U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 BUFLEAU O^A44I^At MI^DU(TrRy.--Bulleti 
 
 ON, D. V. M., ChW 
 
 MAR 8 ,3,3$ 
 
 'EXAS FEVER 
 
 '?_AI 
 
 (OTIII-RWIS1- KNOWN AS TICK FKYHR. Sl'LHNKTIC PKYKR. 
 OR SOITHHRN lATHI: FI-VHR). 
 
 METHODS FOR ITS PREVENTION 
 
 JOHN R. MOIILER, V. M. D., 
 Chief of Pathological Division, Jinn-ait of Animal Industry. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERN'MKN'r PKI\TIN<; o F K I C' K 
 
 1905.
 
 OKI, AM/.MION OF THK Itl KI.U OF \M.M\I. IMUMHV. 
 
 V. M. 
 
 A. I>. MKI.VIN. l. \'. S. 
 1. 1.. M.. M. \\ 
 
 M. 3., chi< 
 chief. 
 
 A. M. rARRIXGTON, B. *".. D. N 
 
 ,IAKI W. HllKMAN. I'll. (i., V. M. D., chief. 
 
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 rnllit>l'><tiriil I>iri.--i'.,i: ,I'>iiN K Mdin.Ki:. A. M.. V. M. !>., cliief. 
 
 . YTON II. HAVSHM. !'..>(.. A. M., actiiiL' /''l"u r i>t. 
 
 I M. I 1 . V.; expert assistant, \v. K. c.. 
 
 INM 
 
 Drll.H.D-: ' >eth & Gardner, M&nkato, 
 
 Minn. 
 
 Dr. !'. I. ! Wolff I'ack 
 
 -in. Minn. 
 
 Dr. K. I 1 . Dou.l. rar^ White, I 
 
 Dr. 1 
 
 \. Unniici 
 
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 Dr. U llle, Nrt.r. 
 
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 Viir . 111. City. Ni'br. 
 
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 Dr II A. II. 'iln.-k. '.'I.'. St. I':iul *-t .. Btiltiniun-. M.l. 
 
 Mr. ', ~ Hickox, room 'Jl 
 
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 V, 111.
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Bulletin No. 78. 
 
 D. E. SALMON, D. V. M., Chief of Bureau. 
 
 TEXAS FEVER 
 
 (OTHERWISE KNOWN AS TICK FEVER. SPLENETIC FEVER, 
 OR SOUTHERN CATTLE FEVER), 
 
 METHODS FOR ITS PREVENTION. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN R. MOHLER, V. M. I)., 
 
 Chief of Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRIXTIVO OFFICE. 
 1905.
 
 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 
 
 U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, 
 
 \Yaxhinyton, D. C., Auyunt 4. 1905. 
 
 SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled 
 "Texas fever (otherwise known as tick fever, splenetic fever, or 
 Southern cattle fever), with methods for its prevention." by John R. 
 Mohler, V. M. D., chief of the Pathological Division of this Bureau. 
 This article deals in a practical way with :i disease which causes 
 great annual loss to the stockmen of this country. 
 
 I recommend that this manuscript he published as Bulletin No. 78 
 of the Bureau of Animal Industry series. 
 Respectfully, 
 
 D. E. SALMON. 
 
 Chief of Bureau. 
 Hon. JAMES WILSON, 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture.
 
 COXTKXTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Introduction. 5 
 
 Name and synonyms. . 6 
 
 Definition . . 6 
 
 History and distribution . 7 
 
 Cause of the disease 9 
 Life history of the cattle tick and the part played by it in producing Texas 
 
 fever.. 10 
 How to distinguish harmless ticks found on cattle from Texas fever ticks . 12 
 Some objections to the role of ticks as carriers of Texas fever, with expla- 
 nations 15 
 
 Other injurious effects of cattle ticks . . 18 
 
 Loss occasioned by cattle ticks 19 
 
 Period of development of disease after exposure to ticks . 22 
 
 Symptoms . . 22 
 
 Appearance after death . 25 
 
 Course and termination* . _ 26 
 
 Infective character . . 27 
 
 Animals affected _ 28 
 
 Diseases mistaken for Texas fever . . 28 
 
 Treatment 29 
 
 Prevention: 
 
 How to free cattle of ticks 
 
 Picking or brushing ticks off cattle. . 30 
 
 Smearing or spraying cattle with a disinfecting solution 30 
 
 Dipping in a vat . 31 
 
 By the '' soiling" method .. 32 
 How to free pastures of ticks 
 
 By excluding cattle for a definite period . . 33 
 By cultivation . 33 
 By burning off the grass . . 33 
 How to free cattle and pastures of ticks at the same time- 
 By the " feed-lot " method . . 85 
 
 By pasture rotation 36 
 
 Immunization of susceptible cattle 
 
 By blood inoculation 39 
 
 By infesting with ticks 42 
 Federal sanitary regulations 
 
 Other important measures for reducing the infected area 44
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Pa*?. 
 
 PLATE 1, fig. 1. Mature female cattle tick (X 4); fig. la. Mature female cattle 
 tick (natural size): fig. Ib. Head and shield of same (X 15): fig. 
 2. Mature female castor-bean tick (X 4): fig. 2a. Mature female 
 castor-bean tick (natural size): fig. 2b. Head and shield of 
 same (X 15); fig. :{. Mature female net tick (X 4): fig. 3a. Ma- 
 ture female net tick (natural size): fig. 3b. Head and shield of 
 same (X 15); fig. 4. Mature female dog, or wood, tick (X 4): 
 fig. 4a. Mature female dog. or wood, tick (natural size): fig. 4b. 
 Head and shield of same (X 15) Ml 
 
 2, fig. 1. Mature female Lone Star tick (X4): fig. la. Mature female 
 
 Lone Star tick (natural size): fig. Ib. Head ami shield of same 
 (X 15): fig. 2. Mature female ear tick (X 4): fig. 2a. Mature 
 female ear tick (natural size): fig. 2b. Head of same protruding 
 from beneath (X 15); fig. :{. Mature female clricken tick (X 4): 
 fig. :5a. Mature female chicken tick (natural size): fig. 3b. Up- 
 per portion of same, head invisible (X 10): fig. 4. Mat re female 
 European dog tick (X 4): fig. 4a. Mature female European dog 
 tick (natural size); fig. 4b. Head and shield of same (X 15) .. Ifl 
 
 3, fig. 1. Larva of cattle tick (X 25); fig. 2. Larva of cattle tick 
 
 (natural size); fig. 3. Mature female and eggs (natural size): 
 fig. 4. Hide, showing cattle ticks: fig. 5. Blood cells containing 
 Texas fever protozoa: fig. <>. Male cattle tick (X 15); fig. 7. Male 
 cattle tick (natural size); fig. . Young female cattle tick ( X 15): 
 fig. 0. Young female cattle tick (natural size): fig. 10. Various 
 stages and colorations of cattle ticks . 16 
 
 Fn. 1. Boundary line of the district infected with Texas fever 
 
 2. (leaning cattle and soil by " feed-lot " method 
 
 3. (leaning cattle and soil by pasture rotation 
 
 4
 
 TEXAS FEVER 
 
 (Otherwise known as Tick Fever. Splenetie Fever. r Southern Tattle Fever). 
 WITH METHODS FOR ITS PREVENTION. 
 
 Hy JOHN It. MOIII.KK. V. M. I).. 
 Chief of I'dtitiilot/icul IHrixioii, Iturrttu of Animal Inthixtry. 
 
 [NTKODUCTION. 
 
 Texas fever, a very serious obstacle to the development and pros- 
 perity of the cattle industry of the South, has been pretty thoroughly 
 understood since the investigations and discoveries made by Smith 
 and Kilborne and published in 181)8 as Bulletin No. 1 of the Bureau 
 of Animal Industry. Their work showed conclusively that the 
 cause of the disease was an intracorpuscular parasite (one living 
 within the blood cells), the intermediate stage of the development of 
 which occurred in the cattle tick, thus making this tick the indirect 
 but absolutely essential factor in the natural production of the dis- 
 ease. Above the latitude where the cattle tick is destroyed by the 
 cold of winter the disease can be thoroughly controlled by keeping 
 Southern tick-infested cattle from passing through the country dur- 
 ing certain seasons. It is also well known that by completely sever- 
 ing the relations of the fever tick and native cattle the former may 
 be exterminated, thus making it possible by intelligent and energetic 
 measures to eradicate the disease, and thereby to remove a constant 
 menace* to the Southern cattle breeder, feeder, and dairyman. In 
 spite of these facts, however, comparatively little work has l>een done 
 along the line of controlling this disease in the infected districts 
 either by State legislation, by county or parish regulations, or by the 
 combined action of cattle breeders over a large extent of country. 
 This probably has been due in a great measure to a lack of knowledge 
 or indifference on the part of legislators and farmers to the advan- 
 tage which may accrue from their combined efforts. It is with the 
 object of stimulating (hem and suggesting plans to eradicate the cat- 
 tle tick, and thereby to enable stock owners of the South to esi'ajH 1 
 the loss of millions of dollars annually sustained by them as a result 
 of its devastations, that this bulletin is issued. Especial pains will 
 be taken to make as clear as possible the absolutely proved facts re-
 
 <) BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 garding the disease, so that every cattle owner will IK' able to recog- 
 nize the malady and the tick which causes it, and to carry out 
 successfully measures for eliminating this tick as well as for immu- 
 nizing cattle brought into the infected area. 
 
 NAMF, AND SYNONYMS. 
 
 Of the long list of terms applied to this disease, none seems to fill 
 completely all the requirements of an ideal name. " Texas fever," 
 although the term most commonly in use in this country, is a very 
 misleading one, as it gives to the uninformed the impression that 
 the disease is confined to the State of Texas. Southern cattle fever 
 is especially inapplicable, as the disease is usually more virulent in 
 Northern cattle when once infection becomes manifest than in 
 Southern cattle. Probably the best name to apply to the disease, 
 since it can only be transmitted in nature by the tick ftooj>hilut< an- 
 nulatw, is that of tick fever. This designation, however, is com- 
 paratively little used, and, as the disease is generally recognized in 
 this country under the name of Texas fever, this term will be used 
 in the present work. Other synonyms besides those already men 
 tioned are red water, black water, distemper, acclimation fever, mur- 
 rain, dry murrain, yellow murrain, bloody murrain, Mexican fever, 
 Spanish fever, splenic (or splenetic) fever, protozoan cattle fever, 
 hemaglobinuria. tristeza. paludism of cattle, bovine periodic fever, 
 bovine piroplasmosis, and bovine malaria. 
 
 DEFINITION. 
 
 Texas fever is a specific infectious disease of the blood of cattle, 
 caused by the development and activity of minute animal parasites 
 (protozoa) which are conveyed to the affected animals by means of 
 the cattle tick Boophiliw annulatuft. After the microscopic pro- 
 tozoan is injected into the blood of a susceptible animal it attacks the. 
 red blood cells, causing their disintegration. The disease is charac- 
 terized by high fever, by destruction of red corpuscles, and the con- 
 sequent excretion of the coloring matter of the blood by the kidneys, 
 causing a reddish discoloration of the urine, by enlarged spleen, 
 engorged liver, thick, flaky bile, more or less jaundice, emaciation, 
 and death in from 10 per cent of the chronic to JK) per cent of the 
 acute cases. The peculiarity about this disease is that the animals 
 responsible for the spread of the malady are apparently healthy, al- 
 though containing the protozoa in their blood, while those that 
 become diseased do not. as a rule, convey the affection to others. In 
 the few instances where they do. it is not by contact, but indirectly 
 by means of the progeny of the ticks from these diseased animals. 
 Infection is not transmitted by the air, urine, saliva, manure, or by 
 anv other natural manner than bv cattle ticks.
 
 TEXAS FKVKR AND ITS PREVENTION. 7 
 
 HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 The place of origin of this disease is unknown, but it has certainly 
 existed for centuries in some countries of Europe, among which may 
 be mentioned southern France. Italy. Turkey, and along the Danube 
 River in Koumania. It is also prevalent in West Indies, Mexico, 
 Central America, South America, Australia, North Africa. East 
 Africa, South Africa, Ireland. Finland, southern Russia, China, 
 Japan, Java, Borneo, and the Philippine Islands. 
 
 It was probably introduced into the United States with the impor- 
 tations of cattle by the Spaniards during the early colonization of 
 Mexico and southern United States. 
 
 The disease caused continual losses year after year during the early 
 history of our country. In spite of this fact, it seems to have been 
 described first by Dr. J. Pease toward the close of the eighteenth cen- 
 
 !'!<;. 1. Itoimdary line of tin- district infected with Texas fever. 
 
 tury. At that time a very severe outbreak of the disease occurred in 
 Lancaster County. Pa., and Pease, after investigating the conditions, 
 claimed it to have been due directly to the shipment of some North 
 Carolina cattle into the State. 
 
 Experience soon showed that the invariable result following the 
 transportation of Southern cattle into the Northern States was the 
 death of all Northern cattle along the roads and on the pastures over 
 which the Southern cattle had traveled, although the latter animals 
 remained perfectly healthy. In the same way Northern cattle taken 
 South were almost invariably attacked with the malady. 
 
 In 18(>S Texas cattle shipped north into the States of Illinois and 
 Indiana earlv in the summer caused enormous losses, and cattle
 
 8 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 shipped from these States to the Eastern markets died during trans- 
 portation. These great losses prompted the study of the disease by 
 many scientific men. whose investigations soon established the great 
 danger of allowing Southern rattle to pass into the Northern States 
 during hot weather, and finally resulted in 1885 in the location of the 
 infected district and the establishment of the Texas fever quarantine 
 line in 185)1 by Dr. I). E. Salmon, which have been the most im- 
 portant steps yet taken toward controlling the great losses from the 
 disease. 
 
 Smith was the first (1889) to recognize and describe as protozoa 
 the intracorpuscular parasites which are the direct causative 
 agents of the disease, although Babes had previously diagnosed them 
 as bacteria (Hematococcus) for Starcovici. who found them in the 
 blood of Roumanian cattle in 1888. In 1889 and 1890 Kilborne, by 
 conclusive field experiments suggested by Salmon, proved the pres- 
 ence of the cattle tick to be essential in the transmission of the dis- 
 ease. It is of interest to note that this was the first experimental 
 proof furnished on the subject of diseases borne by insects, or diseases 
 that can be carried from one animal to another only by an inter- 
 mediary host. This mode of transmitting infections has since lx>- 
 come quite familiar to the public by the discovery that certain species 
 of mosquitoes spread malaria and yellow fever to man. 
 
 It was suggested by the experiments of the Bureau of Animal 
 Industry in 189-2 and 1898 that, through the production of a mild, 
 nonfatal attack of Texas fever in Northern cattle, a very consider- 
 able amount of protection is afforded against the disease when these 
 cattle are subsequently exposed to the infection on tick-infested pas- 
 tures. The methods advanced for producing such a mild, nonfatal 
 attack were (1) the artificial inoculation, either into a vein or under 
 the skm of susceptible animals during the fall or winter, of defibri- 
 nated blood from an immune cow; or ('2) the less certain way. con- 
 sisting of the exposure of the nonimmune animal to ticks by confining 
 the animal to an inclosed pasture after scattering ripe egg-laving 
 ticks over the grass. 
 
 From 1895 to 1897 additional experiments were conducted by the 
 Bureau with the object of further demonstrating the possibility of 
 immunizing cattle against Texas fever by the use of blood obtained 
 from Southern cattle: and exj>eriments with a similar object in 
 view were likewise 1 instigated and perfected al>out this time at the 
 experiment stations of Missouri. Texas. Mississippi, and Louisiana, 
 and by the Australian Government, with most excellent results. 
 Later experiments with the disease have lx>en performed principally 
 with the view of obtaining a satisfactory chemical solution in which 
 to dip tick-infested cattle for the purpose of destroying these para-
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 9 
 
 sites, and of developing some methods that may l>e easily carried out 
 for freeing fields, farms, and counties of the cattle tick. 
 
 CAUSK OF TIIK DISEASE. 
 
 The primary or direct cause of Texas fever is the microparasite 
 Piroplasma bigeminum, Ix'longing to the lowest form of animal life, 
 the protozoa. This minute parasite is found in the blood (PI. 3, 
 fig. 5) in every case of Texas fever; and by inoculating blood con- 
 taining it into susceptible cattle, the disease can be invariably trans- 
 mitted, thus proving its direct causative effect in the production of 
 the malady. After gaining the circulation the piroplasma under- 
 goes several stages of development which can be studied by examining 
 carefully prepared fresh preparations of the infected blood under the 
 microscope for several successive days. In the first stage the parasite 
 is inside the red blood cell near its margin and is nonmotile and pale, 
 making it difficult to distinguish in the unstained preparations. This 
 stage is principally seen in the chronic type of the disease in which 
 from 5 to 50 per cent of the red blood cells are invaded. This single 
 body later divides incompletely into two small roundish bodies 
 which are partially connected by a narrow intervening strand, and 
 this form may remain in the blood for several days at least. Some- 
 times four, five, or even six parasites may lx> observed in one blood cell. 
 In the next stage the minute double rounded bodies Income enlarged 
 and spindle-shaped. They probably remain attached, however, as 
 in stained preparations a minute delicate filament may frequently 
 be made out connecting them. The two bodies enlarge uniformly and 
 assume a pear-shaped appearance. It is this stage of the life cycle 
 which is seen in the acute form of the disease, and from one-half of 
 i to 2 per cent of the red cells are usually invaded rarely as many as 
 10 per cent. The parasites at this time occupy nearly one-fourth 
 of the body of the red blood cells and. as can lx> readily understood, 
 exert a detrimental influence upon them. Their periphery Incomes 
 shriveled or crumpled, and the blood cells finally break up. liberating 
 the piroplasma, which may be observed as free bodies in the circula- 
 tion most frequently in the kidneys. The stage of reproduction or 
 multiplication of this protozoa has never l>een observed in this lalwra- 
 tory. but that it does occur is proved by tht fact that inoculation of 
 a small quantity of virulent blood into susceptible animals will give 
 rise to the disease with myriads of parasites in the blood. Hunt, 
 of Queensland, states that reproduction occurs by the development of 
 the protozoa into crescentic or spheroidal Ixnlies which burst and lib- 
 erate the young forms which they contain. The natural path of 
 entrance of these protozoa, however, is by one channel only, namely, 
 through the bite of the cattle tick. A knowledge of the habits and life 
 101)70 No. 78 00 M
 
 10 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 history of the latter is extremely important in controlling the disease, 
 Ix'cause without this tick Texas fever wouldlx unknown. 
 
 LIFE HISTORY OF THE CATTLE TICK AXI) THE PART PLAYED BY IT IN 
 
 CING TEXAS FEVER. 
 
 Ill stating the interesting and important life history of this tick, 
 Ave will start at the point where the fully developed and fertilized 
 female, being engorged with blood and ready to lay her eggs, loosens 
 her hold on the lx>vine animal and drops to the ground. I'pon reach- 
 ing the ground she may lie quietly for several days Ix'fore depositing 
 her eggs, which may consume from four to eight days in summer and 
 two weeks or even longer in the fall. The nunilxn* of eggs laid by a 
 fully developed female varies from 1.500 to 3.000. while the immature 
 females also lay eggs, but in much smaller nunilxrs. After laying is 
 finished the female is small and shriveled up and, having fulfilled her 
 mission, soon dies (PI. 3, fig. 3). The eggs, which are light brown 
 and waxy in appearance, proceed to develop the larva*, or seed 
 ticks, the time required for which varies from thirteen days to six 
 weeks, depending on the conditions of temperature, moisture, soil. 
 etc. These eggs, however, are very tenacious of life, and under 
 unfavorable conditions may remain dormant for several months 
 from late fall to early spring. 
 
 The larva 1 , or seed ticks, are minute six-legged parasites of a 
 brownish waxy color, and about ^ of an inch in size (PI. 3. fig. 2). 
 They crawl quite actively about on the ground and among leaves, 
 bunching in large numbers upon grass blades, shrubs, weeds, and 
 fence posts, to await an opportunity for attachment to their passing 
 host. In case no cattle or horses are present, the parasitism is so per- 
 fect that no further development occurs, and death finally results. 
 It is known, however, that these larval forms can live for three or 
 four months on the ground in warm weath.M* independent of their 
 host, and from late September until Apr'l during an open winter. 
 When they find cattle, however, they cnn iip the legs and attach 
 themselves to the soft skin inside the thigi. ar.d Hanks, on the es- 
 cutcheon. along the Ix'lly and brisket, around the root of the tail, and 
 inside the forelegs (PI. 3. fig. 4). They obtain their nourishment 
 by drawing blood from the host, and can cause the fever at this stage, 
 although so small as scarcely to In- detected by the naked eye. After 
 being on the animal about one week the seed tick casts its covering 
 (molts) and appears as the eight-legged nymph stage of the parasite, 
 having added one pair of legs posteriorly. During the nymphal 
 stage the sexual organs develop, and at the second molting from the 
 nymphal to the adult stage the sexual organs are complete. The 
 male and female at this stage are about the same size, as the female
 
 TEXAS FKVKH AND ITS PKKVEXTJON. 11 
 
 does not lx;come very large until after she Incomes fertilized, which 
 occurs about two weeks after the six-legged seed tick reaches its host, 
 or shortly after the second molting (PI. 3, figs. 7 and 0). After in- 
 tercourse with the male the female slowly enlarges for six to twenty 
 days in summer, and then rapidly increases in size in the course of a 
 day or two before dropping off the animal. In fall and winter de- 
 velopment occurs more slowly, the tick not falling off for six weeks or 
 more. After reaching the ground the female soon commences to de- 
 posit eggs, thus completing the life cycle, which requires from 
 six to ten weeks in warm weather, or a much longer period during the 
 cold season. 
 
 Although young ticks are very active, neither they nor the adult 
 ticks are capable of crawling very far. but they may l>e transported 
 long distances by animals, by rains, by winds-, cattle cars, hides, and 
 on the clothing of man. Hence the constant danger that tick-free 
 pastures below the line may become infested with ticks at any time. 
 
 The tick causes more or less irritation of the skin at the point where 
 it attaches, and it has been suggested that it injects some poisonous 
 substance into its bites along with the Piroplaxnm bif/em'tnitm. which 
 reduces the vitality of the tissues and enables the protozoan to multi- 
 ply, and to get a start, so to speak. This is considered to IK? the case, 
 because it has frequently been experimentally attempted to reproduce 
 Texas fever by inoculating susceptible animals both into the vein and 
 under the skin with salt solution emulsions of ticks ground up in a 
 mortar, and also by feeding ticks, but uniformly without success. 
 However, it is probable that the protozoan passes a resting stage of its 
 life cycle in the body of the ticks, which would explain these failures. 
 
 The great length of time required for the appearance of the disease 1 
 in Northern cattle after the passage of tick-bearing cattle through the 
 country (thirteeen to ninety days) can easily IM> accounted for by the 
 life history of the tick. It is necessary before the disease appears for 
 the fully developed fertilized female to drop off the Southern cattle 
 and deposit the eggs, ami for them to hatch into the six-legged larvje. 
 These must then crawl up on the Northern cattle and insert the micro- 
 parasites they carry through the bites made in the skin in procuring 
 their nourishment. Texas fever follows. It will thus |H seen that 
 these females transmit the infection through their eggs to their 
 progeny, and the latter have the power to infect any sus<rptible 
 animal to which they attach. The disease therefore is not conveyed 
 by the same ticks which take up the infected blood, but only through 
 the generation descending from them. 
 
 The first experiment performed by Kilborne in proving the " tick 
 theory " consisted in placing four North Carolina tick-infested cattle 
 in a special inclosure. and at various times thereafter placing 13 sus-
 
 1*2 BUKKAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 eeptible animals in the same Hold; of these 10 died of the disease, 
 J recovered, and 1 was unaffected. In. the second experiment all 
 ticks were carefully picked by hand from 3 North Carolina cattle 
 which were placed in a second noninfected Held. Five susceptible 
 cattle were then placed in the field with these tick-free North Caro- 
 lina cattle and all remained perfectly healthy. Finally, in 1S<)0. 
 young: ticks, hatched and raised in the laboratory, were placed on 4 
 susceptible animals and produced Texas fever in every case, thereby 
 proving: that the tick was responsible for the disease. Other experi- 
 ments have l>een performed by feeding: virulent materials, by expos- 
 ing: cattle to the urine, manure, and nasal secretion of sick animals, 
 and to the blood and viscera of cattle dead of Texas fever, but always 
 with negative results, thus eliminating: these as the causative factors, 
 and furnishing; indirect evidence substantiating: the " tick theory."' 
 
 HOW TO DISTINGUISH IIAKMLKSS TICKS FOUND ON CATTLE FKOM TEXAS- 
 FEVER TICKS. 
 
 The Texas-fever tick, also called the cattle or cow tick, is continu- 
 ally confused with a number of other ticks occasionally found on 
 cattle, but, so far as concerns the transmission of Texas fever, en- 
 tirely harmless to them. It is this lack of identification and the 
 inability of many cattle owners to distinguish l>etween these various 
 ticks that have caused so many diverse opinions regarding the impor- 
 tant part played by the Texas-fever tick in transmitting: Texas fever. 
 In order to differentiate between the ticks that may be found on 
 cattle, a brief description of the upper surface of the maturing or 
 adult female of each is here given, together with illustrations of 
 this view of the ticks, natural sixe. and also magnified four diameters. 
 It was not thought necessary to furnish the stockman with a descrip- 
 tion of the male and immature female ticks at this time, inasmuch 
 as these ticks are much smaller in sixe. and therefore it is more diffi- 
 cult to recognize the various differences between these forms of the 
 different species by means of the naked eye. Moreover, it is usually 
 possible to secure a maturing: female in those instances where a diag- 
 nosis is desired, and at this stage of development ticks possess certain 
 characteristic features or markings which should cause then* to 
 !M> classified readily as harmful or harmless even by superficial 
 examination. Ticks said to IM> Texas- fever ticks have lx>en reported 
 by some stockmen as infesting susceptible cattle without producing 
 Texas fever, and by others mature ticks, presumed to be Texas- 
 fever ticks, have l>een found on uncultivated land and in woods 
 where cattle have never graxed. These statements have been fre- 
 quently advanced in order to refute the experiments already men- 
 tioned as. to the essential part played by the Texas-fever tick in caus-
 
 TEXAS FKVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 13 
 
 ing Texas fever. If fever ticks have Iwen found on nonimmune 
 cattle without producing Texas fever, the explanation is that these 
 particular ticks were probably noninfectious, which in rare cases 
 is seen, as described in section on *' Some objections to the role of 
 ticks as carriers of Texas fever, with explanations." On the other 
 hand, it has very frequently happened that an examination by one 
 familiar with the characteristics of ticks has shown that those found 
 on such cattle and supposed to have been fever ticks belong to another 
 species that is entirely harmless as regards transmitting Texas fever. 
 
 All the investigations regarding the life history of the Texas-fever 
 tick show that although the young, or larva-, may live for a long time 
 on the ground without a host, they can not mature except as parasites 
 on the bodies of cattle, or, less frequently, of horses, mules, and asses. 
 And statements claiming that the adult ticks of this species have been 
 observed to develop in localities where their absolutely necessary hosts 
 have never been are erroneous, resulting from the confusion caused by 
 the similarity in appearance of the cattle tick to the harmless ticks. 
 It therefore becomes merely a question of recognition, and the follow- 
 ing short descriptions, taken principally from Salmon & Stiles 's paper 
 on *" Cattle ticks," are furnished to assist in recognizing the fever tick 
 and in distinguishing it from others that may l>e observed on cattle. 
 
 There are eight species of ticks which have been found on cattle in 
 this country, but the first six mentioned are by far the most common. 
 They all show the same successive stages of development, namely. 
 eggs, larva 1 or seed ticks, nymphs, and adult male and female ticks. 
 Those parts of the adult female tick which will l>e descriU'd l>elow 
 are the head and adjacent shield which together have erroneously 
 been termed the head parts and the back of the body, since these 
 portions of the parasite furnish features which to the naked eye are 
 the most readily distinguished by cattle owners. Much stress can 
 not be laid upon the color of these various ticks, as it changes con- 
 siderably with age. In the adult stage they all have four pail's of 
 legs, varying in length and slenderness according to the sj>ecies, 
 but these differences are not sullicient to separate one species from 
 another. 
 
 (iniiulatiix < 7V.rr/.s' fcrrr. or cnttlr. tick). IMato 1. figure 1.1. shows 
 tin 1 natural size of an adult female Texas-fever tirk. whose characteristic 
 markings are better brought out in figure 1. magnified four times." This tick may 
 be readily distinguished from the other seven ticks by the small si 7.0 and the 
 color of the head and shield, the so-called head parts, whose lateral borders 
 are straighter and more parallel, as shown in figure 1b. These head parts are 
 short and relatively broad and dark reddish brown or chestnut brown in 
 
 " Tn each of Plates 1 and '2 there an 1 shown (It the natural-sized mature 
 female tick. (-) this tick magnified four times, and ('.}) the head and shield of 
 the same enlarged ten to fifteen times.
 
 14 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 color, appeal-in;: MS a convex plate <>n the median Hue at the fore end of the 
 tick. The Ixxly is oblong oval in slm]e and may reach i inch in length. The 
 color varies from a dull yellow to an olive brown ; often it is mottled with 
 irregular areas of yellow and brown or streaked with wavy lines of these 
 colors. Two grooves or indentations are seen running from the front to the 
 rear on the skin of the back, which liecome almost, if not entirely, effaced at 
 about the middle of the body. Another groove is seen letween these two grooves 
 in the posterior half of the ltody. These grooves are caused by the contraction 
 of the mnsoles of the lody and therefore vary considerably, entirely di sap] tear- 
 ing when the tick is full of blood. They are very distinct when the ticks have 
 Iteen removed from cattle several days. The four pairs of legs are brown, 
 moderately long, and very slender. This tick is found principally on cattle, 
 less frequently on horses, mules, and asses, and in one case it was found on a 
 deer. The Federal quarantine line indicates the northern boundary of the sec- 
 tion of the United States infested with fever ticks. 
 
 Ifndex ricimix (cantor-bean tick). The body of this tfck (IM. 1. tigs. '2 and lia) 
 resembles in shaj>e that of an eggplant, and it takes its name from its similarity 
 to the Itean of the castor-oil plant. It is lead-colored, with a variegated mixture 
 of yellowish red. brown, or gray. The Itody contains two anterior groove's that 
 slightly diverge from each other, and three posterior grooves, the middle one of 
 which is straight, while the other two are curved outward. The mature female 
 is from 1 to fa inch long and lias four pairs of dark-brown thin legs. The 
 bead and adjacent shield are a shiny dark brown or a chestnut brown, the latter 
 INtrtion lieing five-sided, like a jKMitagon (fig. lib), with lateral liorders prominent 
 and rear angle rounded. Two stout and well-develoiK.nl feelers (palpi) may be 
 seen extending outward on each side of the head. This tick has been collected 
 from sheep, cattle, goats, horses, deer, dogs, cats, foxes, rabbits, birds, man, and 
 a few other animals. It was one of the first ticks studied, and has a very wide 
 distribution in the United States. 
 
 Dcrmacentor rcticiilattix (net tick). The body of the adult female tick is 
 oblong oval. jj inch long, and of a deep brown or slate color (IM. 1. figs. 3 and 
 3a). It has four pairs of brown legs of moderate length. The skin of the 
 back and head is covered with fine ]>oints. or punctations. which almost dis- 
 appear at this stage. Besides the grooves that are located like those in the 
 cattle tick, there is a marginal groove extending around the liody just inside 
 the border. There are also eleven small indentations ( festoons i arranged 
 aliout the ]Msterior margin of the liody. These festoons and grooves become 
 shallow or effaced in the adult stage. The shield |>ortion of the head [tarts 
 has a silvery white metallic rust extending along the two sides and posterior 
 portion (fig. 3b ). It may have a rose or greenish tinge. The head is larger 
 than that of the cattle tick. The net tick has been found on man. rattle, 
 horses, sheep, and deer; and in this country it seems to lie most common in 
 the West, especially in California. Texas, and New Mexico. 
 
 Dcnuaccntor elect HX (American doy tick: nl*o called irood tick). This tick 
 ( IM. 1. figs. 4 and 4a) resembles the net tick (Itennacentor reticulatum so 
 closely that a band lens must be used to distinguish lietween them. However, 
 it can be readily known from the Texas-fever tick by the fact that the so-ralb-d 
 head parts are longer and broader (fig. 4b). Here there is also a yellowish 
 white rust in the |tosterior ]tortion which extends anteriorly along each side 
 as two bright, iridewent lines separated by a central brownish area. The 
 Itody is oblong oval in sha]M> and measures as much as ?, inch in length. 
 The skin of the back contains grooves like those found in cattle ticks, and. in 
 addition, another groove extending around just inside the margin, together 
 with eleven smaller grooves (festoons) on the posterior Itorder. These lines,
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 15 
 
 so distinct in the young female, become shallow at maturity. This tick has 
 been found on man, cattle, dogs, horses, rabbits, and panthers, and has been 
 collected in woods and on uncultivated lands in many sections of this country, 
 especially in eastern United States. 
 
 Amblytymimj, (niicriciniinn (Lone Ntar tick). As is indicated by figures 1 and 
 la of Plate 2. the body of this tick is oblong oval and of a yellowish gray r 
 brown color. The skin is rough and puckered unless the body is full of blood. 
 The reddish brown area ;it the front of the tick is contused of the head and 
 head shield. The latter extends backward a short distance to form a^ triangle, 
 in the ajex of which is a white or metallic yellow sjiot from which it derives 
 its name "Lone Star" (fig. lb). The mature female may reach i inch in 
 length and has four pairs of long thin legs. This tick has been found on cattle, 
 dogs, horses, sheep, ami man. and is very widely distributed in the United 
 States. 
 
 Oriiithodnnnf inf't/nini (car tick). As will be observed from figures '2. and 
 L'a, Plate '2, the shape of this tick is similar to that of the Ixnly of a violin. It 
 is nearly twice as long as broad, rounded at Inrth ends, narrower behind than 
 in front, and slightly constricted in the middle. In color it varies from gray 
 or brown to violet, and has two grooves behind the head, with a middle one lii 
 the posterior i>ortioii. On the skin of the back an* numerous minute spines, or 
 stiff hairs. The adult females are from i to j| inch in length, and have four 
 pairs of long stout legs. The anterior ]ortion of the tick is curved downward 
 to form a cover for the very small and short head, which can only l>e seen from 
 the under side of the tick. The feelers (palpi) and l>eak, however, stick out 
 from under the front part of the body and can l>e seen from alwve (fig. 2b). 
 This tick is found in the ears of cattle, horses, mules, asses, and other animals 
 in the South and West. 
 
 Argus miniatim (chicken tick). In shajn 1 and apjtearance this tick is like an 
 enlarged bedbug, and is of a uniform reddish brown color, with four pairs of 
 lighter colored legs. The skin is wrinkled and contains very short and minute 
 hairs. On the top as well as the lx>ttom of the tick are numerous bright pits 
 or cavities with raised borders (PI. -. figs. .'J and .'la). These vary in size, 
 are arranged in rows radiating from the center more or less uniformly, and are 
 usually symmetrical on each side. It is about g inch in size when mature. The 
 head is so completely covered by the body that it can not be seen from the back 
 (fig. .'{b). This tick has been observed on cattle once only, but is frequently 
 found on chickens, turkeys, and other birds in the South. 
 
 fj-odcx }n:r(if/(niiix (Kimti>caii <lo<i tick\. The body of this tick is oval in 
 shape :yid of an ashy color (PI. li. tigs. 4 and 4a). The grooves on the back 
 are united in an arch in front and diverge in the jiosterlor |Mirtion of the body. 
 The four pairs of legs are longer, thicker, and stronger than those of the cattle 
 tick. The head and shield are brown-mi in color and similar in shaie to those of 
 the castor-bean tick, but less oval and rather more lo/.enge-sha|ed. with more 
 acute lateral .ingles and narrower |Msterior angle (fig. 4b). The palpi, or feel- 
 ers, are longer and more prominent than in the cattle tick, but not so long as in 
 the castor-bean tick. This dog tick has IKHMI collected from dogs, cattle, sheep, 
 foxes, rabbits, squirrels, gophers, cats, birds, man. and other hosts in eastern 
 United States. 
 
 SOMK OBJECTIONS IX) TIIK ROI.E OF TICKS AS CAKKIKRS OF TF.XAS FF.YF.R. 
 
 WITH EXPLANATION'S. 
 
 7V.M.v fci'cr in antmtiln ap-pareiiily not infested irith tick*. One 
 objection that has been advanced against the fact that the cattle 
 tick is a carrier of Texas fever is that cattle are sometimes found to
 
 16 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 be suffering with the disease without showing the presence of the 
 ticks on their Inxlies. This condition, in case of Southern cattle, 
 may be explained on the hypothesis that the animal already had its 
 blood infected with the microparasites and under normal conditions 
 was immune from Texas fever; however, as a result of lowered 
 vitality caused by some other disease, or by exposure, privation, 
 injury, rough handling, etc., this immunity has become reduced and 
 finally overcome, and the parasite of Texas fever, dealing now with 
 an impoverished condition of the animal, succeeds in producing 
 Texas fever. Since the experiments of this Bureau show that the 
 blood of an immune animal may contain this microparasite for at 
 least thirteen years after removal from all sources of infection, it 
 would appear that this recurrence of disease in immune animals 
 placed under adverse conditions could occur at almost any period of 
 their lives, and may be termed a relapse. Thus it has IKHMI fre- 
 quently noted that Southern cattle, born and raised in infected pas- 
 tures but later freed of ticks and placed on noninfected soil, have 
 died of Texas fever when their health was so weakened as to permit 
 the parasites already infecting the blood to overcome the natural 
 resistance of the body, and produce the disease. 
 
 Again, in certain dipping experiments where the animals had IHHMI 
 roughly handled and unduly exposed after having been dipped in :i 
 severely irritating solution, a few deaths occurred from Texas fever 
 among cattle which were known previously to have l>een immune 
 tick-infested Southern animals but whose vitality had been reduced 
 through these extraordinary conditions. 
 
 On the other hand, when this disease is observed in Northern ani- 
 mals, the young seed ticks may be so small and so few in number as 
 to be passed readily by even a careful examination, yet numerous 
 enough to cause the affection. In such cases the proof will IM> found 
 either by prolonged search or in the fact that other animals subse- 
 quently take the disease with larger ticks apparent on the skin. 
 
 Southern cuttle infected irit/i ferer tick* mat/ die of Te,r((x ferer.- 
 When cows born and raised in the South die of Texas fever, it is 
 proof that such cattle never came in contact with infected cattle 
 ticks before, or that they were raised on tick-free pastures, or that 
 they l>elong to those cases of immune Southern cattle which lose 
 their immunity when subjected to adverse or extraordinary condi- 
 tions, such as those mentioned above. Otherwise they would have 
 been unsusceptible and would not have developed Texas fever. 
 Southern cattle, when raised and kept in districts free from cattle 
 ticks, fail to secure the natural immunity induced by gradual and 
 constant tick infestation from birth, and they are just as susceptible 
 to the disease as are Northern animals, ruder certain conditions, 
 as when living on horses, mules, etc., fever ticks lose their infectious-
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATK 1. 
 
 Fi;. 1. Mature female cattle tick ( X 4). 
 
 la. Mature female cattle tick (natural size), 
 
 lb. Head and shield of same (X 15). 
 
 2. Mature female castor-I>ean tick (X 4). 
 
 2a. Mature female castor-bean tick (natural size). 
 2b. Head and shield of same (X 15). 
 
 3. Mature female net tick (X 4). 
 
 3a. Mature female net tick (natural size). 
 3b. Head and shield of same ( X 15). 
 
 4. Mature female dog, or wood, tick ( X 4). 
 
 4a. Mature female dog, or wood, tick (natural size). 
 4b. Head and shield of same (X 15). 
 
 PLATE 2. 
 
 Fni. 1. Mature female Lone Star tick ( X 4). 
 
 la. Mature female Lone Star tick (natural size), 
 lb. Head and shield of same ( X 15). 
 
 2. Mature female ear tick ( X 4). 
 
 2a. Mature female ear tick (natural size). 
 
 2b. Head of same protruding from beneath (X 15). 
 
 3. Mature female chicken tick ( X 4). 
 
 3a. Mature female chicken tick (natural size). 
 3b. Upper portion of same, head invisible (X 10). 
 
 4. Mature female European dog tick ( X 4). 
 
 4a. Mature female European dog tick (natural size). 
 4b. Head and shield of same (X 15). 
 
 PLATE 3. 
 
 Fio. 1. Larva of cattle tick (X 25). 
 
 '2. l^arva of cattle tick (natural size). 
 
 :i. Mature female and eggs (natural size). 
 
 4. Hide showing cattle ticks (natural size). 
 
 o. Blood cells containing Texas fever protozoa (X 1,000), 
 
 6. Male cattle tick (X 15). 
 
 7. Male cattle tick (natural size). 
 
 8. Young female cattle tick ( X 15). 
 
 9. Young female cattle tick (natural size). 
 
 10. Various stages and colorations of cattle ticks.
 
 BULL. No. 78, B. A. I. 
 
 PLATE 1 
 
 
 Haiues.del. 
 
 VARIOUS TICKS THAT INFEST CATTLE.
 
 BULL. No. 78, B. A. I. 
 
 PLATE 2. 
 
 Haines,del. 
 
 VARIOUS TICKS THAT INFEST CATTLE. 
 
 . Hon I.Co..Lita-
 
 BULL. No. 78, B. A. I. 
 
 PLATE 3. 
 
 9-* 
 
 # * 
 
 , * f 
 
 Hames.del. A Hor co,iitho 
 
 TEXAS FEVER PROTOZOA AND THE TICKS WHICH TRANSMIT THEM.
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 17 
 
 ness, and when Southern cattle not previously infested with any but 
 these noninfected ticks come in contact with infected ticks they are 
 just as susceptible as cattle raised on tick-free pastures, as indicated 
 below. 
 
 Harmless ticks mistaken for Texas- fever ticks. A very prolific 
 cause for argument against the relation of ticks to Texas fever has 
 been the confusion which exists with reference to the various sj>ecies 
 of ticks observed on cattle. Some stockmen have claimed that ticks 
 will not cause Texas fever, because their experience has not been 
 with the Texas-fever ticks, but with the species of ticks described in 
 the preceding pages, which are harmless so far as their ability to 
 transmit Texas fever is concerned, or with the noninfected cattle 
 ticks mentioned below. A similar experience with these? harmless 
 licks upon woodland far removed from cattle and confusing them 
 with cattle ticks have led others to claim that it would be impossible 
 to eradicate the latter from infested pastures. However, their life 
 histories are not parallel, since the cattle ticks demand the blood of 
 cattle or equines in order to mature, while the ear, dog. Lone Star 
 ticks, and others do not. Thus, if the fever ticks can be separated 
 from these animals for a definite period they will die from lack of 
 a host. 
 
 Susceptible animals having ferer ticks without Texas fecer. In 
 rare cases it has been observed that certain Texas-fever ticks do not 
 contain the protozoan of Texas fever, and when such ticks fail to 
 produce disease in susceptible animals some persons have been led to 
 argue that none of this species will transmit the infection. Texas- 
 fever ticks without the virus of Texas fever in their bodies are termed 
 noninfected ticks. They may have lost their infectious property by 
 living on a nonsusceptible animal, such as a horse, mule, ass, or suck- 
 ing calf, as experiments have shown that a generation of infected ticks 
 on these animals will eliminate the infection from their bodies and, 
 when the next generation of seed ticks is placed on susceptible cat- 
 lie, no disease is produced. These ticks will become reinfected, how- 
 ever, if allowed to infest Southern cattle containing the Texas-*fever 
 protozoa in their blood. Noninfected cattle ticks are so very uncom- 
 mon that they are the exception, and since the vast majority are 
 dangerous it would be advisable to treat all cattle ticks as infected and 
 capable of transmitting Texas fever . 
 
 Fercr tirkx on other <n>iin<tlx in'f/nmf j>rt><li(rin</ f//.sr</.sr. The rea- 
 son that Texas-fever ticks can remain on animals other than cattle 
 without producing the disease is because these animals are not sus- 
 ceptible to Texas fever. Numerous experiments have shown that 
 only bovines contract Texas fever, so it is not difficult to understand 
 why other hosts can be infected with impunity. 
 1CKJ7J) No. TS 00 M y
 
 18 BURKAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 OTHER rX.IfRlOrS EFFECTS OF CATTLE TICKS. 
 
 Many cattle owners who have always IXUMI accustomed to see both 
 ticks and tieky cattle on their farms are unfortunately not inclined 
 to attach much importance to cattle ticks, and, as a rule, through 
 lack of appreciation of their damaging effects, placidly consider them 
 as of little consequence. That ticks may be detrimental to their hosts 
 in several ways has probably not suggested itself to these stockmen, 
 who are most vitally affected, and it therefore seems necessary to 
 emphasize the fact that, in addition to their relation to Texas fever, 
 they may also be injurious to cattle as external parasites. While 
 the power of transmitting Texas fever is undoubtedly the most dan- 
 gerous property possessed by the cattle tick and is the principal 
 causo for adopting stringent measures in securing its complete eradi- 
 cation, nevertheless there still remain other good reasons for the 
 accomplishment of this achievement. These secondary objections to 
 the presence of ticks on cattle consist in the physical harm they do 
 to the host aside from the production of the specific disease of 
 Texas fever. True, a few parasites may remain on cattle indefinitely 
 without causing any noticeable effect, but it is not uncommon to 
 notice bovine animals on pastures with their hides heavily infested 
 with these pests. In such cases it can readily be seen that the contin- 
 uous sucking of blood causes more or less impoverishment of the 
 circulation. The animal must therefore lx fed heavier in order to 
 meet the demands of the parasites in addition to the ordinary needs 
 of the host. If the ticks be removed from the body, the bites inflicted 
 are often distinguished by small inflamed or reddened areas some- 
 what swollen, with perforations of the skin which may allow the 
 entrance of various kinds of disease germs, and showing that more 
 or less irritation of the hide is produced by these parasites. This 
 condition, together with the loss of blood, frequently induces an irri- 
 table state -and evidences of uneasiness commonly known as "tick 
 worry." which results in the loss of energy and other derangements of 
 the animal's health. It may in some cases become so pronounced, 
 especially in hot weather, that the animal will lose flesh in spite of 
 good pasturing, thereby reducing the vitality and rendering it more 
 susceptible to the inroads of disease. Moreover, if the infestation of 
 ticks is not controlled, the cattle may be so reduced in condition that 
 growth is retarded, and. in the case of young animals, they may never 
 l>ecome fully developed, but remain thin. weak, and stunted a con- 
 dition that has been termed "tick poverty" and easily succumb to 
 other diseases as a result of lowered vitality. In milch cows this 
 debilitating influence of the numerous ticks is shown in a greatly 
 reduce* I milk supply. This should not apj)ear strange when it is con- 
 sidered that some animals harbor several thousand of these blood-
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 19 
 
 sucking parasites. If these parasites are crushed, it will be found 
 that their intestines are completely filled with a dark, thick mass of 
 blood abstracted from the animal host and containing nutriment that 
 should go to the formation of milk, flesh, and the laying on of fat. 
 In some rare cases the large number of bites over a limited area of 
 skin may be followed by infection with pus-producing organisms, 
 giving rise to small abscesses which ma}' terminate in ulcers. Tim 
 discharge from such sores, or in some cases the mere oozing of blood 
 serum through the incision made by the mouth parts of the ticks, 
 keeps the hair moist and matted together, and the laying and hatch- 
 ing of fly eggs in these areas give rise to infestation with destructive 
 maggots, causing ulcers and other complications that require medical 
 treatment. These statements regarding the secondary injurious 
 effects of cattle ticks also apply to those ticks which have l)een pre- 
 viously spoken of as harmless in so far as Texas fever is concerned, 
 and, in fact, to all external parasite's. Therefore, it is just as impor- 
 tant to eradicate the cattle ticks for reasons other than those associ- 
 ated with Texas fever as it is to exterminate lice, fleas, and other 
 vermin. Furthermore, cattle ticks, aside from the losses sustained 
 by their purely parasitic effects, are the greatest menace to the profit- 
 able raising and feeding of cattle in the South, because they are an 
 obstacle to cattle traffic between the infected and noninfected districts. 
 
 LOSS OCCASIONED BY CATTLK TICKS. 
 
 The economic aspect of the tick problem is unquestionably of the 
 greatest practical interest, since the fundamental importance of all the 
 other questions which surround it depends upon the actual money 
 value involved. It would therefore seem advisable to furnish a few 
 statistics showing the financial loss sustained by the country as a 
 result of the presence of this parasite. It is well known that those 
 animals, coining from an infected district and sold in the "southern 
 pens'' of northern stockyards, bring an average of one-fourth to one- 
 half a cent less per pound than the quoted market price. The handi- 
 cap that is placed on the southern cattle raiser as a result of this 
 decrease in value of his stock will average at tln> former figure at 
 least $1.50 per head, allowing an individual weight of (500 pounds for 
 nil classes of animals, so that the loss on the estimated 705,000 
 southern cattle, including stock, beef, and dairy animals, marketed 
 yearly under these conditions will sum up a loss of $1.0.") 7, 500 \w 
 annum. Carrying this estimate still further it will be found that this 
 decreased value reacts and fixes the valuation of all cattle which 
 remain in the infected territory, thereby reducing the assets of the 
 cattle industry of that section by this ratio per head for the four and 
 a half millions of cattle east of the Mississippi River and the eleven
 
 20 .BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 millions of cattle west of the Mississippi River: or. altogether, the 
 enormous shrinkage in value of $23,250,000 directly chargeable to the 
 cattle tick. This sum. however, should not be considered in determin- 
 ing the yearly devastation caused by the cattle tick, but rather as an 
 unnecessary reduction in the assets of the infected country. This last 
 loss does not include the decrease in flesh and lack of development of 
 southern cattle <x-casioned by the parasitic life of the ticks from with- 
 out and by the blood-destroying and enervating properties of the 
 protozoan parasites from within, an additional loss which is so very 
 great that a conservative estimate would place it equal to the loss 
 above mentioned, or $23,250,000. 
 
 The shrinkage in the milk production of cattle harboring 1 many 
 ticks will average 1 quart per day. and the loss occasioned thereby at 
 Jt cents per quart for the 875.000 ticky dairy cattle out of more than 
 4.000,000 dairy cattle below the quarantine line would amount to 
 $20.250 per day, or. counting three hundred milking days for each 
 cow to the year, $7,875.000 per annum. The damage resulting to the 
 southern purchaser of northern purebred or high-grade cattle is 
 another item of no small moment. About 10 per cent of all such cattle 
 taken South die of Texas fever even after they are immunized by 
 blood inoculations, and about 00 per cent of these cattle succumb to 
 Texas fever when not so treated. Since they are usually very expen- 
 sive animals and of a highly valued strain of blood, the loss in certain 
 cases is excessive and in others almost irreparable owing to the possi- 
 ble extinction of some particular type especially selected for the 
 improvement of the herd. Thus of the approximate 4,(>00 of such 
 cattle brought South each year, at least 4(50 die of Texas fever. The 
 loss entailed would naturally depend on the value of each animal, and 
 .since the prices paid for such well-bred cattle range from $100 to 
 $1.000 or even more, it can readily be conceived that the yearly loss 
 from this item alone varies from $40,000 upward. 
 
 Another instance where it is difficult to figure the injury done by 
 the ticks is in the case of death of nonimmune cattle in the tick-free 
 pastures of the South. Such animals are as susceptible to Texas 
 fever as nonimmune northern cattle, and. inasmuch as there are in 
 many State- only one out of every four farms infested with ticks, 
 the cattle on the remaining farms will in many cases contract Texas 
 fever when exposed to the fever tick. These losses can scarcely !>: 
 computed, as the death rate depends so much on the season of tin- 
 year when exposure occurs and on the age of the animal affected. 
 However, the deaths among such cattle are considerable, although 
 this fact is little appreciated or understood by many outside of the 
 infected area. Thus, if we consider one-tenth of the cattle below 
 the line as nonimmunes which contract the disease on exposure to 
 ticks, and if we figure on the death rate of 25 per cent of these
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 21 
 
 animals a conservative estimate the loss would amount to 387.500 
 animals, which, at an estimated value of $15 per head, would amount 
 to a loss of $5,812,500 per annum. And this sum, excessive as it 
 may seem, represents a smaller percentage of loss on the total valu- 
 ation of neat cattle than has been determined by several of the 
 infected States. 
 
 On rare occasions a small outbreak of Texas fever occurs north 
 of the quarantine line as a result of improperly disinfected cars, of 
 unscrupulous dealers breaking the quarantine regulations, or of 
 some accidental condition. Such damage, however, is slight, but 
 should be given consideration in summing up the loss occasioned 
 by the fever tick. 
 
 The advertisement which a breeder obtains and the sales which are 
 made by having his stock in the show ring are usually lost to the 
 southern cattle raiser who aspires to display his animals in the 
 North, as they are barred from most of these exhibitions. On the 
 other hand, the southern farmer is not given an opportunity to sec 
 and be stimulated by the fine specimens of northern cattle which 
 might be shown at southern stock exhibits, for the reason that the 
 danger of contracting Texas fever is too patent to warrant such 
 exposure. The expense incurred by the Government in enforcing 
 the regulations that apply to the quarantine line reaches about $42,000 
 per annum, while the cost to the various States for similar work 
 along their individual quarantine lines amounts to a very modest 
 sum in some States, but to large figures in others, aggregating alxnit 
 $23,000 yearly. 
 
 Another loss which is indirectly sustained by the southern cattle 
 industry through increased freight rates is the cost to the railroad 
 companies of cleaning and disinfecting the cars that carry southern 
 cattle and in providing separate pens for these animals at various 
 locations. This sum may be calculated at not less than $2J).()00 per 
 annum. 
 
 If all the above-mentioned losses are added it will be found that 
 the Texas-fever tick is responsible for about $40.000.000 of loss an- 
 nually to the people of the infected country, and that it also lowers 
 the assets of the South by an additional $23,250.000. These figures 
 are not given as accurate in any particular, but they are sufficiently 
 close to indicate that the loss to the quarantined section from the 
 cattle tick is something enormous and represents about 1<> per cent of 
 the total valuation of the cattle in that region. It must IH> admitted 
 that this is by far too great a barrier to the successful operation of any 
 business. Such a series of encumbrances as those recorded could be 
 carried by the cattle industry of no other section of the country but 
 the South, whose excellent pastures, rich soil, and salubrious climate 
 are the only reasons for its ability to overcome such obstacles in meet-
 
 22 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 ing the competition of the West. And it is the inherent capacity of 
 the South for greatly increasing its herds and enlarging its pasture 
 lands that makes the actual los* even secondary to the potential loss 
 due to restrictions necessitated by the presence of the cattle tick. 
 This potential loss may he described as the difference between the 
 value of the cattle industry of the South to-day and the extent to 
 which this industry would be increased if farmers and ranchmen 
 were assured that their lands and cattle would not become infested 
 with fever ticks. Could this assurance be given the beneficial effects 
 would extend over the entire country, because the market of the 
 northern breeder would thereby become greatly extended. 
 
 These appalling losses and annual sacrifices of the cattle raisers of 
 the infected district can be entirely effaced, and this at a small pro- 
 portionate cost: for. with enthusiastic stockmen, satisfactory State 
 legislation, sufficient money, and a trained corps of inspectors, the 
 cattle tick may be exterminated, and every dollar expended in this 
 work will be returned many fold during each succeeding year. 
 
 PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT OF DISEASE AFTER EXPOSURE TO TICKS. 
 
 The length of time elapsing between the exposure of susceptible 
 cattTe to the cattle tick and the apjx'arance of Texas fever among 
 them is dependent upon the climate and the development of the ticks 
 to which they are exposed. Thus, if any Northern animals are placed 
 \\\wu pastures, highways, or in pens, cars, etc., in summer immedi- 
 ately after the premises have been infested with ticks from Southern 
 cattle, Texas fever may occur in from thirty to sixty days, as the 
 females that drop from the Southern cattle must lay eggs and these 
 must hatch before the Northern animal becomes infested with ticks, 
 and thereby inoculated with the disease. In cool weather this period 
 may extend to ninety days, as it takes much longer for the eggs to 
 hatch. Where Northern animals are not exposed in an infested pas- 
 ture until the ticks which fell from the Southern cattle have laid eggs 
 and the larva', or seed ticks, are already present, the former cattle will 
 develop symptoms in thirteen to fifteen days in hot weather. Tims 
 under natural conditions the disease appears in thirteen to ninety 
 days after exposure. After the seed ticks lxcoine attached to the 
 animal the disease will appear in about ten days in summer, and after 
 a somewhat longer period in cooler weather. In fact, the disease may 
 occur before the ticks are large enough to be seen without a very care- 
 ful search. By artificially inoculating a cow under the skin or into a 
 vein with virulent blood the disease may IK- produced in three to ten 
 days. 
 
 SYMPTOMS. 
 
 The symptoms of Texas fever present two distinct types, depending 
 upon the time of year the disease makes its apj>earance and the sus-
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION? 23 
 
 ceptibility of the animals attacked. These types are spoken of as the 
 acute and chronic forms of the disease. The acute, fatal form is 
 seen when nonimmune Northern cattle and the susceptible Southern 
 animals raised on tick-free pastures are attacked in the hot summer 
 months. The milder, chronic form, usually nonfatal, occurs when 
 nonimmune cattle are affected in the late autumn and in the partially 
 immune cattle below the Texas- fever quarantine line at all seasons 
 of the year, the latter animals usually not being attacked by the acute 
 form of the disease. 
 
 Acute type. In this form of the disease the temperature rises 
 within twenty-four to forty-eight hours to 107 or 108 F., and the 
 animal rapidly shows signs of being affected with a severe malady. 
 It is depressed, leaves the herd, and lies down or stands off by itself 
 with head lowered, ears dropped, feet drawn together, and back 
 arched from the pain in the liver and kidneys. If the nature of the 
 disease is suspected, the rise of temperature may be ascertained by 
 the use of the thermometer or by merely placing the hand about the 
 root of the tail or between the thighs. The muzzle is dry, the appe- 
 tite lost, and rumination ceases. Constipation is always present 
 during the first stages of the disease, but it frequently gives place 
 later to diarrhea, and the manure is usually heavily stained with bile 
 and in rare cases may be mixed with blood. Accompanying the rise 
 of temperature, as in all other acute febrile diseases, there is an in- 
 crease in the rate of respiration and pulse beat. The former may 
 rise to from 50 to 90, while the latter varies from 90 to 1*20 per minute. 
 
 The changes which occur in both the urine and blood are extremely 
 important, but the urine will receive first consideration here, as it is 
 more readly examined by the layman than the blood. The pecul- 
 iarity of the urinary secretion is that it is blood-stained the so- 
 called hemaglobinurea from which symptom the disease has de- 
 rived its name of " red water." The protozoa in the circulation 
 break up the red corpuscles, liberating the substance hemaglobin. 
 which is the coloring matter of the blood. This substance U'ing 
 free in the blood plasma is excreted by the kidneys, giving the urine 
 its red color, which is so characteristic of Texas fever. This dis- 
 coloration of the urine is present in the majority of the acute cases, 
 but it is frequently wanting in the chronic form of the disease. The 
 color varies greatly from a mere pinkish tint to an almost black 
 color, depending on the rapidity of destruction of the red cells and 
 the excretion of the coloring matter through the kidneys into the 
 urine. There is also a small quantity of albumen in the urine of 
 the majority of cases. The comparative weight (specific gravity) of 
 the urine, which in the beginning stages is increased (1,0*28 to 1.040), 
 is later reduced to normal (1,010 to 1.020). 
 
 The blood also furnishes great assistance in making a diagnosis
 
 24 BUREAU OP ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 of suspected Texas fever, and the finding of the intraeorpuscular 
 parasite microscopically is conclusive evidence. This fluid, as it 
 oozes from a small incision in the skin, is pale and watery, indicative 
 of great reduction in the cellular element, and is readily seen to 
 differ markedly from the normal red blood of healthy animals. 
 Sometimes there is such a lack of blood in the vessels of the skin 
 that a very deep incision has to l>e made in order to obtain sufficient 
 blood for inspection. It is also at times noted that the power of 
 coagulability of the blood is so reduced that when it once starts to 
 flow it is only after a considerable time or by applying pressure 
 that the hemorrhage is stopped. In the majority of cases, however, 
 the tendency of the blood to clot is unaffected. 
 
 Cerebral symptoms are noticed in a certain percentage of cases 
 manifesting themselves in the form of staggering gait, disturbances 
 of vision, or delirium. There is in milch cows a reduction or a com- 
 plete stopping of the milk secretion. Abortion is also very common 
 in pregnant animals. Death usually occurs within three or four days, 
 and is generally preceded by a marked fall of body temperature to 
 normal or even subnormal a few hours before the fatal termination. 
 In nonfatal cases the temperature falls gradually after the crisis and 
 soon reaches the normal, but recovery is prolonged over weeks and 
 even months, as a great deal of time is required to regenerate the 
 greatly impoverished blood. 
 
 Chronic type. This form of the disease appears under natural 
 conditions usually in the late autumn and early winter. It can l>e 
 produced experimentally, however, by placing a few ticks on the skin 
 of a susceptible animal a fact of very great importance in the pro- 
 duction of immunity against the acute type among Northern cattle. 
 
 This form shows all the symptoms of the acute type, but in a milder 
 degree. The temperature usually remains about 103 and never 
 exceeds 105 F. There is loss of appetite, stoppage of rumination, 
 constipation, and albumen in the urine. An anemic condition of the 
 blood, as indicated by the pale and bloodless mucous membranes, is 
 also present, but hemaglobin is not usually excreted by the urine, 
 hence the red-water symptom is absent. There is also excessive loss 
 of flesh and. IK* fore the end of the attack, the affected animal is greatly 
 emaciated: although death rarely occurs the valuation of the animal 
 is much reduced. 
 
 Iti'ltipxex. Following recovery from an acute attack, when the red 
 blood corpuscles have apparently reached their normal number, there 
 has frequently Ix-en observed a relapse or recurrence of the disease in 
 the mild, chronic form, accompanying which there is a second period 
 of destruction of the red cells. This follows within three to six 
 weeks after the symptoms of the acute attack have subsided. For a 
 considerable time it was unknown whether this was a relapse of the
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 25 
 
 acute attack or due to reinfection from a second generation of ticks. 
 Smith and Kilborne, however, proved that it could occur as a relapse 
 without the presence of ticks, but it may also in some cases be caused 
 by a second extraneous infection. 
 
 APPEARANCE AFTER DEATH. 
 
 The postmortem examination should be made as soon as possible 
 after death, as the carcass of an animal dead of Texas fever under- 
 goes decomposition very rapidly. The skin should always l>e first 
 examined for the presence of the cattle tick, as the discovery of any 
 of the forms of this parasite on the skin of the escutcheon, thigh, or 
 belly leads at once to a suspicion of the presence of the disease. The 
 skin is usually normal in appearance, no visible alterations being 
 present except possibly the small swellings, minute hemorrhages, and 
 perforations from the bites of the ticks. Upon cutting into the hide 
 and skinning the carcass, a marked lack of blood in the bl<x>d vessels 
 of the skin and underlying tissues is observed. Occasionally there 
 may be noted a yellowish, jaundiced discoloration of these tissues. 
 The fatty tissues are also yellowish, and. instead of possessing the nor- 
 mal firm consistency, they are soft and oily. In very severe cases, 
 even the muscular system may have a jaundiced appearance. This 
 discoloration is due to the alteration of the bile-secreting function of 
 the liver, but is by no means present in all cases, being most constant 
 in the acute, rapidly fatal form of the disease. 
 
 Probably the most marked pathologic alterations in the disease 
 are found in the liver. This organ is very much enlarged and has 
 a yellowish, mahogany-brown color, due to the bile it contains. This 
 secretion becomes excessive, and minute plugs of congealed bile form 
 in the small bile ducts, thus stopping them and damming the bile 
 in the organ, which produces the yellowish color. This does not 
 occur evenly throughout the organ, and consequently it has a mottled 
 appearance. The gall bladder is usually distended with bile, and its 
 mucous membrane often contains numerous minute hemorrhages or 
 petechial spots. The bile is very thick, has the appearance of 
 "chewed grass," and contains numerous firm, irregular flakes. The 
 spleen also shows marked pathologic alterations. Normally this 
 organ weighs from H to *2\ pounds, but in cases of Texas fever it is 
 enormously enlarged, sometimes reaching four times its normal dimen- 
 sions. It is very dark at times, almost black in color, due to the 
 enormous accumulation of red corpuscles and hemaglobin within its 
 substance. Upon cutting into the spleen, or merely attempting to 
 pinch it up, the pulpy tissue will sometimes run out as a semifluid, 
 blackish mass, due to the In-eaking down of its structures and to the 
 excessive engorgement O f the organ.
 
 2(> BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 In death from the acute type of the disease the kidneys are usually 
 found to be very dark in color and congested, and, on cross section, 
 the normal markings an' indistinguishable. The blood vessels are 
 engorged with blood, and there is edematous infiltration of the sur- 
 rounding fatty tissue. In the older, more chronic cases, the kidneys 
 are paler and somewhat flabby. 
 
 The bladder usually .contains a varying quantity of urine, which 
 may or may not l>e blood-stained. The mucous membrane frequently 
 contains a few minute hemorrhages. 
 
 No characteristic lesions are found in the stomach and intestines. 
 There may be slight congestion of the third and fourth stomach, with 
 slight peeling off of the epithelial lining. The intestines usually con- 
 tain considerable bile and there is more or less edema of their walls. 
 Blood effusions may have occurred from the walls of the gut, espe- 
 cially in the rectum, producing a bloody discoloration of the feces. 
 The large intestine also frequently shows severe congestion. None of 
 these lesions, however, are constant, and the intestines furnish very 
 little positive information in establishing a diagnosis. The lungs are 
 rarely affected by the disease and. barring a slight edema, are found 
 to be in a healthy condition. 
 
 The membrane surrounding the heart (pericardium) frequently 
 ^hows pin-point hemorrhages, as does also the membrane on the inner 
 surface (endocardium) lining the walls of the heart cavities. The 
 blood is observed to lx> paler and the clots softer than normal. 
 
 COURSE AND TERM I NATION. 
 
 The course of the disease depends not only upon the time of the 
 year the infection occurs, but also on the age, strength, and suscepti- 
 bility of the animals attacked. When mature susceptible cattle con- 
 tract the disease in the hot summer months, death usually occurs 
 within a week generally three or four days after the first appear- 
 ance of symptoms, but it may follow inside of twenty-four hours. 
 
 In the late fall infections of nonimmune cattle and in the partially 
 immune Southern cattle, however, the course of the disease is much 
 more prolonged and covers a ]xriod of many weeks or even several 
 months. In this type the continuous fever causes exhaustion, while 
 at the same time the enormous destruction of red blood cells interferes 
 very materially with the nutrition of the patient. As a natural con- 
 sequence, emaciation Ix'comes marked, and this, together with the 
 poor appetite, leads to a fatal result in some cast's. In the majority 
 of cases, however, in spite of the severe alterations of the blood and 
 internal organs, they l>egin after several weeks to show improve- 
 ment. The teni|M>rature l>eeomos normal and there is a tendency 
 toward regeneration. This, however, requires weeks and months, the
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 27 
 
 animals in the meantime appearing weak and thin, having pale 
 mucous membranes. During the recuperative period the animal 
 should by no means be fed excessively, as numerous cases of fatal 
 gastro-intestinal disturbances have been reported from overfeeding. 
 The few animals which recover from the acute type of summer are 
 quite likely to have a relapse in the form of the chronic type in the 
 fall. 
 
 The mortality in adult susceptible cattle, as the alcove statements 
 readily show, may vary considerably, and ranges from i)0 per cent in 
 the months of July and August to less than .">() per cent in the late 
 autumn and early winter. The prognosis must therefore depend 
 on the time of year the outbreak occurs. In animals under months 
 of age, the course of the disease is usually short and the affection 
 seldom fatal, while the death rate among 1-year-old cattle during the 
 hot season is about 25 per cent, and less than 10 per cent in the fall 
 and winter. Between 1 and 2 years of age, the mortality is about 
 double that at 1 year. 
 
 INFECTIVE CHARACTER. 
 
 Texas fever belongs to the group of infectious diseases, and it is a 
 typical example of the few diseases of this class which do not com- 
 bine the property of being contagious. It is infectious because it is 
 due to the entrance and multiplication of a pathogenic microorganism 
 within the body, but sick animals, in the absence of ticks, can remain 
 in intimate association with healthy susceptible -animals indefinitely 
 without transmitting to them the disease, and hence it is not con- 
 tagious. Furthermore, a cow perfectly healthy in appearance may 
 contain in its blood the Texas fever protozoan, which, when trans- 
 mitted to susceptible cattle by the fever tick, will produce the disease. 
 It is certain that the piroplasma are present in varying numl>ers in 
 the manure and urine of infected animals, and yet susceptible animals 
 have never been known to become affected from grazing over tick-free 
 pastures soiled with excrement from the sick animals. 
 
 In 1890 the experiment was made by the Bureau of polluting a 
 pasture with the blood and spleen of an animal dead of Texas fever 
 and then allowing susceptible cattle to graze in the field for two 
 months, but the animals remained perfectly healthy. Moreover, as 
 has previously been stated, the feeding of ground-up ticks and viru- 
 lent blood failed to produce the disease, showing that the digestive 
 tract is proof against the infection. 
 
 The disease therefore can be transmitted by three known method* 
 only: (1) By the bite of the cattle tick: (2) by inoculating the 
 blood of sick animals into healthy animals: (X) by inoculating the 
 infected blood of apparently healthy Southern cattle into nonimmune 
 cattle.
 
 28 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 ANIMALS AFFECTED. 
 
 Numerous experiments have IHHMI made on various species of ani- 
 mals with highly virulent bhxul from cattle suffering with Texas 
 fever, hut the disease has heen produced in ho vines only. Among 
 those animals that have failed to develop the disease after inocula- 
 tion may l>e mentioned horses, asses, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, mice, 
 rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, chickens, and pigeons. All bovine animals 
 that have never IKHMI exposed to the disease are susceptible to Texas 
 fever, although sucking calves are so resistant as to be practically 
 immune. Adult cattle are the most susceptible, and. if attacked in 
 the summer months, usually die, while in the fall and winter they 
 more frequently recover. Calves under 8 months of age contract the 
 affection in a very mild form, as a result of which they become im- 
 mune from the disease. 
 
 DISEASES MISTAKEN FOR TEXAS FEVER. 
 
 There are two diseases of cattle which may lx> confounded with 
 Texas fever. The differential diagnosis of the latter and anthrax is 
 by far the more important, and it will therefore receive first consider- 
 ation. Although these two diseases are frequently mistaken one for 
 the other, there are numerous differences l>etween them which, if care- 
 fully considered and taken together, are usually sufficient to establish 
 a diagnosis. The following are the main features of Texas fever not 
 found in anthrax: Young ticks are usually found on the hide of the 
 affected animal: if occurring in the uninfected territory, the disease 
 can invariably IK> traced to the shipment of Southern cattle into the 
 country thirteen to ninety days previously: young sucking calves are 
 not affected: the mucous membranes become extremely pale and 
 jaundiced, while in anthrax they are very red and congested; cattle 
 only are attacked, while anthrax attacks all animals. Upon postmor- 
 tem examination in Texas fever the tissues under the skin are very 
 pale, while in anthrax they are congested, with the blood vessels stand- 
 ing out prominently. The blood is thin, pale, and watery, whereas in 
 anthrax it is tarry, black, and incoagulable. The bile is semisolid 
 and contains numerous hard flakes, while in anthrax it is fluid. The 
 >pleen is affected quite, similarly in Ixith diseases, but the liver in 
 Texas fever is enlarged, yellowish, and mottled from the plugging 
 of the bile ducts, whereas in anthrax the liver, although enlarged, is 
 very dark in color and is congested. 
 
 It can usually IK- differentiated from blackleg by the fact that the 
 great majority of victims of blackleg are l>ctween ( months and '2 
 years of age. There is usually a total absence of ticks on the hide in 
 the latter disease, while there are present superficial crackling swell-
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 29 
 
 ings which on being opened are found to contain gas hubbies with 
 the peculiar odor characteristic of the disease. There is also an ab- 
 sence of blood-stained urine. On postmortem examination in black- 
 leg the muscular tissues beneath the swollen areas are very dark and 
 soft, with bloody fluid, while the liver, spleen, and kidneys are appar- 
 ently unaffected. 
 
 TREATMENT. 
 
 Medical treatment of the sick has generally been unsatisfactory, 
 although in chronic cases and those occurring late in the fall lx?ne- 
 ficial results have followed. If the animal is constipated, a drench 
 containing 1 pound of Epsom salts dissolved in 1 quart of water 
 should be administered, followed by the sulphate of quinine in doses 
 of 30 to 90 grains, according to the size of the animal, four times a 
 day until the system is well saturated with it. Tincture of digitalis 
 ounce, and whisky or alcohol 2 ounces, may l>e combined with the 
 quinine, according to indications of individual cases. An iron tonic 
 containing reduced iron 2 ounces, powdered gentian 4 ounces, pow- 
 dered mix vomica 2 ounces, powdered rhubarb 2 ounces, and potas- 
 sium nitrate (> ounces will be found IxMieficial in the convalescent 
 stage when the fever has run its course. This tonic should be given 
 in heaping tablespoonful doses three times a day in the food. Good 
 nursing is essential in treating these cases. The animal should l>e 
 given a nutritious laxative diet, with plenty of clean and cool drink- 
 ing water and allowed to rest in a quiet place. 
 
 If the stable or pasture is infested with ticks, the animal should 
 be placed in a tick-free inclosure. to prevent additional infestation 
 with these parasites and the introduction of fresh infection into the 
 blood. It is advisable, not only before but also during treatment, to 
 remove from the sick cattle all ticks that can be seen, as they keep 
 weakening the animal by withdrawing a considerable quantity of 
 blood, and thereby retard recovery. 
 
 PREVENTION. 
 
 It is generally accepted that if Southern cattle are entirely free 
 from that species of tick known as Hoo^h'tlux ntniiiliitiix, they can 
 be allowed to mingle with the most susceptible animals without dan- 
 ger. Furthermore, it has been learned from the study of the life his- 
 tory of the cattle tick and from the fact that this tick infests pastures 
 only transiently, never permanently, and will not mature except 
 upon cattle or equines, that its extermination is possible, and that 
 the disease it causes may be prevented. The various methods with 
 these results in view should be directed toward the destruction of 
 ticks on cattle as well as their eradication from the pastures.
 
 30 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 HOW TO FREE CATTLE OK TICKS. 
 
 Among the most important measures to be adopted in eradicating 
 these parasites from cattle in the infested districts may lx> mentioned: 
 (1) Picking or brushing them off: (*J) smearing or spraying the 
 animals with a disinfecting solution, and (3) dipping the " ticky r ' 
 animals in a vat containing a solution capable of killing the ticks 
 without injury to the cattle. 
 
 The systematic application of one or more of these methods, to- 
 gether with appropriate measures for eradicating or destroying the 
 cattle ticks upon pastures, has been successfully adopted in certain 
 sections, and has thus diminished the area of the infested district. 
 
 Pickiny or bntxhhiy tick a off cuttle. Where the herd is small a 
 very effective but laborious method is to pick off these parasites by 
 hand or to scrape them off with a dull knife or a currycomb. This 
 should l>e done at least three times a week in order to find all the 
 adults before they mature and fall off, as by this system the smaller 
 ticks which at first escaped detection will be -found before they are 
 fully developed. After removing the ticks they should be destroyed, 
 preferably by burning. Care should be taken to go over all parts 
 of the animal frequented by the ticks, especially under the belly, 
 it round the tail and udder, and inside the legs. After the ticks are 
 picked or brushed off. the cattle should not be neglected, but should 
 be carefully examined later for the presence of ticks which have been 
 picked up in the meantime. If this work is thoroughly performed 
 and no ticks are allowed to fall off and lay eggs from June 1 to the 
 end of November, the cattle will 'be free of ticks, and the pastures 
 will have had an opportunity of becoming cleaned. 
 
 Smearing or spraying cattle with a disinfecting solution. Greasing 
 the legs and sides of cattle with cotton-seed oil, fish oil, or lieaumont 
 crude petroleum will assist in preventing the ticks from crawling up 
 on the body. In small herds, smearing the cattle with a mixture of 1 
 gallon of kerosene, 1 gallon of cotton-seed oil, and 1 pound of sulphur, 
 (>] with a mixture composed of equal parts of cotton-seed oil and 
 crude petroleum, or with Beaumont crude oil alone, has proxed efli- 
 cacious when applied to the skin two or three times weekly during 
 the tick season. For this purpose sponges, syringes, brushes, mops, 
 or brooms may lx used. This method not only kills the older ticks 
 on the cattle by mechanically plugging up their breathing pores but 
 also makes the legs so slippery that the seed ticks are unable to get a 
 foothold in order to crawl up on the cattle. Where a large number 
 of animals are to l>e treated, but not sufficient to make it advisable to 
 construct a dipping vat, spraying the infested animals has given very 
 favorable results. The animals should be placed in a chute or a stall, 
 or tied to a tree, and then sprayed with Beaumont oil or a ."> per cent 
 solution of any of the standard coal-tar dips. The solution may 1x3
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 31 
 
 applied by means of a force pump, such as is used by orchardists to 
 spray fruit trees, or by placing the solution in a barrel upon a wagon 
 or on a platform above the animals and allowing the fluid to gravi- 
 tate through a hose, to the end of which is attached an ordinary 
 sprinkling nozzle. The solution is then allowed to flow over the skin 
 of the animal, especially upon the legs and under portions of the 
 body. If the cattle are on tick-infested pastures, this treatment 
 either smearing or spraying must be continued through the whole 
 season, and if thoroughly done it will leave the fields free from ticks 
 the following year. 
 
 Dlpp'mg in a fat. Many efforts have been made to discover a 
 practical method for dipping cattle to destroy ticks without injury to 
 the cattle, and the Bureau has experimented for years with this object 
 in view. Numerous kinds of dips have been used and many failures 
 have been recorded, but apparently a successful one has been found in 
 the crude oil so-called Beaumont oil obtained from certain Texas 
 wells. This oil has now been used on a rather large scale, and it has 
 been very successful in killing ticks without at the same time mate- 
 rially affecting the health of the cattle when the proper precautions 
 have been observed. In fact, it is distinctly superior to any of the other 
 dips that have been tested. In these experiments it was found that a 
 light oil heavily charged with sulphur is the most desirable for 
 dipping cattle, as the heavy oils injure the animals dipped in them. 
 An oil with 40 per cent of its bulk capable of boiling between -200 
 and 300 C., having a specific gravity between 2i and 244 Beaume, 
 and containing 1) to li per cent of sulphur is most desirable, and 
 these requirements should be stipulated before purchase. In a recent 
 dipping of 57,000 head of cattle on the Kansas and Osage Indian 
 reservations the results were very highly satisfactory, both as regards 
 the eradication of the cattle tick and the after results of the dipping, 
 since the loss from all causes was less than 0.7."> per cent. This loss 
 represented in dollars and cents would amount to a very small portion 
 (about one-twelfth) of the loss incurred by the sale of these animals 
 as " ticky " cattle in the stock yards of the North. Other cattle 
 dipped in the same oil. but under conditions that can not be con- 
 sidered parallel, suffered more severely. In order to obtain the best 
 results, the animals, after dipping, should not be unduly exposed to 
 the hot sun nor driven any considerable distance, but should receive 
 plenty of food and good water. They should be allowed to stand 
 for four or more days after dipping and prior to shipment. Dip- 
 ping should not be attempted until after they shall have shed their 
 winter coats, as a large percentage of all cattle dipped before the 
 heavy coat is lost suffer from a severe irritation of the skin. The 
 method usually adopted in dipping cattle is to construct a narrow 
 swimming tank with a chute at one end for the entrance of the
 
 32 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 cattle and a sloping exit at the other end where the cattle emerge 
 after getting a uniform coating of oil in passing through the vat. A 
 drip chute, or floor, is connected with the exit where the excess of oil 
 is allowed to drip off the animals and to drain into the vat. Plans 
 and specifications for installing a dipping plant suitable for either 
 small farms or large ranges are published in Farmers' Bulletin No. 
 152, which may be obtained from this Department. It is relatively 
 more exjxMisive to dip cattle in tin* South, where the farms and plan- 
 tations contain a small numl>er of cattle, than in the range country of 
 the Southwest, where this method of eradicating ticks becomes not 
 only plausible and practicable, but also economical. When cattle 
 have been properly dipped in Beaumont crude petroleum or any other 
 approved petroleum under the supervision of a veterinary inspector 
 and by him found free of infection, they may lx> shipped to any point 
 above the quarantine line, subject only to such restrictions as may l>e 
 imposed at the point of destination. Such cattle must be shipped in 
 clean, disinfected cars, and must not be driven through the quarantined 
 area or l>e unloaded therein, except at those points designated by the 
 Secretary of Agriculture. It is earnestly recommended that such 
 shipments shall not occur earlier than four to eight days after the 
 dipping is performed. 
 
 By the "soiling* method. This method of freeing cattle of ticks 
 was suggested by Curtice. It is based upon a knowledge of the life 
 history of these parasites. The time required for the female tick to 
 lay eggs and the latter to hatch in other words, the time spent on 
 the ground is rarely less than three weeks, and the period required 
 by the seed ticks to molt and mature or the time spent on the cattle- 
 is usually from twenty to forty-five days. When cattle infested with 
 ticks are to be cleaned for any reason as, for instance, before being 
 placed on noninfested pastures it is recommended that the cattle 
 be kept in a small tick-free inclosure for three weeks, when many 
 of the ticks will have fallen off. They should then be removed and 
 placed in a similar paddock for another three weeks. At this lime 
 the cattle should l>e examined, and if found free from ticks they may 
 be placed in the noninfested pasture at once. On the other hand if 
 any ticks are observed the cattle should be placed in a third pen for 
 two weeks more. By this time even the youngest ticks that were on 
 the cattle at the start will have matured and dropped off: and as 
 the animals are removed from each pen In 1 fore they could possibly 
 become reinfested with the seed ticks that hatch from the eggs of 
 the females that fell off. they are now tick free. The same pens can 
 not be used repeatedly for this purpose without thorough disinfection, 
 as they Ijecome infested with young ticks, which will at once attack 
 cattle if given an opportunity to do so. "are should be taken that 
 hay fed the animals in these pens is from noninfested fields.
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 33 
 
 HO\V TO FREE PASTURES OK TICKS. 
 
 How to rid pastures of ticks without destroying the vegetation on 
 them was for a long time a problem. While this may be impossible 
 on large ranches, it has been successfully accomplished on small 
 farms by systematic efforts based upon a knowledge of the life his- 
 tory and the habits of the cattle ticks. The most satisfactory as well 
 as the most practicable methods have IXHMI found to IKJ as follows: 
 i By excluding cattle for <t definite fx'nod. The removal of animals 
 from an infested pasture for a stated period will cause all ticks 
 present therein to starve and the pasture will thus l>ecome tick-free. 
 One method of accomplishing this result is to divide the pasture into 
 two parts by a double line of fence. This fence should lx> Ixiard- 
 tight at the bottom to prevent ticks from crawling out, and there 
 should be a 10-foot space between the two lines so that the ticks 
 would be unable to crawl across to the opposite pasture if they should 
 perchance get out. One of these pastures is then kept free from 
 cattle, horses, mules, and asses from spring to late fall, or, better, 
 until January. By this time it will be free of ticks and ready for 
 tick-free cattle that have been cleaned by any of the methods al>ove 
 described; then the other pasture is abandoned for the same period 
 of time. 
 
 Butler states that the pasture may be kept free of ticky animals for 
 a shorter period with equally beneficial results, and recommends the 
 following method : 
 
 The tick-infested cattle should be removed from their pasture on 
 September 1, cleaned of ticks by any of the methods previously men- 
 tioned, and placed in a cultivated field or pasture where no ticky ani- 
 mals have been for at least six months and where they can not come 
 in contact with ticky animals or ticky soil. The original pasture 
 should not be restocked until the following spring (April), at which 
 time all the eggs laid there lxfore September 1 will have hatched, 
 the seed ticks will have starved, and the pasture will be free of ticks. 
 It may then be used for cattle that have no ticks upon them. In 
 case the cattle are not free of ticks when placed in the cultivated field 
 or noninfested pasture on September 1. they will infect this field and 
 will carry ticks to the original pasture if placed there in the spring. 
 
 /?// ciiltirut'toH. Another method of destroying ticks on pastures 
 is to cultivate the soil for a year without permitting any ticky cattle, 
 horses, or mules on the ground during this period. After this treat- 
 ment the field will be without any Texas-fever ticks and may be re- 
 stocked with cattle not infested with these parasites. 
 
 By burning off the yraxx. Pastures that are too large to lx? dis- 
 infected by the above measures or those grazing lands that are open
 
 34 
 
 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
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 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 35 
 
 and can not be inclosed, or randies where a division of the pasture is 
 impracticable, may be freed from ticks by burning them off in the 
 spring or fall and then keeping tick-infested animals from the land. 
 It is advisable to burn off the grass in the spring when practicable, 
 as this permits the pasture to recover quickly and to supply feed in 
 several weeks. 
 
 HOW TO FREE CATTLE AM) I'ASTfKKS OK TICKS AT THE SAME TIME. 
 
 By the ^'feed-lot" nmthod. -The " feed -lot " method has l>een re- 
 cently recommended by Morgan after conducting field e.\|M'riments 
 in Louisiana, and has for its object the ridding at the same time of 
 pastures and cattle of the fever tick. This plan, like the "soiling" 
 method, suggested by Curtice, is based upon the length of time the 
 tick lives upon cattle and the period required for the eggs to l>e laid 
 and hatched and the seed ticks to attach themselves to their host. 
 For carrying out this idea take a field which has lwen sown to corn, 
 millet, sorghum, or other forage and fence off three lots within such 
 a field, in one of which the ticky cattle are placed on June 1 by 
 removal from their customary pasture." (See fig. 2.) In the first 
 feed lot the greater number of ticks drop off and lay eggs. After an 
 interval of twenty days and before these eggs have had time to 
 hatch, the cattle are moved to the second inclosure. where they are 
 kept another twenty days, when they will in many instances l>e free 
 of ticks and can be turned into the forage field. However, in case 
 ticks are still present, the cattle should be placed in a third paddock 
 for fifteen days longer. All the ticks that were on the animals when 
 placed in the feed lots will have dropped off now. and. as the cattle 
 leave each feed lot before they can become reinfested by the seed ticks 
 which hatch from the eggs of the ticks that fall off, they will l>e clean 
 and safe. These tick-free cattle are then pastured in the sorghum, 
 corn, or millet field containing the feed lots and the latter are plowed 
 immediately after the cattle are taken out. their edges are sprayed 
 with Beaumont oil. petroleum, or other disinfectant substances, and 
 the soil is cultivated. The cattle are kept in the forage field until 
 November 15, or even later, when ;ill the ticks on the regular pasture 
 will have died of starvation from the exclusion of cattle since June 1.. 
 and the tick-free animals can then l>e replaced on this tick-free pas- 
 ture. In adopting this method it is essential that the feed lots lx- 
 inclosed by a fence which is board-tight along the ground, and that 
 this fence be watched carefully and disinfected occasionally to pre- 
 vent the ticks from getting into the forage field: a single furrow 
 could be thrown up on both sides of the fence for the same purpose. 
 
 From our experience the two lots recommended by Morgan would not l>e 
 sufficient under all conditions.
 
 #0* BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 These feed lots should lx> situated along the edge of the field in order 
 that the cattle in changing from one lot to the other may pass, as 
 directly as possible, through a portion of an adjoining cultivated or 
 tick-free field, so that if the ticks fall off during this drive they will 
 not infest the forage field, and later the cattle when pastured 
 therein. The cattle should lx> fed on the annual crops while in these 
 lots, but never upon crops obtained from infested pastures, as such 
 food may contain seed ticks. Water may l>e supplied by piping 
 from a well, spring, or creek, by carting it to the feed lots in barrels, 
 or by placing the fence so as to include a spring or portion of a 
 creek, provided the latter does not flow through an infected pasture 
 a short distance above. 
 
 //// jMMfui'e rotation. A very satisfactory method for freeing cattle 
 as well as pastures of the cattle tick is by pasture rotation, which com- 
 bines the suggestions of Curtice, Butler, and Morgan. It is based 
 upon the knowledge that by severing the relation of the fever ticks 
 and the animals upon which they develop these ticks will perish. To 
 adopt this plan first divide the infected pasture into two parts, which 
 is best accomplished by a double line of fence with a 10-foot space be 
 tween the lines to prevent ticks crossing from one pasture to another 
 (fig. 3). In order to observe all possible precautions, this fence 
 should have either a furrow thrown up against it or a board or 
 rail placed tightly along the bottom to help keep the ticks within. 
 All animals that carry the cattle tick are excluded from the first half 
 of the pasture, which may be termed pasture No. 1, from June 1 
 until November 10, at which time all the ticks that were there will 
 have perished from want of a host and the field will be ready for re- 
 ceiving tick-free cattle. The ticky cattle, on l>eing removed from 
 pasture No. 1 on June 1, are placed in the other half of the original 
 pasture, which may be called pasture No. 2. where they are kept from 
 June 1 to September 10. They may now IK' partly cleaned of ticks 
 by placing them at the latter date (Septemlxr 10) in a cultivated 
 field for instance, a rye or vetch or wheat and vetch field and by 
 keeping them therein for twenty days, when a large numl>er of ticks 
 will have fallen off. The partly cleaned cattle may then be removed 
 on September 30 to a field sown to corn and sorghum, corn and cow- 
 peas, or a combination of corn, sorghum, and cow peas, or- other 
 forage crops. 
 
 In this field most of the remaining ticks, if not all of them, will 
 have dropped from the animals within twenty days, but in a few in- 
 stances the cattle may still l>e infested, so the animals should l>e moved 
 on October '20 to a cotton field in which rajx 1 or crimson clover had 
 U>en sown at the last cultivation for the purpose of furnishing food 
 for the cattle while there. The crops should have IXHMI gathered from
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ~, 
 
 I? 
 
 
 ! * 8 
 
 ' ^ ^r 
 
 ;| I 
 I 
 
 *3 ?
 
 38 Bl'KKAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 all these Holds lief ore turning in the cattle. Here they are kept for 
 another twenty days (to November 10), not liecause they would not 
 lie free of ticks at an earlier date, but on account of the desire to 
 keep cattle away from pasture No. 1 until Novemlier 10. On this 
 date these clean cattle are returned to pasture No. 1. which 
 will now be tick-free as a result of the exclusion of animals 
 since June 1. These- cattle should be kept in this pasture until 
 May, by which time the ticks in pasture No. "2 will have 
 starved, owing to the absence of animals therefrom since Sep- 
 temlier 10. Both the cattle and pastures will now IM tick-free and 
 the double line of fence Ix'tween the two fields can IK- removed 
 and the original pasture restored. This plan, as represented by the 
 diagram, is merely a suggestion of arrangement and may easily be 
 varied with regard to the selection of crops and the location of pas- 
 tures to suit the demands of individual farms. To prevent ticks 
 from crawling under either of the fences l>etween fields ITT and IV 
 and fields IV and V, it is necessary to have a board or rail placed 
 tightly on the ground along these lines of fence, or to throw up 
 a single furrow along both sides of the fences. To avoid the danger 
 of infestation from the outside, care should lie taken to feed the 
 animals, in those cases where the pastures or fields are overstocked, 
 on hay cut from tick-free fields, and to keep out work oxen, mules, 
 and horses that may harbor fever ticks, thus preventing reinfesta- 
 tion of the pasture. When the cultivated fields are on a slope it 
 is advisable to use the lowest field first, in order that the ticks 
 dropped within may not be washed by drainage upon the adjoin- 
 ing fields which are later to hold the cattle. For the same reason, 
 where a stream runs through the fields upon which the cattle are to 
 be placed, the field farthest removed from the head water should 
 be used first. Where an endeavor is made to rid a farm of ticks. 
 it is essential that the work animals (oxen, mules, and horses) used 
 in cultivating the fields be curried to keep off the ticks and prevent 
 the latter from Ix'ing carried into these fields. Cats should also be 
 kept from the pastures and fields: for. although they do not harbor 
 the mature ticks, seed ticks have been found on them. and. while 
 these seed ticks remain only for a short period, this time may IM 
 sufficient to allow them to lie carried into the disinfected pastures, 
 where they may fall off and reinfest the soil. If a farm or planta- 
 tion consists of a pasture and but one field under cultivation, the 
 alxive plan can be made applicable by fencing off three inclosures in 
 the latter and by rotating the cattle in them every twenty days in 
 the manner just described. The same precautions should lie observed 
 in changing the cattle from one lot to another and in preventing ticks 
 from getting into the cultivated field, as are mentioned above.
 
 TEXAS FKVKK AND ITS I'KKVKNTION. 39 
 
 JMMl AI/ATION OK SI SCKITIItl.K CATTI.K. 
 
 By blood inoculation. It is often desirable to ship well-bred cat- 
 tle into infested districts, that they may he used to improve the 
 quality of the native cattle already there. Previous to the discov- 
 ery of the cause of Texas fever, it was found to he wellnigh impos- 
 sible to introduce purebred cattle from the North into any of the 
 infected regions without suffering great loss sometimes as high 
 as 90 per cent within a few months of their arrival at their South- 
 ern destination. At first it was thought that the fatalities were due 
 to climatic changes, but later the discovery was made that Texas 
 fever was causing these numerous deaths. 
 
 It has now been found practicable to immunize this class of cattle 
 so perfectly that the losses which follow their transportation to a 
 tick-infested region are reduced to a minimum. Young animals six 
 to fifteen months old should, so far as possible, be selected for this 
 purpose, as they are more readily immunized than adults, are more 
 .easily handled, and the dangers which may arise from pregnancy 
 while undergoing the immunizing treatment are thus avoided. 
 
 Immunity in these cattle is obtained by introducing the micro- 
 parasite of the blood into their systems. It may Ix* done by direct 
 artificial inoculation or by placing virulent young ticks upon the 
 animals and allowing them to perform the inoculation in the natural 
 manner. The subcutaneous injection of a small amount of defibri- 
 nated virulent blood has been found, by means of prolonged ex|M>ri- 
 iiient, the preferable method, as the number of microorganisms intro- 
 duced can be more accurately gauged from the syringe than by 
 allowing the infection to be produced by bites of ticks. Two or 
 three inoculations, if repeated at proper intervals, are accomplished 
 with greater safety to the animal than would be possible by means 
 of a single inoculation. The amount first injected should l>e small 
 and then gradually increased in the succeeding treatments. 
 
 The inoculation always results in a more or less serious attack of 
 Texas fever. Besides having a fever, there is great diminution of 
 red blood corpuscles, and in about tt per cent of the eases a fatal termi- 
 nation; but the proportion of deaths resulting from the inoculation is 
 small when compared with the fatalities among untreated animals 
 taken into infested districts. To this number should IH> added those 
 animals (less than 7 per cent) that do not receive sufficient immunity 
 by this method and which succumb when exposed to infested pastures. 
 Combining these failures it will be seen that by this method of im- 
 munization, instead of a loss of 5)0 per cent among breeding stock 
 taken South more than 00 per cent can be saved. The animals should 
 be carefully nursed through the attack and their symptoms treated 
 as indicated on page 20,
 
 40 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 Immunizing inoculations are now being made by the veterinarians 
 r>f most of the agricultural experiment stations of the Southern States 
 without cost for the services rendered, a charge lxing made merely 
 for the actual value of food consumed and attendants' wages. These 
 veterinarians have also issued station bulletins which deserilx' fully 
 the necessary steps to be taken in securing the blood and injecting it 
 into the animals to be immunized, so that the stock owner can follow 
 the instructions with prospects of getting good results. 
 
 This operation is not a difficult one, and excellent results will follow 
 where absolute cleanliness and ordinary care have l)een used, but 
 undoubtedly the lxst results will lx> obtained by those who have 
 thoroughly familiarized themselves with the nature of the disease 
 and are experienced in extracting blood from animals. Two methods 
 are in use and will be described separately. One consists in drawing 
 the blood from the jugular vein of an immune animal and immedi- 
 ately injecting it into"the cattle to lx> immunized. It is compara- 
 tively simple, requires few instruments, and can be satisfactorily 
 carried out where a small number of animals are to be immunized 
 and if a suitable immune animal is close, at hand. First, select an 
 immune animal which is in good health and which is infested with 
 fever ticks or had them the preceding year. Fasten the animal 
 securely, either by tying, throwing, or by placing in a chute. Clip 
 the hair from a space about 4 inches in diameter over the jugular vein 
 on the upper third of the neck, wash the skin thoroughly with a 5 per 
 cent solution of carbolic acid, and then fasten a strap or rope around 
 the neck below the hairless area and draw it tight in order that the 
 blood in the vein will lx stopped, causing distention. With a large 
 hypodermic syringe needle previously sterilized in a 5 per cent car- 
 bolic-acid solution, puncture the vein at a slight angle, directing the 
 point forward. When the needle enters the vein the point can In- 
 rotated freely in contrast to the restricted movements if still in the 
 tissues, and the blood will either drop or flow from the opening in the 
 needle. Attach the disinfected syringe to the needle with piston in 
 and gradually draw out the piston until the chamber of the syringe 
 is full of blood when the needle is withdrawn. The blood, before it 
 has had time to clot, is immediately injected into the animals to IK? 
 immunized and which have lxen previously tied or restrained, the 
 hair clipped, and the skin disinfected at the seat of injection in the 
 region of the shoulder. Inject then from 1 to tt cubic centimeters, 
 according to the age of the animal, under the skin of each animal 
 until the blood is exhausted. When more animals are to be inoculated 
 than one syringeful will inject, the operation may lx> repeated in the 
 same manner. The only objection to this method is the possibility of 
 the blood clotting in the syringe, but with practice and promptness 
 this can be easily overcome.
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 41 
 
 The second method is better suited for the inoculation of a large 
 number of cattle or where the immune animal is at a distance from 
 the cattle to be immunized. 
 
 The preliminary steps the clipping of the hair, disinfection of 
 the skin, placing the rope around the neck to distend the jugular 
 vein, and restraining the animal are the same as for the first method. 
 In puncturing the vein it is advisable to use a small trocar and canula 
 after sterilization in a 5 per cent carbolic-acid solution, and, when 
 the vein has been entered, to draw out the trocar, allowing the blood 
 to flow through the canula into a perfectly clean and sterile vessel. 
 After sufficient blood has been drawn for the animals to be injected, 
 a clean stick, previously sterilized by boiling in water, is placed in 
 the vessel containing the blood and the latter is stirred for ten min- 
 utes or so or until the fibrin in the blood is whipped out. The remain- 
 ing blood, known as defibrinated blood, is then inoculated under the 
 disinfected skin of the animals to be immunized, as in the first 
 method. This blood should l>e used as early as possible after draw- 
 ing, to prevent it from becoming contaminated and decom posed. 
 The place where this injection is made is immaterial, but for conven- 
 ience a point just behind the shoulder is usually chosen. The dose 
 and number of injections vary with the individual animals. As a 
 ride, it may be stated that 1 cubic centimeter should be injected into 
 an old animal coming into the infested district, 2 cubic centimeters 
 for a '2-year-old, and H centimeters for an animal i> to 1.") months old. 
 It will be observed that, unlike the usual custom of applying treat- 
 ment, the older animals take less than the young ones, owing to their 
 greater susceptibility to the disease. Where an animal has reacted 
 well to a first injection and shows a very high temperature, great 
 reduction of red blood cells, or other symptoms indicative of reac- 
 tion, it will not be necessary to repeat the injection, but in those 
 cases where the reaction is slight, a second injection should follow 
 after an interval of forty days, and. if need be, a third injection after 
 a similar lapse of time, always increasing the size of dose .">() per cent. 
 A thermometer, to indicate the course and severity of the disease, 
 is indispensable in this work. Usually, after three to ten days, some- 
 times longer, the inoculated animals show a mild type of Texas fever, 
 which runs a course of from six to eight days and is followed in alxmt 
 thirty days after the injection with a second attack of a milder 
 character than the first. After forty days, when the animal has 
 entirely recovered from the inoculation, a second injection may be 
 given to increase its immunity. In some eases a very severe type of 
 fever follows the first inoculation, requiring careful nursing and 
 treatment, as suggested above. A second, milder attack follows 
 usually in about thirty to forty days, after which the animal need 
 have no further inoculations. It is advisable to prevent any ticks
 
 42 Bt'RKAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 from getting n the cattle until sixty days after their inoculation or 
 until they have fully recovered, at which time a few ticks may be 
 placed upon them in order to it-enforce their immunity. Naturally 
 this time varies according to the type of the attack. As the lxst 
 results with these immunizing experiments have t>een obtained in 
 cool weather and with young cattle, it is recommended that animals 
 from 6 to 15 months old l>e selected for inoculation, and that they 
 be immunized during the late fall or winter months, in order that 
 they may enter tick-infested pastures in the spring without danger. 
 Ry infextiny irith tick*. Immunity may also be induced in sus- 
 ceptible animals by placing a limited number of fever ticks upon 
 their bodies in order to produce the disease naturally. For this pur- 
 pose only animals less than 1 year of age should l>e used, as the 
 method is not applicable for older and more susceptible animals. 
 Upon the bodies of these young cattle from twenty-five to fifty seed 
 ticks should be placed, which in the course of about ten days will 
 occasion a rise of temperature and a mild form of Texas fever. When 
 the animal has entirely recovered from this attack, a second crop 
 double the inunlx>r first used should be applied to the animal in 
 order to increase its power of resistance when pastured on infested 
 soil. In order to carry out this method successfully, a constant sup- 
 ply of seed ticks must be at hand. This can lx' accomplished by plac- 
 ing the mature females in a Mason fruit jar among some dirt and 
 leaves and keeping them in a warm place. In a few weeks the eggs 
 will have lx>en laid and hatched, and a number of seed ticks will be 
 present for use in infesting the cattle to Ix; immunized. By placing 
 a few adult females in the jar every two months there will always be 
 a supply of these young ticks. This method of producing immunity 
 by controlled tick infestation is not so safe as blood inoculation, since 
 the quantity of germs injected can Ix; more accurately regulated by 
 means of a syringe. 
 
 FEDERAL SANITARY REGULATIONS. 
 
 The sanitary regulations which have lxen enacted by the Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture for the control of cattle shipments from the in- 
 fected districts have for their initial purpose 1 the prevention of the 
 transportation of cattle ticks from infected regions to those that 
 are not infected, either upon cattle or in stock cars or other conveyer, 
 during the season of the year when infection is possible. They are 
 based upon the fact that Texas fever is carried north only by the 
 cattle tick; and the exclusion of this parasite from the noninfected 
 territory has in every instance lxen found a certain method of ex- 
 cluding Texas fever. The regulations governing the movement of 
 cattle from Ix'low the quarantine line are made yearly by the Secre- 
 tary of Agriculture and they define the Ixmndary of infected dis-
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND TTS PREVENTION. 48 
 
 tricts. The line as now determined starts in Virginia on the Atlantic 
 coast and passes in a westerly direction through Virginia, North 
 Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and a small portion of Kentucky, 
 along the northern border of Arkansas and Indian Territory, thence 
 through Oklahoma and Texas to the Kio Grande and the Mexican 
 border, whence it passes along the southern boundary of New Mexico 
 and Arizona and across the central portion of California to the 
 Pacific slope (fig. 1). This year (1905) cattle may IK* moved from 
 the quarantined district for purposes other than immediate slaughter 
 during November, December, and January into the noninfected 
 area within the States of Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Ten- 
 nessee, Texas, Oklahoma, and California, and to the States of Mis- 
 souri and Kansas and the Territories of Arizona and New Mexico, as 
 may be provided for in the regulations of these States and Terri- 
 tories, and after inspection by and upon written permission of an 
 inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry or a duly authorized 
 inspector of the State or Territory to which the cattle are destined, 
 and after permission shall have been obtained from the proper officer 
 of the said State or Territory. All cattle from the quarantined district 
 destined to points outside of the States and Territories above named 
 may be shipped without inspection between November 1 and January 
 31, inclusive (the open season), without restrictions other than may 
 be enforced by local regulations at the point of destination. At the 
 present time no cattle shall go out of quarantine, except for immediate 
 slaughter, during that portion of the year included between the dates 
 of February 1 and October 31, and known as the closed season. 
 These cattle must be slaughtered within two weeks after arrival at 
 their destination, and the regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture 
 concerning their handling and movement shall be enforced. The 
 following is an abstract of the regulations in force May 1, 1005: 
 
 Cattle coming from the infected districts during the closed season 
 can not be driven, but must be conveyed in cars or boats placarded as 
 containing " Southern cattle," and bills of lading, waybills, and con- 
 ductors 1 manifests shall have this information written upon them. 
 When the cattle are unloaded for feeding, watering, or other pur- 
 pose they must be placed in pens reserved for such animals only, in 
 which native stock is not allowed, and a large sign with the words 
 " Quarantine pens " or " Quarantine yards " must be conspicuously 
 placed on all such inclosures. On unloading at their destination, 
 only the chutes, alleyways, and pens reserved for Southern cattle 
 shall be used. Before the cars or boats which carried these animals 
 are again used their entire interior must be thoroughly washed with 
 water, after the removal of all litter and manure, and then disinfected 
 with a mixture made of 1.1 pounds of lime and } pound of 100 {x*r 
 cent carbolic acid to each gallon of water, or with a solution made
 
 44 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 by dissolving 4 ounces of chloride of lime to each gallon of water. 
 The litter and manure may U' disinfected as above, or, if not disin- 
 fected, it shall lx> stored away where cattle can not reach it during 
 the period from February 1 to October HI of each year. All chutes, 
 alleyways, and pens used en route and at destination but not reserved 
 for the exclusive use of Southern cattle shall lx> similarly disinfected. 
 Where these animals are yarded adjacent to cattle from above the 
 line, at least a 10-foot space not occupied by cattle must be left be- 
 tween, on each side of which shall be a tight board fence not less 
 than 5 feet high. 
 
 In consequence of the enforcement of these 1 quarantine regulations 
 Texas fever has lx>en practically prevented in the non infected dis- 
 tricts during the last several years, and little or no hardship has been 
 caused to those stockmen handling cattle from the infected areas. 
 Previous to their adoption the tick-infested district was rapidly ex- 
 tending northward, but since the quarantine line was established and 
 rational regulations enforced it has gradually been moved farther 
 south. This problem of still further reducing the infected area is of 
 the greatest importance to the cattlemen of the South in fact, to 
 those on both sides of the line and one which is receiving special 
 consideration by this Department as well as by many of the inter- 
 ested States. 
 
 OTIIKR IMPORTANT MEASURES FOR REDICINC THE INFECTED AREA. 
 
 The first and probably the most important step in eradicating the 
 cattle tick is to start and continue a plan of educating the cattle owner 
 as to the nature of Texas fever and the method of its transmission. 
 This may be best accomplished through farmers' institutes, the 
 issuance of press bulletins and circluars. the publication of short 
 articles in agricultural journals, and, l>est of all. by personal inter- 
 course Ix'tween the agricultural population and educated stock in- 
 spectors who are capable of imparting the necessary information. 
 There can be no doubt that the crying need of the infected country is 
 not so much the development of new ideas for exterminating the 
 cattle tick as it is to remove all doubts of stockmen regarding what 
 they term the "tick theory," and to impress upon them the funda- 
 mental truths concerning the cattle tick, its relation to Texas fever, 
 and simple methods for its extermination. In other words, the stock- 
 man himself must lx> made to realize the proved facts regarding this 
 disease, and then to appreciate the feasibility of eradicating the ticks 
 which cans* 1 it. There is still a large number of cattlemen who are 
 incredulous regarding the nature of Texas fever and until the abso- 
 lutely established facts of the disease are known and accepted it will 
 be impossible to have intelligent cooperation and earnest endeavor
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 45 
 
 among those most vitally interested to eradicate the Texas- fever tick 
 and prevent the disease. In some counties within the infected dis- 
 trict bordering on the quarantine line the local authorities have 
 organized cattle clubs composed of stockmen with the view of inter- 
 esting them in exterminating the ticks from their premises, and in 
 preventing cattle in adjoining tick-infested sections from coming 
 upon their property. These organizations are the means of dissemi- 
 nating general information respecting Texas-fever infection and the 
 cause of the restrictions placed on the cattle in the infected district, 
 and through them a concerted action of the cattle owners is obtained, 
 resulting in the control and final eradication of the infection within 
 a portion or the whole of a county. When a county has been handled 
 in this manner a thorough inspection is made at the proper time by a 
 representative of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and if the condi- 
 tions warrant such action it is released from quarantine. The success 
 of such clubs in accomplishing both these purposes is a constant re- 
 minder of what other organized stockmen could do. The desirability 
 of rational legislation based on an accurate knowledge and a complete 
 understanding of the disease is self-evident. Every county in all the 
 infected States should have stock or " no fence " laws to prevent 
 stock owners from allowing ticky cattle on commons, uninclosed 
 lands, or highways. Especially should these be enforced in the States 
 on the quarantine line and in those having many noninfected areas in 
 the quarantined region. In the former case this would assist in 
 securing a position above the line, and in the latter it would tend to 
 enlarge the tick-free sections. In a number of counties in Virginia, 
 North Carolina, and Georgia, where the laws prohibit cattle from 
 running at large and compel fencing of pastures, the cattle tick soon 
 disappeared, and such tick-free counties were placed above the quar- 
 antine line without any loss having followed from the cattle in these 
 districts. Butler suggests that each county should have laws pro- 
 viding for a farm-to-farm inspection, with employment of a stock 
 inspector, in order to locate the tick-infested farms. Stockmen 
 themselves should organize in order to aid the county in its endeavor 
 to exterminate the ticks; and information concerning their habits, 
 the importance of their extermination, and methods for accomplish- 
 ing it should be furnished to owners of infected lands. With the 
 active cooperation of the people and the enforcement of the stock 
 laws, much territory may be freed of ticks at a very moderate annual 
 expense. If ticks on one farm, one section, one county, can lx> ex- 
 terminated, it certainly should be possible for the entire State or 
 entire infested district to be cleaned. 
 
 In all the infected States a uniform legislation should lx> secured on 
 the subject of communicable diseases, particularly Texas fever, by
 
 4tt BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 which these States would l>e enabled not only to cooperate with the 
 Federal Government, but also with each other. Such laws should 
 prevent the entrance of ticky cattle into the State, unless for slaughter, 
 compel the holding of cattle on inclosed premises, enforce an effectual 
 quarantine on all badly infected areas, make it compulsory to clean 
 up the infection where the ticks are few in numl>er, and stipulate 
 that the stock inspectors appointed for this work must be educated 
 and experienced in the subject of Texas fever. Then, after securing 
 these laws in the various States, they should IH> enforced, all violat- 
 ers should IK punished, and such punishments should be given wide- 
 spread publicity. Such action is absolutely necessary before any 
 decided progress can lx made in the general extermination of the 
 fever ticks and in the reduction of the infected areas. 
 
 For some years past the Bureau of Animal Industry has had a 
 numlx'r of inspectors stationed along the quarantine line who have 
 been required to disseminate information relative to the nature of 
 Texas fever, to investigate reported violations of the quarantine 
 regulations, to inspect cattle in those counties wishing to be placed 
 alx>ve the line, to keep a careful watch over the uninfected pens at the 
 railroad feeding stations in the infected district where tick-free cattle 
 are rested, fed, and watered in passing through, and to examine for 
 the presence of ticks all cattle that come out of the modified quaran- 
 tined counties. These modified districts are those wherein the infec- 
 tion is confined to small areas and which are placed provisionally 
 alM)ve the line subject to inspection of all cattle leaving that area for 
 noninfected territory. Xo cattle are permitted to come into the dis- 
 trict unless they come from above the quarantine line. In certain 
 cases where a county has only a few infected farms, the Department 
 has at times accepted the declaration made by the State officials to 
 enforce an adequate quarantine on these premises and has allowed tin 1 
 entire county to be placed above the line. Such concessions as these 
 indicate the interest taken in relieving the burden of quarantine, and 
 while some unfortunate results have followed, the Ix'neficial effects 
 have far exceeded them. 
 
 The authority of the Federal veterinary inspectors is limited within 
 the iMHindary of the States, and the progress they are able to make 
 under these conditions is slow. In order to give these men greater 
 influence within the State, it might be advisable to have the State law 
 permit of their appointment as officers of the commonwealth to serve 
 without compensation. Thus, in the eradication of foot-and-mouth 
 disease from New Kngland and of scabies from the West, some States, 
 such as Massachusetts, Wyoming, and others, made State officers of 
 the Government men, which resulted in a larger amount of work 
 l>eing performed and with greater expedition. The restrictions 
 which are necessarily thrown around a Federal inspector when deal-
 
 TEXAS FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION. 47 
 
 ing with a local question of interstate importance would by these 
 means be relieved. 
 
 It would be advisable for the State or Federal Government, or 
 both, to make sufficient yearly appropriations for the purpose of giv- 
 ing object lessons by means of demonstration farms, where approved 
 methods for eradicating Texas-fever ticks could be carried out. Re- 
 sults of such practicable demonstrations would have a very whole- 
 some effect upon other owners of stock in that section and would 
 encourage the application of similar methods for a like purpose. 
 It is generally admitted that extermination of ticks along the quar- 
 antine line is desirable, but the disinfection of pastures within the 
 line is thought by some to be inadvisable. In fact, these; writers 
 recommend placing a few ticks on the cattle while young to render 
 them immune when in these tick-free pastures. This plan of infect- 
 ing clean pastures is a questionable proceeding, and if carried out 
 by all below the line would result in producing thousands of ticks 
 where now there are hundreds only. It must be remembered in this 
 connection that the cow tick is not only the carrier of Texas fever, but 
 is a parasite which deprives its host of much blood, retards growth, 
 reduces the milking capacity, and induces an irritable state known 
 as " tick worry." Even if we exclude its fever-carrying property, 
 it should still be exterminated in all districts, whether on the quar- 
 antine line or below it, for the same reasons as lice and other vermin 
 are destroyed. Furthermore, cattle may now be rendered immune 
 by blood inoculations, and the necessity for having ticks on the ani- 
 mals for this purpose does not exist. It would therefore seem pref- 
 erable to keep noninfected farms free from ticks, and, if they are 
 in danger of exposure to these parasites, make the animals immune 
 by blood injections. If these injections are made merely with the 
 Adew of preventing fatalities among the nn infested cattle when 
 exposed to newly purchased ticky animals, it would l>e far Ix'tter to 
 remove the ticks from the latter before allowing them to commuigle. 
 Others buying these susceptible cattle for their own infected pas- 
 tures would also run the risk of their death from Texas fever unless 
 previously immunized with blood or gradually infested with ticks. 
 Notwithstanding the precautions which must be taken to avoid 
 losses as a result of noninfected areas in the quarantined zone, it is 
 held that, unless these pastures continue free of ticks and other pas- 
 tures are added to them, there can be no solution of the Texas-fever 
 problem. 
 
 It might be asked. What advantage is it to the stockman below the 
 line to clean his cattle and pastures of ticks unless his animals are 
 recognized as tick-free and permitted to come North without restric- 
 tion? The greatly improved condition and better development in 
 all respects of such cattle are sufficient answers to this query, and their
 
 48 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 appearance furnishes a marked contrast to that of those which harlx>r 
 these parasites. Furthermore, provision has been made for mm in 
 feeted animals to come al>ove the line at any season of the year, but. 
 like the ticky cattle, they are subject to the restriction that they be 
 dipped in Heaumont crude jx'troleum or other crude oil to prevent 
 them from Incoming infested in passing through the quarantined dis- 
 trict. And they must also l>e shipped in clean, disinfected cars, and 
 must not l>e driven through the infected area or unloaded therein ex- 
 cept at points designated by this Department. 
 
 By the general application of the previously descrilx'd measures for 
 reducing the infected area, supported by well-directed legislation in 
 all the infected districts, it would become merely a matter of a short 
 period of time Ix-fore the fever tick would l>e exterminated and South- 
 ern cattle permitted to reach the more favorable markets of the North 
 at any time of the year without restraint. Prices would then be 
 higher, the demand greater, and the odium attached to ticky cattle at 
 the stock yards removed. Purebred Northern cattle could then l>e 
 brought into the South to improve the native breed without danger of 
 death from Texas fever. Southern animals could enter the show rings 
 of the North without restriction, and the total cost of tick extermina- 
 tion would be far less than the amount saved in the first year after it 
 had been accomplished. However, much cooperation must be had 
 Jetween the farmer and the State and Federal Governments before 
 such a desirable result is possible. And in the meantime, with such 
 conditions attainable, laxity should not be allowed in enforcing the 
 present regulations. National. State, and local, and equal care should 
 !K> taken to enlighten the stock raisers of the infected district as to 
 the l>eneh'ts which will follow their thorough understanding of Texas 
 fever and their intelligent assistance in its eradication. 
 
 o
 
 led from paKe ? of cover.) 
 
 Dr. F. I). Ketchuii. -Mill. Minn. 
 
 Dr. W. 15. Lincoln, can' Tt-nni-sM'.- Packini,' and 
 
 Provision Co., Xa-livillc. Tcim. 
 Dr. A. LOOK, ean- ^pcn '' Hiivi.-n, 
 
 Conn. 
 
 Dr. C. Lovcbern , room in.', CUBtOIH;bonae (new), 
 
 Portland, On-u. 
 
 Dr. II. D. Maync, Malone. X. V. 
 Dr. Louis Meeker, room 21'. N. T. Armijo Build- 
 ing. All>U'|uerc|ue. N. Mex. 
 Dr. .1. Miller, care John Morrell A: Co., Ottumwa, 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 Dr. C. L. M.irin, St. Albans Vt. 
 Dr. A. H. Morse, can- The Atrar I'a<-king Co., 
 
 Dr>- Moines. Iowa. 
 Dr. \V. .1. Murphy, care SpriiiKlicld Provision Co.. 
 
 Bright wood. Ma-. 
 Dr. W. X. Xcil. care John Cudnhy Co.. Wichita. 
 
 Kans. 
 Dr. V. A. NSrgaanJ, Honolulu, Hawaii. 
 
 M. I'.Try. Fort Kairticld. Me. 
 Dr. (i. \V. l'o|"% Animal Quarantine station, 
 
 Athenia, X. .1. 
 Dr. H. T. Potter. Culiiis, Me. 
 Dr. .1. O. F. Price, care Brittain & Co.. Marshall- 
 
 to\vn. Iowa. 
 
 Dr. R. A. Ramsay. Far^o, X. Dak. 
 Dr. A. Q, i. EUchaidaon, 707 Empire Building, 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn. 
 
 Dr. A. K. l;i.|ii-l. can- Cndahy I'nckiiiR- Co., Los 
 
 Dr. \\ . II. K. 
 
 Dr. K. L. KH--.-H. orono. Me. 
 Dr .1. F. Ky.I.T. 1 11 Mil. -n. Mass. 
 
 Dr. K. P. SchafTter 
 ill'!. Ohio. 
 Dr. C. A.SelmufliT. I'hila- 
 
 delphin. Pa. 
 Dr. ThoM. \\ - 
 
 Waterloo. Iowa. 
 Dr. T. A. Shipley, care T. M. Sinclair 
 
 r Rapids, Iowa. 
 Dr. X. C. Sorcii-cn. care Kintrnn & >;,.. Indian- 
 
 ajiolis, Ind. 
 Mr. Win. H. Wade, Animal Qiianur 
 
 Halcthorp. Md. 
 Dr. A. H. \\, Aorth. 
 
 Dr. II. X. Waller. 10'J \\ 
 
 Xew York. X. Y. 
 Dr. <i. W. Ward. N.-\vjK,rt. Vt. 
 Dr. B. P. Wende. Live stock Fxclmi 
 
 ifTalo. X. Y. 
 Dr. W. H. Wray, :14 Streathum Hill 
 
 W., England. 
 
 A 001 083 175 8