down and the
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fteen.
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To send the LG around between RG and RT, LG breaks away fr
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nt of RG as the latter swings in behind the line.
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s almost reached him, receives the ball from
:ding diagram,
-eight.
ir positions until the instant that RE receives
; and precede RE at greatest speed to inter-
RH follows KB and assists him to block the
e end and takes the first free opponent,
id plays as shown in diagram twenty-six,
agram thirty-two.
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tion in the primary arrangement.
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line and takes LT'S man as he leaves hi
play as shown in diagram eight.
iown in diagram eight.
. start for the right end the moment th
:>r the opposing LE, and bowls him ove
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38. Slow mass wedge from a do
slow pushing wedge through the center from a
s in the wedge formation, as shown in the cut, <
mself as close as possible to c's right, directly
firmly against c on the left and slightly back fr
ing rushers and half-backs take their positions
imilar manner to that shown in diagram forty-o
ust be drilled until they can spring into their ]
The ball should come back at the same momen
L to FB 1 , and the whole wedge surge forward wil
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ay be repeated several times for short gains um
side are drawn well in to mass against it, whe
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shown in the diagram; in which case RII and R
o block the foremost men among the opponent
g backs come up to help block the play FB may
11 down the field.
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The remain
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instantly.
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Revolving wedge from a doi
ng wedge through the line the arrangi
e same manner as explained in diagrai
ay immediately, and the entire wedge
isely Compact body.
, when the opposing side have massed
ward progress is nearly blocked, the
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edge around the I.T, a preliminary signal
ith the signal which is to indicate the dire
in the large cut is instantly made, in pre
ceding diagram.
;he wedge should have the appearance cf be
the ball comes into his hands QB whirls i
ices the ball in the hands of RH. QH tr
f to the side and a little behind LH, while P
ittaches himself in a like manner on the o
Aether in the lines indicated, around LT.* !
idge so formed, while RE runs directly in th
they round the tackle. \ LE throws his em
s back, and LT forces his man back and to t
st take great care not to leave his positiol
n. The formation must be somewhat op
; be borne in mind that the representation in
the guards are drawn close in by the s
r to shoulder with the guards in all plays
C5 ",
163
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the signal the wedge is instantl
the ball is snapped FB rushes :
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i tightly massed together.
then instantly darts out from
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remains crouched behind c unl
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jnds the backs up into the line to mas;
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Play around the opposit
After the wedge has been formed <
re may be some delay in snapping t
xperienced team, both LT and LE ru:
en it advances.
In that case the following modifica
captain, seeing that the opposing L
understand as a signal to indicate tl
>osite end.
QB makes the pass as shown in c
and then instantly turns and precec
FB and RE dash toward the right a
opposing LE.
RG attempts to lift his opponent b;
isible.
As RE starts forward in the line ini
iiagram eight, and preceding RE, di
:ceeds in getting around RG, while R
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NOTE. This maneuver will prevei
their men from the opposite end to
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led to strike the
.selves on either
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FB through the center on a running mass play di
s start forward the instant the ball is snapped.
C
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to
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straight ahead of him.
n dash in and attach themselves behind c on each si
;s forward at the same moment, and receiving th<
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en
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point in the play is that all strike the line at as r
ind form a tightly massed wedge, which is driven
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he rushes forward. The wedge must never cease p
is actually downed and absolutely held.
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the line dash straight for
nan back and to the left.
trikes the opposing c with M
s the opposing guard in a J
en
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to
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he receives the ball at x,
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; directly behind
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n reaching the openi
48. Running mass
To send the running mass
backs draw back slightly before
in order to give the ends more ti
enable themselves to gain greate
RE also works over slightly 1
At the instant the ball is s
the opening in the lines indicatec
C lifts his man back and to t
LE passes through the openi
his full force, while RE, crossing
similar manner.
At the same moment, FB w
the opening so made, immedial
the half-backs firmly attaching
and forcing him through. RT '.
in diagram thirteen, and toge
together as before and drive din
3
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* When the ends find difficulty i
as in the preceding play.
jo so
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it has been prearranged that he shall
retaining it in his hands, and passes ^
1 the right end. At the same instant ^
right as one man, and dash into the
rt
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do not betray by their looks, before
run is to be made.
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derstood around which e
the opposing side whom
by kicking it while still
play is to be made arouni
e diagonally toward the
meet midway between t
s to interfere for him as
must see to it that they
e direction in which the i
a
Ui
(14
M
10
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x feet apart.
d
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.ayer selects the man on
lock.
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le entire rush lines mov
jposing rushers as they
RH and FB precede LI
5T
in
C
NOTE. The rushers
te ball is put in play, th<
5a
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181
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aid inste
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52. Double pa
To make the double pass c
as indicated, on the center line
ten yards between c and QB, ar
about three yards behind the li
The instant that QB puts 1
center of the field in lines nearl
m
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toward the center to block the
LH passes close in front 01
KB, to take it as he rushes by.
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speed to encircle the opposing 1
NOTE. From this same fo:
kick, in which case the rushers
the lines indicated in the cut.
* See description, diagram fifty-
if ^ 3:
183
center with team divided.
e diagram, on either side of the field, the
ends about five yards from the side lines,
icks about three yards, behind the center
>ther, in order to render the opposing team
the right or left, or to FB for a kick down
shown in diagram fifty-one, and makes a
t x, following it immediately to make the
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Dy his opponents as the other three men
c
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Every man upon the team rushes to his
a signal the ball is immediately snapped
the field to RE, who catches the ball upon
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53. Opening play from the
The men are arranged as indicated in t
lers being about two yards apart and th
s placed about two yards, and the half-1
QB looks to the one side and then to the
;rtain whether the ball is to be passed t<
field. He then puts the ball in play as
; pass to LH, who receives it on the run
co
v:
fl
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t3
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V.
The instant the ball is in play every p.
5 indicated, except RE, who stands st
ind close to the side lines, unobserved
i across the field.
It is of no consequence if only a small
kness of the following play for success,
tion in the line, and without waiting fo
a long pass made by QB straight across
run and has the entire field before him.
1
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its formation, and
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OH
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tightly with both
his entire weight
. run in a compact
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from the cente
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idy to receive it,
act mass, preser
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is stomach, clas
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To send the wedge straight dc
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the entire wedge rushes forwa
savors by mere force of weight
straight towards the opponent's
QB upon receiving the ball pi
Is and charges forward with
i behind.
1
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s, preserving the formation.
The wedge formation at the center
m
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187
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ale modification of Princeton we(
rs in one very important respect from the pr
wedge formation the guards are placed OK
ball is put in play, LG and RG spring forwa
opposing guard and center midway betwee
ir opponents start.
ly into his man and attempts to throw him 1
c in the same manner, attempts to throw hit
ncing immediately behind is thus saved the s
ds under full headway,
charge thus at an angle slightly to the rigt
c and RG or c and LG, as the case may be.
highly desirable that the men without the
found more advantageous to place the tack
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If-back between tackle
If-back around his own
SECOND SERIES
If-back between guard
If-back between guard
If-back between tackle
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FIFTH SERIES.
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SIXTH SERIES.
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SEVENTH SERIES.
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NINTH SERIE!
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Wedge from the center around th
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TWELFTH SERIES.
mass wedge through the center.
Running mass wedge between gu
Running mass wedge directly at
Running mass wedge directly at 1
THIRTEENTH SERIES.
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&
TEAM PLAY.
American football is pre-eminently a game for the
practice and display of what is known as ' ' team play. " No
other game can compare with it in this particular. Not
that the individual element in skill, in physical capacities,
in strategy, and headwork are overlooked, but these are
made subservient to the intent of the particular play in
hand, and so adjusted to that play as shall best contribute
to its success. To get eleven men to use their individual
strength, agility, and speed, their wit, judgment, and
courage, first in individual capacity, then working with
one or two companion players, then as eleven men work-
ing as one, is a magnificent feat in organization and
generalship.
The individual element, perhaps, is most prominently
set forth in defensive play, although there is abundant
opportunity in offensive play also for it to show itself; but
individual and team play are so closely joined, as a rule,
that the beauty of the latter is heightened as the individual
efforts of each player are perceived. In defensive work
the players have more reason to feel their individuality,
because they are often compelled to combat alone one or
more opponents before they can get an opportunity to
tackle the runner. The defensive system, however, gives
a splendid chance for clever team play in the placing of
the players, in the general and particular understanding
that certain men shall nearly always go through to tackle
behind the line; that certain others shall wait to see where
(221)
222
the attack will be made and there hurl themselves against
it ; that others shall go through the line, or not, just as
it seems wisest at the time; and that still others shall
never involve themselves in the scrimmage, but act only
\\hen the play has been carried into their territory.
Furthermore, there is constant opportunity for the
exercise of team play in the working together of certain
players of the rush line in defense, and also in the work-
ing together of any two or three players at special times;
for example, when one or two men sacrifice themselves to
clearing away the interferers so that a companion can
tackle the runner; when one follows hard after the runner
to overtake him, if possible, even after having missed a
tackle; or helps check him from further advance when
tackled, or endeavors to secure the ball.
In the rush line the center and guards work together
in defense, having an understanding with each other and
with the player hovering in their rear, whenever it seems
best to try to let him through on the opposing quarter-
back or full-back, or whenever a special defense for certain
plays seems best. Likewise the ends and tackles are
closely joined in team play, in that they are the players
relied on to stop the end plays and those between tackle
and end. The most perfect adjustment and team work is
needed in doing this, for they play into each other's hands
while, at the same time, they seek to tackle the runner.
Similarly, but less closely, do the guards and tackles work
together in defense against certain plays.
It is an essential point in the working out of this
team play between the different parts of the rush line,
that the players study most carefully the positions they
should occupy to meet the different kinds of play how
far from each other they should stand for this play, how
223
far for that. In doing this, they must have regard for
their own freedom to attack, not allowing themselves to
take a position where they can easily be tangled up, nor
one in which they can give their opponents an advantage
in blocking them. Except on wedge and mass plays, the
players in defense should draw their opponents apart
sufficiently to give themselves space to break through on
either side
The backs supplement the work of the rushers in
defensive play, arranging themselves behind the rush
line at such distances from each other and from the
forwards, as shall give the strongest defense. In that
degree in which they make their work strong in team
play, will they give the rushers encouragement and sup-
port in going through the line. The forwards will thus
be enabled to play as a unit, because* they know that
there is a reserve force directly behind them to lend
them assistance and make their play safe.
The backs work together in special defense on a kick,
arranging themselves, either one or both, in front of the
catcher to protect and encourage him, and to secure the
ball, if muffed; or one stands behind to make the play
safe, or to receive the ball on a pass from the catcher for
a run or kick. The ends sometimes come back with their
opponents at such times, to bother them all they can and
to be in a position to interfere for the catcher, if he runs.
The backs, also sometimes have a chance to help one
another out by blocking off opponents, while one of their
number makes sure of a rolling ball which, perhaps, has
been kicked over the goal line or into touch.
When one side has the ball, it is often possible for the
opponents to guess in which direction it will be carried, by
the way the half-backs or quarter-back stand; by their
'5
224
unconscious glances in the direction they will take; by
certain anticipative movements of the muscles; by false
starts before the ball is put into play. Further informa-
tion is often given by the rushers themselves often by
the rusher who is to carry the ball. Frequently the
players who are to make the opening indicate by the way
they stand, by shifting their positions after the signal is
given, or by certain actions peculiar to them at such times,
the general direction of the play, and, perhaps, the exact
place at which it is aimed. All this is most valuable
information and ought to-be imparted to the rest of the
team whenever sufficiently positive to be of service.
Indeed, the team play of the future will not be considered
satisfactory without a set cf signals being used to spread
just such information.
At the same time that it is possible to gather much
information of this character from the side with the ball,
it must be remembered that shrewd players, knowing how
they are watched for these tell-tale signs, have cultivated
certain false motions, and are using them as points in
strategy to deceive their opponents into expecting a differ-
ent play from the one which is actually made.
From the foregoing, one draws the lesson to hide the
intended play. At least, the play must not be indicated
by any of these signs which the green player, and too
often the experienced player, shows. Thoughtful self-
control in every particular is what each player must
cultivate, if he would do the greatest service for his team.
Now and then, also, in offensive play the maneuver
resolves itself into a test of individual skill, speed, endur-
ance, and head work; but this is nearly always the out-
come of team play in the first part of the movement.
Occasionally a mishap furnishes a player a chance to make
a run wholly through his own unaided efforts.
22$
The history of the evolution of the hundred and more
plays in American football is the history of the develop-
ment of a "team" game. The perfecting of this has
largely increased the number of combinations now
possible and has given a wideness in variety of play, and
at the same time a definiteness of action for each play,
which makes it possible for every member of the eleven
to assist powerfully in its execution. In fact, the execu-
tion of the play depends on every player doing his
particular work for that play. Hence, the interdepend-
ence of the players is very close from the moment the
ball is down until the run is made, or until a fair catch or
a down by the opponents declares that the ball has been
released. It is therefore exceedingly important that the
adjustment of every factor in the play be made with per-
fect skill and in exact sequence, from the beginning till
the end. It is most important, however, that the starting
of the play be well made, for no amount of cleverness
afterward can atone for a bungling start.
Team play from a scrimmage should begin the instant
the center receives the ball from the hands of the runner
(which should be immediately after he is stopped). Every
rusher and back should be in position for the next play,
and the signal be given before the runner has had hardly
time to rise from the ground. The delay of one man in
taking his place might be sufficient to spoil the play,
whether that man be a rusher or a player behind the line.
As soon as the ball is in play the rushers must give
their united support to the quarter-back and the runner,
blocking their opponents, if necessary, long enough for
the quarter to pass the ball and the runner to get well
started. The center and guards especially must work
together to protect the quarter while receiving the ball
226
and passing it, and then all or part of them may move
elsewhere to help out in the play, or may stay in their
positions to make an opening for the runner. There
must be the most united work in these preliminaries to
the run. Irregular snapping of the ball, either in direction
or in speed, which causes the quarter to fumble or to be
delayed in getting it to the runner, a poor pass from the
quarter, a muff or fumble by the runner, the letting of an
opponent through too soon, are usually sufficient to spoil
the play.
The rushers will do well in the preliminaries if the
runner succeeds in getting up to the line without en-
countering an opponent, or in the end plays if he is able
to get under good headway. They perhaps need only to
make a strong blockade in those parts of the line where
the particular play is in greatest danger of being checked,
but in order to do this well they must regard each other's
position as well as their own, touching elbows when
necessary, or separating according to the line tactics
deemed most effective at the time.
The work of a part of the rushers consists jn preceding
the runner whenever possible, working together by
strategy and combination to make an opening for him
and his interferers to go through. The others follow
closely from behind to render what assistance they are
able. This work comprises the hardest part of the whole
play, for it must be executed in the face of the strongest
part of the resistance. The rushers can block their men
for a second or two, but to -block them from three to six
seconds is impossible against good players. It is here
that the interferers come into especial prominence and
value, for they are to clear the way of these free oppo-
nents. It is in anticipating the probable positions of the
27-1
opponents in the vital stage of every maneuver, and in
providing the cleverest team play to meet each con-
tingency, that a team excels in advancing the ball by
running.
Several things are especially necessary to produce skill,
ful team play. First there should be a wise selection of
players, and they should be placed in their final positions
as early in the season as possible. There also should be
such judgment in the arrangement of these players for
each position as will produce the least friction in working
out the plays, and that arrangement will usually be most
effective in which there is the least delay and ill adjust-
ment in making the plays quickly. There should be hard,
systematic daily practice, backed by a close study of every
play by each player in his particular position. The same
players should be used together as much as possible, so
that they can become thoroughly acquainted with each
other's style of play and know each other's weak and
strong points. In this way only can the fine adjustments
and combinations which go to make up team play be
brought about.
Team play in interference can only be the result of a
carefully-planned system in which every player studies
the general directions laid down for each play with a view
to perfecting his particular work, varying his position on
the field whenever necessary, starting like a flash in this
play and delaying somewhat in that, blocking his man in
one game perhaps in a certain way and in the next in one
entirely different, because his opponent plays differently,
sometimes taking another opponent instead of his own,
when he sees that he can be of more assistance by so
doing, and, in fact, doing whatever will most conduce to
the furtherance of the particular play in hand.
228
In most plays the part which each player shall take in
the interference can be laid out very definitely, but in
the end play, and plays between end and tackle, only part
of the interferers are to take particular men; the rest
block off whatever opponents come in their path. It is in
this free running that there are frequent chances for the
display of fine team play in interference in striking the
opponent at the nick of time, in pocketing him, in forcing
him in or out as it seems best on the instant (the runner
being on the watch for either), and in the runner some-
times slowing up to let an interferer who is close behind
go ahead to take the man. Very often the reason that
a play is not successful is because the interferer is too far
in advance of the runner to be of any service to him.
Interference must be timely to be effective. It must be
the projecting of a helper at the moment a point of diffi-
culty arises the swinging into line of a series of helpers
in timely sequence as the runner advances. Nor must
the runner be delayed by the interferers except, perhaps,
when the guard comes around on an end play where it is
necessary to slow up a little at a certain point to let the
guard in ahead.
The execution of nearly all the play? depends for its
success on each player doing his duty at the right moment.
Here and there in certain parts of the play one or more
players must delay a particular work as much as possible,
otherwise their action would be immature and so value-
less ; but for the most part, the movement of each player
should be quick and definite, and those plays are most
effectively made in which every player does his duty
quickly.
Naturally, the end plays and the plays between end and
tackle require more delicate adjustment of the players in
229
the interference than do the center plays. In the latter,
the interference nearly always must be done after the
line has been reached and penetrated. Here the extra
men, who rush to the opening as soon as they see where
it is, will be encountered, while in the end runs an
opponent is likely to show himself here and there and
everywhere before the runner reaches the line.
In all mass and wedge plays where the pressure is
brought to bear on one point in the line, the team play
is not nearly so delicate and skillful. The virtue in the
wedge play, be it quick or slow, lies in the power to pro-
ject great weight and strength on a given point, while at
the same time closely protecting the runner.
Every play should be made as safe as possible by
having at least one player always in a position to get a
fumbled ball, or in case an opponent secured the ball, to
prevent him from making a run. Where there are so
many parts to every play in snapping, handling, passing,
and catching the ball, there is constant danger of a slip.
The value of having one or more players behind the
runner is frequently demonstrated also, when, by the aid
of a timely push, the runner is able to break loose from
the grasp of some tackier who has not secured a strong
hold on him, and so adds several yards to his run.
In running down the field on a kick the rushers should
run in parallel lines two or three yards apart, for most of
the distance, converging as they approach the man with
the ball, in order to pocket him. The ends approach
the catcher in such a way that he will be forced to run in
towards the approaching rushers, if he runs at all. All
must be on the watch to thwart a pass to another man.
There is a nice point in judgment to be considered by
the rushers in going down on a kick. The end men
being so far away from where the full-back will stand
230
when about to kick, can start instantly down the field,
leaving the half-backs to block off their men if they
come through too fast ; for the ends' first duty is to be
under the ball when it falls. Occasionally, when kicking
from near the side line, it may be necessary for the end
next the side line to block his man or to push him back
as he breaks through to go down the field. What the
ends will do in this case, the tacklers should do nearly
every time that a kick is made. Both tacklers should
feel it their bounden duty to support the ends by going
hard after them the instant they judge their opponents
cannot reach the full-back in time to interfere with his
kick. Hence, any tactics which they can put into
practice which will enable them to block their opponents
and, at the same time, not delay them in going down the
field are the ones to be used. The tackles must bear in
mind that the distance from their positions to the full-
back is not very great, especially on the side on which
the full-back kicks ; but while this makes the duty of
blocking on that side greater, the other tackle can afford
to take an extra fraction of a second from blocking his
opponent and use it in a quicker start.
On the guards and center rests the greatest burden in
blocking their opponents on a kick; for while there is not
that openness in the line, as at the tackle and end, which
will let an opponent through quickly, the distance to the
full-back is here the shortest and it is usually here that
tricks are worked by which one or two men are let through,
one usually being the quarter-back. They must, there-
fore, be very careful not to be over hurried in going down
the field, remembering that it is their first duty to block,
following the tackles and ends as soon as possible. If the
guards and center are very skillful there need be no great
delay in doing this, for it is necessary to check their oppo-
nents only long enough to enable the full-back to punt
over their heads. Whenever it is possible for the guards
and center to carry their men before them for a few feet,
it is generally safe to leave them and go down the field at
full speed It is comparatively easy for the center to do
this at the instant that he snaps the ball. Generally
there is too much blocking done and too little "follow-
ing the ball."
In this connection, as a help to the rushers, several points
must be borne in mind by the full-back in kicking. It is
not enough for him to kick the ball as hard as he can each
time it is sent back for that purpose. That would be a
poor performance of his duties. He must kick for his
team's advantage always, and therefore must regulate the
distance, and direct his kick with the utmost skill. Even
long and puzzling kicks are dangerous unless closely fol-
lowed up by the rushers; for, let a good dodging half-back
get free, with one or two interferers in a broken field of 1
opponents, and he will be almost sure of a long run.
The full-back must take into account the ability of the
rushers to get down the field in time to prevent a run or a
return kick and punt accordingly. He may find it nec-
essary to elevate the angle of his kick so that it will give
his men time to get under it, or he may find it best to di-
rect the ball straight ahead, in order to give his rushers
the shortest distance to run, and at the same time be able
to advance in the best formation for checking a run. At
least, he must punt the ball where it shall be difficult for
the backs to reach it quickly, and so give the rushers the
advantage of a longer time to get under it. Especially
must he be very careful not to kick the ball diagonally across
the field without weighing well the risk involved, in com-
parison with the chances for increased advantage; for the
risks are unusually large in such a kick. It would be well
232
for the full-back to give the rushers a signal as to the direc-
tion he meant to kick. This should always be done when
he intends to kick off to one side of the field, or when he
purposes making a high kick or one outside of bound in
order to put his men on side by running forward. The
rushers would be able to work some splendid team-play on
such occasions.
The question of when to make a fair catch and when to
run is well worth the consideration of the backs, who are
the ones almost always called upon to exercise their judg-
ment on this point. It was formerly judged best, in hand-
ling a kicked ball, to make a fair catch on all occasions.
To-day there is a division of opinion, some adhering to
the old way, while others prefer to run whenever they get
a chance.
There are two points to be considered in deciding this
question: First, whether it is possible to kick a goal from
the place where the ball will fall, or whether a punt from
that point would be desirable; second, w r hether it will add
much to the risk of not catching the ball, if the attempt is
made to run. It is clear, that when near enough to the
opponent's goal to try a place kick, every effort should be
made to secure a fair catch.
When a goal from the field would be impossible, it is
almost invariably best to run with the ball, unless this
would add greatly to the danger of muffing it. Catching
the ball necessitates a positive loss of ground before again
putting it in play, and it is doubtful whether this loss is
compensated by the advantage of putting it in play unmo-
lested by opponents and behind the whole team under
slight headway.
In attempting to run the player will at the worst be
forced to make a down, which would furnish only slightly
less advantage than a fair catch, while on the other hand
it presents opportunities for gain.
FIELD TACTICS.
Clever tactics on the football field depend first of
all on the captain's possessing an accurate knowledge
of the strength and weakness of his team, both in in-
dividual play and in team play. This can all be acquired
during practice by carefully noting every play which is
made, and giving thought to the strength of the in-
dividual men and the value of the play in its relation to
the others, both in regard to the perfection of execution
and in intrinsic merit from a strategic point of view.
It also depends upon the captain's observing as soon as
he enters the field and throughout the game, the inci-
dents of the day ; the direction and force of the wind ;
the position of the sun ; and the condition of every part
of the field. All these points are of great importance
in good generalship. Lastly, it depends upon the study
which he makes of the way the opponents arrange
themselves on the defense, as well as the style of their
play when in possession of the ball. He must also seek
to find out by trial which of his plays can be used most
effectively.
Having the knowledge of the first and second requisites
for good generalship, the captain must immediately pro-
ceed to find out the weakness and strength of the
opponent's defense, not by trying each play in turn and
just noting its success, but by using the best tactics the
occasion demands, and closely -observing the result on
each play. Every play known to be strong because of
(233)
234
the ability to concentrate or mass the players at some
part of the line, or for any other reason, should be tried
at least two or three times early in the game in order
to give it a fair test, that the captain may know which
will be his most effective plays. It is a mistake to keep
pounding away on two or three plays which give an
advance of a few yards, just on that account, until
after other reliable plays have been given a fair trial.
In making this trial, the time should be well chosen,
both as to position on the field and as to the number
of the down, and the previous loss or gain, if it is the
second or third down. It often happens that a powerful
play is discarded because in one or two trials it did not
work well. The difficulty may have been in its im-
perfect execution, or in a neglect of duty on the part
of one man even, or it might result from the inability of
one player to do his work because of circumstances
or tactics on the part of his opponents which he could
not overcome, but which, later on, he would discover a
way to meet.
By confining the tactics to a few plays which have
proved successful for more or less gain, the captain
limits his play very decidedly and clearly indicates his
policy, thereby giving his opponents a knowledge which
is invaluable in thwarting him. The result will be that
all the available players upon the opposing team will be
called from the appointed positions where they had been
placed in order to meet the most varied style of plays,
and stationed where they can render these particular
plays most ineffective. The knowledge that the play
will probably be one of a few, also gives every player on
the defense a certainty of action which will make his
opposition very much stronger. The uncertainty which
235
comes from combating a variety of tactics weakens each
man's defense considerably, and puts him at his wit's
end to discovei what the play will be and how to meet
it. It also makes him more liable to be blocked off
and pocketed.
Sometimes, to be sure, it is fine strategy to keep pound-
ing away at some particular point or points in the line,
in order to draw the attention wholly to this place and
to draw the men away from other parts of the line in
order to weaken it for a sudden attack ; but this is
quite different from the limited style of play so often
used, and really, if well done, is a mark of clever
generalship.
The captain sometimes uses all his plays in succes-
sion simply because he has been accustomed to run
through them in practice. This is poor tactics. If it
has once been clearly proven that a certain play cannot
for any reason be made, every clear-headed captain will
realize that it is very, poor policy to waste downs in
the effort.
A similar mistake sometimes grows out of giving the
signals in practice. If the captain or quarter-back in
giving the signal is not careful, he will get into the way
of unconsciously arranging the plays according to the
law of association of ideas, one play following another
in unvarying sequence. The principle of sequence in
plays would not be fatal, and, indeed, would sometimes
be very effective, if the plays are well selected. But
account should be taken of the physical capacity of the
players ; the duties which they have just been called on
to perform ; and the right time and place on the field,
in reference to the side lines and nearness to the goal.
The great advantage to be gained lies in having the
236
sequence come in the form of a series which is perfectly
learned, so that play after play shall be made in rapid
succession. The series, however, should not consist of
more than from four to six plays, as contingencies often
arise which seriously injure their effectiveness. In any
case the series ought to be stopped if for any reason it
is unwise to make the next play, or if the conditions allow
a much better move. A simple signal will indicate that
the series is to be stopped. The great virtue in series
plays lies in the fact that a certain signal starts the series
and each play can be made in the quickest manner,
because the players all know what is coming next and
are ready the instant the ball is in the center-rusher's
hands. Series plays are especially effective against a
team which is slow in lining up. They are very valuable
also in their moral effect, because of the rapidity and en-
thusiasm with which the plays are made.
Under a varied style of play where many movements
are well executed, the opposing team must exercise the
greatest headwork and caution in its defense. If the
other team has not already indicated its policy by clearly
defining its plays, every one on the opposing eleven will
be conscious of so much uncertainty as to what the play
will be, that his attack through the line is likely to be
cautious and therefore not strong ; or else it is likely to
be sufficiently daring to give the opponents a decided ad-
vantage in making their plays. When undue caution is
exercised on the defense, its effect often is to make the
players hesitating. This, when extending throughout
the rush line is fatal to a strong defensive game. A dar-
ing, reckless defense is far more effective than the
cautious defense which makes a rush line hesitate,
because of the moral effect on the other team, if for no
other reason.
2 37
And this leads us to consider the moral effect of certain
tactics. The three most effective styles of plays when
successfully used are : a kicking game when there are
weak catchers behind the opposing line (or when the lat-
ter are poorly positioned) ; end plays ; and dashes
through the center in mass or quick wedge plays. These
three plays, in the order named, have the most disheart-
ening effect on the opposing team, when the side having
the ball has a long, accurate, and scientific kicker who is
able to place his punts well, and also to regulate the
height and twist which the ball shall take.
Every football player knows the chances for a fatal
misplay which hang on a kicked ball : first, because of
the difficulty of judging it accurately if it be twisting in
certain ways ; second, because of its exceeding suscepti-
bility to currents of air which make its gyrations and
deviations excessively perplexing ; third, because of the
nicety of final judgment required, even when the player
is well under the ball, since its shape and elasticity make
it necessary to allow for its full length and its smallest
dimension at the same time, also for a quick rebound
from the arm or hands. The catcher must attend to all
this in the face of a fierce line of rushers coming down on
him at full speed, eager to tackle him or to seize the ball
if he muffs or fumbles it.
The moral effect of having uncertain catchers behind
the line is very telling on the team. If all the hard,
wearying work of the rushers and half-backs to advance
the ball forty or fifty yards is to be spoiled over and over
by muffed punts, even though the ball is not lost to the
other side (as it is likely sometimes to be in such cases),
there is sure to be a diminution in effort in a short time
on the part of the whole team. This comes imperceptibly
2 3 8
at first, but comes just as surely, and ere long evinces it-
self in the more determined and successful efforts of the
other team.
Almost equally disheartening, if not fully so, is it to
have runs made repeatedly around the ends; because the
runs in that locality, if successful, are usually for long
gains often resulting in touch-downs, and they arouse
the greatest fears in the minds of all the players from a
feeling of inability to stop them. The result is that every
effort is centered on anticipating these end plays, and
the rushers, instead of going through the line, wait to see
if it is an end play, in which case they run out to the side
to stop it. That very moment in which there is a hesitancy
on the part of the guards and tackles in going through
the line, is a moment of triumph for the team with the
ball; for it immediately gives them a decided advantage,
in that, while perhaps unable before to make progress
through the center part of the line, they will now have
two strong points of attack. The chances now are that
the defense will grow weaker and weaker as the game
advances, for unless the end runs are well stopped the
players will decrease their efforts somewhat and the
tackling will become less and less daring and effective.
It is hard to say which of these two styles of play really
has the more discouraging effect on the opposite team.
If the eleven which has the poor catchers back of their
forwards are successful in making advance by rushing the
ball, they have a vast deal to encourage them, even
though now and then they lose it all through the muffing
of their backs. The period in which they have the ball
is one in which their minds are not conscious of the weak-
ness of their own defense but are completely taken up
with the good work they are doing, and they are unani-
239
mous and bouyant in it.. That period of success does
much to keep up their spirits during the time when the
other side has the ball and their fears are so all-powerful.
When a team is able to make frequent runs around the
opponent's end, there is perhaps less to actually dis-
hearten them than in the preceding case, for there is less
fear of losing the ball. It can be gotten only through a
failure to advance the five yards in its three trials; through
a fumble ; through a penalty imposed by the umpire; or
through a kick. The latter will be tried probably only
under extreme conditions where there has been a loss of
yards, while in the kicking game mentioned above, the
side not in possession of the ball always has the hope of
securing it.
That captain is not a good general who follows out the
same tactics in each game; who, having perhaps worked
out a system of plays which his men could best execute,
attempts to apply this system in every game, regardless
of the composition of the opposing eleven and their sys-
tems of defense and offense. The captain, in truth, has
learned a good deal when he has learned what plays his
team can best execute, and he has most valuable, though
far from complete, information for conducting a wise cam-
paign against the opposing eleven. He still has much
need to exercise his generalship as to whether this point
of attack should be assailed three or fifteen times; this
place a few times; and this place not at all, or perhaps
only once or twice for the sake of trial or strategy.
Oftentimes, the rusher can give invaluable information
to the captain as to his own ability to handle his opponent,
where for example the opponent so places himself con-
stantly as to render it an easy matter to get him out of
the way for certain plays, although it is impossible to
16
240
move him on other plays. This is especially true in
handling a large man who stands constantly in the same
way; as for instance, well over to the side of his opponent.
It would be comparatively easy to block such a man for
opening up a hole in one direction, but almost impossible
to shove him in the opposite way. Such information
would furnish the captain valuable data on which to base
certain tactics, and would inform him that he could doubt-
less make plays to one side of this man and seldom if ever
on the other side.
It would be foolish, even if it were possible, to lay down
a complete system of tactics which should be followed in
a game. Indeed, the wonderful part of football is, that
it is a game which cannot be worked out by rule and
learned by note. One play does not follow another in
sequence, but only as the captain or commander of the
day directs.
What makes the game preeminently one requiring
science and brains, is that to be well played the captain
must use the utmost wisdom and strategy in directing the
plays, and the players to a man must do their duty in ex-
ecuting them. Very many points of advantage and dis-
advantage must constantly be borne in mind, or else the
best generalship and results cannot follow. It is far from
true to say that the captain must simply take into account
the strong and weak points of his opponent's play,
together with the incidents of the day and field, such as
the direction of the sun and the condition of the grounds
in each particular part of the field; he must also have re-
gard for his men, selecting his plays with such wisdom as
to secure the greatest economy of physical energy with
the greatest result, so that no man nor men shall be over-
worked at any time of the game and thus be incapacitated.
241
No captain is a good general who does not know the
limitations in strength of his ground-gainers, and who
does not take this into account in directing the play.
Men differ greatly in their power to repeat a performance
quickly; essentially, then, in their powers of endurance.
Some men can do effective work only when in first-class
condition; that is, when they have had a certain length
of time to recover after each effort, they can be relied on
for a good gain, if not a brilliant run. Then, there is a
vast difference in the kind of play as to the drain on a
man's strength. End runs, and runs in which a consider-
able distance is covered, or runs in which there is a good
deal of dodging and struggling to get loose from tacklers,
are the most taxing on the wind and strength. Most men
can stand two or more dashes through the line in quick
succession, or two or more mass and wedge plays where
the runner does not run fast for a long distance before
being tackled. But when a run has been made which has
called for a vast deal of energy the captain should not
fail to notice it, and in calling the next two or three plays,
choose such as do not ask for too much strength from this
player. The star runner as a rule is the one who suffers
most from overwork through injudicious leadership.
This does not preclude the fact that there are occasions
in the game when some player or players must be forced
to draw heavily on a reserve fund of energy in order to
secure a permanent advantage or to prevent disaster. It
sometimes seems necessary when nearing the opponent's
goal, that some player be put to his supreme test of
strength in order to secure points, and likewise, when it
is necessary to carry the ball away from one's own goal,
and there is only one man who is sure to meet the crisis ;
but these are in truth critical periods and are exceptions
not to be mentioned in this connection.
242
We Know tnat it is sometimes considered clever tactics,
when there are strong substitute players for certain posi-
tions, to work men in these positions to their utmost limit
of service, and then "have them get hurt "in order to
substitute a fresh man or men. If this be shrewd, it is
at least not honest tactics.
If a team is not capable of playing an uphill game, or
is one which is strongly affected by success and repulse;
or, if the opposing eleven is one which is similarly in-
fluenced, the tactics should be those most likely to pro-
duce the exultation of success on the one hand, and
the feeling of discouragement on the other. The plays
should be those which can be executed quickly, and
which have a certainty of gain with little risk of loss ;
which combine the efforts of every man in the eleven
sufficiently to make him feel that he has an important
part in them; which bring the energies of the opposing
eleven, particularly the rushers, to the severest test, tax-
ing especially the wind and courage.
It must always be remembered, as a point in tactics,
that the side in possession of the ball has a great ad-
vantage, especially if the other side is weak in defensive
play, and that it requires a greater outlay in strength
and wind to check plays than it does to make them. It
is likewise true that the courage of a team may be meas-
ured by its promptness and determination in defense.
If a team repeatedly and continuously comes up to the
scrimmage, after being outwitted and outplayed, it has
the true courage, the courage which would probably ena-
ble them to win if possessed of an equal degree of skill
in team-play.
What style of game shall a team play ? That depends
on many contingencies. Setting aside for the time the
243
incidents of the day, such as wind, rain, and sunlight;
the soft, slippery, and rough places in the grounds; the
up and down grades ; not even taking into account the
strength and weakness of the opponents, and the contin-
gencies which arise, let us consider solely the composition
of the team, and see if we can deduce any style of play
which applies to teams made up of certain types of men.
Without defining the make-up of the team, except on
general terms, we see that when the rush line is strong and
heavy, the chances are that they will be able to handle
their opponents and make good openings for the dashes
through the line. Plunges through the central part of
the line will probably be the most effective, if the center
guards and tackles are large and strong men. If the
backs are slow and heavy also, a center game will prob-
ably be the only kind they can play with success. And
the result is that this will be the style of game adopted;
not perhaps because the captain has analyzed the reasons
for the ability of the backs to make advance in that place,
and their inability to circle the ends, for example; but
just because that is the part of the line in which they can
make their gains every time. Perhaps it will occur to
him that those same backs can be so quickened in start-
ing and running, and then so well guarded, that they will
be able now and then to try an end play, or a tackle
and end play successfully, and by so doing, strengthen
that very center play. The chance for making a success-
ful end play is increased where a center game is being
played, because the ends will be likely to draw in some-
what to help the center.
When the center men of the line are rather light, if the
backs are heavy and slow, the advantage will still be in
attacking the openings between the center and guards
244
and between the guards and tackles; for, if the backs
and ends mass on these places, as they can do quickly
and powerfully, they can still force a few yards at a time,
and now and then break through for considerable gain.
When well massed, this can be played even against the
strongest centers. All that the rush line will need to do is
to hold their men momentarily until the backs get under
headway, and the combination of so much weight and
power will be sure to make advance when well directed.
If it be remembered that the advantage is always with
the side which has the ball, and if the players, though
checked now and then, go into each play with undaunted
courage, advance will surely be made.
As a general rule, when a team has light, swift run-
ners behind the line, they should lay the emphasis on
plays around the end and between the ends and tackles.
Not that they should confine themselves to those points
of attack, but it would be foolish for a team composed
of such material not to perfect the plays in these parts
of the line, because of the ability of the backs to move
quickly to these remoter places. Such men, too, are not
so well built for the hard, plunging work in the center,
and will probably stand less of it, and be less effective,
than heavier backs. This of course depends in part on
the build of the men, but in general it is true.
But even if the backs are equally good in plunging into
the line, it would be better policy to keep the line spread
out, for no runner can make much gain through a close
line. Swift drives through the line can be made fre-
quently, and are usually very telling when the line, being
spread out, is opened up for these little backs to come
darting through. But if the backs and the central part
of the rush line are both light, while those of the oppo-
245
nents are heavy, the end style of play must of necessity
be depended on, or the opposing rushers will be able
to resist the plunges. Furthermore, it will be exceed-
ingly hard to make holes through the line, and, in fact,
even to hold their opponents long enough for the backs
to get up to the line.
The question of what shall be the proportion of end
plays and plays between the ends and tackle, to the
plays through the other four openings in the line depends,
of course, very largely on the backs. The composition
of the rush line as to strength and skill, especially the
center, guards, and tackles, also affects the proportion.
On the ordinary college and preparatory school team,
the relative effectiveness of an end game to a center
game would be much smaller than where the teams are
better trained, simply because the risks are larger; for,
while the defense against well executed interference
would be much weaker, the attack also is much weaker.
f Every enfl play and play between the tackles and end
I is attempted with a much greater risk from actual loss of
/ ground, or with a loss of a down with no gain, than are
/ the plays in the center. The reason is that the rushers
\ are given time to break through the line while the runner
is moving out to the point of attack, and unless well pro-
I tected he will not reach the opening.
V Further, this movement for a considerable distance is
almost entirely sidewise before an advance can be made,
while in the plays in the central part of the line the
rushes are made nearly straight forward, except when the
rushers take the ball, and the runners scarcely ever fail
to reach the line. The times when there is no gain what-
ever and when there is an actual loss are compara-
tively few, for the runner, catching the ball at full
speed, is up to the line in an instant, and then it be-
246
comes a question how far he can advance beyond that
point. Taking these elements of risk into account, it
would seem that the proportion of plays at the end to
plays through the line should not be larger than one to
three, and oftentimes less, even where a team is able to
use both styles effectively. The only occasion for a larger
use of end plays than this would be when the runner sel-
dom fails to reach the line, and is usually good for a
gain. In that event the large element of risk has been
taken away, and the proportion of use should then de-
pend on the relative amount of gain which the trials
have shown can be secured from each with the least ex-
penditure of energy.
Right here it might be well to add that it requires more
skillful generalship to know when to use an end play
than when to make a play through the center. It is
only occasionally that the ball is down so close to the side
lines that all four openings in the center are not available
on account of running outside the line, while it is fre-
quently the case that the ball is down near enough to the
side line to limit the end play to one side, that is, to two
openings. Nor is this enlarged space on one side of the
field sufficient compensation for the loss of the two points
of attack, but it adds to the science of the game, as it re-
quires more varied tactics and maneuvers.
It is poor tactics to keep trying end plays when it has
been clearly proven that it is not possible to make them
and that there is a likelihood of a loss in the trial. If it
seems best to try the end for the sake of keeping the op-
posing line spread out so that the center plays can be
made more successfully, the most propitious times should
be selected. It should never be on the second or third
down, because the risk of losing the ball by failure to
gain the requisite five yards would be entirely too great.
247
There are times when an end play should not be used
at all, or very rarely, on account of the risk involved;
as, for example, when the ball is being carried out from
under the goal where it has been forced by the opponents.
Anywhere within the fifteen or twenty yard line it is
much better to trust to bringing it slowly out a few yards
or feet at a time, sufficient, perhaps, to secure only the
requisite five yards in three trials. Beyond the twenty-
yard line and up to the thirty-five-yard an end play should
be tried only on the first down, or, in rare instances, on
the second down, unless the risk of losing ground, and
subsequently the ball, is worth taking. In such cases the
possession of a powerful punter behind the line, who could
place the ball well out of dangerous territory if necessary,
might be a sufficient reason for attempting a long kick
down the field. It does not seem, however, that it is nec-
essary to run any risk of losing the ball if there is good
reason for not playing a kicking game, for there will be
ample chance to try an end play on the first down. Mis-
takes in generalship are frequently made right along this
line in nearly every game which is played, an end, run
being sometimes tried on the third down when there is
less than a yard to gain. Better gain the yard or two by
the surest ground-gaining play and then try an end run
on the very next.
When inside the opponents' twenty-five-yard line the
greatest skill must also be used, and the aim should be to
get the requisite five yards by the most reliable tactics.
Plays which risk the loss of ground and the ball should be
sparingly used, and every caution and strategy be exer-
cised to place the ball across the line. Nor should there
be less prudence because a team has a good drop kicker.
The proportion of goals secured from drop kicks is not
248
more than one in every four or five attempts, with the best
kickers in America, and the most certain way to score
will be to strain every nerve to place the ball across the
line by steadfastly holding the ball and using the drop
kick only as a last resource.
Every now. and then a point is lost unnecessarily when
the ball is in the possession of a team under its own goal.
It is judged not wise to kick. Perhaps the wind is strong
in the opposite direction and there is no reliable punter,
or perhaps it would simply give the opponents a fair
catch from which to make a try for goal if kicked. The
captain also realizes that if the opponents secure the ball
they will force it over. Two downs may already have
been used up and ground lost in vain attempts to advance
the ball by running. There seems to be no other alterna-
tive, and so another trial is made, but without avail,
whereupon the ball goes to the other side. Under these
circumstances it would be well for the captain to remem-
ber that by making a safety touchdown and allowing the
opponents to score two, he could have brought the ball
out to the twenty-five-yard line and prevented a proba-
ble six points.
The mistake is often made of frequently using end plays
when the ground is slippery and soft from rain. Nothing
can be more foolish, unless the aim is to get the ball on
firmer ground, for with insecure footing it is impossible
to start quickly, run fast, or turn and dodge quickly.
This makes it easy, also, for the opposing eleven to stop
the runner and nearly always with a loss of ground. The
same is true, in a measure, when the ground is soft or
very sandy. It is comparatively hard to make end plays
even when there are no unfavorable conditions, when the
ground is firm and level.
249
He is a wise general, therefore, who notes the field
carefully, knowing where all the soft and slippery and
rough places are, as well as where the good ground is,
and then keeps them in mind throughout the game, and
makes his moves wisely in reference to them. Few cap-
tains take the field sufficiently into account in directing
the plays, so that the greatest advantage can be secured
by avoiding the hindrances as much as possible. Again
and again unsuccessful trials to advance have been made
in muddy places, when, with one well-planned move, the
ball could have been placed on solid ground with little or
no sacrifice, and a vast advantage secured. It is usually
worth the loss of two or three yards, and oftentimes more,
to make an end play in order to give a better footing ta
the backs and the rushers for putting the ball into play,
for handling it, for making holes, and for starting, run-
ning, and dodging.
When the ground is very slippery, all plays which cause
the runner to move a considerable distance sidewise and
across the field before turning to advance, and all plays
requiring a sudden change in direction, whether when
under strong headway or not, are hard to gain ground
on, and, therefore, must be used with great judgment.
Equally hard to make are the plays in which the tackle
and guard and end carry the ball around for a run
through one of the openings on the opposite side of the line.
There is not, however, the chance for so much loss of
ground in these plays, as usually played, that there is in
a run out to the end by the half-backs, because the former
run closer to the line and the play is not so quickly per-
ceived.
It naturally follows, then, from what has been said,
that those plays which send the runner directly forward;
250
those in which the impetus from the start is more forward
than side wise; those in which the runner does not have
far to run before he strikes the opening; and those in
which he can get the greatest protection and assistance
quickly, are the plays to be relied on when the ground is
soft, sandy, or slippery.
In bringing the ball in from the side lines, the privilege
is given of having it down anywhere from five to fifteen
yards from that line. This option of ten yards should be
valuable in determining the tactics to be used next. Too
often is it the habit for the captain to shout out, ' ' Bring
it in fifteen," whether the "fifteen" would carry them
into a mud hole, or whether there w r as a positive advan-
tage in operating from a nearer point to the side line by
avoiding the usual custom of an end run, and sending the
runner through on the other side. Generally the fifteen
yard point is the best place to have the ball down, but
not always. The ten-yard point has decided advantages
in making certain side-line plays, because the opponents
will reason that the chances are in favor of an end play
being attempted, and will draw one or two men away to
strengthen their defense in that quarter. These they will
feel that they can well spare from that side without very
apparently weakening the defense, because they are pro-
tected from long runs by the side line.
The side line does not enter into the consideration in
field tactics as much as it should. As a rule, it is consid-
ered a misfortune when the ball is down within less than
ten yards of this boundary line, because it gives the op-
ponents a good chance to anticipate the play, which is
likely to be a run around the other end. The free men
who are behind the rushers nearest the side line rarely
fail to move over as far as the center-rusher. This leaves
the defense of that part wholly to the rushers, supported
by the side line, and is the best situation possible for mak-
ing certain plays. Long runs, however, cannot be ex-
pected, and the captain must be contented to work stead-
ily up the field by short gains. After several dashes into
the line, of this kind, an end run suddenly carried into ex-
ecution may have considerable chance for success.
This suggests the thought that it is possible to use the
side line helpfully when the ball is down very near it and
when it is impossible to make any strong plays because
of the limitations which must be met in such a situation.
At such a time, instead of attempting to make a run out
toward the end, or tackle, which will be expected, the play
should often be straight forward or on the side toward
the boundary line, until the runner is finally pushed over
the line and has the privilege of bringing the ball in to a
more favorable position from which to operate.
Furthermore, the position near the side line can be
made more useful in working tricks than a point nearer
the center of the field, for reasons which are evident.
There is no question that kicking the ball has not
entered into the tactics of football as largely as its possi-
bilities would warrant. There are many reasons for this.
First, there is only here and there a team which has a
reliable kicker. Punting and drop kicking are practiced
by a few only, and, for the most part, not intelligently and
successfully. It is a science with several points of skill to
be acquired. Second, many teams have an uncertain
punter who does not himself know exactly where the ball
will go, whether far down the field or just over the rush line,
along the ground or to one side, and so place such little
confidence in the value of kicking under so great a risk
that they will usually trust to a run, even on the third
252
down, if the distance which they have to gain is not too
great. Third, in all but a few leading colleges when the
teams are evenly matched, the question of points is large-
ly a question of which side has the ball. (_The offensive
game is much better developed than the defensive game,
and it is not infrequent for one team to carry the ball
from one end of the field to the other without losing it/}
Under these circumstances the necessity for kicking is
seldom felt, and they would rather take the risk of not
gaining the requisite number of yards, than release their
right to the ball by an uncertain kick. Fourth, it is a
fact that most punters can not kick accurately if forced to
punt quickly. They are, therefore, compelled to stand so
far back of the rush line that the value of their punt is
decreased by several yards, or else they run the risk both
of a poor punt and of having it stopped by the opposing
rushers who break through the line.
No better proof of the value of a good punter behind
the line is needed, than to see a game in which one side is
visibly weaker than the other in its power to advance the
ball by running, but which, possessing a strong punter,
is able to keep its opponents in check. Frequent punts
are doubly effective when the opposite side is without a
good kicker, or is not accustomed to a kicking game.
The worth of an accurate kicker is magnified very
much when there is a wind in his favor. Comparatively
few games are played without a wind to help or interfere,
according as it is favorable to one side or the other.
When the wind is in the favor of one side, they should
be able to use it to the greatest advantage. The captain
should be alive to its value, and make it a powerful factor
in his tactics. It would then be a question whether it
would not be wise to kick the ball just as soon as it was
253
secured, provided, of course, it was not so near the op-
ponent's goal that it would be wiser to hold the ball and
attempt to rush it over. Certain it is that a side should
never fail to kick on the third down except on account of
the liability of kicking the ball over the goal line when
inside of the twenty-five yard line, or because so close to
the goal line that it is worth taking the risk of losing the
ball in making a supreme effort to get it over.
When there is danger of the ball being kicked across
the goal line a clever punter will usually aim to kick
the ball across the side line into the touch as near the
goal line as possible. This is intentional and is quite dif-
ferent from the juvenile efforts which do not take the
wind or position into account when punting from near the
side line and send the ball outside, only a few yards away.
It is sometimes good tactics on the third down, when
there is considerable doubt whether the required advance
can be made, to have the full-back kick the ball across
the side line with no intent perhaps of a gain in ground.
While giving the opposing team technically an equal
chance, it is wholly with the purpose of having the end-
rusher secure the ball, which will be upon the first down.
The kick must be well placed, of course, and must not be
so much forward that there will be great risk of the op-
ponents securing the ball, and also not so far ahead that
the full-back cannot put his men on side easily. The
end man on that side must also know of the full-back's
intention, and place himself well over toward the side
line. Such a kick cannot be attempted safely when the
full-back is not able to place his punts with great ac-
curacy. The occasions when the use of such tactics
would be wise, might be when the side in possession of
the ball was able to make good advances by running but
254
had lost ground, perhaps through a misplay ; or when
they had the ball inside their opponents' twenty-five yard
line and were not in a good position to try a drop kick ;
or when the risk of making the required gain by running
would be too great.
Right here would come in the question of a drop kick
on the third down when inside the twenty-five yard line,
and in fair position to make the trial. It is safe to say
that, in general on the third down, this should be the
play called for. It is for the captain to decide whether
the trial is worth the making; whether the nearness and
angle to the goal, and the quickness and skill of the
kicker warrant a drop kick in preference to the chances
of making a further advance by running.
If a run is attempted without gain the ball will be
down where it is for the other side. When the kick
is made on the other hand, there will be a possibility of
having the ball stopped by the opposing rushers, and
a run made up the field; or, if the goal is missed, the
opposing team will be allowed to bring the ball out to
the twenty-five yard line.
The captain must weigh all these possibilities before
making his decision.
The great advantage in the wind does not consist alone
in the increased distance the ball can be propelled, but
also in the increased likelihood that some one upon the
side which kicked will again secure the ball on a muff
or fumble. The wind has added to the problem of the
player who attempts to catch the ball these points of
difficulty: greater distance covered by the ball, an in-
creased speed, and a greater probability that the ball
will suddenly veer to one side or the other from the line
of direction .
255
The increased advantage of a favoring wind is in
direct proportion to the strength of the wind. If the
wind is very strong, the side which does not have its
assistance is severely handicapped, and for the time is
not able to do any effective kicking. Even with the
best punters, it is impossible to drive the ball far in the
face of a strong wind, and then the kick must be low
or the wind is likely to blow it back near the spot from
which it was kicked. On the other hand, when kicking
for distance with the wind, it is usually better to kick
the ball high, in order that the wind may affect it more
powerfully during the longer interval of time in rising
and falling.
There is also an economic reason for kicking the ball
whenever it can be wisely done. It is a good way to
rest the backs in order to save them for the supreme
effort of carrying the ball across the line; for, if the ball
has been carried for a considerable distance, they will
be likely to be somewhat fatigued as they approach the
goal line, and they will be weakest where and when the
opposing side always puts in their most determined and
desperate resistance.
It is a severe test of a team's courage to bear up
against a kicking game in the face of a strong wind;
for, even if they are able to make good gains in return
by running, the players are constantly fearing a slip or
fumble, which will give the ball back to the other side
only to have it returned with all the chances of a mis-
play, if not a gain in ground. The effect of the wind
also is to make the side against it think that they are
working very much harder than their opponents just to
hold their own.
There is no question as to the value of having every
member of the team able to run with the ball when it is
17
256
possible and wise. The more varied the style of play,
provided it is strong, or is likely to be successful because
unlocked for, the more powerful would be the plan of at-
tack and the less effective the defense. This is true for
two reasons: first, it keeps the opposing team constantly
guessing as to what the play will be and enables the side
with the ball to secure advantages through the variety of
its play; second, it distributes the labor and secures the
advantage of fresh strength, while it rests the main
ground-gainers. For these reasons, then, it is well
worth the while to run the guards, tackles, and ends,
although these are not in as advantageous positions for
gaining ground as are the half-backs and full-back.
The most valuable of the three rush-line positions for
ground gaining is the tackle, because from that position
the runner can get under sufficient speed to carry him for-
ward against opposition, and he can also secure the most
protection and help. The run also can be made in the
quickest time and without being immediately noticed.
The end position, when the end plays behind the line
and near the tackle, comes next in value of the line posi-
tions for running with the ball, because of the large num-
ber of interferers ahead. If rightly played by a fast
runner, the end will be able to make good advances be-
tween the tackle and end, and even around the end on the
other side.
The guard is in the hardest rush-line position for ad-
vancing the ball, because it is impossible for him to get
under speed when making a quick turn around the quar-
ter-back, and on the other hand he cannot afford to run
out to the end, because he would be sure to be tackled
whether he ran close to the line with little interference,
or ran farther back with better interference but with
greater risk of loss of ground.
SIGNALS.
In the modern game of football it is absolutely neces-
sary that before each play a signal should be given, which
will inform every man on the team of the movement
about to be executed. Every player has a special duty
to perform each time the ball is snapped, and unless he is
informed beforehand of the evolution intended, it will be
impossible to render the requisite assistance. It is of
equal importance that the opposing team should be kept
in absolute ignorance in regard to the intention of the
play, so that they may not anticipate and thwart it.
That code of signals will be best, then, which will in-
dicate in the simplest manner the play intended, while at
the same time being unintelligible to opponents. Too
frequently such a complicated system of signals is adopted
that the players themselves become confused, or at least
are unable to comprehend the order upon the instant, and
the momentary delay thus caused proves a great disad-
vantage. There is far less likelihood that the opposing
team will be informed by the signal what play is in-
tended, than that they shall discover its probable direc-
tion by the position assumed or nervousness betrayed by
some one of the backs or rushers.
There are three systems of signals which have a prac-
tical value : Sign signals, word signals, and number sig-
nals. Sign signals possess one advantage which neither
of the other two can claim. They can be understood
with readiness amid the most deafening cheering from the
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side lines. It often happens that the cheering is so con-
tinuous at critical moments during the great' matches,
where many thousand people are assembled, that for sev-
eral moments the play is almost paralyzed on account of
the inability of the captain to make his orders heard. It
is readily perceived what an advantage it would be to
have a code of signals which would direct the play
rapidly and unerringly at such a time.
On the other hand, there is, perhaps, more danger that
the opposing team may notice and soon learn to under,
stand signs than when spoken signals are used, for it is
necessary that each man on the side shall look at the
quarter-back or captain at the time when he gives the sig-
nal (usually this will be when the men are lining up),
and this will of necessity attract more or less attention to
what it is expressly desired to cover up. Every team
would do well, however, to have a complete system of
sign signals, which they can use at critical times in case
of emergency.
The following extract from a code once in operation
will furnish suggestions which will enable any ingenious
captain to devise a practical set : Pull up trousers on
right side RH between c and RG. Pull up trousers on
left side LH between c and LG. Right hand on right
thigh RH between RG and RT. Right hand on left
thigh RH between LG and LT. Right hand on right
knee RH between RT and RE. Right hand on left knee
RH between LT and LE. Right hand on collar on right
side RH around RE. Right hand on collar on leftside
RH around LE. Right hand on chin RT around be-
tween LG and LT. Right hand on right hip RE around
the LE. Pull on jacket lacings kick down the field.
Similar motions with the left hand will direct cor-
2 59
responding plays in the opposite direction. The mo-
tions should be made so naturally that they will not at-
tract attention, but in deciding upon movements care
should be taken not to select those which will be used in-
voluntarily, lest signals be given sometimes without in-
tention.
In the system of word signals peculiar expressions,
such as " Brace up now," " Now brace," " Hold your men
hard," "Tear up this line," "We must do better now,"
and the like, introduced by the captain with a few off-
hand sentences before each play, direct the next move-
ment. Again, speaking to the left tackle may indicate
that the left half-back is to run around the right end,
each man being made to indicate a different evolution;
and a word of encouragement or-blame thus be made the
signal for the next play.
Perhaps the system of signaling by numbers is most
simple and satisfactory, for it admits of a great variety
of combinations, and the key will not be readily de-
tected. Sometimes a long sequence of numbers are called
out, the signal being conveyed by the first two or three,
and the others being added merely to mystify the oppos-
ing side, but a combination of three numbers is rather
preferable.
A very simple code may be arranged, in which each
opening is given a number, and each player a number.
The combination of two numbers, then, will indicate the
man who is to receive the ball, and the opening through
which he is to pass, while a third will be called for the
sake of deception. For example : We will suppose that
the openings in the line, as they radiate from the center,
have been numbered 4, 6, 8, and 10, respectively, upon
the right, and 5, 7, 9, and n upon the left; the center-
260
rusher will be No. i, RG will be 2, RT will be 4, RE will be
6, and RH will be 8 ; while on the left LG will be 3, LT
will be 5, LE will be 7, and LH will be 9, with FB n.
We will further suppose that but three numbers are to
be given each time ; that the first number called will
mean nothing ; the second number called will indicate
the player who is to receive the ball ; and the third
number the opening through which he is to pass.
To illustrate: The captain calls "9, 5, 8!" The 9
means nothing. The second number indicates the player
who is to receive the ball, which in the present instance
is No. 5, the left tackle. The third number shows the
opening through which he is to pass in this case No. 8,
and hence between RT and LE. The interpretation of
the signal, then, is that LT is to receive the ball, pass
around the center, and dash into the line between RT
and RE.* Thus any combination desired may be ef-
fected.
If, after a time, the opposing team discovers the sig-
nal for one or more of the plays, the entire system may
be changed by simply informing the team by a peculiar
signal, previously arranged, that the first number will
thereafter indicate the opening, while the third will indi-
cate the player who is to take the ball. The three num-
bers admit of six different arrangements, and the team
should be drilled upon at least three of them until they
can execute the plays with equal readiness under each
arrangement.
In more difficult systems each play is given a separate
number, which number may be called out either first,
second, or third, as determined. Again, letting each
play be indicated by a particular number, as before, the
* See diagram nineteen.
26l
sum of the last two numbers is taken to make the num-
ber desired. This latter system, though, perhaps, a little
more difficult, will prove the most satisfactory.
If two numbers are to be added together, the captain
will do well to make one of them quite small, and call
the larger number of the two first, for the addition will be
performed by all much quicker and with less effort.
During the first of the season it will be well to use one
particular number to represent a play, and when these
have been thoroughly learned it will be but a compar-
atively easy matter to change to the sum of any two.
When the number for the play has reached twenty, it
may make the signals easier to have all the numbers be-
tween twenty and thirty indicate a certain other play;
all the numbers between thirty and forty, another; and
so on.
As the kick is a frequent play, and as it is nearly al-
ways apparent, it may be well to have two numbers,
either one of which will be the signal for a kick down
the field.
Enough has now been said to suggest how a practical
system of signals may be devised.
AXIOMS.
Line up quickly the moment the ball is down and play
a dashing game from start to finish.
Never under any circumstances talk about your hurts
and bruises. If you are unable to play, or have a severe
strain, tell the captain at once. He will always release
you.
When thrown hard always get up as if not hurt in the
slightest. You will be thrown twice as hard next time if
you appear to be easily hurt by a fall.
When coached upon the field never under any circum-
stances answer back or make any excuses. Do as nearly
as possible exactly what you are told.
Always throw your man hard, and toward his own goal,
when you tackle him.
Never converse with an opponent during the game, but
wait until the game is over for the exchange of civilities.
If you miss a tackle turn right around and follow the
man at utmost speed ; some one else may block him just
long enough for you to catch him from behind.
Never play a " slugging game " ; it interferes with good
football playing.
Try to make a touch-down during the first two minutes
of the game, before the opponents have become fairly
waked up.
Play a. fast game ; let one play come after the next in
rapid succession without any waits or delays. The more
rapidly you play, the more effective it will be. Therefore
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263
line up quickly and get back in your regular place in-
stantly after making a run.
When thrown, allow yourself to fall limp, with legs
straight, and then you will not get hurt. Do not try to
save yourself by putting out a hand or arm ; it may be
sprained or broken. If you are flat on the ground you
cannot be hurt, no matter how many pile on top of you.
Always tackle low. The region between the knees and
waist is the place to be aimed at. When preparing to
tackle, keep your eyes on the runner's hips, for they are
the least changeable part of the body.
Lift the runner off his feet and throw him toward his
own goal. When not near enough to do this, spring
through the air at him and hit him as hard as possible
with the shoulder ; at the same time grip him with the
arms and drag him down. Always put the head down in
doing this and throw the weight forward quickly and
hard. Crawl up on the runner when he falls and take the
ball away if possible ; at least prevent its being passed.
When the runner is in a mass, or wedge, drive in and
lift his legs out from under him, or fall down in front of
him.
If the runner's feet are held, push back on his chest
and make him fall toward his own goal.
Don't wait for the runner to meet you ; meet the runner.
Always have a hand in the tackle. Don't " think " the
runner is stopped ; make sure of it.
Follow your own runners hard; you may have a chance
to assist him, or block off for him. Always be in readi-
ness to receive the ball from the runner when he is tackled.
Fall on the ball always in a scrimmage, or when sur-
rounded by opponents. When the ball is kicked behind
your own goal, or across the side line, do not fall on it
264
until it stops unless there is danger of the opponents being
put on side.
Put your head down when going through the line and
dive in with your whole weight.
Call "down" loudly, but not until it is impossible to
make further advances.
Squeeze the ball tightly when tackled, or when going
through the line.
Never under any circumstances give up because the
other side seems to be superior. They may weaken at
any moment, or a valuable player be ruled off or tem-
porarily disabled. Let each man encourage the others
on the team by monosyllables and keep up a " team
enthusiasm."
Be the first man down the field on a kick.
Block your men hard when the opponents have the
ball.
Tear up the line, break through and stop every kick
that is made.
Never take your eyes off the ball after the signal has
been given, if you are a man behind the line.
Do not be contented with a superficial reading on foot-
ball, but study it carefully, if you would master it.
RULES ADOPTED
BY THE
AMERICA* INTERCOLLEGIATE FOOTBALL ASSOCIATION
FOR 1893.
(Copyrighted and printed by permission of A. G. Spaulding
& Bros.)
RULE i. (a) A drop-kick is madfe by letting the ball
fall from the hands and kicking it at the very instant it
rises.
(b) A place-kick is made by kicking the ball after it
has been placed on the ground.
(c) A punt is made by letting the ball fall from the
hands and kicking it before it touches the ground.
(d) Kick-off is a place-kick from the center of the field
of play, and cannot score a goal.
(e) Kick-out is a drop-kick, or place-kick, by a player
of the side which has touched the ball down in their own
goal, or into whose touch-in-goal the ball has gone, and
cannot score a goal. (See Rules 32 and 34.)
(f) A free-kick is one where the opponents are re-
strained by rule.
RULE 2. (a) In touch means out of bounds.
(b) A fair is putting the ball in play from touch.
NOTE. The ball adopted and used by the American Intercol-
legiate Association is the " Spaulding J." ball.
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266
RULE 3. A foul is any violation of a rule.
RULE 4. (a) A touch-down is made when the ball is
carried, kicked, or passed across the goal line and there
held, either in goal or touch-in-goal. The point where the
touch-down scores, however, is not necessarily where the
ball is carried across the line, but where the ball is fairly
held or called " down."
() A safety is made when a player guarding his goal
receives the ball from a player of his own side, either by
a pass, kick, or a snap-back, and then touches it down
behind his goal line, or when he himself carries the ball
across his own goal line and touches it down, or when he
puts the ball into his own touch-in-goal, or when the ball,
being kicked by one of his own side, bounds back from
an opponent across the goal line and he then touches it
down.
(c) A touch-back is made when a player touches the
ball to the ground behind his own goal, the impetus which
sent the ball across the line having been received from an
opponent.
RULE 5. A punt-out is a punt made by a player of the
side which has made a touch-down in their opponents'
goal to another of his own side for a fair catch.
RULE 6. A goal may be obtained by kicking the ball
in any way except a punt from the field of play (without
touching the ground, or dress, or person of any player
after the kick) over the cross-bar or post of opponents'
goal.
RULE 7. A scrimmage takes place when the holder of
the ball puts it down on the ground, and puts it in play
by kicking it or snapping it back.
RULE 8. A fair catch is a catch made direct from a
kick by one of the opponents, or from a punt-out by one
267
of the same side, provided the catcher made a mark with
his heel at the spot where he has made the catch, and no
other of his side touch the ball. If the catcher, after
making his mark, be deliberately thrown to the ground
by an opponent, he shall be given five yards, unless this
carries the ball across the goal line.
RULE 9. Charging is rushing forward to seize the ball
or tackle a player.
RULE 10. Interference is using the hands or arms in
any way to obstruct or hold a player who has not the ball.
This does not apply to the man running with the ball.
RULE ii. The ball is dead:
I. When the holder has cried down, or when the referee
has cried down, or when the umpire has called foul.
II. When a goal has been obtained.
III. When it has gone into touch, or touch-in-goal, ex-
cept for punt-out.
IV. When a touch-down or safety has been made.
V. When a fair catch has been heeled. No play can
be made while the ball is dead, except to put in play by
rule.
RULE 12. The grounds must be 330 feet in length and
1 60 feet in width, with a goal place in the middle of each
goal line, composed of two upright posts, exceeding 20
feet in height, and placed 18 feet 6 inches apart, with
cross-bar 10 feet from the ground.
RULE 13. The game shall be played by teams of eleven
men each, and in case of a disqualified or injured player
a substitute shall take his place. Nor shall the disqualified
or injured player return to further participation in the
game.
Amendment adopted at a special meeting of the Inter-
collegiate Association, 1893: " No member of a graduate
2 68
department, nor a special student shall be allowed to
play, nor any undergraduate who has registered or
attended lectures or recitations at any other university or
college nor by any undergraduate who is not pursuing a
course requiring for a degree an attendance of at least
three years."
RULE 14. There shall be an umpire and a referee. No
man shall act as an umpire who is an alumnus of either
of the competing colleges. The umpires shall be nomi-
nated and elected by the Advisory Committee. The
referee shall be chosen by the two captains of the oppos-
ing teams in each game, except in case of disagreement,
when the choice shall be referred to the Advisory Com-
mittee, whose decision shall be final. All the referees
and umpires shall be permanently elected and assigned
on or before the third Saturday in October in each year.
RULE 15. (a) The umpire is the judge for the players,
and his decision is final regarding fouls and unfair tactics.
(b) The referee is judge for the ball, and his decision is
final in all points not covered by the umpire.
(c) Both umpire and referee shall use whistles to indi-
cate cessation of play on fouls and downs. The referee
shall use a stop-watch in timing the game.
(d) The umpire shall permit no coaching, either by
substitutes, coaches, or any one inside the ropes. If such
coaching occur he shall warn the offender, and upon the
second offense must have him sent behind the ropes for
the remainder of the game.
RULE 16. (a) The time of a game is an hour and a
half, each side playing forty-five minutes from each goal.
There shall be ten minutes' intermission between the two
halves. The game shall be decided by the score of even
halves. Either side refusing to play after ordered to by
269
the referee, shall forfeit the game. This shall also apply
to refusing to commence the game when ordered to by
the referee. The referee shall notify the captains of the
time remaining, not more than ten, nor less than five,
minutes from the end of each half.
(b) Time shall not be called for the end of a three-
quarter until the ball is dead ; and in the case of a try-at-
goal from a touch-down the try shall be allowed. Time
shall be taken out while the ball is being brought out,
either for a try, kick-out, or kick-off.
RULE 17. No one wearing projecting nails or iron
plates on his shoes, or any metal substance upon his per-
son, shall be allowed to play in a match. No sticky or
greasy substance shall be used on the person of players.
RULE 18. The ball goes into touch when it crosses the
side line, or when the holder puts part of either foot
across or on that line. The touch line is in touch, and
the goal line in goal.
RULE 19. The captains shall toss up before the com-
mencement of the match, and the winner of the toss shall
have his choice of goal or of kick-off. The same side
shall not kick off in two successive halves.
RULE 20. The ball shall be kicked off at the begin-
ning of each half; and whenever a goal has been ob-
tained, the side which has lost it shall kick off. (See
Rules 32 and 34.)
RULE 21. A player who has made and claimed a fair
catch shall tak"e a drop-kick, or a punt, or place the ball
for a place-kick. The opponents may come up to the
catcher's mark, and the ball must be kicked from some
spot behind that mark on a parallel to touch line.
RULE 22. The side which has a free-kick must be be-
hind the ball when it is kicked. At kick-off the opposite
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side must stand at least ten yards in front of the ball
until it is kicked.
RULE 23. Charging is lawful for opponents if a pun-
ter advances beyond his line, or in case of a place-kick,
immediately the ball is put in play by touching the
ground. In case of a punt-out, not till ball is kicked.
RULE 24. (a) A player is put off side, if, during a
scrimmage he gets in front of the ball, or if the ball has
been last touched by his own side behind him. It is im-
possible for a player to be off side in his own goal. No
player when off side shall touch the ball, or interrupt,
or obstruct opponent with his hands or arms until again
on side.
(b) A player being off side is put on side when the ball
has touched an opponent, or when one of his own side
has run in front of him, either with the ball, or having
touched it when behind him.
(c) If a player when off side touches the ball inside the
opponents' five-yard line, the ball shall go as a touch-
back to the opponents.
RULE 25. No player shall lay his hands upon, or in-
terfere by use of hands or arms, with an opponent, unless
he has the ball. The side which has the ball can only in-
terfere with the body. The side which has not the ball
can use the hands and arms, as heretofore.
RULE 26. (a) A foul shall be,, gran ted for intentional
delay of game, off side play, or holding an opponent,
unless he has the ball. No delay arising from any cause
whatsoever shall continue more than five minutes.
(b) The penalty for fouls and violation of rules, except
otherwise provided, shall be a down for the other side;
or, if the side making the foul has not the ball, five yards
to the opponents.
RULE 27. (a) A player shall be disqualified for unnec-
essary roughness, hacking or striking with closed fist.
(b) For the offenses of throttling, tripping up or inten-
tional tackling below the knees, the opponents shall re-
ceive twenty-five yards, or a free-kick, at their option. In
case, however, the twenty-five yards would carry the
ball across the goal line they can have half the distance
from the spot of the offense to the goal line, and shall not
be allowed a free-kick.
RULE 28. A player may throw or pass the ball in any
direction except towards opponents' goal. If the ball be
batted in any direction or thrown forward it shall go
down on the spot to opponents.
RULE 29. If a player when off side interferes with
an opponent trying for a fair catch, by touching him or
the ball, or waving his hat or hands, the opponent may
have a free-kick, or down, where the interference oc-
curred.
RULE 30. (a) If a player having the ball be tackled
and the ball fairly held, the man so tackling shall cry
" held," the one so tackled must cry " down," and some
player of his side put it down for a scrimmage. The
snapper back and the man opposite him cannot pick out
the ball with the hand until it touch a third man; nor can
the opponents interfere with the snapper-back by touch-
ing the ball until it is actually put in play. Infringement
of this nature shall give the side having the ball five
yards at every such offense. The snapper-back is en-
titled to full and undisturbed possession of the ball. If
the snapper-back be off side in the act of snapping back,
the ball must be snapped again; and if this occurs three
times on same down, the ball goes to opponents. The
man who first receives the ball, when snapped back from
272
a down, or thrown back from a fair, shall not carry the
ball forward under any circumstances whatever. If, in
three consecutive fairs and downs, unless the ball cross
the goal line, a team shall not have advanced the ball
five or taken it back twenty yards, it shall go to the op-
ponents on spot of fourth. " Consecutive " means with-
out leaving the hands of the side holding it, and by a
kick giving opponents fair and equal chance of gaining
possession of it. When the referee, or umpire, has given
a side five yards, the following down shall be counted
the first down.
(b) The man who puts the ball in play in a scrimmage
cannot pick it up until it has touched some third man.
" Third man " means any other player than the one put-
ting the ball in play and the man opposite him.
RULE 31. If the ball goes into touch, whether it bounds
back or not, a player on the side which touches it down
must bring it to the spot where the line was crossed, and
there either
I. Bound the ball in the field of play or touch it in with
both hands at right angles to the touch line, and then run
with it, kick it, or throw it back; or
II. Throw it out at right angles to the touch line; or
III. Walk out with it at right angles to touch line any
distance not less than five nor more than fifteen yards, and
there put it down, first declaring how far he intends walk-
ing. The man who puts the ball in must face field or op-
ponents' goal, and he alone can have his foot outside
touch line. Any one except him who puts his hands or
feet beween the ball and his opponents' goal is off side. If
it be not thrown out at right angles either side may claim
it thrown over again, and if it fail to be put in play fairly
in three trials it shall go to the opponents.
273
RULE 32. A side which has made a touchdown in their
opponents' goal must try at goal, either by a place-kick or
a punt-out. If the goal be missed the ball shall go as a
kick-off at the center of the field to the defenders of the
goal.
RULE 33. (a) If the try be by a place-kick, a player of
the side which has touched the ball down shall bring it up
to the goal line, and, making a mark opposite the spot
where it was touched down, bring it out at right angles to
the goal line such distance as he thinks proper, and there
place it for another of his side to kick. The opponents
must remain behind their goal line until the ball has been
placed on the ground.
(b) The placer in a try-at-goal may be off side or in
touch without vitiating the kick.
RULE 34. If the try be by a punt-out the punter shall
bring the ball up to the goal line, and, making a mark op-
posite the spot where it was touched down, punt out from
any spot behind line of goal and not nearer the goal post
than such mark, to another of his side, all of whom must
stand outside of goal line not less than fifteen feet. If the
touchdown was made in touch-in-goal the punt-out shall
be made from the intersection of the goal and touch lines.
The opponents may line up anywhere on the goal line ex-
cept space of five feet on each side of punter's mark, but
cannot interfere with punter, nor can he touch the ball
after kicking it until it touch some other player. If a fair
catch be made from a punt-out the mark shall serve to de-
termine positions as the mark of any fair catch. If a
fair catch be not made on the first attempt the ball shall
be punted over again, and if a fair catch be not made on
the second attempt the ball shall go as a kick-off at the
center of the field to the defenders of the goal.
274
RULE 35. A side which has made a touch back or a
safety must kick out, except as otherwise provided (see
rule 32), from not more than twenty-five yards outside the
kicker's goal. If the ball go into touch before striking a
player it must be kicked out again, and if this occurs
three times in succession it shall be given to opponents as
in touch on twenty-five-yard line on side where it went
out. At kick-out opponents must be on twenty-five-yard
line or nearer their own goal.
RULE 36. The following shall be the value of each point
in the scoring:
Goal obtained by touchdown, 6
Goal from field kick, - - 5
Touchdown failing goal, - 4
Safety by opponents. - - 2
IS matari-il + iU- MI
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