,
I
:
*
*-' 4-
THE PROFESSION
OF
HOME MAKING
A CONDENSED HOME-STUDY COURSE
ON DOMESTIC SCIENCE; THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE
MOST RECENT ADVANCES IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES
TO THE HOME INDUSTRIES
PEEPAEED BY TEACHEBS OF
EECOGNIZED AUTHOEITY
FOR HOME-MAKEKS, MOTHERS, TEACHERS, PHYSICIANS, NURSES,
DIETITIANS, PROFESSIONAL HOME MANAGERS, AND ALL
INTERESTED IN HOME, HEALTH AND ECONOMY
CHICAGO
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS
1911
CONTENTS *
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
BY MARGARET E. DODD, S. 1'..
Graduate of Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Pago
WATER
THE ATMOSPHERE . . . . . . . . 22
COMBUSTION . . . . . . ' . . .28
FUELS . . . . . ... . 31
FOOD AS FUEL ... . . . . . .37
SUGARS AND STARCHES . . . . . . . 40
DIGESTION OF SUGAR AND STARCH . . . . . . 43
CHEMISTRY OF COOKING . . . . . . * 4">
FATS AS FOOD , . - . fil
NITROGENOUS FOODS . . . . . . . . ; .">:;
EFFECTS OF COOKING . . '"." . . .50
MINERAL MATTER IN FOOD <;i
DECAY <;_'
TEST QUESTIONS 64
CLEANING <:7
CHEMISTRY OF THE LAUNDRY . . . . , 7s
REMOVAL OF STAINS 87
BLEACHING 94
CLEANING WOODWORK <s
CLEANING METALS Of
TEST QUESTIONS 10.".
CHEMISTRY OF BAKING POWDER ...... lor.
CHEMISTRY OF LIGHTING 10*
CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRICITY ILM
CHEMISTRY OF PLANT LIFE . . . . . . . HM
THE HOUSEKEEPERS' LABORATORY . . . . . IL'H
TEST QUESTIONS I. 1 !!*
NOTES ON LAUNDRY WORK 141
HOME SOAP MAKING 14:
DISHWASHING 14:
BREAD MAKING . 1 ."">'>
HOME MADE BAKING POWDKR i.v;
COMPOSITION OF GAS ir.x
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION ...... ifio
BIBLIOGRAPHY l<>:;
PROGRAM OF CLASS STUDY ];;,
* Note : For payc number sec foot of pages,
4
PRINCIPLES OF COOKEBY
B* AXXA BARROWS
Teacher of Cookery, Teachers' College, Columbia University
Page
FIEE IN COOKING 177
WATER IN COOKING 102
I*}- AND ICE CHESTS 204
PBEPABATIOX AXD PRESERVING OF FOODS .... 208
riioio; OK FOOD L'l."
MILK AXD ITS PBODI:CTS . 218
COOKING OF UUTTER . . . . . ' . . . 224
TOOK i NO OF CHKESE . , . ... . . . 229
QUESTIONS . 231
TOOK I NO OF F.GGS ........ 235
COOKING OF MEAT, FISH, AND POII.TRY .... 247
COOKING OF VEGETABLES ....... 263
rooKiNG OF CHAINS 274
TEST QUESTIONS ........ 278
UREAD AXD OTHEK I>oi <;jis . 281
PASTRY AND CAKE .' 2^0
BOOKING OF l)->\ GHS ... . , . . . . 301
FORM OF SCKVIXG 304
FLAVOR 312
FOOD FOB A DAY 315
P>IBLIOGBAPHY 322
TEST QUESTIONS ........ 323
fo.Mj-ABATiVE VALFF or Fi i.i.s 325
FIREI.ESS COOKERS 330
CO-OPERATIVE COOKING 330
KlTfHEN Al'I'LIANf'ES 337
THE IIoi:sEKEEi'ER's LIBRARY 340
CABD CATALOG OF FOODS 342
COOKERY A FINE ART 343
CAKE MAKING 345
MENU MAKING , 346
ECONOMY ix THE USE OF FATS 356
MEXUS For: SPECIAL OCCASIONS 358
PROGRAM FOR CLASS STUDY .... 359
* Note : For paye number gee foot of pages.
FREE HAND COOKING Page
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES . 367
EFFECT OF HEAT ox FOOD MATERIALS . .. . . 309
TEMPERATURE AND TIME OF COOKING . . . . 370
THICKENING AND LEAVENING AGENTS . ... . 373
SHORTENING ... . 374
FLAVORING " . ' . . . ... . , 375
FUNDAMENTAL RECIPES 376-400
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
BY BERTHA M. TERR ILL, M. A.
Professor of Home Economics, University of Vermont
J HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION . .'.- . V . 405
DIVISION OF HOME EXPENDITURES . . . . . 400
RENT . . . . . . . . . . . 421
OPERATING EXPENSES . . . ... . 426
FOOD EXPENSES . -V .. . . ,' . . . 430
CLOTHING EXPENSES . . . . . . 436
HIGHER LIFE . . . 437
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS . . . . . . . 442
BANK ACCOUNT AND BANKING . . . . . . 400
TEST QUESTIONS . . . . . . . , 449
/THE ORGANIZATION AND DIVISION OF LABOR . / . . . 473
DOMESTIC SERVICE ... . . . . . 4*7T)
BUYING SUPPLIES . . . 499
KITCHEN AND LAUNDRY FURNISHINGS . . . . 504
TABLE AND BEJ> LINEN . ... . . .. .516
CARPETS AND RUGS . ... . . . . 522
TEST QUESTIONS . . . , . . .... . . 525
MARKETING CUTS OF MEAT . 527
POULTRY . . . . '. . . . .- . 5.>1
FIS'H . . . ... . . . ' "' . , . 5")3
VEGETABLES . . .: " . . . , . . . 556
BUTTER, MILK AND EGGS . . ^ . . . . . 559
DRY GROCERIES . . ". . ,. . ' \ . . . 561
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . *^ . 56^
TEST QUESTIONS . . " . . . . . . 564
PROGRAMS FOR CLASS STUDY . . . . . . 5J6
COST OF HOME AND STEAM LAUNDRY WORK .... 570
EXPERIENCE IN DIVISION OF INCOME .... 571
FOOD ECONOMY 577
THE DOMESTIC SERVICE PROBLEM ..... 583
HELP BY THE HOUR 586
SYSTEMS OF HOUSE WORK . . . . . . 5!H)
VALUE OF THE INDIVIDUAL HOME ..... . 592
* Note : For page number see foot of pages.
6
HOME CARE FOR THE SICK
BY AMY E. POPE
Teacher of Nursing, Presbyterian Hospital
New York City
Pa<?e
SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE ........ 504
CHOICE, FURNISHING, AND CARE OF THE SICK-ROOM . . 601
CARE OF PATIENT; MAKING AND CHANGING BED . . . 605
LIFTING AND HANDLING THE PATIENT : 612
CONVALESCENCE . . . . . . . . .621
CARE OF THE HAIR, MOUTH, TEETH 624
BATHS AND BATHING ........ 626
SICK-ROOM METHODS ........ 633
THE GIVING OF MEDICINE ....... 640
PURGATIVE, ENEMATA, DOUCHES ...... 646
POULTICES AND FOMENTATIONS ...... 651
TEST QUESTIONS ........ 655
CONTAGION ; NURSING IN CONTAGIOUS DISEASES . . . 657
DISINFECTION OF THE ROOM, CONTENTS, ETC. . . . 664
PRECAUTION ix CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ..... 666
SURGICAL OPERATIONS AT HOME 667
OBSTETRICS . 674
CARE OF THE CHILD ........ 685
FOOD FOR THE SICK RECIPES ...... 687
EMERGENCIES ; FIRST AID TO THE INJURED . . . <>96
FOREIGN BODIES IN EYE, EAR, NOSE, THROAT . . . 706
POISONS AND ANTIDOTES . . . . . . ' . 707
BANDAGES AND BANDAGING ....... 708
TEST QUESTIONS 716
PROGRAM FOR CLASS STUDY . 718~
INDEX . . 721-736
Note : For patje number see foot of pages.
right living should be the fourth "R ft in edu-
caton.
AT home - making should be regarded as a pro-
fession.
'TPHAT health is the duty and business of the individual;
* illness of the physician.
'T^HAT most illness results from carelessness, ignorance, or
intemperance of some kind.
' I A HAT as many lives are cut short by unhealthful food and
* diet as through strong drink.
HpHAT on the home foundation is built all that is good
in state or individual.
npHAT the upbringing of children demands more study
* than the raising of chickens.
HpHAT the spending of money is as important as the
** earning of the money.
economy does not mean spending a small amount,
but in getting the largest returns for the money expended.
HPHAT the home-maker should be as alert to make pro-
gress in her life-work as the business or professional
man.
HpHAT the most profitable, the most interesting study for
* women is the home, for in it center all the issues of
life.
*1pHAT the study of home problems may be made of no
* less cultural value than the study of art for literature and
*}f much more immediate value.
American School of Home Economics
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
A Day's Chemistry
BEING an outline of llie simplest and most evi-
dent chemical changes suggested by a day's
work at home and a description of the various chemical
substances of interest to the housewife.
WATER
The morning bath will introduce us agreeably to the
wonderful chemical substance, water, and with this
substance we will begin our study of a day's chemistry.
The water for the house may come from the town sup-
ply, from wells, cisterns, or springs. It may be
"surface water," from pond, lake, or stream, or it may
be "ground water," from wells or deep springs. Cis-
tern water is, of course, rain water. Water is present
in many substances where we might not suspect it
All living things contain a large percentage of water.
Of an athlete weighing 150 pounds, all but about 42
pounds is water. Wood, meat, vegetables, fruit, when
dried, weigh from 50 to 98 per cent less. Many natural
and artificial substances owe their crystalline form to
Copyright, 1904, 1905, 1907, 1910, by Home Economic Association.
2 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
water and when heated, give off this "water of crystal-
lization" and crumble to powder. Common washing
soda shows this effect, when exposed to the air, and
soon gives off so much water that its crystalline char-
acter is lost.
Natural All water found in nature is more or less impure,
Water that is, it contains substances in solution. It dissolves
air and takes substances from the soil and rocks over
which it runs. Often it comes in contact with animal
and vegetable substances and dissolves something from
them. Near dwellings the water in streams, ponds,
and wells is very likely to become contaminated. De-
caying substances give rise to materials easily dissolved
in water, which may travel for a considerable distance
under ground, so that the drainage from the house or
barn is frequently carried to near-by streams or wells,
making their waters quite unfit to drink. Fig. I.
The following experiment will illustrate that air is
dissolved in water.
Experiment. Place a tumbler of fresh well-water or
tap-water in a warm place. After a time, bubbles will
be seen collecting on the sides of the glass. This is
air which was dissolved in the water. As the water
grows warm, it cannot hold so much air in solution and
some of it separates.
Distilled Most of the impurities in water are less easily con-
verted into vapor than the water itself; hence, when
the water is boiled, they stay behind while the water
"boils away". Water from almost any source can be
made pure and clear by distillation. Distilled water is
10
WATER. 3
prepared in an apparatus known as a still. See Fig. 2.
A still consists of a boiler, A, and a condenser. In
the condenser, a coil of tube, D, usually made of pure
FIG. 1. WELL, CONTAMINATED BY HOUSE DRA1NAGP..
tin, is surrounded by cold water which continually
runs through the apparatus. The steam, admitted at
the upper end of the coil, is condensed by the low tem-
perature and distilled water is collected at the lower
11
Rain
Water
4 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
end. In the laboratory, distilled water is often made
in the glass apparatus shown in Fig. 3.
Distilled water has a flat taste, because air and other
dissolved substances which give water its taste have
been removed. It will again dissolve the air on being
poured several times from one vessel into another.
Rain is water which has been evaporated from the
surfaces of natural bodies of water, oceans, lakes,
and from the land, and is practically free from mineral
matter, but contains dissolved gases.
The vapor, cooled at the low temperatures of the
upper levels of air, falls as rain. The first fall of any
FIG. 2. A STILL.
A, Gooseneck; B, Boiler; D, Condensing Coil.
shower is mixed with impurities which have been
washed from the air. Among these may be carbon
dioxide, ammonia, and carbon in the form of soot and
creosote. It is these last impurities which cause the
12
WATER. 5
almost indelible stain left when ram water stands upon
window-sills or other finished woods.
Fig. 3. Making Distilled Water In the Laboratory.
Water is a nearly universal solvent. It dissolves
more substances and these in larger quantities than any
other liquid. At a given temperature, water will dis-
solve only a certain proportion of the various salts
and other soluble substances. When the water will
take up no more, the solution is said to be saturated.
Increasing the temperature generally increases the dis-
solving power of water for solids and liquids. The
reverse is usually true for gases.
When a saturated solution of a solid is cooled, crys-
tals are frequently formed, many having beautiful
shapes. Examples are shown in Fig. 4.
Experiment. In an earthen- ware or enameled dish
dissolve as much alum as possible in a little boiling
water. Pour the solution into a shallow dish or sau-
Solubility
13
6 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
cer, and set it away for a day or more where it will be
undisturbed. Beautiful, clear, six-sided crystals wil)
form in the dish. If strings are hung in the solution, the
crystals will form upon them. Rock candy crystals
are made from cane sugar syrup in this way.
The experiment may be repeated, using washing
soda instead of alum.
Effect of
Water on
Metals
FIG. 4. SHAPES OF CRYSTALS.
Silver, copper, and tin are not perceptibly dissolved
in pure water, but when combined with acid substances,
the compounds formed are soluble. These compounds
of a metal with an acid are called salts. The salts of
copper, zinc, and lead are poisonous. Copper, brass,
(an alloy of copper with zinc) tin, solder, and iron
are metals easily affected by acids, so that cooking
utensils made of these materials should not be used
with acid substances like lemon and vinegar.
14
WATER.
Lead pipes are much used in plumbing, and as a
rule no evil results follow, since ordinary drinking
water acts under most circumstances only very slight-
ly upon lead. The pipes are soon coated with a layer
of carbonate and sulphate of lead, which is insoluble
and prevents any further action. Water from new
lead pipes, or pipes not kept constantly full, or from
a hot-water system in which lead is used, should never
be used for drinking or cooking because of danger
from poisoning. Pure distilled water, or rain water,
affects lead more than ordinary ground water.
Rain water absorbs more or less carbon dioxide gas
from the air and soaking into the soil often comes in
contact with magnesia in the rocks and with limestone.
Water containing this
gas will dissolve these
mineral substances mak-
ing what is known as
"hard" water, a very dif-
ferent substance from the
original rain water
which is "soft." This
subject will be dis-
cussed when the chem-
istry of the laundry is
explained.
Ordinary water for drinking purposes is often filtered.
Filtration will remove small particles suspended in the
water, but has no effect on substances dissolved in it.
The small charcoal or sand filters will not remove
Effect of
Water
on Lead
Hard
Water
Water
Layer of gravel
Layer <f charcoal
Layer of gravel
Filtered watev
FIG. 5. A WATER FILTER.
Filtering
15
8 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
the minute living forms called micro-organisms or
germs, some of which are the cause of disease. A fill,
of porous stone or procelain, in which the water nit
slowly, is more effective. A good filter is shown/*!-
Figure 5.
Water which has strained or filtered through se^'
feet of earth is often much improved, but the e
filter itself may become contaminated after a whil<^ a
more harm than good result. A thick layer of
and rock, however, removes germs effectively, and co-,
sequently water from deep driven wells is .afe.
composition Water was long considered an elementary or sin
substance, but towards the end of the last century
was found to consist of two quite different substara.
so intimately joined together that the identity of each
is lost. If we pass an electric current through wat<
in the proper way, we see a gas rising in bubbles frr
the end of the wire by which the current enters a
like appearance at the wire by which the current leaves
the water. The two gases have evidently c< ^om
the water and are the substances out of ^
made for the water begins to disappear. By plac.
inverted glass filled with water over each wir/y
gases are easily collected. See Fig. 6. Wherre
bottle is full of gas, the other will be only half fuii^
on decomposing the whole of a given amount of ;/.rateo
this proportion holds true. .. .orf
If we test these gases, we shall find them qp'i.e d)
ferent. The bottle which is full contains a gad called
_. vftr
16
WATER. , 9
hydrogen. There is evidently twice as much of this by
'time in water as of the other gas which is called
ox/gen. These two gases were tied together by what
-nown as chemical force, but the electric current
rated them and gave us an opportunity to make
:quaintance of each by itself. We would hardly
nse this clear, colorless liquid to be composed of
material. On decomposing pure water from any
HYDROGEN
T. 6. Decomposing Water Into Oxygen and Hy-
drogen Gas.
the proportion of oxygen to hydrogen is always
A e, and in fact, all chemical compounds have a
composition which never varies under any con-
name hydrogen comes from two Greek words,
.water and to produce. Hydrogen is interest-
ing as oeing the lightest common substance. It is an
Hsible gas like air, but unlike air will burn. If a
Hydrogem
17
10
CHEMISTRY. OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
lighted candle be placed in a bottle of hydrogen, the
flame will be at once extinguished, though the hydro-
gen will take fire at the mouth of the bottle. Fig. 7.
Hydrogen will unite with other substances besides
oxygen ; that is, it will join with other substances by
chemical force. It forms a part of most animal and
vegetable substances.
Fig. 1.
Hydrogen Will Burn
in Air.
Fif. 8. A Candle
Burns Vigorously in
Oxygen.
oxygen Oxygen, as well as hydrogen, is a tasteless, color-
less, odorless gas. The weight of a given volume is
sixteen times that of the same volume of hydrogen.
It is very abundant and the most important substance
to mankind. Should we test this gas with a lighted
candle, as we did the hydrogen, we would find that
the oxygen would not give a flame, but that the candle
would burn far more vigorously. Fig. 8.
18
WATER. ii
When substances burn in oxygen they really unite
jvith it chemically, forming new substances called
oxides. Water is hydrogen united with oxygen and its
chemical name might therefore be oxide of hydrogen.
When water is heated in an open vessel, evapora- Effect of
tion from the surface of the liquid is more rapid as wate?*
the temperature increases. Soon vapor is formed on
the sides and bottom of the vessel and bubbles begin to
rise which are at once condensed by the cooler parts
of the liquid, thus making the familiar "singing" noise.
Finally the liquid becomes so hot that the bubbles reach
the surface without condensing, and then the water
boils and goes off into the air as steam, an invisible
gas. This occupies the small space between the spout
of the tea-kettle and the cloud of vapor which is com-
monly called steam, but is really finely divided drops
of water. A cubic inch of water makes about a cubic
foot of steam.
The temperature at which pure water begins to boil Boiling
at sea level is 212 Fahrenheit (or 100 Centigrade)
and this temperature remains the same while the boil-
ing continues. Increasing the heat simply increases
the violence of the boiling. The steam given off is of
the same temperature as the boiling liquid. Most pure
liquids have a definite boiling point; ether boils at
100 F, alcohol at 173 F, turpentine at 315 F.
When the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface
of the liquid is less than at the sea level, as on a moun-
tain, where there is not so much air above pressing
down on the surface of the liquid, the temperature of
19
12 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
boiling is less.* For example, the boiling point of water
in Denver, Colorado, is about 202 F, and on the top
of some of the mountains in the Himalayas, 180 F.
People living in high mountain regions have difficulty
in cooking with water or steam.
Increasing the pressure on the surface of the liquid,
on the other hand, raises the boiling point. This is
seen when water boils in a confined space, as in a steam
boiler. Under five pounds pressure of steam, water
boils at about 227 F and at 100 pounds pressure, at
337 F.
An increase in the boiling point of water is caused
by dissolved substances. A very strong solution of
common salt boils at about 226 F, and a solution of
sugar syrup or molasses boils at an increasing tem-
perature as the water is lost.
The temperature at which a syrup boils, is a meas-
ure of its thickness or density. In many modern cook-
ery books temperature tests are given for boiling sugar
in making confections, which vary from 215 for
a thin syrup, up to 350 for caramel. In making maple
sugar a "sugar thermometer" is often placed in the
boiling syrup. At a given temperature, which is high-
er for sugar cakes than for soft sugar, the proper con-
centration is reached.
latent Considerable heat is absorbed by the process of boil-
ing. It requires 966 times as much heat to change a
pound of water at the boiling point into steam as it
does to raise it one degree Fahrenheit. The heat
20
WATER. 13
which is used to change the state of the water without
changing its temperature is called latent heat from the
Latin word, meaning hidden. The ."hidden heat" is
given out again when the steam is condensed. This
same quantity of heat is absorbed when the water
evaporates slowly ; hence the great cooling effect of
large bodies of water.
When water is cooled it shrinks slightly until the
temperature of 39 F is reached. On further cool-
ing it to the freezing point, 32 F (or o Centigrade)
it increases in volume, so that ice takes up more space
than the same weight of water and consequently floats.
If this were not so, lakes and streams would freeze
solid in winter and it is doubtful if they would melt
completely during the summer in the northern part
of the United States.
To melt ice, 144 times as much heat is required to
change the ice at 32 F into water at 32 F, as to raise
the temperature of the same quantity of water one
degree Fahrenheit. This is the latent heat of melting
and the same amount of heat is given out when water
freezes. Water thus serves as the great temperature
regulator for the earth, for by evaporating, much of
the heat of summer is absorbed, and before freezing,
a great deal of heat must be given out and absorbed.
Water has a much greater capacity of absorbing heat
than any other common substance. For example, one
pound of water will absorb ten times as much heat in
being raised one degree as a pound of iron. The great-
Freezing
Heat
Absorption
21
14 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
er absorbing capacity of water for heat explains why a
kettle of fat heats up so much faster than the same
weight of water under like conditions ; for the fat re-
quires only one-third as much heat to raise it, say, to
200 F, a$ does the water.
THE ATMOSPHERE
When we leave the sleeping room, we open the win-
dows to admit air. We may with advantage treat
. , our lungs to an air bath by standing at the open win-
dow or by going out of doors for a few minutes to take
in five or ten deep breaths. Next, perhaps, we shall
use drafts of air to help us make a fire in the range
or in a fire place.
Air as .a Air is a real substance. It can be weighed. The air
in a room 15 feet by 20 feet by 10 feet high weighs
210 pounds, and would fill ten ordinary water pails
if liquified. Air will expand and may be compressed
like other gases and it has been liquefied by intense cold
and pressure. It requires considerable force to move
it. When a bottle is full of air, no more can be poured
in. Our houses are full of air all the time. It pervades
all things the cells and tissues of our bodies are full
of air.
Wood and some metals even contain a little. In
breathing we take a little from the room, but it is im-
mediately replaced by expired air, which is impure.
Were there no exits for this air, no pure air could enter
the house, and we should die of slow suffocation. The
22
THE ATMOSPHERE. 15
better built the house the quicker the suffocation. Fortu-
nately no house is air tight. Air does pass out through
the walls and cracks, and comes in around doors and
windows, but unless there is a great difference in the
temperature indoors and out, this fresh air is neither
sufficient to replace the bad air nor to dilute it beyond
harm. Therefore in ordinary weather, the air of all
rooms must be often and completely changed either by
special systems of ventilation or by intelligent action
in the opening of doors and windows.
The atmosphere surrounds the earth to a depth of
fifty miles or more. The effect of gravity of the earth
on this mass is to produce a pressure or weight of air
on all things. This pressure is about fifteen pounds on
each square inch, but we do not notice it, for the pres-
sure is the same on all sides of us and the internal
pressure in the cells of our bodies balances the external
pressure of the atmosphere.
If it were not for the pressure of the air, we could
not drink lemonade through a straw or pump a pail of
water. When we exhaust part of the air by suction,
we remove part of the pressure over the liquid in the
straw and the air pressure on the surface in the glass
forces the liquid up the straw. The same principle
applies in a pump the air is partially taken off the top
of the water in the pipe, and then the pressure outside
forces the water up in the pipe and by a proper valve
arrangement, it is made to run into the pail. See
Fig. 9.
16
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Composition
of Air
Fitrogen
The pressure of the atmosphere at the sea level is
sufficient to force water up into a vacuum about 34
feet vertically; but owing to mechanical imperfections
of pumps, the practical limit is 27 or 28 feet rise be-
tween the surface of the water and the valve of the
pump. It is customary to use a force pump if water
is to be raised to a height above this. Fig. 10.
Unlike water, air is not the result of a chemical union
of two unlike simple gases. Nevertheless, air contains
more than one substance. It is made up chiefly of two
gases simply mixed together, and each exhibits its
own characteristics to some extent.
Pure air consists of oxygen, which we have found
constitutes one-third of water, and of nitrogen (and
argon). The oxygen forms about a fifth and the
nitrogen four-fifths of the air. Besides these, several
other gases are found in small but varying quantities.
To the oxygen gas is due the power of air to support
combustion (fire) and life. Oxygen unites chemically
with most other substances, and were the air all oxy-
gen, the combustible part of the. earth would soon be
consumed by its own fires. Fortunately four-fifths of
the air is a gas that has little power of combination and
this nitrogen serves to dilute the oxygen and to weaken
its force, much as water would dilute and weaken a
strong and powerful chemical.
The most marked characteristic of nitrogen is its
sluggishness or inertness. Nitrogen, like oxygen, is
a tasteless, odorless, colorless gas. It is fourteen
24
THE ATMOSPHERE.
times as heavy as hydrogen. Though nitrogen from
the air unites with other elements with difficulty, it
is found in all living tissues, both animal and vegetable,
and when these decompose the familiar substance, am-
monia, is formed. This is a compound of hydrogen
and nitrogen.
Fig. 9. Suction Pump.
Fig. 10. Force Pump.
Carbon dioxide is always present in the atmosphere.
This is one of the countless combinations of carbon,
the element present in all animal and vegetable mate-
rials. Carbon is nearly pure in the form of charcoal.
Soot, graphite or the black lead of lead pencils, and the
Carbon
25
i8
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Carbon
Dioxide
Water
Vapor
diamond are other forms. Carbon unites very readily
with oxygen and the gas formed by their chemical
union is called carbon dioxide because it contains two
parts of oxygen to one of carbon. Wood, coal, gas
almost everything that will burn in fhe air and even
our own bodies contain carbon, though we would not
suspect its presence because it is combined with other
substances and has merged its own character in those
of the substances of which it forms a part. All our
food contains carbon in its combinations.
When we breathe we take into our bodies the oxy-
gen of the air. This oxygen is needed by the various
organs and is carried in the blood from the lungs to all
parts of the body. During the circulation the oxygen is
taken up by the cells and replaced by carbon dioxide.
This is brought back by the blood to the lungs and
breathed out. If we remain long in a closed room, a
portion of the oxygen of the air in the room and of the
substance of our bodies is changed into carbon dioxide,
which is unfit to breathe. This is the reason for the
special need of ventilation in the sleeping room.
Water in the form of vapor is constantly passing
off into the air from the surface of bodies of water,
from vegetation, and from animal organisms, as in-
visible vapor. The amount of water vapor present
in the air is very variable. Warm air will hold more
vapor than cold air. Ordinarily on a pleasant day, the
atmosphere holds between 60 per cent and 70 per cent
of the possible amount of water vapor.
26
THE ATMOSPHERE. 19
When the air is saturated or at the dew point, a Dew
slight lowering of the temperature causes the vapor to Point
condense. That air will absorb only a certain amount
of moisture explains why a draft of air is necessary
when drying clothes within doors and why the wash-
ing drys slowly on a damp day.
The presence of vapor in the air is shown by bring-
ing a pitcher of ice water into a warm room. The air
against the cold surface of the pitcher is cooled until
the dew point is reached, when it deposits part of its
moisture. Any person who wears glasses knows the
effect of such condensation in going into a warm room
from out of doors on a cold day. That the air exhaled
contains water may be shown by breathing upon any
bright, cold surface.
The discomfort we feel in a crowded room is largely HOW a
due to the excess of moisture resulting from the produced
breathing and perspiration of so many persons. The
danger of going from a crowded reception or "tea"
into the open air is also due to it. Crowded rooms
become very warm, the air soon becomes saturated
with vapor and cannot take away the perspiration from
our bodies. Our clothes thus become moist and the
skin tender. When we go into the colder, drier air,
clothes and skin suddenly give up their load of mois-
ture. Evaporation absorbs heat ; the heat is taken
from our bodies and a chill results. There is much
to learn concerning the ventilation of rooms for social
purposes.
27
20 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Argon The a ^ r a ^ so con tains a ver Y small amount of a gas
called argon. This was discovered in 1894. It resem-
bles nitrogen so closely that it long escaped detection.
Several other gases are present in minute quantities.
COMBUSTION
Very likely a fire, must be built in the cook stove.
In order that chemical combination may take place,
the conditions must be right. The stove is so con-
structed that a current of air can pass from under the
grate through the fire box, and funnel, to the chimney,
and we must arrange that this air current shall not be
unduly obstructed, for fuel will not burn without
oxygen.
Kindling Substances differ greatly as to the ease or difficulty
with which they may be made to burn, or in chemical
terms, with which they may be made to unite with
oxygen. The temperature to which a substance must
be heated before it will take fire is called the kindling
point. We therefore place light materials, like shav-
ings, pitch-pine chips, or paper on the grate, twisting
the paper and arranging all in such a way that oxygen
has free access to a large surface ; upon this we place
small sticks of wood, piling them across each other
for the same reason, and on this, in turn, hard wood or
coal. The large stick of wood or the coal cannot be
kindled with a match, but the paper or shavings can,
and these in burning will heat the wood until it takes
fire which then will kindle the coal.
28
COMBUSTION.
21
To kindle the fire, we unthinkingly light a match.
The burning of the match repeats the same principle
we have described. The match is made by dipping the
ends of small sticks of wood into melted sulphur, a
substance more easily kindled than wood. When the
sulphur is dried, the match is tipped with a preparation
of phosphorus. Phosphorus has such a low kindling
temperature that friction of the match against any
rough surface heats it sufficiently to set it on fire. In
burning, this sets fire to the sulphur and this, in turn,
kindles the wood. Paraffine now has replaced sulphur.
The products (substances formed) of the burning
match are oxide of phosphorus, oxide of sulphur, and
carbon dioxide and water from the carbon and hydro-
gen of the wood. As our coal fire burns, we have two
different oxides of carbon formed carbon monoxide
composed of one part carbon and one part oxygen,
and carbon dioxide having two parts oxygen to one of
carbon. The carbon monoxide formed in the lower
part of the fire rises through the burning coals, takes
up more oxygen at the top of the fire and forms carbon
dioxide. The blue flames seen over a hard coal fire
are caused by carbon monoxide burning. Carbon
dioxide does not burn, since in this form the carbon
holds as much oxygen as possible. The drafts and
dampers so regulate the supply of oxygen that the
fire may burn rapidly or slowly and that the harmful
products of combustion may be carried out of the
house by way of the chimney.
Chemistry
of a Hatch
Products of
Combustion
Carbon
Monoxide
22
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Constant
Composition
of the Air
Elements
It might be thought that with the millions of human
beings and animals and countless fires constantly using
oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide, that the atmos-
phere would soon consist of a large proportion of car-
bon dioxide. Nature has wonderfully provided for
this. Carbon dioxide, which is the waste matter of
animals, is one of the foods of plants. Thus the trees
of the forest and the shrubs and plants of the garden
are continually taking in the carbon dioxide and giv-
ing out pure oxygen, so that the carbon dioxide is
kept at about three or four parts in 10,000 of air.
As has been said, wood consists mainly of the sub-
stances, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, to-
gether with other substances in small amounts. The
growing tree has taken these simple substances from
the air and earth and stored them up in a complex form
as wod.
The chemist calls the simple substances out of which
different things are made, elements. Carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, silver, gold, copper,
iron, lead, tin, mercury, zinc, aluminum are the chemi-
cal elements familiar to most people. When the wood
is burned, or oxidized, its elements are made into new
combinations, but in the burning no substance is de-
stroyed. Some of the new products are invisible, it
is true, but that they exist may be proved in many
ways.
One of the fundamental laws of chemistry is the
Law of Conservation of Matter (substance). This
may be stated as follows: The weight of all the
30
COMBUSTION.
products made in a chemical action is exactly equal to
the weight of all the substances used. That is, the
weight of the dry wood plus the weight of the oxygen
required to burn it, equals the combined weight of car-
bon dioxide, water, and ashes produced. Matter can
neither be destroyed nor created it can only be
changed or transformed. Scientists- have reason to be-
lieve that there is just the same amount of oxygen, nit-
rogen, sulphur, iron and of all the other elements in
the universe at the present moment as there was at the
beginning of things.
A familiar form of nearly pure carbon is charcoal.
It is made by heating wood for a time with a very
small amount of air. The vola-
tile parts of the wood are driven
off, leaving the carbon. The old
fashioned method of making
charcoal is shown in Fig. II,
where the burning of part of the
wood gave the heat necessary for
the making of the charcoal. At Fig - " Charcoal Klln -
the present time, most charcoal is made by the de-
structive distillation of hard wood in iron stills ; the
products being charcoal, crude wood alcohol, crude
acetic acid, together with gas and wood tar, which last
are burned to give the heat for the process.
Charcoal is a porous substance and has the power of
absorbing into its pores gases and even particles of
Conservation
of Matter.
Charcoal
31
24 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
coloring matter. A few pieces of charcoal added to
the water in which flowers are standing, or plants
growing, help to keep the water sweet by absorbing the
impurities. Boneblack, a very finely powdered animal
charcoal, is used to decolorize liquids. If it is mixed
with a dark syrup, for instance, and the mixture vio-
lently shaken, the color will be absorbed and filtration
will give a nearly colorless syrup.
Coal Coal is formed in almost every country on the
earth, but the United States has the largest amount.
It was originally wood and other carbonaceous mate-
rial, once a part of living organism at a date of perhaps
millions of years ago. During these years, the earth's 1
crust has been subjected to slow upheavals and depres-
sions, so that in some places, what was originally at
the surface has been covered with thousands of feet of
earthy matter, or possibly by the ocean. Under enor-
mous pressure, the plants have been subjected to heat
from the earth's interior. This is destructive distil-
lation on the largest scale.
Graphite In the making of coal if this distillation is com-
plete, a substance called graphite is obtained. Graphite
is the black lead used in lead pencils and in stove polish.
It is a shiny, black mineral with a slippery feeling and
is nearly 100 per cent carbon. If the distillation is
less complete, hard coal, called anthracite containing
about 90 per cent carbon, results. If still less per-
fect, soft or bituminous coal, having varying per-
centages of carbon, is formed.
32
COMBUSTION. 25
Where the process goes on under water, peat is Peat
found. This is partially formed coal, but little dis-
tilled and contains only about 40 per cent carbon.
Besides carbon, these substances are made up of
gases composed of carbon and hydrogen, called hydro-
carbons. These gases give the yellowish and orange
flames in a coal fire. Pure carbon does not burn with
flame it merely glows. Anthracite coal contains
only from 3 to 4 per cent of volatile matter, but bi-
tuminous coal may have 30 to 40 per cent of these
hydro-carbon gases.
Coke is made by the destructive distillation of soft coke
coal. Like charcoal, it is chiefly carbon, but contains
more mineral matter (ash). The coke obtained as a
bi-product in the manufacture of coal gas is rather soft,
but when coke is made as the principal product, it is
hard and brittle. Coke makes a very hot fire without
flame, but does not last as well as hard coal. The ash
should be allowed to accumulate in the grate when
burning it. Many consider it an improvement over
soft coal for household use and it might be used to
advantage more than it is.
Graphite is so hard and compact that it cannot be
burned. Anthracite ignites with some difficulty and
then burns slowly with intense heat.
Bituminous coal ignites readily and burns well when coking
there is sufficient draft. The "coking" variety cakes
over on top and the fire must be broken up to allow
the air to penetrate the fire. Soft coal should be put
on the fire in small amounts as otherwise the hydro-
33
26
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
carbon gases escape unburned and thus much heat
value is lost. Smoke is made up of finely divided
particles of carbon and is always an indication of in-
complete combustion and, therefore, loss.
Fig. 12. Burner of a Blue Flame Oil Stove.
Oil from tank (not shown) is forced up O, Is vaporized in passing
through the straight tube, mixes with air at A, .and burns with a blue
flame at the top.
Kerosene and gasoline are also important fuels. Gas
will be taken up under the subject of light. Petroleum
is an oily liquid found in many places in large quanti-
ties, particularly in Pennsylvania and Ohio. It is
made up almost entirely of compounds of carbon and
hydrogen ( hydro-carbons ) .
When the crude petroleum from the Pennsylvania
district is purified by distillation and other processes,
the main product is kerosene. The lighter and more
volatile products are gasoline, naphtha, and benzine
all three having much the same composition. Gaso-
line is the most volatile. Among the heavier products
are various lubricating oils, vaseline, and paraffin.
In order to burn, kerosene must be vaporized. In
the new blue flame oil stoves, various devices are em-
34
COMBUSTION. 27
ployed to vaporize the oil. In Fig. 12 the oil passes
through a tube heated by the flame, where it is changed
to vapor which is mixed automatically with air and is
then burned. Sometimes an alcohol flame is used to
start this process, but the flame of the burning oil
itself continues it. A slight pressure of air is main-
tained in the oil reservoir to give a constant small jet
of oil to be vaporized. In other styles of stoves, the
oil is fed automatically by gravity to a hollow ring,
when it becomes heated to the point that it gives vapor.
The vapor mixes with air and burns with a blue flame.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 13.
Blue Flame Oil Stove, Showing Oil Reservoir and Light-
ing Ring.
Gasoline is burned on much the same principle as
kerosene. It vaporizes much more easily and the pres-
sure for the flow of the gasoline is furnished usually
by having the tank a few feet above the burner.
Gaioline
35
28 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
The measure of safety of kerosene is the temperature
at w hich it will give off an inflammable gas. This
is called the -flash point and is determined by heating
the oil slowly and observing the temperature at which
a flash can be produced by applying a lighted taper
to the surface of the oil. Below the flash point, there
is no danger of explosion from oil. Most states in the
United States have a legal flash point, or a fire test,
below which standard kerosene cannot be sold. The
flash point of good kerosene is 120 F. The fire test
is the temperature at which the oil will take fire and
burn when a light is applied. This is about 30 F
higher than the flash point. The ordinary tempera-
ture of the room is above the flash point of gasoline,
naphtha, benzine, etc. In other words, these sub-
stances are constantly giving out an inflammable vapor.
Fuel A comparison of the heating value of the various
fuels will be of interest. Practical tests of the amount
of steam produced in a steam boiler have shown that
one cord of ordinary wood is approximately equal to
one-half ton of coal ; a gallon of oil (or gasoline) is
equal to about twelve pounds of coal; 1,000 cubic feet
of coal gas is equal to 50 or 60 pounds of coal, or about
four and one-half gallons of oil. Hard coal has a
little higher fuel value than soft coal, because the com-
bustion is commonly more perfect. Coke is -nearly
equal to hard coal by weight, but is much more bulky.
It is usually sold by measure. A bushel of coke
weighs 40 pounds, of anthracite 67 pounds, and of soft
36
POOD. 29
coal 76 pounds. Damp wood is a much poorer fuel
than dry wood, because so much heat is absorbed and
wasted in changing the water into steam.
The heat given off by a fuel is not the only point to
be considered. In the cook stove, but a small portion
of the heat given off by the solid fuel can be used for
cooking, as most of it is radiated into the room or
carried up the chimney. In the gas or oil stove, the
flame may be applied exactly where it is wanted, so
that the proportion of heat which can be used is much
greater. Moreover, the flame can be shut off instantly
when wanted no longer and all expense stopped. On
the other hand, the range usually serves to heat the
water of the hot water system, incinerate garbage, and
in winter helps to heat the house.
FOOD
Having the fire well under way the housekeeper
turns her attention to the breakfast. A great variety
of chemical actions may here be considered. In the
first place, why must we -"eat to live ?"
Wherever there is life, there is chemical change;
and as a rule a certain degree of heat is necessary
in order that chemical charlge may occur. Vegetation
does not begin in the colder climates until the air be-
comes warmed by the heat of the spring. When the
cold of winter comes upon the land vegetation ceases.
Since many* animals live in temperatures in which
plants would die, it is evident that they must have some
37
Combustion
in the Body
Vital
Temperature
Air as
Food
3 o CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
source of heat in themselves. This is found in the
union of the oxygen of the air breathed with car-
bonaceous matter eaten as food and the formation of
carbon dioxide and water, just as in the combustion of
wood or coal. Only instead of this union taking place
in one spot and so rapidly as to be accompanied by
light, as in the case of fire, it takes place slowly and
continuously in each living cell. Nevertheless, the
chemical reaction seems to be identical.
The heat of the human body must be maintained at
98.5 F the vital temperature the temperature neces-
sary for the best performance of the normal functions.
Any continued variation from this degree of heat in-
dicates disease. Especially important is it that there
be no considerable lowering of this temperature, for a
fall of one degree is dangerous, since in that case the
chemical changes necessary to the body cannot be car-
ried out.
The slow combustion or oxidation of the carbon
and hydrogen of food cannot take place without an
abundance of oxygen ; hence the diet of the animal must
include fresh air a point not always considered.
The amount of oxygen taken in by the body daily is
equal to the sum of all the other food elements.
Except water, two-thirds of these foods consists of
some form of starch or sugar the socalled carbohy-
drates, in which the hydrogen and oxygen are found in
the same proportion as in water.
The power to do mechanical work comes from the
38
FOOD. 31
combustion of fuel. The body is a living machine
capable of doing work, raising weights, pulling loads,
and the like. The animal body also requires fuel in
order to do such work as thinking, talking, even wor-
rying. For the present, then, we will say that food is
necessary, (i) to preserve the vital temperature and
(2) to enable the body-machine to do its work.
Suppose we begin our breakfast with fruit, say, an
orange or a banana. Fruits are especially rich in
sugars and these are composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. If sugar is placed upon a stove, it will
melt and steam (water) will pass off into the air,
leaving the black charcoal (carbon) on the stove.
Moreover, sugars burn easily and fiercely. We shall
get both heat and energy from our fruit. Within the
body it will be changed into water and carbon dioxide-
Fruits contain a large percentage of water; but the
banana is capable of giving more energy and heat 'than
the orange, because it has much less water and more
sugar. Fruit loses in drying a large portion of its
water, so that dried fruits contain a larger percentage
of food materials than fresh fruits. For instance,
raisins are 60 per cent grape sugar.
Fruits consist of a loose net-work of a woody ma-
terial holding the soft pulp and this woody fibre, called
cellulose, is practically indigestible. Cooking softens
this, making cooked fruits easier to digest.
The Body
a Machine
Fruit
Cellules*
39
32 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
SUGARS AND STARCHES.
At breakfast some sugar from the sugar bowl may
be added to the fruit. Many people add sugar to the
oatmeal or other cereal eaten, although it is often held
by teachers of dietetics that this is not a good place to
use it, for proper cooking and thorough mastication of
the cereal will bring out a rich sweetness due to changes
explained later. Country boys know how sweet a
morsel is made by chewing raw grains, especially
wheat. Possibly a glass of milk is taken at breakfast
and this contains another kind of sugar milk sugar
in about 5 per cent. Coffee and tea are usually sweet-
ened, so that a considerable part of the breakfast may
be of this class of foods a quickly burning material
giving heat and energy.
cane There are several different sugars recognized by
chemists ; these are cane sugar or sucrose, grape sugar
or glucose, milk sugar or lactose, and fruit sugar or
levulose. Cane sugar is obtained from the juices of
many plants, notably sugar beets, sugar cane, the
palm, and as maple sugar from the rock-maple trees.
Molasses and brown sugar are obtained during the
manufacture of white sugar from sugar cane. Cane
sugar is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
in the proportion of twelve parts of carbon to eleven
parts of water. When sugar is heated it is chemically
changed, more or less, according to the degree of heat
and the rapidity with which it parts with its water.
40
SUGARS AND STARCHES. 33
Heating it gradually, we obtain first straw colored
barley sugar, then brown caramel,- and finally black
carbon.
Grape sugar is found in honey and in all ripe fruits. Grape
It consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in some-
what different proportions from what they occur in
cane sugar. It appears on the outside of dried fruits,
such as raisins. It is only two-fifths as sweet as cane
sugar. Large quantities are manufactured from corn
starch.
Milk sugar is similar to cane sugar in composition. Milk
It is obtained from the whey of milk. It is hard Sugar
and gritty and not very sweet to taste. When milk
sours, it is because this sugar is fermented and changed
into lactic acid. The acid causes the milk to curdle.
Fruit sugar or levulose occurs with glucose (grape Fruit
sugar) in fruits. It is about as sweet as cane sugar Sugar
but it does not crystallize.
A marked characteristic of all sugars is their solu-
bility and all but the last are crystalline substances,
that is, will form crystals.
At breakfast bread, toast, or some cereal like oat- sta rch
meal or wheat, usually follows the fruit course.*
These foods are prepared from grains (seeds) and
contain much nutriment in a condensed form. They
supply the body with starch and some nitrogenous
food. But the body cannot use starch as such. It
must be changed into a form of sugar called starch
sugar, or maltose. While we are following Mr. Glad-
41
34
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Source
of Starch
stone's rule and chewing each mouthful of our toast
twenty-five times, we will consider what starch is like
and how it is made available for use.
Starch is found in greater or less abundance in all
plants and is laid up in large quantities in the seeds of
many species. See Fig. 14. Rice is nearly pure
starch; wheat and the other cereals contain sixty to
seventy per cent of it. Some tubers, such as potatoes,
contain it although in less quantity ten to twenty per
cent.
It is formed by means
of the living plant-cell
and the sun's rays, from
^ the carbon dioxide and
water contained in the
Fig. 14. Starch Much Magnified
a, Potato Starch; b, Corn Starch.
air and it is the end of
the plant - life the
stored energy of the
summer. It is prepared
and stored by the parent
for the food for the young plant until the latter can
start its own starch factories.
Starch in its common forms is insoluble in water. It
dissolves partially in boiling water, forming a trans
parent jelly when cooled, as every housekeeper knows.
The cellulose which occurs in various forms in the
shells and skins of fruits, in their membraneous parti-
tions, and in cell walls, is an allied substance.
42
SUGARS AND STARCHES.
DIGESTION
35
Digestion is primarily synonymous with solution.
All solid food materials must become practically solu-
ble before they can pass through the walls of the di-
gestive system. Starch and like materials must be
transformed into soluble substances before absorption
can take place. Cane-sugar, though soluble, has to
undergo chemical change before it can be absorbed.
By these changes it is converted into grape and fruit
sugars. These and milk sugar are taken directly or
with little change into the circulation. To this fact is
due a large part of the great nutritive value of the
dried fruits, as raisins, dates, and figs, and the advan-
tage of milk-sugar over cane-sugar for children or in-
valids.
Under certain conditions weakened digestive power
or excess of sugar cane-sugar may remain so long
in the stomach before the change takes place that fer-
mentation sets in and a "sour stomach" results. This
is one of the dangers of too much candy.
The chemical transformations of starch and sugar
have been very carefully and scientifically studied with
reference to brewing and wine-making. Several of
the operations concerned necessitate great precision in
respect to temperature and length of time, and these
operations bear a close resemblance to the process
of bread-making by means of yeast.
There are two distinct means known to the chemist
by which starch is changed to sugar. One is by the
Digestion
of Starch
Starch
Conversion
43
Ferments
Conversion
in the Body
36 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
use of acid and heat, which changes the starch into
sugar, but can go no farther. The other is by the use
of a class of substances called ferments, some of which
have the power of changing starch into sugar, and
others of changing the sugar into alcohol and carbon
dioxide. These ferments are very important in all
vegetable and animal life. Some are formed by small
plants like yeast, which is often present in the air.
Among the well known ferments is one formed in
sprouting grain, which is called diastase or starch con-
verter, and under the influence of warmth, changes the
starch into a sugar. The starch first
takes up water; then under the in-
fluence of the ferment, is changed
into maltose, a form of sugar
which is easily soluble in water. A
similar process is carried on in the
preparation of the malted foods on
the market.
The same cycle of chemical changes goes on in the
human body when starchy substances are taken as
food. Such food is moistened with saliva and warmed
in the mouth, becoming well mixed through mastica-
tion. It thereby becomes impregnated with ptyalin,
a ferment in the saliva, which can change starch into
sugar, as can the diastase of the malt. The mass then
passes into the stomach and the change, once begun,
goes on. In the intestines the sugar formed is absorbed,
into the circulatory system and by the life proc-
Fig-. 15.
Yeast Highly
Magnified.
44
COOKING.. 37
esses, is oxidized, that is, united with more oxygen
and changed finally into carbon dioxide and water,
from which it was made by the help of plant life and
sun light.
No starch is utilized in the human system as starch. Digestion
It must undergo transformation before it can be ab-
sorbed. Therefore, starchy foods must not be given to
children before the secretion of the starch converting
ferments has begun, nor to any one in any disease
where the normal action of the glands secreting these
ferments is interrupted. Whatever starch passes out
of the stomach unchanged, meets with a very active
converter in the intestinal juice. If grains of starch
escape these two agents, they leave the system in the
same form as that in which they entered it.
COOKING
Early man, probably, lived much like the beasts,
taking his food in a raw state. Civilized man requires
much of the raw material to be changed by the action
of heat into substances more palatable and already
partly digested.
The chemistry of cooking the raw materials is very cooking
simple. It is in the mixing of incongruous materials
in one dish or one meal that complications arise.
The cooking of starch, as rice, farina, etc., requires
little explanation. The starch grains are prepared by
the plant to keep during a season of cold or drought
and are very close and compact; they need to be
38 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
swollen and distended by moisture in order that the
chemical change may take place readily. Starch grains
may increase to twenty-five times their bulk by absorb-
ing water.
The cooking of the potato and other starch-contain-
ing vegetables, although largely a physical or mechani-
cal process is very necessary as a preparation for the
chemical actions of digestion ; for raw starch has been
shown to require a far longer time and more digestive
power than cooked starch. Change takes place slowly,
even with thorough mastication, unless the starch is
swollen and heated, and, in case the intestinal secre-
tion is disturbed, the starch may not become converted
at all.
Bread Our breakfast will undoubtedly contain bread.
Bread of some kind has been used by mankind from
the first dawn of civilization. During the earlier
stages it consisted chiefly of powdered meal and water
baked in the sun or on hot stones. This kind of bread
had the same characteristics as the modern sea-biscuit,
crackers, and hoe cakes, as far as digestibility was
concerned. It had great density; it was difficult to
masticate ; and the starch in it presented but little
more surface to the digestive fluids than that in the
hard compact grain, the seed of the plant.
Experience must have taught the semi-civilized man
that a light porous loaf was more digestible than a
dense one. Probably some dough was accidentally left
exposed; yeast plants settled upon it from the air;
46
COOKING. 39
fermentation set in, and the possibility of porous bread
was thus suggested.
A light, spongy, crisp bread with a sweet, pleasant ideal
taste, is not only aesthetically but chemically con- d .
sidered the best form in which starch -can be presented
to the digestive organs. The porous condition is de-
sired in order that as large a surface as possible may
be presented to the action of the chemical converter,
the ptyalin of the saliva, and later to other digestive
ferments. There is also better aeration during the
process of mastication.
Very early in the history of the human race, leavened Leaven
bread seems to have been used. This was made by
allowing flour and water to stand in a warm place until
fermentation had well set in. A portion of this dough
was used to start the process anew in fresh portions of
flour and water. This kind of bread had to be made
with great care, for germs different from yeast might
get in, forming lactic acid the acid of sour milk
and other substances unpleasant to the taste and harm-
ful to the digestion.
A sponge made from perfectly pure yeast and kept
pure may stand for a long time after it is ready for
the oven and still show no signs of sourness.
On account of the disagreeable taste of leaven and
because of the possibility that the dough might reach
the stage of putrid fermentation, chemists and physi-
cians sought for some other means of rendering the
bread light and porous. The search began almost as
47
40 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
soon as chemistry was worthy the name of a science,
and one of the early patents bears the date 1873. Much
time and thought have been devoted to the perfecting
of unfermented bread; but since the process of beer-
making has been universally introduced, yeast has
been readily obtained, and is an effectual means of giv-
ing to the bread a porous character and a pleasant
taste. Since the chemistry of the yeast fermentation
has been better understood, a change of opinions has
come about, and nearly all scientific and medical men
now recommend fermented bread, if well baked.
chemistry of The chemical reactions concerned in bread-making
Bread-Making are s j m ii ar to t h ose j n beer-making. To the flour and
warmed water is added yeast, a microscopic plant,
capable of causing the alcoholic fermentation. The
yeast begins to act at once, but slowly; more rapidly
if sugar has been added and the dough is a semi-fluid.
Without the addition of sugar no change is evident to
the eye for some hours, as the fermentation of starch
to sugar by the diastase present gives no gaseous
products. The sugar is decomposed by the yeast plant
into alcohol and the gas, carbon dioxide; the latter
product makes itself known by the swelling of the
whole mass and the bubbles which appear on the sur-
face.
It is the carbon dioxide, which causes the sponge-
like condition of the loaf by reason of the peculiar
tenacity of the gluten, one of the constituents of wheat.
It is a well-known fact that no other kind of grain will
48
COOKING. 41
make so light a bread as wheat. It is the right pro-
portion of gluten (a nitrogenous substance to be con-
sidered later) which enables the light loaf to be made
of wheat flour.
The production of carbon dioxide is the end of the
chemical process. The rest is purely mechanical.
The baking of the loaf has for its object to kill the OVeot
ferment, to heat the starch sufficiently to render it Baking
easily soluble, to expand the carbon dioxide and drive
off the alcohol, to stiffen the gluten, and to make chem-
ical changes which shall give a pleasant flavor to the
crust. The oven must be hot enough to raise the tem-
perature of the inside of the loaf to 212 F, or the
bacteria will not all be killed. A pound loaf, four
inches by four inches by nine inches long, may be
baked three-quarters of an hour in an oven where the
temperature is 400 F, or for an hour and a half, when
the temperature during the time does not rise above
350 F. Quick baking gives a white loaf, because the
starch has undergone but little change. The long,
slow baking gives a yellow tint, with the desirable
nutty flavor, and crisp crust. Different flavors in
bread are supposed to be caused by the different
varieties of yeast used or by bacteria, which are pres-
ent in all doughs, as ordinarily prepared.
The brown coloration of the crust, which gives a
The Crust
peculiar flavor to the loaf, is caused by the formation
of substances analogous to dextrine and caramel, due
to the high heat to which the starch is subjected.
49
42 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
One hundred pounds of flour are said to make from
126 to 150 pounds of bread. This increase of weight
is due to the incorporation of water, possibly by a
chemical union, as the water does not dry out of a loaf,
as it does out of a sponge. The bread seems moist when
first taken from the oven, and dry after standing some
hours, but the weight will be found to be nearly the
same. It is this probable chemical change which makes
the difference, to delicate stomachs, between fresh
bread and stale. A thick loaf is best when eaten after
it is twenty-four hours old, although it is said to be
"done" when ten hours have passed. Thin biscuit do
not show the same ill effects when eaten hot.
The bread must be well baked in any case, in order
that the process of fermentation may be stopped. If
this be stopped and the mastication be thorough, so
that the bread when swallowed is in finely divided por-
tions instead of in a mass or ball, the digestibility of
fresh and stale bread is about the same.
water The expansion of water or ice into more than seven-
teen hundred times its volume of steam is sometimes
taken advantage of in making snow-bread, water-gems,
etc. It plays a part in the lightening of pastry and
crackers.
Air, at 70 degrees, doubles its volume at a tempera-
ture of 560 degrees F, so that if air is entangled in a
mass of dough, it gives a certain lightness when the
whole is baked. This is the cause of the sponginess
of cakes made with eggs. The viscous albumen or
50
COOKING. 43
"white of egg" catches the air and holds it, even when
it is expanded, unless the oven is too hot, when the
sudden expansion is liable to burst the bubbles and the
cake falls.
FATS
If cream instead of milk is used on the cereal or in
the coffee, this with the butter on the bread, will add
a considerable amount of another important food,
fat. Fats form a large class of food stuffs which in-
clude the animal fats like cream, butter, suet, lard,
cod liver oil and tallow, and vegetable fats like olive
and cotton-seed oils, etc. Within the animal body ail
fats are liquids, being held in little cells which make
up the fatty tissue.
The digestion of fats is probably something like a Digestion
process of soap making. With the intestinal fluids, of Fats
the bile especially, the fats form an emulsion in which
the globules are finely divided, and in some way are
rendered capable of passing through the membranes
into the circulatory system. The change, if any, does
not destroy the properties of the fatty matters.
If we define cooking as the application of heat, then
whatever we do to fats in the line of cooking is liable
to hinder rather than help digestibility.
Fats may be heated to a temperature far above that Cookinjr
of boiling water without showing any change ; but of Fats
there comes a point, different for each fat, where re-
actions take place, the products of which irritate the
mucous membranes and therefore interfere with diges-
51
44
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Composition
of Fats
Heat from
Fats
tion. It is the volatile products of such decomposition
which cause the familiar action upon the eyes and
throat during the process of frying, and also, the tell-
tale odors throughout the house. The indigestibility of
fatty foods, or foods cooked in fat, is due to these
harmful substances produced by too high temperature.
Many fats are solid at ordinary temperatures, while
others are always liquids, but all fatty materials have
a similar composition. When pure they contain only
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They differ from
starch and sugar in the proportion of oxygen to the
carbon and hydrogen, there being very little oxygen
relatively in fats, hence more must be taken from the
air for their combustion. If persons eat much fat they
must have more fresh air to burn it. A person confined
to the house needs to be careful what fats, and how
much, are taken.
One pound of starch requires one and two-tenths
pounds of oxygen, while one pound of suet requires
about three pounds of oxygen for perfect combustion.
This combustion of oxygen with the large amount of
hydrogen, as well as with the carbon, results in a
greater quantity of heat from fat, pound for pound,
than can be obtained from starch or sugar. Experi-
ments indicate that the fats yield more than twice as
much heat as the carbohydrates ; hence people in
Arctic regions use large amounts of fat and every-
where the diet of winter may safely contain more fat
than that of summer.
52
NITROGENOUS FOODS.
45
Both fats and carbohydrates are the sources of the
energy or work done by the body as well as the heat
to keep up the vital temperature and they must be
increased in proportion as the mechanical work of the
body increases. A man breaking stone needs more fat
or starch than the student. If a quantity is taken at
any one time greater than the body needs for im-
mediate work, the surplus will be deposited as fat, and
this will be drawn in case of a lack in the future sup-
ply of either ; it is like a bank account.
NITROGENOUS FOODS
The animal body is more than a machine. It re-
quires fuel to enable it not only to work but also to
live, even without working. A part of the food eaten
must go to maintain the body, for while the inani-
mate machine is sent periodically to the repair-shop, the
living machine must do its own repairing, day by day
and minute by minute.
The adult animal lives, repairs waste, and does
work ; while the young animal does all these and more
it grows. For growth and repairs something else
is needed beside starch and fat.
The muscles are the instruments of motion, and
they must be nourished in order that they may have
power. The nourishment is carried to them by the
blood in which, as well as in muscular tissue, there
is found a food element which we have not heretofore
considered, namely, nitrogen. It has been proved that
the use of the muscles and the brain sets free certain
Food
a Source
of Energy
Nitrogen
Necessary
53
Proteids
46 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
nitrogenous compounds which pass out of the system
as such, and this loss must be supplied by the use of
some kind of food which contains nitrogen. Starch
and fat do not contain this element; therefore they
cannot furnish it to the blood.
The American breakfast will probably include meat,
fish, or eggs. These are examples of the nitrogenous
food-stuffs. Nitrogenous food compounds are some-
times classed together under the name of proteins.
These may be - divided -into proteids, gelatinoids, and
extractives.
The proteids all resemble albumin, which is found
nearly pure in the white of an egg. These in some
form are never absent from animal and vegetable or-
ganisms. They are most abundant in animal flesh and
in the blood. Other common articles of diet belong-
ing to this group in addition to albumin, are the curd
of milk (casein), the lean of animal flesh and fish
and gluten of wheat, and the legumin of peas and
beans. The proteids are the most important nitro-
genous food materials. They build up and repair the
muscles, tendons, cartilage, bones-, and skin and supply
the albumin of the blood and other fluids of the body.
The animal skeleton horns, bones, cartilage, con-
nective tissues, etc. contains nitrogenous com-
pounds which are converted by boiling into substances
that form with water a jelly-like mass. These are
known as the gelatinoids and are so named because of
their resemblance to gelatin. Although somewhat
54
NITROGENOUS FOODS.
47
similar to the proteids in composition they are not
thought to be true flesh formers. However, they do
help out the proteids in some unknown way.
The chief constituent of the connective tissues of
meats is collagen. This is insoluble in cold water, but
in hot water becomes soluble and yields gelatin. Col-
lagen swells when heated and when treated with
dilute acids. Steak increases in bulk when placed
over the coals, and tough meat is rendered tender by
soaking in vinegar. Meat a few days old is tough,
for the collagen is dry and hard. In time it becomes
softened by acids which are secreted by bacteria either
in or on the meat ; the meat thus becomes tender and
easily masticated. Tannic acid has the opposite effect
upon collagen, hardening and shrinking it. This ef-
fect is taken advantage of in tanning, and is the dis-
advantage of boiled tea as a beverage, since tea always
contains a little of this tannic acid when freshly made
and much more if the tea is boiled.
The last class of nitrogenous compounds are the
extractives, so called because they are readily extracted
by water from meat where they principally occur. The
proteins of this class are thought to have little value
as food, but they give the flavor to meats, etc., and are
therefore of great importance. They are stimulants,
somewhat of the nature of caffein of coffee and the
thein of tea.
Collagen
Extractives
55
48 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
COOKING OF NITROGENOUS FOOD-STUFFS.
Cooking should render nitrogenous food more solu-
ble because here, as in every case, digestibility means
solubility. Egg albumin is soluble in cold water, bu,-
coagulates at about 160 F. At this point it is ten-
der, jelly-like, and easily digested, while at a higher
temperature it becomes tough, hard and dissolves with
difficulty. Therefore, when the white of egg (al-
bumin), the curd of milk (casein), or the gluten of
wheat are hardened by heat, a much longer time is
required to effect solution.
Albumin As previously stated, egg albumin is tender and
jelly-like when heated from 160 F to 180 F. This
fact should never be forgotten in the cooking of eggs.
Raw eggs are easily digested and are rich in nutri-
ment; when heated just enough to coagulate the al-
bumin or "the white," their digestibility is not ma-
terially lessened; but when boiled, the albumin is
rendered much less soluble.
In frying eggs, the fat often reaches a temperature
of 300 or over far above that at which the albumin
becomes tough, hard, and well-nigh insoluble.
There is much albumin in the blood, therefore the
juices of meat extracted in cold water form a weak
albuminous solution. If this be heated to the right
temperature the albumin is coagulated and forms the
"scum" which many a cook skims off and throws away.
In doing this she wastes a portion of the nutriment.
56
NITROGENOUS FOODS. 49
Experiments on the digestibility of gluten have Gluten
proved that a high temperature largely decreases its
solubility. Subjected to artificial digestion for the
same length of time, nearly two and one-half times'
as much nitrogen was dissolved from the raw gluten
as from that which had been baked.
When gluten is combined with starch, as in the
cereals, the difficulties of correct cooking are many,
for the heat which increases the digestibility of the
starch decreases that of the gluten.
Experiment.- The gluten in wheat flour may be ob-
tained as follows : Place half a cupful of flour in a
muslin bag and knead under water. The starch will
work out through the bag. After a time all the starch
may be so separated. A brown, elastic, stringy mass
remains in the muslin. This is gluten, the nitrogenous
part of the flour.
The same principle of cooking applies to casein of oasem
milk, although to a less extent. There seems to be no
doubt that boiling decreases its solubility, and con-
sequently, its digestibility for persons of delicate di-
gestive power.
The nitrogenous substances of meat consist of solu- Meat
ble albumin, chiefly in the blood and juices, the al-
buminoids of the fibres, the gelatinoids of the connect-
ing tissues, and the extractives. The cooking should
soften and loosen the connective tissue, so that the lit-
tle bundle of fibre which contains the nutriment may
fall apart easily when brought in contact with the
57
Broth
and
Soup
50 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
teeth. Any process which toughens and hardens the
meat should be avoided.
When it is desired to retain the juices within the
meat or fish, it should be placed in boiling water so
that the albumin of the surface may be hardened and
prevent the escape of the albumin of the interior. The
temperature should then be lowered and kept between
1 60 and 1 80 degrees during the time needed for the
complete breaking down of the connective tissues.
When the nutriment is to be used in broths, stews,
or soups, the meat should be placed in cold water, heat-
ing very slowly and the temperature not allowed to
rise above 180 F until the extraction is complete. The
extracted meat still retains the greater part of its
original proteid substances. It is tasteless and un-
inviting, but when combined with vegetables and
flavoring materials may be made into a palatable and
nutritious food.
Experiment. To show the effect of water at dif-
ferent temperatures upon raw meat, place a bit of lean
meat about as large as the finger in a glass of cold
water and let it stand an hour.^ The water becomes
red, and the meat grows white. Pour off this \vater
and boil it. A scum rises to the surface. The albu-
min dissolved has been rendered insoluble by heat.
Put a bit of raw meat into boiling water, and boil it
hard several minutes. The meat is toughened by the
process. The outside of the meat is hardened first,
and very little of the nutriment dissolves in the water.
58
FOOD. 51
Put the meat into cold water and bring the tem-
perature slowly to the boiling point; then allow it to
simmer gently for some time. The meat is tender, and
some of the nutriment is in the water. This is the
method employed in making a stew. A little fat which
is always present even between the fibre of the lean
meat will be melted out and rise to the top of the
water.
We have seen that the ferment in the saliva changed Digestion
the starch into a sugar. The ferment in the gastric
juice, pepsin, with the help of an acid (principally
hydrochloric acid) changes the albuminoids into pep-
tones in the stomacli. This change is completed in the
intestines. The peptones are soluble in water and are
absorbed into the blood.
SUMMARY OF THE EFFECTS OF COOKING
The object of all cooking is to make the food-stuffs
more palatable or more digestible, or both combined.
In general, the starchy foods are rendered more di-
gestible by cooking; the albuminous and fatty foods
less digestible. The appetite of civilized man craves
and custom encourages the putting together of raw
materials of such diverse chemical composition that
the processes of cooking are also made complex.
Bread the staff of life requires a high degree of
heat to kill the plant-life, and long baking to prepare
the starch for solution; while, by the same process,
the gluten is made less soluble. Fats, alone, are easily
digested, but in the ordinary method of frying, they
59
Effect on
Solubility
Common
Salt
52 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
not only may become decomposed themselves, and
therefore injurious ; but they also prevent the necessary
action of heat, or of the digestive ferments upon the
starchy materials with which the fats are mixed.
The effects of cooking upon the solubility of the
three important food-principles may be broadly stated
thus:
Starchy foods are made more soluble by long cook-
ing at moderate temperatures or by heat high enough
to change a portion of the starch to dextrine, as in
the brown crust of bread.
Nitrogenous foods. The animal and vegetable al-
bumins are made less soluble by heat; the gelatinoids
more soluble.
Fats are readily absorbed in their natural condition,
but are decomposed at very high temperatures and
their products become irritants.
MINERAL MATTER
The remaining ingredient of the food of our break-
fast to be considered is the mineral matter which con-
stitutes the ash when food-products are burned. There
is only 5 or 6 per cent of mineral elements in our bod-
ies, but these materials are necessary to life and health.
They are found chiefly in the bones and teeth, but are
present also in the flesh, blood, and other fluids. Phos-
phate of calcium forms the principal mineral part of
the bones.
The food we eat contains a small amount of mineral
matter which forms the ashes when food is burned.
60
MINERAL MATTER. S3
This mineral matter gives the body the mineral salts
which it needs ; but in addition to this, most people de-
sire and eat a considerable quantity of common salt
every day. The amount eaten is far in excess of the
sodium and chlorine the body requires, though sodium
is an important constituent of many of the fluids of the
body, and chlorine is found in hydrochloric acid of the
gastric juice, the digestive fluid of the stomach. A
great diversity of opinion exists as to the desirability
of much salt in the diet, but the balance of evidence in-
dicates that a liberal amount of salt is not harmful, but
rather beneficial.
Experiment. To show the mineral part of bones,
place a moderate sized bone on a hot coal fire for half
an hour or longer.
To show the gelatinoids of bones, place a small bone
in a shallow dish and cover with strong vinegar or
weak hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid) and let stand
over night or longer. The acid will dissolve out the
phosphate of calcium leaving the animal matter.
Coffee, an important part of the breakfast to most Flavor
people, introduces an important feature of the chem-
istry of cooking the production of the proper flavor.
The chemical changes involved are too subtile for ex-
planation here indeed many are not understood. The
change in the coffee berry by roasting is a familiar il-
lustration. The heat of the fire causes the breaking
up of a .substance existing in the berry, and the forma-
tion of several new ones. If the heat is not sufficient,
61
54 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
the right odor will not be given; if it is too great, the
aroma will be dissipated into the air, or the compound
will be destroyed.
Broiling steak is another illustration a few seconds
too long, a few degrees too hot, and the delicate morsel
becomes an irritating mass. The chemistry of flavor-
producing is the application of heat to the food material
in such a way as to bring about the right changes and
only these. Flavors in addition to the pleasure they
give to eating have the advantage of stimulating the
flow of digestive fluids and making digestion more
easy.
DECAY
The clearing away of the breakfast introduces to the
housekeeper two important problems: (i) the pres-
ervation of the remaining food from decay; (2) the
proper cleaning of the articles used during the meal
and its preparation.
Decay is caused by minute vegetable organisms
known as moulds and bacteria. Both are present in
the air either as the plants themselves or as their
spores, the reproductive cells, ready to grow whenever
they fall upon suitable soil. When these grow upon
animal or vegetable substances, a variety of new com-
pounds are formed, many of them taking oxygen from
the air, so that finally the carbon becomes carbon diox-
ide, the hydrogen is oxydized to form water, and the
other elements in their turn also become oxides, so
that the decaying substance is utterly destroyed and
62
DECAY. 55
new substances made in its place. When organic sub-
stances are protected from the action of these living
plants, decay will not ensue.
The old idea was that oxygen caused decay, but Dgca Not
many experiments disprove this. Oxygen alone does caused by
not produce this result, but oxygen with "germs" will
do so. These "germs" develop much more slowly in
the cold, so that food is placed in the refrigerator or
in a cool place and away from the dust.
The problems introduced by these living plants, their
life history and their work, as well as the methods of
prevention and care against their ravages, belong
rather to household bacteriology than to chemistry.
We are ready therefore to pass on to our next prob-
lem, that of cleaning.
fi3
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD,
PARTL
Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first
sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one
side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from the lesson
paper. Use your own words, so that your instructor may knou
that you understand the subject. Read the lesson paper a num-
ber of times before attempting to answer the questions.
1. What do you understand a "chemical element" to
be ? Name all that you have ever seen.
2. What is a "saturated solution ?"
Name the substances usually found in the
house which are soluble in water.
3. What causes atmospheric pressure? Explain
some effects of it.
4. Why must the diet of animals include fresh air ?
5. Explain the effect of cooking on starch, (b) On
fats, (c) On proteids.
6. What are the products of combustion in burning
coal or wood ?
7. What is meant by "conservation of matter?"
8. How can the boiling point of water be raised?
How may it be lowered?
64
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
g. What is meant when it is said that a chemical
substance always has the same composition ?
10. What is "latent heat?"
11. What can you say of the composition of meat?
12. Explain the physical and chemical changes which
starch must undergo before it is absorbed into
the circulation.
13. What can you say of the chemistry of bread-
%
making ?
14. Why is distilled water pure?
15. Explain the composition of water.
1 6. Describe the chemistry of a sulphur match.
17. How is charcoal prepared? How is coke made?
18. Why does the proportion of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere not increase?
19. In what different ways is food used in the body?
20. Do you understand all parts of this lesson paper ?
If not, what part is not clear ?
NOTE. After completing the test sign your full name.
65
o
o
o
o
o
o
A MECHANICAL WASHING DEVICE
Made to fit in the bottom of a wash boiler. The formation of
steam forces the hot, soapy water up the spouts,
over and through the clothes.
ROTARY TYPE OF WASHER
Piston Water Motor Attached
"1900" WASHER
Electrically Driven
66
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
A Day's Chemistry
PART II.
CLEANING
The cleaning of the dishes, silver, cutlery, and linen
introduces a great variety of chemical problems. The
subject of the chemistry of cleaning may well include
with the daily task of dishwashing, the equally im-
portant ones of house cleaning and laundry work.
The various processes of housework give rise to
many volatile substances, such as the vapor of water
or fat. If not carried out of the house in their vapor-
ous state these cool and settle upon all exposed sur-
faces, whether walls, furniture, or fabrics. This thin
film entangles and holds the dust, clouding and soil-
ing with a layer more or less visible everything within
the house. The fires and lights give out smoky de-
posits of incomplete combustion. The dishes are soiled
with waste from all kinds of foods starch, grease, al-
bumin, milk, gums, or gelatines and the juices of
fruits.
Dust alone might be removed from most surfaces
with a damp or even with a dry cloth, or from fabrics
by vigorous shaking or brushing; but usually the
greasy or sugary deposits must first be broken up and
the dust thus set freer This must be accomplished
without harm to the material which is dirty.
67
56 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Cleaning, then, involves two processes : ( I ) the
greasy or gummy film must be broken up, that the
entangled dust and dirt may be set free ; (2) the dust
must be removed by mechanical means.
We will have occasion to use alkalis for cleaning and
acids for removing stains and it will be well to consid-
er what is meant by the terms, acid, alkali, and salt.
An An acid is a substance with an acid or sour taste
Acid and having the property of changing certain vegetable
colors. A substance much used in testing for acids is
litmus, a kind of fungus, giving a blue solution in
water. Paper soaked in litmus solution and dried is
known as test paper or litmus paper. It can be bought
at any druggist's. This paper is turned red by the
presence of any acid, even in the most minute quantity.
An acid will cause effervescence with a carbonate like
cooking soda or washing soda.
An An alkali is a substance often having a soapy taste,
Alkali a s iipp er y feeling if strong, and the property of turn-
ing red litmus, blue.
Alkalies will neutralize the effects of acids. If an
acid be added very carefully to an alkaline solution,
there comes a point where the mixture will change the
color of litmus in neither direction. The solution is
neither acid nor alkaline, and is said to be neutral.
If we make a weak solution of the acid sold at the
drug stores as muriatic acid, and add to this very care-
fully a weak solution of caustic soda, until the solu-
tion is neutral, we shall find that the neutral solution
68
CLEANING. 57
will taste like table salt. In fact, we have made com-
mon salt in this way.
A chemical salt is a substance obtained by neutraliz- A Salt
ing an acid with an alkali or otherwise a substance
that is usually neutral and will turn the color of neither
red nor blue litmus paper.
All acids contain the element hydrogen, which can
often be driven out and replaced by a metal placed in
the acid. If we drop a bit of zinc into some muriatic
acid, tiny bubbles of hydrogen begin to escape. The
zinc joins the remainder of the acid, making a
new substance. This new substance is the metallic
salt, called muriate (or chloride) of zinc. Muriatic
acid is also called hydrochloric acid. Thus a salt re-
sults from neutralizing an acid with a metal. If oxide
of zinc, a white powder, has been used in place of the
metal, the same salt, chloride of zinc, would have been
made ; but no hydrogen gas would have come off, for
the hydrogen of the acid would unite with oxygen of
the oxide and form water.
Grease or fats, called oils when liquid at ordinary Fata
temperature, are chemical compounds made of carbon, Sal
oxygen, and hydrogen combined in many different
ways, but all contain an ingredient of an acid nature
known to the chemist as a fatty acid. The fatty acid
base is combined with glycerine in the common fats.
Strong alkaline substances will break up fats into
their parts and combine with the fatty acid, thus
making soap.
69
58 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Alkali The elements which form strong alkalis are the
Metais "alkali metals." The common elements of this group
are sodium and potassium. There is also ammonium
which is not an element, but a combination of nitrogen
and hydrogen ; it acts, however, like an alkali metal.
When an element unites with water in a certain way
it is called a hydrate or hydroxide. The hydrate of
ammonium aqua ammonia or ammonia is known as
the "Volatile alkali" because it evaporates so easily.
It is valuable for use in all cleansing operations in
the kitchen, the laundry, the bath, in the washing of
delicate fabrics, and in other cases where its property
of evaporation, without leaving any residue to attack
the fabric or to absorb anything from the air, is in-
valuable.
caustic The hydrates of potassium and sodium are called
s nd caustic potash and caustic soda, respectively, or the
BJS2J caustic alkalis or "lyes" because they "burn" animal
tissues. These combine readily with fats to form
compounds which we call soaps.
Most of the fats are soluble in turpentine, ether,
chloroform, naphtha, or kerosene, and somewhat in
alcohol. That is, the fats are dissolved unchanged,
just as salt is taken up by water. These form solvents
for greases more or less valuable according to con-
ditions.
If the housekeeper's problem were the simple one
of removing the grease alone, she would solve it by the
free use of one of the solvents or by some of the strong
70
CLEANING. 5$
alkalis. This is what the painter does when he is
called to repaint or to refinish; but the housewife
wishes to preserve the finish or the fabric while she
removes the dirt. She must, then, choose those ma-
terials which will dissolve or unite with the grease
without injury to the article cleaned.
Soap is by all odds the safest and most useful goa
cleaning agent. It is made from most of the common
animal and vegetable fats and oils, as tallow, suet, lard,
cotton seed oil and cocoanut oil, chemically combined
with caustic soda or caustic potash. Castile soap is sup-
posed to be made from olive oil. Rosin soap forms a
part of all common yellow soap. It lessens the cost
and makes a good soap for rough work. Silicate of
soda is sometimes added to cheap soaps. It has some
cleansing action, but must be regarded as an adulter-
ant.
Good soaps are nearly neutral substances because
the alkali has been neutralized by the fatty acid. The
coarser grades may contain more or less free alkali.
All soaps are slightly decomposed when dissolved in
water. The freed fatty acid produces the milkiness
seen when a cake of soap is placed in perfectly pure
water.
The cleaning action of soaps consists chiefly in Action
forming emulsions with oily or greasy substances. of Soa P
Cream is an example of a very perfect emulsion. Its
fat is in the shape of very finely divided globules and
because of the whey which surrounds them, the cream
can be mixed with a very large quantity of water and
71
60 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
show no sign of greasiness. When the whey is sep-
arated as in churning, the globules of fat come together
and butter is formed. An emulsion is not a true solu-
tion, for the particles of fat can be separated by proper
means from the liquid.
The soap makes an emulsion with the oily or greasy
substances holding the dirt, so that both may be
washed away by the water. A certain proportion of
free alkali in soap helps the action, but it has a cor-
rosive effect on many materials. Soap will form
emulsions with many other materials besides fats and
oils; so while water is a very general solvent, soap
and water will take up many additional substances.
Kinds The housekeeper may be familiar with two kinds of
Soap soap : hard soaps and soft soaps. Caustic soda makes
the -hard soaps and caustic potash makes the soft
soaps.
Caustic potash is derived from wood ashes and a few
generations ago soft soap was the only laundry soap
used. Wood ashes were plenty when wood fires were
universal. Soda-ash was at that time derived from
sea weeds, and therefore uncommon inland. Early in
the century a French manufacturer, Leblanc, dis-
covered a process of making soda-ash from sodium
chloride or common salt. This quite reversed the con-
dition of the two alkalis, for now soda-ash is much
more common, and the manufacture of soap on a large
scale really began then. Soda-ash is now the cheapest
form of alkali. Caustic soda is made from soda-ash.
72
CLEANING. 61
The terms, soda-ash, and pot-ash have been used; soda-Ash
these substances in chemical terms are respectively
the carbonate of sodium and the carbonate of potas-
sium. They are chemical compounds made up of car-
bonic acid and two metals sodium and potassium.
When the carbon dioxide, which we have seen is
formed by the combustion of carbon, is added to water,
carbonic acid results. This is a very weak acid and
when it is combined with the very strongly alkaline
elements, sodium or potassium, the result is an alka-
line substance. Soda-ash and potash (sometimes called
pearl-ash) are called alkalis, but they are not nearly
so powerful as the hydrates of sodium and potassium
which are commonly called caustic soda and caustic
potash.
When soda-ash, which is a white powder, is dis- washing
solved in hot water and the solution is cooled, crystals Soda
of the common washing soda are formed. This sub-
stance is also called "sal soda" and "soda crystals."
The crystals contain about 65 per cent of water and
when exposed to the air, lose some of this water and
crumble to the white powder, soda-ash. The powder
is, therefore, stronger than the original crystals.
Washing soda should never be used in a solid form,
but should be dissolved in a separate dish, and the
solution used with judgment. A satisfactory amount
is about two ounces of the dry soda to a large tub of
water, and well dissolved before the clothes are put in.
Nearly all of the "washing compounds" on the market
73
62
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
depend upon the washing soda for their efficiency, and
sometimes they contain nothing else.
Borax Borax is a useful alkali, milder than washing soda,
but effective as a cleaner, disinfectant, and bleacher.
It is more expensive than either of the others de-
scribed, and because of its weaker alkaline action, more
of it must be used to produce a given result. It is
much less irritating to the skin and less injurious to
fabrics than soda, so for some uses its additional cost
may be justified. Caustic potash or "lye" is too strong
an alkali to use on fabrics, but is valuable to put down
the kitchen sink drain to free it from grease. The
soap made in the drain will be washed out by water.
Solid washing soda may be used for the same pur-
pose.
Hard In the laundry the composition of water is im-
water p Or t a nt. Water for domestic use is either hard or soft,
according as it contains a greater or less quantity of
certain soluble salts usually compounds of lime or
magnesia, which have been taken up by the water while
passing through the soil.
When the hardness is caused by calcium carbonate
(carbonate of lime) it is called "temporary" hardness,
because it may be overcome by boiling. The excess of
carbon dioxide is driven off and the carbonate of lime
separates out. The same separation is accomplished
by the addition of sal soda, borax, or ammonia.
When the hardness is due to the sulphates and
chlorides of magnesia or lime, it cannot be removed
Temporary
Hardness
Permanent
Hardness
74
CLEANING. 63
by boiling. It is then known as "permanent" hard-
ness. Public water supplies are sometimes softened
before delivery to the consumer by the addition of
slaked lime, which absorbs the carbon dioxide, and
the previously dissolved carbonate separates out.
Soft water is needed in laundry work both for
cleanness and economy, and water not naturally soft
should be softened by boiling or by the addition of the
before mentioned substances.
When soap is added to the hard water, it is decom-
posed by the water, and the new compound formed by
the union of the lime and magnesia with the fatty acid
of the soap is insoluble, and therefore settles upon any
article with which it comes in contact. Until all the
lime has been taken out, there will be no action be-
tween the soap and the dirt. Therefore, large quanti-
ties of soap must be wasted. It has been estimated that
each grain of carbonate of lime per gallon causes an
increased expenditure of two ounces of soap per 100
gallons, and that the increased expense for soap in a
household of five persons where such hard water is
used might amount to five or ten dollars yearly.
This "lime soap," although insoluble in water, will
dissolve readily in kerosene or naphtha, for which rea-
son, kerosene will be found very effective for cleaning
bowls or the bath tub when the surface has become
coated from the use of hard water and soap.
Hard waters produce certain undesirable effects in
cooking processes. The cooking of beans and similar
Soap and
Hard Water
Cooking with
Hard Water
75
64 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
vegetables should soften the cellulose and break up
the compact grains of starch. It is difficult to cook
vegetables in hard water, for the legumin of the vegeta-
ble forms an insoluble compound with the lime or
magnesia of the water, and the cellulose is softened
with great difficulty. Hard water does not readily
extract the flavor from tea and coffee, and therefore
much more of either must be used to get the desired
strength.
Dish During this discussion of cleansing agents, let us
washing h O p e fast fa e breakfast dishes have been soaking in
water, after having carefully scraped or "scrapped"
so as to save soap in washing and to keep the water
as clean as possible. Plenty of hot water and soap
with clean, dry towels is the secret of quick and easy
work. If the hard water is used, it may be softened
for the soap is doing no good unless there is a strong
suds.
To save the appearance of the hands, use a good
white soap, free from alkali, and soften the water with
borax.
k
Glass, silver ware, china and kitchen ware take their
turn. All should be rinsed in hot water to remove
the soap and heat the dishes so that they will drain
nearly dry and thus make wiping easy. In the dish
washing machine used in large hotels and restaurants,
the dishes are simply washed with soapy water and
rinsed in very hot water while in such a position that
76
CLEANING. 65
they drain perfectly. They dry completely and re-
quire no wiping. Fig. 1 6.
Fig. 16. Dish Washing Machine Used In Large Hotels and
Restaurants.
Experiment. Wash a plate and dip it in very hot
water, then place it so that all parts will drain. Ob-
serve if it dries completely. See if you can wash the
dishes in this manner with very little wiping and if
time would thus be saved.
77
66 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
CHEMISTRY OF THE LAUNDRY
If the morning happens to be Monday, the washing
is probably in progress in the average American fam-
ily. The mistress should understand the chemical
principles involved and every detail of the work, in
order that the best results may be secured, and that
the clothes may not be harmed.
structure The fibres of cotton, silk, and wool vary greatly
in their structure and a knowledge of this structure
as shown under the microscope, may guide to proper
methods of treatment. Fig. 17.
cotton The fibres of cotton, though tubular, become much
flattened during the process of manufacture, and under
the microscope, show a characteristic twist, with the
ends gradually tapering to a point. It is this twist,
which makes them capable of being made into a firm,
hard thread.
Wool The wool fibre, like human hair, is marked by trans-
verse divisions, and these divisions are serrated. These
teeth become curled, knotted or tangled together by
rubbing, by very hot water, or by strong alkalies.
This causes shrinking, which should be prevented.
When the two fibres are mixed, there is less opportun-
ity for the little teeth to become entangled and there-
fore there is less shrinkage.
Linen fibres are much like cotton, with slight notches
Linen
or joints along the walls. These notches serve to hold
the fibres closely together, and enable them to be
felted to form paper. Linen, then, will shrink, though
78
THE LAUNDRY.
not so much as wool, for the fibres are more wiry and
the teeth much shorter.
Silk fibres are perfectly smooth and when rubbed,
simply slide over each other. This produces a slight
shrinkage in the width of woven fabrics.
Cotton and wool differ
greatly in their resistance
to the treatment of chemi-
cals. Cotton is very little
affected by a solution of the
alkalies, when the cloth is
well rinsed. If the alkali is
not removed completely,
however, it becomes very
concentrated when the cloth
dries, and as it generally
acts for a long time, the
fibre may be weakened or
"tendered."
Cold dilute solutions of the acids have no very great
effect on cotton, provided always that they are com-
pletely washed out. Strong or hot solutions of acids
have a very decided deleterious action, and even a very
minute quantity of acid dried on the goods tenders the
fibre badly.
Wool resists the acids well, but is much harmed
by the action of the alkalies. A warm solution of caus-
tic soda or caustic potash will dissolve wool quickly
and completely. The carbonates, like washing soda,
B c o E
Fig. 17. Textile Fibres Much
Magnified.
a, Wool; b, Mohair; C, Cot-
ton; d, Silk; e, Linen.
Silk
Chemical
Action
on Fibres
79
68
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
have not such a decided effect, but they make the wool
harsh and less 'flexible.
Linen resembles cotton and silk is much like wool
in the resistance to chemical action, but the linen is
more affected by the alkalies than cotton and silk is
more acted on bv acids than wool.
Mercerization
Soaking
Fig. 18. Sections of Ordinary and Mercer-
ized Cotton Fibres.
That cotton fibre is not seriously affected by alka-
lies is shown by the process of mercerization. In this
process, patented by Mercer in 1852, the cotton threads
are treated with a strong solution of caustic soda
while under tension. The fibres lose their twisted and
hollow shape and become more rod-like and nearly
solid, as shown in Fig. 18. The threads have a tend-
ency to shrink considerably, but are prevented by the
tension. This and the method of manipulation gives
the mercerized fabric the characteristic gloss some-
what resembling silk.
In laundering, the best practice seems to be to
soak the white clothes at least, in cold water or in
luke-warm suds. The badly soiled portions may be
soaped and rolled tightly to keep the soap where it is
80
THE LAUNDRY. 69
most needed. The water should be well softened, and
a very little extra washing soda solution may be
added. The soaking loosens the dirt and saves much
rubbing and hence wear on the clothes. It is probable
that the cleansing wears out the articles which make
up the weekly wash more than the actual use they re-
ceive.
After washing the clothes, they may be wrung out Boiling
and put into a boiler of cold water, which is then
heated and boiled briskly for a little while. Whether
to boil, or not to boil the clothes depends largely
upon the purity of the materials used. If there is any
iron in the water, or elsewhere, it is sure to be de-
posited on the goods, thus producing yellowness. Soap
may be added to the clothes in the boiler, or borax
may be used, allowing a tablespoonful to every gallon
of water. The borax serves as a bleacher and as an
aid in the disinfection of the clothes. One great ad-
vantage of boiling is the additional disinfection which
this insures.
After washing, the clothes should be thoroughly RiIMine
rinsed. They cannot be clean otherwise and proper
rinsing is essential to successful washing. The more
thoroughly the wash water is removed between rins-
ings, the less number of rinsings will be required to
give the same results.
Bluing is frequently added to the last rinsing water BJ
to counteract, or cover up, any yellowness. A light
blue appears to the eye whiter than a light yellow.
70 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
The color is, however, gray in comparison with white.
Most of the liquid bluing now on the market contains
Prussian Blue, a compound of iron. This compound
is decomposed by soap and alkalies, when the goods
are next washed, making a slight yellow stain of iron
on the cloth. Frequent repetitions of this action may
give a distinctly yellow shade to the white goods. The
indigo blue used a generation or more ago did not
have this objection. It is said that white goods which
have never been blued, never require bluing.
stains Stains and all special deposits should be removed
before the goods are treated with soap or soda, as
these frequently set the stains. Hot water will spread
any grease and also set many stains-, so the clothes
when not soaked, should be wet thoroughly in cold
or hike-warm water before washing.
washing Colored goods and prints require more delicate treat-
C Goods ment than white goods. If they are soaked, the water
should be cold and contain very little soap and no
soda. Only dissolved soap should be used in wash-
ing them, and this should be of good quality, free
from alkali. They should be dried with the wrong
side out and in the shade, for direct sunlight fades
colors about twenty times as much as reflected light.
washing All wool goods require the greatest care in wash-
wooiens .^ The different wate rs used should be of the same
temperature and never too hot to be borne comfortably
by the hand.
82
THE LAUNDRY. 71
The soap used should be in the form of a thin soap Soap
solution. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric and
only a good, white soap, free from rosin, is allow-
able. Make each water slightly soapy and leave a
very little in the fabric at the end, to furnish a
dressing as nearly like the original as possible.
Many persons prefer ammonia or borax in place
of the soap. For pure white flannel, borax gives the
best satisfaction on account of its bleaching quality.
Whatever alkali is chosen, care should be exercised in
the quantity taken. Only enough should be used to
make the water very soft.
The fibres of wool collect much dust upon their Brushing
tooth-like projections and this should be thoroughly
brushed or shaken off before the fabric is put into
water. All friction should be by squeezing, not by
rubbing. Wool should not be wrung by hand. Either
run the fabric smoothly through a wringer or squeeze
the water out, that the fibres may not be twisted.
Wool may be well dried by rolling the article tightly
in a thick dry towel or sheet and squeezing the whole
till all moisture is absorbed. Wool should not be al-
lowed to freeze, for the teeth will become knotted
and hard. Above all, the drying should be accom-
plished quickly, and in short, the les? time that is
taken in washing, rinsing, and drying, the less will
be the shrinkage and the better will be the result.
83
72 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
starching Some of .the clothes are starched. This in addition
to making them stiffer and giving them a better ap-
pearance helps to keep them clean longer. Practically
all the household starch on the market is corn starch,
although in the textile industries and large laundries,
wheat, potato and rice starches are used. Corn starch
has the greatest stiffening effect, but wheat starch and
rice starch penetrate better and give a more flexible
finish.
cooked To make cooked starch for ordinary work, wet ^
cup with Y^ cup of water and pour on* one quart of
boiling water. Boil thoroughly till clear. Use double
the quantity of starch for stiff starching. Borax may
be added J^ to I level tablespoon to a quart to in-
crease the gloss and penetrability and to prevent the
iron from sticking. Lard, wax or paraffine is some-
times cooked with "he starch for the same purpose 1 /
tablespoon to a quart.
uncooked For very stiff starching, as for collars, the thick
paste should be rubbed thoroughly into the goods and
the excess wiped off with a damp cloth, after which the
goods is dried before a fire.
The prepared starches, to be used cold, contain
borax. This may just as well be added to cheaper
preparations. As the uncooked starch depends upon
the heat of the iron to swell f and stiffen it, a hotter
iron is required than with boiled starch.
For producing an ecru shade in curtains, coffee is
sometimes added in quantity to give the desired color.
A solution of gum arabic is sometimes used to stiffen
.4 METHOD OF FOLDING DRESSES, SHIRTS AND SHEETS
OR TABLU CLOTHS
85
/ I \V \- v A ' I'
^Eto
METHOD OF FOLDING UNDERCLOTHES
ORDER OF IRONING
Night Dresses:
1 embroidery, 2 sleeves, 3 yoke, 4 body.
Drawers:
1 trimming, 2 tucks, 3 body, 4 band.
Skirts:
1 ruffle, 2 hem, 3 body.
Shirt Waists:
1 cuff, 2 collar TDand, 3 sleeves, 4 yoke, 5 back, 6 front.
(From "The Laundry," by Flora Rose; Bulletin of the Cornell Beading
Course for Farmers' Wives, Itbaca, N. Y.)
86
THE LAUNDRY. 73
dark colored clothes which would show the white
color of the starch.
THE REMOVAL OF STAIN
Whenever possible, stains should be removed when
fresh. If the staining substance is allowed to dry on
the cloth, its removal is always more difficult, and
sometimes a neglected spot or stain cannot foe removed
without damage to the cloth.
The nature of the spot must be known before the Grea
best substance to dissolve and remove it can be chosen. Spotl
To remove grease spots, solvents of grease should
be chosen, though we may remove such spots some-
times by causing the grease to form an emulsion with
soap and thus be removed, or the grease may be made
into a soap with ammonia or washing soda and thus
dissolved and removed in water. The first of the three
methods is, as a rule, the best. Grease will dissolve
readily in benzine, naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, ether,
and chloroform and somewhat in turpentine and hot
alcohol. Ether and chloroform are the best solvents,
but they are more expensive and not much more ef-
fective than naphtha.
Caution! All of the solvents for grease are in-
flammable and some are explosive, so that they should
never be used near a fire or light. Work with them
should be done in the day time and preferably out of
doors.
87
74 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
In applying any of these solvents to grease spots
in fabrics, a cloth should be placed underneath the
stain to absorb the excess of liquid containing the
dissolved grease. The spot should be rubbed from
the outside towards the center until dry. This will
tend to distribute the solvent and prevent the formation
of a ring where the liquid stops. It is well to apply
the solvent on the wrong side of the fabric. Old spots
of any kind may require long treatment. For this a
little lard may be rubbed into the spot and left for
some time, then the whole may be dissolved by naphtha
or washed out with soap or ammonia.
Absorbents Spots of grease on carpet Qr heavy material may be
treated with absorbents. Heat will assist by melting
the grease. Fresh grease spots may often be removed
by placing over the spot a clean piece of blotting
paper and pressing the spot with a warm iron. French
chalk or whiting may be moistened with naphtha and
spread over the spot. When all is dry, brush off the
absorbent. The absorption method may be used in
many other cases, moistening with cleansing agent
which will not harm the material treated.
Bluing Bluing spots may frequently be removed by soak-
stains j n g - n s t ron g ammonia water. Alcohol or ammonia
will remove grass stains, and an old remedy is to smear
the stains with molasses before the article goes into
the wash. The acids in the molasses seem to have
the desired effect on the grass stains.
STAINS.
75
Fresh stains of coffee, tea or fruit may be removed
by hot water. Stretch the stained part over an earth-
en dish and pour boiling water upon the stain until it
disappears. It is some times better to sprinkle the
stain with borax and soak in cold water before ap-
plying the hot water. Old, neglected stains of coffee,
fruits, cocoa, etc., will have to be treated with some
bleaching agent. In many cases, it is not possible to
remove them without severely damaging the cloth.
Mildew causes a spot of a totally different char-
acter from any we have considered. It is a true mold,
and like all plants, requires warmth and moisture for
its growth. When this necessary moisture is furnished
by any cloth in a warm place, the mildew grows upon,
the fibres. During the first stage of its growth, the
mold may be removed, but in time, it destroys the
fibres.
Strong soapsuds, a layer of soft soap, and pulver-
ized chalk, or one of chalk and salt, are all effective
if, in addition, the moistened cloth be subjected to
strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches the
fibres. Bleaching powder or Javelle water may be
tried in cases of advanced growth, but success cannot
be assured.
Some of the animal and vegetable oils may be taken
out by soap and cold water or dissolved in naphtha,
chloroform, ether, etc. Mineral oil stains are not sol-
uble in any alkaline or acid solutions. Kerosene will
Coffee and
Fruit StaUs
Mildew
Vaseline Stains
89
76 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
evaporate in time. Vaseline stains should be soaked
in kerosene before water and soap touch them.
Paint Paints consist mainly of oils and some colored earth.
Spots of paint, then, must be treated with something
that will take out the oil, leaving the insoluble color-
ing matter to be brushed off. Turpentine is most
generally useful.
Spots of varnish or pitch may be dissolved by the
use of the same solvents as paint. Alcohol is also one
of the best solvents here.
Spots made by food substances are greasy, sugary,
or acid in their nature. Whatever takes out the grease
will generally remove the substance united with it,
as the blood in meat juices. Sugar is dissolved by hot
water, so sticky spots are best removed with this,
ink spots Ink spots are perhaps the worst that can be encoun-
tered, because of the great uncertainty of the composi-
tion of inks of the present day. When the character
of an enemy is known, it is a comparatively simple
matter to choose the weapons to be used against him,
but an unknown enemy must be experimented upon
and conquest is uncertain.
Indelible inks formerly owed their permanence to
Indelible
Ink silver nitrate. Now many are made from aniline black
solutions and are scarcely aftected by any chemicals.
The silver nitrate inks become dark in the sun by a
photographic process. Many silver salts, and some
salts of other metals, change in color in a bright light.
90
STAINS. 77
Silver nitrate inks may be removed by bleaching
powder solutions. The chlorine in this replaces the
nitric acid forming white silver chloride. This will
darken if not at once removed, but will dissolve in
strong ammonia water or a solution of hyposulphite of
soda. This last salt, much used by photographers,
commonly called "hypo," will often dissolve the stain of
indelible ink without the use of the bleaching fluid
and is less harmful to the fibres. Some inks contain
carbon in the form of lamp black which is not affected
by any chemicals which can be used.
The old fashioned black ink is a compound called
the gallo-tannate of iron. It is made by adding a solu-
tion of sulphate of iron to a water solution of nut
galls. A little gum solution is added to make the ink.
of better consistency. This kind of ink is removed
by the addition of a warm solution of oxalic acid
or muriatic acid drop by drop, and this finally well
rinsed out. Of course some materials will be injured
by the acids, so this method must be used with cau-
tion. Lemon juice and salt will sometimes remove
the spot and is safe. Cover the spot with salt, wet with
lemon juice, and spread in the sun. Bleaching powder
solution and acid will frequently destroy any ink stain
of long standing which acids alone will not affect.
Some ink stains are removed when fresh by clear,
cold, or tepid water skimmed miik is safe and often
effective. If the stain is allowed to soak in the milk
91
?8 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
until the milk sours, the result is often better. Some-
times the ink will dissolve out if a piece of ice is laid
on the spot and blotting paper under it. The blotting
paper absorbs the water and should be often changed.
ink on Ink on heavy materials like carpets and draperies
may be treated with some absorbent to keep the ink
from spreading. Bits of blotting paper, cotton batting,
meal, flour, sawdust, etc., may be used and removed
as long as any ink is absorbed, then go over the spot
repeatedly with a lemon freshly cut, and finally rinse
with cold or tepid water. If an ink stain has worked
through varnish into the wood, turpentine will usually
remove the spot.
Colored Of late colored inks are generally prepared from
Inks aniline colors. These are made from substances pro-
duced in the distillation of coal tar. The colors are
soluble in water, and by dissolving them and adding
to the mixture some thickening substance, different
colored inks are produced. They are rather difficult
to remove successfully, but bleaching powder solution
will frequently destroy them.
iron The red iron-rust spots must be treated with acid.
These are the results o'f oxidation the union of the
oxygen of the air with the iron in the presence of mois-
ture. The oxide formed is deposited upon the fabric
which furnishes the moisture. Ordinary "tin" uten-
sils are made from iron coated with tin, which soon
wears off, so no moist fabric should be left long in tin
unless the surface is entire.
STAINS.
79
Iron-rust is, then, an insoluble oxide of iron. The
chloride of iron is soluble and so hydrochloric acid is
used to remove the rust. The best method of apply-
ing the acid is as follows : Fill an earthen dish two-
thirds full of hot water and stretch the stained cloth
over this. Have near two other dishes with clear
water in one and ammonia water in the other. The
steam from the hot water wall furnish the heat and
moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a little
hydrochloric (muriatic) acid on the stain with a medi-
Removinf
Rust
FIG. 19. REMOVING IRON RUST STAIN.
cine dropper. Fig. 19. Let it act a moment, then
lower the cloth into the hot water. Repeat till the
stain disappears. Rinse carefully in the clear water
and, finally, immerse in the ammonia water, that any
excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric pro-
tected.
Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight
stain, probably because a little hydrochloric acid is
formed from their union.
Salt and
Lemon Juice
93
8o CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Ink stains on colored goods are often impossible
to take out without also removing part of the dye. The
ink must be washed out in cold water before it dries ;
any slight stain remaining can, perhaps, be removed
with a weak acid like lemon juice without harming
the color.
BLEACHING
When the clothes are washed, the mistress likes
to have them hang out of doors where the air and
sunshine can dry them. She is glad when the white
articles can be spread on the grass, knowing that they
will be made whiter by Nature's bleaching agent.
The sunlight is the chief agent in this bleaching and the
articles are laid flat on the grass so that the rays of
light will strike in a more perpendicular direction.
There are also other devices for bleaching, among
which are the fumes of burning sulphur, chloride of
lime (bleaching powder) and Javelle water.
Originally- all bleaching of linen and cotton was
done out of doors by the action of oxygen, water, and
sunlight. In these days of great factories, this process
is impossible for lack of space; but various artificial
bleaching stuffs have been discovered whose action is
satisfactory if skilfully used.
Bleaching Chlorine is a gas which has remarkable readiness to
powder combine with ot h er bodies. It is even more energetic
than oxygen. By its action upon them, chlorine de-
stroys the greater number of coloring substances. Be-
94
BLEACHING. 81
cause of its harmful action upon the human body,
chlorine gas itself cannot be used in factories or in the
household, but the compound which chlorine forms
with lime, (oxide of calcium) known as chloride of
lime or bleaching powder, is safe and effective.
The principal coloring matters are composed chiefly Action of
of the elements carbon and hydrogen and some of the
metals, If a substance which makes new combination
with the elements present is brought in contact with
these colors, the new compounds thus produced may
be colorless. The element chlorine does just this.
It can be set free from chloride of lime by weak acids,
and will dissolve very readily ; n water when so set
free. By dipping colored cloth into a weak solution
of chloride of lime and acid, many colors and stains
are at once destroyed. But the energy of the chlorine
is not stopped by this process. Having destroyed
the color, the bleaching powder attacks the fibres of
the goods, unles: the cloth is at once placed in some
solution which can neutralize the bleaching powder.
There are several such easily obtained and used. The
use of bleaching powder in the household is frequently
of dubious success for lack of this precaution. Am-
monia water will perform this action satisfactorily,
since the harmless soluble salt, ammonium chloride,
is formed ; hypo-sulphite of soda is also effective.
Chloride of lime loses strength rapidly if exposed chloride
in an open vessel. It absorbs water and carbon di- of Lime
95
82 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
oxide from the air, grows damp and the chlorine gas
escapes.
In using bleaching powder, mix one or two tea-
spoonfuls with a pint of cold water in an earthen-
ware dish. The effective part of the powder will be
dissolved, so let the mixture settle, or strain off the
liquid through a cloth. Add a little vinegar or a few
drops of acetic acid to the nearly clear solution and
use at once.
Javelle water is also used as a bleaching agent. It is
water yerv j-j^ ^i eac i im g powder, except that soda replaces
the lime. It is prepared by dissolving one pound of
washing soda in a quart of hot water and adding one
quarter of a pound of chloride of lime also dissolved
in a quart of hot water. Let the mixture settle, pour
off the clear liquid and bottle it for use. It will keep
for some time. The dregs may be used to scour
the kitchen floor or to disinfect waste pipes. This is
very useful in removing stains on white cloth, but
the addition of some solution to neutralize the action
is always necessary, just as with bleaching powder.
The best substance to use for this is hypo-sulphite of
soda, the "hypo" used in photography, which is quite
harmless to the cloth.
sulphur Chlorine cannot be used in bleaching fabrics of ani-
ma l fib re sucn as wool and silk ; it leaves them yellow
rather than white. For these the fumes of burning
sulphur, or these fumes dissolved in water must be
BLEACHING. 83
used. No special means of destroying the excess of
sulphur fumes is required. These fumes are a com-
pound of sulphur and the oxygen of the air and famil-
iar to every one, in the acid fumes from a burning
"sulphur match." The article to be bleached must be
wet, and then hung in some enclosed space above a
piece of burning sulphur. The sulphur candles, to be
had at any druggist's, are convenient for this use.
Fig. 20. The fumes have great affinity for oxygen,
that is, unite with it easily, and take it from the color-
ing stuffs, converting them into colorless ones. This
method of bleaching is sometimes not permanent.
FIG. 20. A SULPHUR CANDLE.
These fumes of sulphur are often used to disinfect
rooms where there has been sickness. Its power in
this respect is far less than is generally supposed how-
ever, and much larger quantities of the gas are re-
quired for thorough work than are commonly used.
Chlorine gas is an excellent disinfectant, but is dan-
gerous to use because of its irritating effect upon the
throat and lungs. The use of "chloride of lime" as a
disinfectant depends upon the fact that chlorine slowly
97
Hydrogen
Peroxide
Alkalies
on Paint
84 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
escapes from this substance when it is exposed to the
air.
Another bleaching agent of growing importance
is peroxide of hydrogen. Water is a compound made
up of one-third oxygen and two-thirds hydrogen. Un-
der certain conditions, a compound half oxygen and
half hydrogen may be prepared. This is not very
permanent as the extra oxygen slowly escapes. This
extra oxygen has great power as a decolorizer. The
peroxide is a liquid much like water in appearance
and is used in bleaching hair, feathers, and ivory. It
is the safest bleaching agent for the housekeeper to
work with and may be used on wool and silk as well
as cotton and linen.
CLEANING WOODWORK
111 the interior of the house woods are seldom used
in their natural state. The surface is covered with
two or more coatings of paint, varnish, etc., which
add to the wood durability or beauty. The cleaning
processes are applied to the last coat of finish and
must not injure this.
Soft woods are finished with paint, stain, oil, shel-
lac, varnish, or with two or more of these combined;
hardwoods with any of these, and in addition, wax, or
wax with turpentine, or both with oil.
All these surfaces, except those finished with wax,
may be cleaned with a weak solution of soap or am-
monia, but the continuous use of any alkali may im-
98
CLEANING. 85
pair and finally remove the polish. Refinishing will
then be necessary. Waxed surfaces are turned dark
by water. Finished surfaces should never be scoured
nor cleaned with strong alkalies, like sal-soda, or potash
soaps. Scouring with these strong alkalies will break
the paint or varnish and in this way destroy the finish.
A few drops of kerosene or turpentine on a soft
cloth may be used to clean all polished surfaces. The
latter cleans them more perfectly and evaporates read-
ily; the former is cheaper, safer, because its vapor is
not so inflammable as that of turpentine, and it pol-
ishes a little while it cleans ; but it evaporates so
slowly that the surface must be rubbed dry each time,
or the dust will be collected and retained. The harder
the rubbing, the higher the polish.
Outside the kitchen, the woodwork of the house sel-
dom needs scrubbing. The greasy layer is readily
dissolved by weak alkaline solutions, by kerosene or
turpentine, while the imbedded dust is wiped away by
the cloth. Polished surfaces keep clean longest. If the
finish be removed or broken by deep scratches, the
wood itself absorbs the grease and dust, and the stain
may have to be scraped out.
CLEANING METALS
Most metals may be washed without harm in a hot
alakline solution or wiped with a little kerosene.
Stoves and iron sinks may be scoured with the coarser
materials like ashes, emery or pumice ; but copper, pol-
99
86 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
ished steel, or the soft metals, tin, silver, and alumi-
num require a fine powder that they may not be
scratched or worn away too rapidly. Metal bathtubs
may be kept clean and bright with whiting and am-
monia, if rinsed with boiling hot water and wiped dry
with soft flannel or chamois.
Porcelain or soapstone may be washed like metal
or scoured with any fine material.
T^mish The special deposits on metals are caused by the
oxygen and moisture of the air, by the presence of
other gases in the house, or by acids or corroding
liquids. Such deposits come under the general head
of tarnish.
The metals, or their compounds, in common use
are silver, copper and brass, iron and steel, tin, zinc
and nickel. Aluminum is rapidly taking a prominent
place in the manufacture of household utensils.
There is little trouble with the general greasy film
or with the special deposits on articles in daily use, if
they are washed in hot water and soap, rinsed well and
wiped dry each time. Yet certain articles of food act
upon the metal of tableware and cooking utensils,
forming true chemical salts.
silver The sa ^ ts f silver are usually dark colored and
Sulphide insoluble in water or in any alkaline liquid which will
not also dissolve the silver. Whether found in the
products of combustion, in food, as eggs, in the paper
or cloth used for wrapping, in the rubber band of a
fruit jar, or the rubber elastic which may be near the
100
METALS. 87
silver, sulphur forms with silver a grayish black com-
pounda sulphide of silver. All the silver sulphides
are insoluble in water. Rub such tarnished articles,
before washing, with common salt. By replacement,
silver chloride, a white chemical salt, is formed, which
is soluble in ammonia. If the article be not washed in
ammonia it will soon turn dark again. With an old or
deep stain of silver sulphide friction must be used.
The analysis of many samples of silver polish,
showed them to be made up of either precipitated
chalk, diatomaceous earth or fine sand. In using them,
it is necessary to be careful in regard to the fineness
of material since a few coarse grains will scratch the
coating of soft silver. In former times the housewife
bought a pound of whiting for fifteen cents, sifted it
through fine cloth, or, mixing it with water, floated off
the finer portion, and obtained in this way, twelve
ounces of the same material for three ounces of which
the modern housewife pays twenty-five cents or even
more, when she buys it "by the box."
The whiting may be made into a paste with ammonia
or alcohol, the article coated with this and left till the
liquid has evaporated. Then the powder should be
rubbed off with soft tissue paper or soft cotton cloth,
and polished with chamois.
The presence of water always favors chemical
change. Therefore iron and steel rapidly oxidize in
damp air or in the presence- of moisture. All metallic
article 5 m?y be protected from such action by a thin
Silver
Polish
Whiting
Protecting
Metals
101
88 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
oily coating. Iron and steel articles not in use may be
covered with a thin layer of vaseline.
Rust can be removed from iron or steel by kerosene,
if not too deep.
The tarnish on brass or copper will dissolve in am-
monia water, but the objects tarnish again more quick-
ly than if polished by friction.
102
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
PART II.
Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first
sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one
side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from the lesson
paper. Use your own words, so that your instructor may know
that you understand the subject. Read the lesson paper a num-
ber of times before attempting to answer the- questions.
1. Name all the substances you can think of which
are not soluble in water and are soluble in naph-
tha or benzine.
2. Does sugar neutralize acid chemically? Why?
3. How is soap made? What is the difference be-
tween hard and soft soap?
4. What is "hard" water? How does it act with
soap? How is it softened?
5. Explain how "bluing" may make white clothes
yellow.
6. Why remove stains when fresh? Why before
washing ?
7. Why is there danger in using naphtha, benzine,
and to some extent alcohol near a light ?
8. How do cotton and woolen differ in the effect of
acids and alkalies upon them?
103
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
9. What precautions must be taken in bleaching or
removing stains with chloride of lime solution
or with Javelle water?
10. Give a g.ood method of starching and ironing
clothes.
11. If possible, try to remove some stain by a method
given in this lesson and tell of the results.
12. Describe a good method of washing woolens.
13. Why does the drying of a little acid or alkali On a
fabric have a very disastrous effect ?
14. What is your method of washing dishes ?
15. What can you say of acids, alkalies, salts?
16. What is "washing soda?" How should it be
used ? When should it not be used ?
17. Why does strong soap or washing soda harm
varnish or paint?
18. What is the cause of tarnish on metals? How
can it be removed and prevented ?
19. What advantages has ammonia for use in the
laundry ?
20. Do you understand everything given in this .les-
son paper ? Are there any questions you would
like to have answered?
NJTE. After completing the test aign jour full name.
104
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
A Day's Chemistry.
PART III.
CHEMISTRY OF BAKING POWDER
We will suppose that after the strenuous course of
cooking, washing, and cleaning outlined for the morn-
ing, that the housekeeper still has strength to make
soda biscuits for tea, and we will study the chemical
action involved.
One of the first chemical methods of securing car-
bon dioxide to use in making bread rise, was by putting
hydrochloric acid and cooking soda together in a dough
which might be put into the oven before the gas es-
caped from it.
Cooking soda is a salt called bi-carbonate of sodium. cooking
It differs from the ordinary mono-carbonate of soda
(washing soda) in yielding twice as much carbon diox-
ide in proportion to the sodium part of the compound.
The saleratus of our grandmother's time was bi-car-
bonate of potash, made from wood ashes. The name
is still used, but at all stores, cooking soda would be
delivered invariably if saleratus were asked for. The
true saleratus costs ten times as much as the soda and
is no more effective. The carbonic acid is easily set
free by chemical compounds of an acid nature, and
new chemical compounds result.
105
Heating
Cooking
Soda
Early
Experiments
QO CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Experiment. Put a little cooking soda into any
acid lemon juice, vinegar, almost any fruit juice
and the carbon dioxide will be seen to escape in tiny
bubbles. Part of the acid unites with part of the soda,
forming a new salt, and the acid taste will be much
reduced or lost.
Part of the carbon dioxide in sodium bi-carbonate
is driven off by simply heating, leaving ordinary
sodium mono-carbonate, washing soda. In using this
process, cooking soda is mixed with the flour. The
high temperature of the oven drives off carbon dioxide,
and the bread puffs up. It is light, but yellow in
color. The sodium carbonate remains in the bread
and its alkaline nature serves to neutralize the acid
fluids of the stomach (gastric juice) so that digestion
of the bread may be retarded. The sodium carbonate
also acts in some way upon the gluten producing an
unpleasant odor.
Among the first methods proposed was one undoubt-
edly the best theoretically, but very difficult to put in
practice. This depended upon the liberation of carbon
dioxide from bi-carbonate of sodium by means of
muriatic acid the method already described. The
liberation of gas is instantaneous on the contact of
the acid with the "soda" and even a skilled hand can-
not mix the bread and place it in the oven without the
loss of much of the gas. Tartaric acid, the acid phos-
phates, sour milk (lactic acid), vinegar (acetic acid)..
106
BAKING POWDER. gi
alum, all of which hav been used, are open to the
same objection.
Cream of tartar is the only acid substance commonly
used which does not liberate the gas by simple con-
tact in cold solution. It unites with "soda" only when
heated, because it is so slightly soluble in cold water.
Experiment. To illustrate this stir a little soda and
"cream of tartar" into some cold water in a cup. Ii?
another cup mix the same amounts of each in warm
water. Note the difference in the action produced.
To obtain an even distribution of the gas by thorough
mixing, cream of tartar would seem to be the best
medium by which to add the acid, but because there are
other products which remain behind in the bread in
using all the so-called baking powders, the healthful-
ness of these residues must be considered.
Common salt is the safest residue and perhaps that
from acid phosphate is next in order.
The tartrate, lactate, and acetate of sodium are not
known to be especially hurtful. As the important
constituent of Seidlitz powders is Rochelle salt, the
same compound as that resulting from the use of
cream of tartar and "soda," it is not likely to be very
harmful, even in the case of the habitual "soda bis-
cuit" eater, because of the small quantities taken.
The various products formed by the chemical de-
composition of the alum and "soda" are possibly the
most injurious, as these are sulphates, and are thought
Cream of
Tartar
Injurious
Products
107
92 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
to be the least readily absorbed salts. The sale of
fc "alum" baking powder is increasing, as it is cheaper.
Taking into consideration then the advantage given
by the insolubility of cream of tartar in cold water,
and the comparatively little danger from its derivative
Rochelle salt it would seem to be, on the whole, the
best substance to add to the soda in order to liberate
the gas, but the proportions should be chemically ex-
act, since too much alkali would hinder the process of
digestion. Hence baking powders prepared by weight
and carefully mixed, are a great improvement over
cream of tartar and "soda" measured separately. As
commonly used, the proportion of soda should be a
little less than half.
LIGHTING
By the time supper is over or even before, during a
large portion of the year daylight has gone. Our
grandmothers would have brought out the candles.
Perhaps we shall use a candle to light our way while
we carry the butter and food into the cool cellar.
The candle The candle flame although small in area is typical of
all flames. Flame indicates the burning of a gas for
solid substances in burning simply glow and do not
burn with flame. When wocd and soft coal burn,
gases are set free by heat and these gases burn over the
bed of fuel, giving the flames.
The general form of the candle flame is a cone
widest above the base, or about at the top of the wick.
If it is examined carefully it will be seen to consist
108
LIGHTING.
93
of three layers. Fig. 21. The interior part is dark,
giving out no light. The second is yellow and is the
luminous part, and surrounding this and most easily
seen at the base, is a very thin blue layer.
Experiment. If a small splint of wood or a match
be placed across the lower part of the flame near the
wick for a moment, it will be charred- where the outer
layers of the flame have touched it, but the centre will
not be changed. Press a piece of card board quickly
down on the flame from above
and remove it before it is set on
fire, and a ring of scorched paper
will show the shape of the hot
part of the flame.
The candle consists of hydro-
carbons ("compounds of carbon
and hydrogen). When a match is
applied to the wick, the hydrocar-
bons are melted and the liquid
rises on the wick by capillary at-
traction. The heat changes this to
Fig. 21. Flame of a
gas (or vapor) which is set on fire, candle,
since at the high temperature it easily unites with the
oxygen of the air. There is plenty of oxygen present,
but it is all seized upon by the carbon and hydrogen
in the outer parts of the column of gas rising from the
wick, so that none reaches the centre. The gas diffuses
outward toward the oxygen continually, so that the
innei cone may be regarded as a gas factory. The yel-
Chemistry
of the
Candle Flame
109
94
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Nature
of Smoke
Explosions
Explosive
Mixtures
low light is caused by the incandescence or glowing of
small particles of carbon, heated to "white heat."
These are set free from the compounds where the flame
is very hot and they are not yet united with oxygen.
Flames "smoke," that is, throw off unburned car-
bon when there is an insufficient supply of oxygen.
Any device which constantly renews a steady supply of
air (with oxygen) will make the flame burn better.
The chimney of a lamp does this by protecting the
flame from wind and by making, enclosing, and direct-
ing upward a current of air. The chimney makes
the lamp "draw," as the chimney of the house makes
the stove "draw."
When the air is mixed with an inflammable gas and
the temperature of any part is raised to the kindling
point of the gas, as happens if a light is brought into
such a mixture, an explosion takes place. The flame
spreads through the whole and combination ensues
everywhere almost instantly. Great heat is produced
and the gases expand suddenly and with violence. If
the- gases are confined, the enclosing walls may be
broken by the pressure. Contraction follows this ex-
pansion and air rushes in, producing a second sound.
The sounds occur so near together as to give the im-
pression of one.
In a mixture of inflammable gas and air there must
be a certain proportion of each to give conditions which
will produce an explosion. A very small amount of
gas in the air will not explode under any conditions,
no
LIGHTING.
95
as when there is an odor of coal gas in the room from
which no explosion follows even though a light be
present. On the other hand, a mixture containing a
large proportion of inflammable gas and a little air
will not explode. The proportion of air to gas in an
explosive mixture varies in different cases, but in gen-
eral ranges from about twelve to five parts of air to one
Fig. 22a. Tho Effect of Wire Gauze on n Gas Flame.
part of gas. It is, of course, never safe to rely on the
chance of the correct proportions of gas and air not be-
ing present.
Explosions sometimes occur by unwise use of kero-
sene in kindling a fire in a stove. If the kerosene is
poured upon a fire already burning, enough vapor of
kerosene may be produced to give a disastrous explo-
sion. Soaking wood or paper in kerosene for use as
kindlings and then lighting would produce no such
dire results.
ill
CHEMISTRY OF THE PIOUS EH OLD.
Safety
Lamps
Kerosene
Lamps
Explosions in mines are usually caused by a ga
called fire-damp and composed of carbon and hydrogen.
When this escapes from the coal and becomes mixed
with air, it is very explosive. If a miner brings a
naked flame into the mine, the fire-damp will ignite
and disaster results. A safety lamp was devised by
Davy for use in such dangerous places. It was found
that a gas is cooled below its kindling temperature in
passing through a fine wire gauze.
Lamps surrounded by such a gauze may
be taken into a mine with comparative
safety. Fig. 22.
The action of the wire gauze upon the
gas may be studied by holding over a
gas jet a piece of fine wire netting, such
as is used in window screens, and then
lighting the gas above the netting. Fig.
22a. It will be seen that the gas below
Fig 22 ^ e noting" is verv s l ow ' m igniting,
since it does not readily become sufficiently heated, the
wire netting cooling it below its kindling point.
The kerosene lamp gives light by the principle
already described. The reservoir o the lamp corre-
sponds to the cup of melted tallow at the top of the
candle. The oil is drawn to the top of the wick by
capillary attraction, where the hear vaporizes it ; so
that vapor and not oil is what really burns. The struc-
ture of the flame is precisely like that of the candle,
although its shape differs, because of the shape of the
wick.
112
LIGHTING. 97
Illuminating gas is today the source of light in most
city houses. There are two kinds of gas now fur-
nished for this purpose. Coal gas is obtained from
the destructive distillation of soft coal. Receivers
or retorts of iron or fire clay are filled with soft coal
and heated to 1 100 or more. From these retorts tubes
lead up into a large pipe called the hydraulic main,
FIG. 23. MANUFACTURING OF COAL GAS.
through which water is kept flowing. As the coal be-
comes heated, a number of different substances are
given off, which at this high temperature are in the
gaseous state. Some of them dissolve in the water
of the hydraulic main, but those needed for illuminat-
ing gas are not soluble and passing out of the main,
they travel through several hundred feet of vertical
pipe called the condenser, where more water removes
any impurities which may have escaped from the
hydraulic main.
Coal Gas
Distillation
of Coal
113
9 8
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Purifying
Coal Gas
Aniline
Water Gas
The gases are then passed on through numerous
other devices to remove remaining traces of impurities,
and are finally collected in a circular chamber known
as the gas-holder, from which they are distributed to
the consumer. Fig. 23.
If the purification is not perfect, the coal gas will
contain sulphur compounds, and these on burning pro-
duce oxide of sulphur, which is further changed by
moisture and the air into sulphuric acid. The quan-
tity produced may be very minute and yet in time
may be sufficient to damage books and fabrics.
The materials which collect in the hydraulic main
and the condensers contain many useful substances,
one of the most valuable being ammonia. Among the
most interesting substances obtained from coal tar is
aniline from which beautiful dyes are made. Aniline
itself is a colorless liquid, but in combination with
other chemical substances it yields a wide range of
beautiful colors now used in dyeing. Other useful
substances obtained from the distillation of coal tar
are carbolic acid, a disinfectant, and naphthalene
which is sold in the form of moth balls.
In some cities what is known as water gas forms
the basis of the illuminating gas. This is made by
passing very hot steam over red hot anthracite (x>al
or coke. The oxygen of the water unites with the
carbon of the coal, forming carbon monoxide a com-
pound of one part oxygen and one part carbon and
the hydrogen of the water is set free. Both the gases
114
LIGHTING. 99
thus formed will burn, but in burning they produce a
colorless flame. It is therefore necessary to mix with
them some gases containing much more carbon which
will give light when burning. The mixture is stored
and distributed like coal gas.
This gas is cheaper to manufacture in most locali-
ties, but it contains much more carbon monoxide which
is a very poisonous gas. Much discussion has arisen
as to the safety of using water gas and in some places
its manufacture is forbidden by law.
The destructive distillation of vegetable and animal Natural
life in the depths of the earth, caused by the great Gas
heat within the earth, has in some places given rise
to petroleum and natural gas. The gas gave a cheap
and convenient fuel, but unfortunately the supply is
becoming rapidly exhausted.
An illuminating gas of growing importance today Acetylene
is acetylene. This is a compound of carbon and hydro-
gen and is prepared by the action of water upon cal-
cium carbide, which is a compound of carbon and the
element calcium. Calcium carbide is manufactured in
large quantities at Niagara Falls where pure lime
mixed with powdered charcoal is fused at an intense
heat. A dark gray crystalline solid results which,
when mixed with water, produces acetylene gas and
slaked lime.
Acetylene is a colorless gas of characteristic odor,
soluble in \vater, and explosive if mixed with air.
With an ordinary burner it makes a yellowish smoky
115
ioo CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
flame, but with a properly constructed burner, it gives
a brilliantly white light, very like sunlight. Colors
appear at their true values seen in this light. The
flame is an intensely hot one. In acetylene burners
the gas escapes through two very minute holes directed
obliquely towards each other, as shown in Fig. 24.
FIG. 24. ACETYLENE GAS BURNERS.
Acetylene The gas has been somewhat in disrepute because of
Generators / -11 r
lack of a suitable arrangement for making and storing
it. Many generators are upon the market, it is true,
but very few of these are really safe. As soon as a
reliable one is obtainable, the gas will be widely used
for lighting. It may also be used for cooking, but at
present is rather expensive. One form of generator
is illustrated in Fig. 25. The calcium carbide in
lumps is fed automatically into water as long as the
gas is used. When the storage tank is nearly full the
supply of carbide is automatically shut off. In an-
other style, which is also automatic, water is fed on
to the lumps of carbide. Both styles have their advo-
cates, but the lump feed generator is most generally
recommended. The apparatus costs from about $65.00
for a 10 light plant to $300.00 for a ioo light plant.
116
LIGHTING.
101
A cheaper gas than acetylene is gasoline gas, some-
times called carburetted air gas because it is com-
mon air impregnated with the vapors of gasoline. It
burns with a rich, bright flame similar to coal gas and
Fig. 25. Acetylene Gas Generator and Storage Tank.
is conducted through pipes and fixtures in the same
manner. It may be used in an ordinary gas stove.
The gas machine consists of a generator containing
evaporating pans, an automatic air pump operated by
Gasoline
Gas
117
102
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Oxide of
Calcium
a heavy weight or by a water motor, together with
a regulator or mixer. The general arrangement is
shown in Fig. 26, the generator being entirely outside
the building in which the gas is used. All such ma-
chines require intelligent care, for several disastrous
FIG. 26. GASOLINE GAS PLANT.
explosions have taken place when such care has not
been given to the apparatus.
LIME.
One of the common chemical substances found about
the country house at least is quick lime, used for
whitewash and as a deodorizer.
The term lime usually means the oxide of the element
calcium. Its commonest compound is calcium carbon-
ate which is found in nature as limestone, chalk, mar-
ble, coral, shells, and several other familiar substances.
Calcium is also found combined with sulphur and
118
LIME. 103
oxygen in the compound calcium sulphate, which is
the mineral gypsum from which plaster of Paris is
made. Bones contain a considerable amount of cal-
cium phosphate and egg shells, calcium carbonate.
Lime, the oxide of calcium, is made by heating Quick
broken pieces of limestone in furnaces called lime kilns.
The calcium carbonate as a compound is broken up,
carbon dioxide gas being given off and calcium oxide
left. This freshly formed oxide is called "quick lime,"
and when it is exposed to moist air, it attracts water
and changes to a form called chemically, calcium
hydroxide and, commonly, ''slaked lime." Quick lime
may be used to dry the air of damp cellars, etc., because
of this property. The process of slaking the lime is
also accomplished by treating quick lime with water.
When this is done, much heat is evolved and the hard
lumps crumble to a soft powder and increase consider-
ably in bulk. The rise in temperature shows that
chemical change is taking place.
Slaked lime will dissolve slightly in water, yield- Lime
ing lime-water. This is a mild alkali and has several
household uses. It may be prepared by pouring two
quarts of boiling v/ater over about a cubic inch of
unslaked lime. Stir it thoroughly and let it stand over
night ; in the morning pour off the liquid and treat
the sediment with hot water a second time. When the
sediment has again settled, pour off the clear liquid
and bottle this. It is mixed with milk and fed to
young children and invalids to prevent acidity of the
119
104
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Mortar
and
Plaster
Hydraulic
Cement
stomach and make the milk more easily digested.
Lime-water and oil form one of the best remedies for
burns. The alkali of the lime neutralizes the acid
nature of the burn.
Mortar is made of slaked lime and sand. When
this is spread upon the walls, the lime slowly absorbs
carbon dioxide, always present in the air, and changes
to carbonate of lime. The water is given off into the
air (evaporates) and the mass becomes hard. Of
course the surface becomes carbonate sooner than the
deeper parts because this has closer contact with the
air, and it therefore takes considerable time for all the
plaster to harden. The water contained in the mortar
soon dries, but while the mortar is becoming hard,
more water is continually formed in the chemical pro-
cess, so that it requires a long time for the new plaster
to become quite dry. It is considered unhealthy to
live in rooms with newly plastered walls. This may
be because such walls are damp, thus producing damp
air, or it may be because the moisture in the walls
interferes with the passage of air and other gases
through the walls a process little considered as a
rule, but of great importance.
Certain varieties of limestone contain other salts,
such as magnesium carbonate. Lime made from these
does not soften from exposure to the air. It will,
however, harden after long contact with water, and
such substances are known as cements. Portland cement
will harden under water.
120
LIME.
10$
Quick-lime is a strong alkali and does the work of
such substances. It is used in tanneries in taking
hair from hides and also in decomposing fats for mak-
ing candles. When dead animal substance is buried
in lime, the process of decomposition is greatly hast-
ened, probably because the lime unites with all water
present while the strong alkali acts upon the fats re-
ducing them to soaps of different kinds.
Whitewash is simple slaked lime mixed with water.
It is very cleansing in its effects and also gives the ap-
pearance of freshness and cleanness. When newly ap-
plied, it is nearly colorless, for the calcium hydrate is
colorless ; this in the air soon changes to calcium car-
bonate which is white and opaque.
CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRICITY.
In most houses electricity is used for operating the
door bell, table bell and perhaps the electric gas light-
ers. We have learned how stored up chemical energy
is changed into heat and force in the stove and in the
human body ; but in the electric cell, chemical energy
is changed into electrical energy.
If a strip of pure zinc be placed in a weak solution
of acid, no chemical action takes place. Place in the
same solution a strip of sheet copper and again no
action takes place ; but let the copper and the zinc be
brought in contact, or connected by a copper wire, and
immediately vigorous chemical action will begin at the
surface of the copper plate ; bubbles of hydrogen col-
lecting there. This action is as follows : the zinc dis-
A Voltaic
Cell
121
io6 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
solves in the acid and hydrogen is set free. This
hydrogen travels with an electric current set up in the
liquid, passing from particle to particle through the
liquid until it reaches the copper. Here the hydrogen
stops, but the electric current passes up the copr-er
plate and over the wire to the zinc and down that ^.o
Fig. 27. A Simple Fig. 28. A Leclanche
Voltaic Cell. Cell.
the liquid and so on. This arrangement of acid an-1
metals is called a simple voltaic cell. Fig. 27.
Other cells are arranged with different liquids and
Cel1 solids to gain various ends, and several cells may be
united by wires between the plates to gain additional
strength of current. The form of cell often employed
to work electric bells is the Leclanche cell. Fig. 28.
This consists of a. plate of carbon (or a porous cell
containing carbon), in place of, the copper, a strip
or rod of zinc, and a solution of ammonium chloride
122
ELECTRICITY.
107
which takes the place of the acid. The zinc is not
affected by the ammonium chloride unless it is con-
nected with the carbon, but when there is a circuit
for the electricity, a current is generated. The com-
mon conductors of the electric current are the metals
and carbons.
Fig. 29. A Battery of Cells Connected In Series.
The zinc is gradually changed to zinc chloride, at
the expense of the ammonium chloride, and after a
time both the zinc and the ammonium chloride must
be renewed. In renewing the battery, the jars should be
cleaned out carefully and the zincs renewed if they
are completely eaten through. A quarter of a pound
of pure ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac) is dis-
solved in enough water to about half fill a jar. When
the carbon and the zinc are replaced, this will bring
the liquid up to two inches from the top. The jar
should not be filled too full. The wires which have
been disconnected should be reconnected as before.
For bell work the cells are usually connected up "in
series," that is, the zinc of one cell is connected to
Renewing
Batteries
Cells in
Seriea
123
lo8 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
the carbon of the next, the outside circuit being estab-
lished between the end carbon and end zinc. Fig. 29.
If there is a short circuit anywhere
in the line, that is, if the current has a
chance in any way to flow from one
wire to the other without going
through the bell or other apparatus,
the batteries are very quickly ex-
hausted.
A modification of this cell has been
made in which the spaces inside it are
filled with some spongy mass in the
pores of which the ammonium chlor-
Fig. so. A Dry Ceil. ^ e ' ls held. These may easily be car-
ried about without danger of spilling solutions. They
are called dry cells and when exhausted cannot read-
ily be renewed.
PLANTS.
Most housekeepers have at least a few house plants
and many have gardens which occupy part of the time
each day. All foods are directly or indirectly produced
by plants and it is well to consider also what food these
living things require in their turn.
plan Fods Plants are able to take from the materials forming
the crust of the earth and from the air surrounding
them all that they need for their life. The leaves of
the plants, because of the green substance called
124
PLANTS.
log
Upper Surface
A
B-reatHinq Pores
Fig. 31. Section Through
a Leaf.
chlorophyl, have the power of decomposing carbon
dioxide gas in a such a way that plants make use of
the carbon arid breathe out oxygen. Fig. 31. This
separation is very difficult to
make in the laboratory. The en-
ergy of sunlight is utilized by the
plant for this work, for the action
does not take place in darkness.
In this way plants return to the
air the oxygen so necessary for
animal life and are themselves
fed in part by the useless and
even harmful gas exhaled by ani-
mals.
The soil on which the plant grows furnishes the
mineral matter needed. When plant tissues are
burned, these mineral substances remain as ashes.
When the ashes of plants are analyzed, they are found
to consist of potash, soda, iron, and lime in the form
of phosphates, sulphates, and silicates. Some of these
substances are present in the soil in inexhaustible
quantities, but others are less abundant and unless the
soil be fertilized from time to time, the plant soon
uses them up. These less abundant substances are
phosphates, potash, and nitrogen.
The lover of house plants has long resorted to
various expedients for feeding them, and many plant
foods are now sold and in common use. In using these
for manuring potted plants, care must be taken not to
125
no
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Nitrogen and
Plant Life
Conservation
use too much, since strong solutions of them are likely
to corrode the roots and kill the plants.
Although nitrogen is a very abundant element, form-
ing as has been said, four-fifths of the air, yet it is com-
paratively rare in forms which are of use to plants.
As a rule plants cannot take it from the air and there-
fore require soluble compounds of nitrogen for food.
One of the most important of these is ammonia. This
is formed when organic substances decay, its odor
being very noticeable about stables. Its action with
acids was described in the pages about cleaning and it
was explained how it unites with acids to form salts,
usually soluble. Sulphate of ammonia is the form used
in agriculture. A very little ammonia in the water
used on house plants is a good thing for them.
It has been seen that plants by aid of sunlight breathe
in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen gas. In
addition to this, they also breathe as animals do, to a
slight extent, taking in oxygen and breathing out car-
bon dioxide. This action is more pronounced in dark-
ness.
The wonderful principle called conservation is il-
lustrated by what we know of plant life. Plants in
growing store up energy derived from the heat and
light of the sun. When they decay, or are burned, or
are eaten by animals, exactly the same amount of
energy is set free and changed into a new form, and
just as much carbon dioxide as the plant breathed in,
is given back to the air. A plant which was many
126
PLANTS.
ill
years in growing may be consumed in an hour or may
decay slowly for years. In either case the same total
amount of energy is set free, fast or slowly. This
energy is most apparent as heat. In the growth and
destruction of the plant both energy and matter have
been transformed, but neither energy nor matter has
been made or lost it has merely taken on a new appear-
ance. When animals feed on plants they transform the
energy of sunlight which is stored up in the plant into
energy of vitality. In this sense man and all animals
are "children of the sun."
CHEMICAL TERMS.
To explain various chemical and physical phenomena
the scientists consider that matter consists of certain
small molecules and atoms.
If a drop of water be divided and sub-divided in-
definitely, it is conceivable that a point would come
when it could not be divided further by physical means.
This final bit of water is called a molecule. It would
be far from visible by the most powerful microscope.
From calculation which we will not go into, we learn
that a few hundred million ordinary sized molecules
would cover the space of a pin head.
If the water is broken up by some powerful force
as by the electric current, we have seen that two dif-
ferent substances are obtained oxygen and hydrogen.
Consequently the molecules of water must have been
made up of other still smaller particles and these are
called atoms. The atoms of a chemical element, then,
Molecules
127
112
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
Atoms
Chemical
Signs
are of the same kind, for from an elemental substance
like oxygen, only oxygen can be obtained by any
means now known.
The atoms may be likened to the letters of our alpha-
bet and the molecules to the words. From a few dif-
ferent kinds of atoms (letters) can be made a great
variety of molecules (words).
TABLE OF COMMON ELEMENTS.
Aluminum
Al
Iodine
I
Oxygen
o
Arsenic
As
Iron
Fe
Phosphorus
P
Barium
Ba
(Perrum)
Silicon
Si
Boron
B
Lead
Pb
Silver
Ag
Calcium
Carbon
Ca
C
(Plumbum)
Magnesium
Kg
(Argentum)
Sodium
Na '
Chlorine
Cl
Manganese
Mn
(Natrium)
Copper
Gold
Cu
Au
Mercury Hg
(Hydrargyrum)
Sulphur
Tin
S
Sn
(Aurum)
Nickel
Ni
(Stannum)
Hydrogen
H
Nitrogen
N
Zinc
Zn
The atoms of an element are all exactly alike. They
weigh the same and act the same whatever their
source. Two or more atoms of an element may com-
bine to make a molecule of that element. The mole-
cules of a chemical substance are always composed of
the same number and kind of atoms.
To express the composition of substances chemists
have made use of certain abbreviations and signs. To
indicate an atom of hydrogen the letter H is used and
for oxygen, the letter O, for nitrogen, N, and so on as
shown in the table.
When expressing a compound the number of atoms
is indicated by sub-script ; for example, H 2 means two
128
CHEMICAL TERMS. 113
atoms of hydrogen; H 2 O expresses two atoms of
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, and as we have
found, this is the composition of water ; so H 2 O is the
chemist's short way of indicating water. These are
called chemical formulas. The formula for sulphuric
acid is H 2 SO 4 . This indicates that it is made up of two
atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulphur, and four
atoms of oxygen. The following table gives the chemi-
cal formulas of many of the chemical substances found
in the household.
THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY.
All modern science is based upon experiment.
Chemistry was hardly a science until experimental re-
search began. It must be confessed that the average
housewife seldom thinks of making experiments. She
is apt to remain helpless before any new problem of
the home without printed directions or advice from
friends. Very often the easiest and surest way to find
out a thing is to try it. Use your kitchen as a labora-
tory. It would, of course, be most unwise to make ex-
periments on expensive materials. For example, if
a stain was to be removed from colored goods, it would
be best to find the effect of the chemicals to be used on
some small piece of the fabric.
To test the color of a sample of gingham for fastness
in washing, try a part of the sample" in soap and hot
water and see if the color "runs" or stains the water.
Dry and iron the piece treated and compare with the
portion of the original sample kept. A sample can be
Expressing
Molecules
Experiment*
Testini
Colors
129
114 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
TABLE OF COMMON SUBSTANCES AND THEIR FORMULAS.
SUBSTANCE
FORMULA
SUBSTANCE
FORMULA
Water
H 2 O
Calcium Oxide
Peroxide of Hydro-
(Lime)
CaO
gen .....
H 2 O 2
Lime Water ....
C a oH
Sulphuric Acid . .
H 2 SO*
Calcium Carbonate
CaCO 3
Sulphur Dioxide .
S0 a
Calcium Hypo-
Hydrochloric Acid
HC1
chlorite (Chloride
of Lime) ....
Ca(ClO),
\cetic Acid ....
C Z H 4 2
Sodium Thiosul-
Tartaric Acid . . .
CH 8
phite ("Hypo") .
Na 2 S 2 O 3
Cream of Tartar
Cane Sugar ....
Ci 2 H 22 On
(Acid potassium
KC H
Milk Sugar ....
Ci,H 32 0,,-fH 2
Carbon Dioxide . .
CO,
Grape Sugar . . .
C,H 12
Starch .
(C 6 H 10 O 6 )x
Carbon Monoxide .
CO
Cellulose ...
(C 6 Hi O 8 )y
Caustic Soda . . .
NaOH
Stearine (in fat) .
C H (O OH)
Caustic Potash . .
KOH
38 2 18 3SJ3
Sodium Carbonate
Palmitin (in fat) .
C 3 H 6 (0 2 C 19 H 31 ) 3
(Anhydrous) . .
Na 2 C0 3
3
Na0 2 C 18 H 38 ,
Soap <
NaC^CiftHaii
Sodium Carbonate
|
etc.
(Crystalline')
(Washing Soda) .
Na 2 C0 3 +12H 2
Albumen . . . . \
(Not definitely
known.)
Sodium Bicarbon-
Alcohol
CuHgOH
ate .......
NaHCO 3
Wood Alcohol . .
CH 3 OH
Ammonia (gas) . .
NH 3
Glycerine
C 3 H 8 (OH) 3
Ammonium Hy-
drate (Ammonia
G'soline, N'phtha )
Water)
NH 4 OH
B f
CsH etc.
130
THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. 115
tested for fastness to light by exposing to dfrect sun-
light for a day or two, saving a portion of the cloth as
before for comparison. If the dye will stand direct
sunlight without appreciable change for this length of
time, it will not give much trouble by fading. Wall
paper may be tested for fading in a similar way.
The industrial chemist always endeavors to test
materials in a manner as nearly like the way they are
to be used as possible. For example, if he were testing
two samples of flour to be used for making bread, he
might make up two small loaves, using carefully
weighed quantities of each sample of flour and other
materials and baking the loaves at one time, compare
the result. In such cases it is usual to have a "stand-
ard" flour or other material to use for comparison.
This method of testing by comparison could often
be used by housekeepers provided reasonable care
were taken as to weights and conditions. Working
thus, flour, baking powder, soap, spices, flavoring ex-
tracts, in fact almost all the raw materials of the kitchen
and laundry could be tested.
The chemicals for househald use are chiefly acids,
alkalies, and solvents for grease. Acids and alkalies
are opposed to each other in their properties and if too
much of either has been used, it may be rendered in-
nocent or neutralized by the other ; as when soda has
turned black silk brown, acetic acid or vinegar will
bring the color back.
131
Acids for the
Laboratory
Care of
Chemicals
ii6 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
The acids which should be on the chemical shelf
for the household are acetic, hydrochloric (muriatic),
oxalic. Vinegar may be used in many cases instead of
acetic acid, but vinegar contains coloring matter which
stains delicate fabrics and it is better to use the puri-
fied acid. Hydrochloric and oxalic acids are strong
acids and will harm most household materials if al-
lowed to act for long time. Acetic acid is a weak acid
and as it is volatile, evaporates without becoming con-
centrated as do the others.
Some bright blue flannels and other fabrics, when
washed with soap or ammonia become changed or
faded in color. If acetic acid or vinegar be added to
the last rinsing water, the original appearance may be
restored. Not all shades of blue are made by the same
compounds, hence not all faded blues can be thus re-
stored.
The use of these acids has been indicated in the
previous pages, and there remains to be considered,
only certain cautions. Hydrochloric acid is somewhat
volatile. It will escape even around a glass stopper
and will eat a cork stopper ; therefore, either the glass
stopper should be tied in with an impervious cover
rubber or parchment or a rubber stopper used, for the
escaping fumes will rust metals and eat fabrics.
Oxalic acid should be labeled POISON.
The bleaching agents, "chloride of lime" and Javelle
water owe their beneficent effect to substances of an
acid nature which are liberated from them. They
132
THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. 117
should all be used in solution only, and should be kept
in bottles with rubber stoppers.
Sulphurous acid gas, obtained by burning sulphur,
will often remove spots which nothing else will touch.
The amount given off from a burning sulphur match
will often be sufficient to remove from the finger fruit
stains or those made by black kid gloves.
The alkalies which are indispensable are: Alkalies
ist. Ammonia better that of the druggist than the
often impure and always weak "household ammonia."
The strong ammonia is best diluted about one-half,
since it is very volatile, and much escapes into the air.
2nd. Potash and Caustic Soda, which are to be had at
the grocers in small cans. The lye obtained from wood
ashes owes its caustic and soap-making properties to
potash. The caustics are corrosive in their action, and
must be used with discretion.
Crystallized sodium carbonate, the sal-soda of the
grocer, is chemically speaking a salt and not an alkali,
but it gives all the effect of one, since the carbonic acid
is so weak that it readily gives place to other sub-
stances.
Sal-soda is a very cheap chemical, since it is readily
manufactured in large quantities, and forms the basis
of most of the washing powders on the market. With
grease, it forms a soap which is dissolved and carried
away.
3rd. Borax is a compound of sodium with boric acid,
rnd acts as a mild alkali. It is the safest of all the
133
n8 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
alkalies, and affects colored fabrics less than does
ammonia.
Solvents Solvents for grease are alcohol, chloroform, ether,
benzine, naphtha, gasolene all volatile kerosene and
turpentine. Of these chloroform is the most costly,
and is used chiefly for taking spots from delicate silks.
Fabrics and colors not injured by water may be treated
by alcohol or ether. Benzine, naphtha or gasolene are
often sold, each under the name of the other. If care
is taken to prevent the spreading of the ring, they can
be safely used on any fabric. They do not mix with
water, and are very inflammable.
The less volatile solvents are kerosene and turpen-
tine. Kerosene is a valuable agent in the household,
and since some of the dealers have provided a deodor-
ized quality, it should find an even wider use. The
lighter variety is better than the I5o-degree fire test,
which is the safe oil for lamps. As has been indicated
in the preceding pages, the housewife will find many
uses for this common substance.
On account of the purity and cheapness of kerosene,
turpentine is less used than formerly, although it has
its advantages.
closet for These household chemicals should have their own
closet or chest, as separate from other bottles as is the
medicine chest, and especially should they be separated
from it. Many distressing accidents have occurred
from swallowing ammonia by mistake.
In addition to these substances, certain others may be
kept on hand, if the housewife has sufficient chemical
134
THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. 119
knowledge to enable her to detect adulteration in the
groceries and other materials which she buys.
A few of these simple tests are given with the Testg
chemicals needed.
Directions for Using the Housekeeper's Laboratory.
When directed to make a solution acid or alkaline,
always test it by means of the litmus paper:
Blue turned to red means acid. Red turned to blue
means alkaline.
Only by following the directions can the test be
relied upon. Under other circumstances than those
given, the results may mean something else.
Use the acids in glass or china vessels only. Metals vessels
may be attacked. Do not touch brass with ammonia
or marble with acid. Aluminum is quickly corroded by
the alkalies.
Heating or burning a substance often gives evidence
of its character. Organic solids will char, leaving
charcoal (carbon) when heated and will disappear
completely when burned. Some salts melt; others do
not.
All the carbonates that the housewife is likely to carbonates
meet will give an effervescence of carbon dioxide with
muriatic acid and most of them with acetic acid.
Substances of an acid nature will effervesce with a
solution of cooking soda. The test will be more deli-
cate if the solutions are warm.
To test for sulphuric acid or soluble sulphate in soda,
cream of tartar, baking powder, vinegar, sugar or
135
120
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
syrup: Add muriatic acid to the solution (if the in-
soluble part is sulphate of lime, it will dissolve in the
acid on heating), then add barium chloride. A heavy
white precipitate proves the presence of sulphuric acid,
either free or combined. If the solution is not distinct-
ly acid at first, it is not free.
Lime Test To test for lime in cream of tartar, baking powder,
sugar or syrup : Make the solution alkaline with am-
monia and ammonium oxalate. A fine white precipi-
tate proves the presence of lime. Good cream of tartar
will dissolve in boiling water, and will show only
slight cloudiness when the test for lime is applied.
Phosphates To test for phosphates in cream of tartar or baking
powder : Make acid by nitric acid, and add ammonium
molybdate. A fine yellow precipitate or yellow color
proves the presence of phosphates.
chlorides To test for chlorides in soda, baking powder, sugar,
syrup or water: Make the solution (a fresh portion)
acid with nitric acid, and add silver nitrate. A white
curdy precipitate or a cloudiness indicates chlorides.
Ammonia To test for ammonia in baking powder : Add a
small lump of caustic soda to a strong water solution.
Red litmus will turn blue in the steam, on heating.
Alum To test for alum in cream of tartar, baking powder
or bread : Prepare a fresh decoction of logwood ; add
a few drops of this to the solution or substance, aiH
render acid by means of acetic acid. A yellow color
in the acid solution proves absence of alum. A bluish
136
TESTS. 121
or purplish red, more or less decided, means more or
less alum.
To test for starch in any mixture which has been starch
cooked, simply moisten with dilute tincture of iodine
such as is kept by the druggists. An intense blue color
will show the presence of even a minute quantity of
starch. If the substance has not been heated, boil a
portion and let cool and then test with a few drops of
iodine solution. Heat destroys the blue color of iodine
with starch and therefore the test must be made in cold
solutions.
If the label of a washing powder claims it to be
something new, and requires that it be used without
soda, as soda injures clothes, it can be tested as fol-
lows : Put half a teaspoonful of the powder into a
tumbler, add a little water, then a few drops of muriatic
acid. A brisk effervescence will prove it to be a car-
bonate, and if the edge of the tumbler is held near the
colorless flame of an alcohol lamp, the characteristic
yellow color of sodium will appear and complete the
proof. If the acid is added drop by drop, until no more
effervescence occurs, and there remains a greasy scum
on the surface of the liquid in the tumbler, the com-
pound contains soap as well as sal-soda, for the acid
unites with the alkali of the soap and sets free the
grease. Acetic acid or a solution of oxalic acid may
be used in place of the muriatic acid.
If some very costly silver polishing powder is offered silver
as superior to all other powders, a drop or two of
137
122 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
muriatic acid or of warm vinegar will decide whether
or not it is chalk or whiting by the effervescence or
liberation of the carbonic acid gas.
sample i n making all the foregoing tests, it is well to ob-
serve the effect of the chemicals used on the substance
to be tested for, and so become familiar with the char-
acteristic color or appearance of the test. For example,
before testing a washing powder, add a little acid to a
soap solution and observe the greasy film produced,
and in testing for alum add a very little alum solution
to some flour and test with the logwood solution, not-
ing the color given. This procedure will lead to more
reliable results.
Caution! Use a new solution of a fresh portion of
the first one for each new test and follow directions ex-
actly. This is essential to remember.
138
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
PART 1 1 1,
Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first
sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one
side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from the lesson
paper. Use your own words, so that your instructor may know
that you understand the subject. Read the lesson paper a num-
ber of times before attempting to answer the questions.
I.
2.
3-
5-
6.
7-
8.
9-
What properties of ''cream of tartar" make i.
suitable for baking powder?
Explain how a candle is a gas factory.
What conditions must be present for an explosion
to take place?
What is "cooking soda ?" How does it differ from
washing soda ?
What is the principle of the Davy safety lamp?
Describe the manufacture of coal gas.
How is water gas made? What objectionable
features has it?
What is "quick lime" and what are its uses ?
How is electricity produced in a voltaic cell ?
What does the chemical formula H 2 SO 4 indicate?
139
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
11. How is "conservation" illustrated in the life and
decay of a tree?
12. What can you say about the advisability of the
housekeeper making experiments?
13. How would you test for a carbonate? How foi
an acid without using litmus paper?
14. How are tests made by comparison?
15., Are there any questions you would like to ask re-
lating to "A Day's Chemistry" ?
16. Have you any personal experience, original
method, or new fact to offer, relating to the sub-
jects taken up in the lesson on the "Chemistry
of the Household" that would be of interest to
your fellow students?
Note After completing the test, sign your full name.
140
SUPPLEMENT
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
BY MARGARET E. DODD, S. B.
In reading many hundreds of test papers Wiitteu
by our students I have found that additional com
ments suggest themselves frequently, and it may be
i of interest to bring them together here.
IMPURITIES IN WATER
By the term impurities, we mean substances out of
(place. Pure water is oxide of hydrogen, H a O. If
(water has salt dissolved in it, for instance, the salt is
in impurity for the water, though we do not think
>f salt as being an impure substance in itself. The
lineral impurities in drinking water are seldom a
source of danger, although if the amount is large,
ich water may not "agree" with persons not used
it. Mineral impurities will usually make the water
tard, and therefore troublesome for laundry work
ind to some extent in cooking.
LAUNDRY WORK
Satisfactory water for laundry work must not only
clear and soft but it must be free from iron, from
le discoloration due to decaying vegetable matter,
flayey soil, and so on. It should also be free from any
>r when hot. Muddy w^ter may be cleared more
127
141
128 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
or less satisfactorily by filtering it through sand or
"by precipitation." In the latter method, dissolve
a scant tablespoonful each of alum and borax in a
little hot water, and add this amount to each gallon
of water used, stirring it in, and allowing it to settle.
The alum and borax react to form a cloudy substance
which settles to the bottom, carrying the mud with it.
The clear water must then be carefully poured or
dipped off from the sediment. A siphon is an excel-
lent contrivance for such a use. If a piece of garden
hose is used, tie on a piece of wood so that it extends
one or two inches beyond the end, to keep it z bove
the sediment. Weight it with a piece of lead.
When water made hard by carbonate of lime is to
be softened, addition of any of the alkalis will soften
it, for this reason. These carbonates will not dis-
solve in water unless it contains carbon dioxide gas
in solution. The alkalis added, unite with the gas,
and the lime is thereby made insoluble and separated
from the water. We do not see it as a rule, for there
is in reality, very little of it, and this little separates
in very tiny particles. Water which is hard in the
clothes boiler frequently causes trouble because of
tiny bits of lime which separate from it and make
spots upon the clothes.
A spring situated in sandstone rock generally
yields soft water because the sandstone is so slightly
soluble, but one situated in limestone rock always
gives hard water. Limestone is a very common rock,
142
LAUNDRY WORK 129
so many springs are of hard water. A shallow well
is more apt to yield soft water than a deep one is, and
a river has clearer and softer water near its source,
where it runs over rocks, and through uncultivated
land.
Occasionally where free alkali is added to hard
water, it unites with greasy or oily matter in the gar-
ments being washed, and forms dark spots of soap
insoluble in water. This is prevented to some extent
by addition of a very little turpentine, and boiling
such spotted garments in clean suds may dissolve out
the stains if they have formed. This happens so sel-
dom that the use of soda in laundry work (with cau-
tion) for softening water is still to be recommended
Washing powders are usually composed for the
most part of washing soda, and as they cost more than
soda, it is rather better to buy the latter. Moreover,
the strength of the alkali may be more accurately
judged.
Water varies greatly in hardness, so it is difficult to
give exact rules for softening it, though I am often
asked for them. In general, for moderately hard
water use:
i level tablespoonful of sal soda to i gallon
water.
% level tablespoonful of powdered lye to i
gallon water.
i level tablespoonful of borax to i gallon
water.
143
130 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
Do not use ammonia with very hot water, for heat
liberates the ammonia gas, which is thus lost.
Some students have thus described the use of ashes
from hard wood :
Add a quart or more of water to a quart of ashes.
Boil it a few minutes, adding more water if necessary.
Then add sufficient water to make a gallon. Let it
settle, then pour off the water and strain it. Put
enough of it in the wash water to secure a good suds
with soap. The water dissolves the potash (potas-
sium carbonate) from the ashes. So this is an eco-
nomical method of getting this alkali.
I have had many interesting letters on the subject
of laundry work. Some of the processes described
may be new to many of our students.
One writer describes a method of using paraffine
in washing. She dissolves a bar of soap in boiling
water and adds to it a piece of paraffine almost as
large as a walnut. She uses this in making a suds
with boiling water in which the clothes are thoroughly
boiled for twenty minutes or more, punching them
ocassionally. They must be rinsed in several hot
waters to ensure the removal of the paraffine, but
she claims the clothes will be beautifully white.
A number have advocated the use of kerosene in
laundry work, especially with very much soiled articles.
Both this and paraffins certainly act upon the oily
film which entangles the dirt and thus make the wash-
ing easier. Ths objection to their use is that more
144
BLUING 131
soap and more hot water and therefore more
fuel must be used. Two tablespoonfuls of kerosene
in a boiler of soapy water is about the right quantity.
In this connection it should be said that when clothes
are taken from the boiler, they should be put into
tepid water, and pushed well into it, for lying in the
air seems to set the dirt, probably because the fibres
contract as they cool, so that foreign particles are
enclosed in the cloth and cannot fall out into the rinse
water.
Kerosene is excellent to use in washing dish towels.
Make a strong soap suds, putting in a tablespoonful
of oil to a gallon of water. Soap the towels well, and
boil them in this suds for half an hour or so. ' Then
wash, rinse and dry them, in the fresh air. Kerosene
is somewhat volatile, and its odor will escape in time.
When kerosene has been used, the wringer, tubs, etc.,
will need very careful cleaning to remove any film of
oil before it has time to catch dust.
BLUING
There are three kinds of bluing now on the market.
The action and disadvantages of Prussian Blue have
been described. It gives a better color, however,
than either of the other two . A second kind is Ultra-
marine blue. This, also, is an iron compound, but
it does not decompose with alkali. It is what we
often buy as the "ball bluing," and is insoluble in
water. Water, however, causes it to break up into very
145
132 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
minute particles which spread through the liquid and
give it a blue color. The water must be kept stirred,
and one must be careful in using it that the clothes
do not get streaked. The balls of bluing should be
tied up in a cloth and washed from this into the water.
It is well to prepare it in a separate dish and then add
it to the water. Indigo blue is easier to use, but does
not give so good a color. Preparations of indigo
for laundry work may still be obtained.
Here is a method of cleansing knitted worsted goods
which was strongly recommended. Wash the gar-
ment in gasoline, and allow it to dry. Then shake it
well in a tight box with flour or fuller's earth, allow-
ing it to remain there an hour or more. The powder
will absorb any. greasy or oily substance, and later
may be shaken out. In using gasoline for cleaning
in this way, have a generous amount, and allow for
rinsing the articles well. The gasoline may be used
more than once, for the dirt which it contains will
settle to the bottom of the vessel in which it stands
and the clear liquid may be poured off. Use it out
of doors, or in a strong outward draft, that the in-
flammable vapors it produces may blow harmlessly
away.
To many people, the word "chemical" always
means an acid. Now, acids and alkalis differ so much
in their properties, that it ic wise to be able to distin-
guish between them. Injuries due to the use of one
may frequently be remedied by prompt use of the
146
SOAP MAKING 133
other. Alkalis are especially useful in laundry work
because of their action upon grease of most kinds.
Some of the salts formed with the alkali metals are
alkaline in reaction. Among these are washing and
cooking soda.
HOME SOAP MAKING
All fats and oils are compounds of certain fatty
acids combined with glycerine. Glycerine is easily
separated from this combination by strong alkalis,
and thus soaps are made. The glycerine is a by-pro-
duct in many soap factories, but it is not evident in
home-made soap, being thrown away with any waste
water, or, perhaps, left in the soft soap. The various
fats are composed of different kinds of fatty acids, so
we have varieties of soap made from them.
Rosin acts like fatty acids, for it is able to combine
with alkali to make rosin soap. This is good for
rough work, but it is apt to separate in hot water,
setting free the rosin acids, which may settle upon the
fabric being washed, giving it the odor of rosin or
causing it to become yellow. It is very objectionable
when the clothes come to be ironed. This rosin also
makes fabrics likely to take up dust. If the clothes
are well rinsed, the amount of rosin soap in ordinary
yellow soap gives no trouble.
I have often been asked for a recipe for home-made
soap, and, too, I have had many students write me of
their success in this process. Many housekeepers
147
134 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
keep and clarify the fats from food. Soap may
easily be made from this, as follows:
Take a pound can of lye (Babbitt's potash is good)
and dissolve it in three pints of cold water. It will
become quite hot as it dissolves, and care must be
taken in adding the lye to the water, as it is apt to
spatter, and is likely to irritate the hands.
Have ready five pounds of clean fat, which has been
melted and strained through cheese-cloth to remove
all specks of brown. When the lye is cool, pour it
slowly on the grease, stirring it with a stick until the
two mix, and the liquid becomes about as thick as
honey. Too long stirring may cause the ingredients
to separate.
Mould the soap in agate or wooden trays. If a
wooden box is used, it should be lined with several
thicknesses of wrapping paper. The layer next the
soap should be oiled. The soap should harden in a
moderately warm place, and then may be cut into
cakes. This is the so-called "cold process" soap. It
will not be suitable for fine work but improves with age.
Several students have described to me how
they remembered seeing soap made at home from
alkali obtained by leaching wood ashes. The ashes
were put into a large box pierced with holes, the
box placed over the soap kettle, and hot water was
poured upon the top. This alkali would make soft
soap, which would be stored in barrels. If hard soap
were desired, salt was added to some of the soft soap.
148
DISH WASHING 135
A reaction takes place by which some of the sodium
in the salt is combined with the fatty acids, sufficient
hard soap being formed to harden the mass. Nowa-
days, even when we buy "potash" we are quite sure
to find that we can make hard soap, for it almost
always is chiefly soda (caustic soap).
Washing "soda has a great many uses, and I am
frequently reminded of new ones by our students-.
I am told how excellent it is to put a little in water
and boil this in the cooking dishes on which food has
hardened or burned. Another describes how she
cleans silver by boiling it with a little soda, then rins-
ing it in very hot water and drying quickly and
thoroughly. The wife of a dairy farmer assures me
that she could never get her creamery cans suitably
clean without plenty of sal soda, which quickly
removes the butter fat. When we use it in laundry
work, however, we must remember that, like other
solids, when it dissolves, a saturated solution forms
around each piece, and this strong solution may in-
jure anything on which the pieces rest. Therefore
the crystals should always be dissolved, and the solu-
tion diluted as much as may seem necessary.
DISH WASHING
The washing of dishes takes so much time in every
house that it is evidently a subject calling for close
attention. Nothing is more desirable than that this
work be done thoroughly and well; still, it is doubtless
149
136 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
possible to plan for it in such a way that time may
be saved for other matters.
In the first place, systematic work is sure to go
more rapidly than haphazard fashions. The dishes
should be prepared for washing by scraping them as
clean as possible, and some housekeepers advocate
rinsing off many of them under the hot or cold
water faucets before putting them in the dish-
pan. Hard water is very unsatisfactory for dish
washing, and the use of soda or borax is a great help
when soft water is not available. Borax is not so
hard on the hands as soda. Dishes which have
contained milk or eggs are better rinsed well in cool
water, for heat hardens the albumins so that they are
removed with difficulty.
Plenty of hot, soapy water is necessary to do tjiis
work easily, and a second dishpan of clear, hot water
in which to rinse the dishes is a great help. Use
very little soap on gilt china, however.
There seems to be a great variety of opinion on
the subject of washing glass. Many housekeepers
have expressed a preference for washing it in cold
water rather than in hot. Where the glass is not
at all greasy, this is very well. Ammonia or soda in
the water helps to clean the glass and makes it
lustrous. Glass washed in cold water should be
allowed to drain almost dry before it is polished.
One housekeeper has described to me a wire basket
which she has had made to hold dishes when they
150
DISH WASHING 137
drain, and which is made to fit into her dishpan.
Fitting the dishes into this, she is able to immerse
them in hot rinsing water, and then lift them out
to dry. She finds the plan an excellent one.
Another student writes that she has found sifted
coal ashes a most useful article to use in cleaning
knives. Another prefers sifted wood ashes. These
most be very carefully sifted, so that no hard bits be
left in, which might scratch the articles polished.
The kitchen dishes are usually the most difficult
to wash, and one student describes a home-made
"scrubber" which she declares is very useful. "Take
a broom apart, a good one, by removing the wire and
letting the straw loose," she says. "The upper part
of the straw is then put into boiling water and left
long enough to soften it. Then the straws are tied
together in bundles about two inches across, using a
strong twine. The twine is pulled tight, and sinks
into the softened straw, and when dry, it does not
slip. A loop is left for hanging the bundle, and the
straw is left its whole length. These are so long and
slender they will reach into anything. They are a
great saving on the hands, and allow the use of much
hotter water."
Many of our students recommend the use of soft
paper in cleaning greasy dishes, kettles, and pans,
The papers may be burned, thus disposing of much
grease which would otherwise find its way into the
kitchen sink drain.
151
138 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
LATENT HEAT
The subject of latent heat, described on page 12,
has proved very puzzling to many. It is certainly
a strange idea at first, that heat does anything more
than make things warm. Still, a moment's considera-
tion recalls to mind that heat can do many other
things. Heat causes chemical change, for substances
are often changed by strong heat. Heat causes most
substances to expand. If a sealed can of any sub-
stance is strongly heated, it will probably explode.
Heat causes liquids to evaporate, and solids to melt.
If a liquid is placed in an open dish on a source
of heat, its temperature will rise until it begins to
boil. After this, it gets no hotter, no matter how
much heat is applied, unless the liquid is becoming
more dense as it boils, as would be the case with a
syrup, for example. The heat it receives is all
expended in changing the liquid into vapor, or, as we
say, changing the "state of matter." The particles
(molecules) are driven farther apart by the heat. A
cubic inch of water makes a cubic foot of steam.
The amount of heat necessary to produce the change
from liquid to gas varies with different substances.
Water requires a very large amount. Four times as
much heat is required to change an ounce of water into
steam as to vaporize the same amount of alcohol.
If heat is applied rapidly, the liquid will boil rapidly,
but it does not affect the temperature. The heat
152
LATENT HEAT 139
used in this way is not lost, but is stored up in the
vapor as latent heat. The steam is no hotter than
the boiling water, and heat added keeps it from
becoming liquid. When vapor condenses and changes
back to liquid, the latent heat is given out, and
warms surrounding things. In fact, the vapor can-
not condense unless the latent heat it contains is
removed, except under pressure. This latent heat
makes steam an excellent medium for heating build-
ings, as it contains so much heat and passes through
pipes rapidly. Not only is the steam itself hot, but
it carries a vast amount of heat stored up, to be
liberated in the cooler regions.
Latent heat is stored up in water, also, and is liber-
ated when the water becomes ice. This is seldom
apparent, for far less heat is thus stored in water
than in steam, and, too, the temperature of freezing
water is low. The heat given out when water freezes
is at 32 F, while that given out when steam condenses
is at 212 F. Still, a cellar may be several degrees
warmer if it contains a tank of water which freezes
than if the water were not there. The temperature
may keep about 32 F. where otherwise it might
go to 26 or less.
A room is cooled in warm weather by sprinkling
water upon the floor. The evaporation of the water
takes much heat from the air, storing it in the
153
140 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
vapor produced. Britannia and some other metals
of which pitchers, teapots, etc., are made will melt
if placed on a hot stove. If, however, they contain
water, this is not likely to occur, for the water can-
not be heated above its boiling point, and this is iar
below the melting point of the metal, and keeps the
temperature of the metal low enough for safety.
This reminds me of an experiment I once saw where
candy was actually made in a pasteboard box. The
syrup never became hot enough to scorch the paper,
and thus the paper itself was kept fairly cool.
USE OF THE THERMOMETER
A kitchen thermometer may be bought of any
dealer in the better class of kitchen goods. The
floating dairy thermometers are convenient. One
to register 212 F, may be obtained from the School
for 50 cents. A thermometer made to register oven
temperatures is more expensive, one registering to
600 F. costing $1.50. Various uses of the ther-
mometer are described in Principles of Cookery and
Home Care of ike Sick, but there are many times in
the kitchen when it is of assistance, as in getting the
right density for syrups in candy making, for syrups
in preserving, and the right temperatures for raising
bread, making soups, custards, etc.
Some uses of the thermometer in the kitchen are
the following, described in Miss Parloa's "Home
Economics":
154
BREAD MAKING 141
Olive oil is liquid above 75. If above this tem-
perature it shows solid specks, making it look cloudy,
you may be sure it is adulterated with some fat having
a higher melting point.
Butter should melt at 94. If it does not, you may
know it is adulterated with suet or some other fat
having a higher melting point. v
BREAD MAKING
The composition and manufacture of bread are
subjects which have been given much study. The
carbon dioxide which serves to lighten the dough
raised with }^east is produced at the expense of
some of the starch of the flour. This starch is
completely driven from the loaf as carbon dioxide
gas and alcohol during the baking. The loss is esti-
mated at about 2 per cent. Attempts have been
made in large bakeries to save the alcohol, but no
economical method has been devised. About fifty
years ago, German chemists- in studying the question
estimated that the food materials lost in twenty-
four hours, when bread is raised with yeast, was
sufficient to supply bread to 400,000 people! These
figures were certainly startling to the thrifty Germans,
and the possibility of producing the carbon dioxide
gas in some less extravagant manner was studied
with considerable care in German laboratories, and
also at Harvard University in America. Baking
155
H2 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
powders are the result of these investigations.
Gluten is not changed chemically by the action of the
yeast or of the carbon dioxide, but it is physically
changed the escape of the gases stretching it out
into fibres. Gluten, like other proteids, hardens when
heated. Baking thus makes the porous condition of
the dough permanent.
MAKING BAKING POWDER
Several students have sent me recipes they like
to use for making baking powder. The claim is
made that these cost rather less than the kinds that
can be bought, and also that they are much more
effective. Here is one:
y 2 Ib. cream of tartar.
y Ib. cooking soda (bicarbonate of soda).
yi Ib. corn starch.
The best quality of each must be bought. Sift
them together at least a dozen times, the last time
into baking powder boxes. Be careful to seal up all
cracks by pasting over them paper strips. About one
half as much of this is required as for the average
powder sold.
These proportions would probably give a slight
excess of acid. We might combine 2^ parts of the
acid salt with one part of soda if our salts are chemi-
cally pure. The corn starch is added to keep the soda
and acid salt from forming quite such an intimate
156
DISTILLATION 143
mixture. The two salts in contact would very
slowly combine, and the baking powder thus lose its
strength.
DISTILLATION
A few more words might be said on the subject of
distillation. I am sometimes asked to explain more
fully the term "destructive distillation." When a
complex substance like wood or coal is heated some
of its ingredients are made volatile at the high tem-
perature, -and so escape 'as gases. The wood itself
is broken up into simpler substances. It is plain
that in this process the original substance is lost as
such, new substances taking its place, and we there-
fore speak of the process as destructive distillation.
When water containing various salts or gases in
solution is heated, the gases will be given off as the
temperature rises. At the boiling point, the water
itself will begin to pass off as vapor. The salts will
not vaporize unless much more strongly heated. If
the steam be collected and cooled, it will condense to
form pure water. This in an illustration of simple
distillation. If a mixture of alcohol and water be
heated some of the alcohol will vaporize before the
water. It may in this way be separated from the
water, and this process is called fractional distilla-
tion. This is the principle employed in the manu-
facture of whiskey, etc.
157
.K44 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
COMPOSITION OF GAS
The complex nature of cbal gas is shown by the
following table, which represents an average sample:
Hydro-carbon vapors 0.6
Heavy hydro-carbons 4.4
Carbon dioxide 3.4
Carbon monoxide 10.0
Methane (CH 4 ) 30.6
Oxygen 0.3
Hydrogen 45-9
Nitrogen 4.8
100%
Of these, the hydro-carbons, carbon monoxide, CH^
and hydrogen are combustible.
Coals always contain more or less sulphur, \. hich is
a great trouble to the gas manufacturer. It fre-
quently happens that some of it gets into the gas.
If such gas escapes, the sulphur compounds unite
with the silverware, giving is a coating of dark
sulphide of silver. If silver tarnishes quickly, it is
an indication of a leak of gas or sewer gas. It is
estimated that, a ton of coal should yield 10,000 feet
of gas, 1,400 Ibs. of coke (35 bushels), 12 gallons
of tar, 4 Ibs. of ammonia.
More than six hundred products are obtained from
the coal tar. The nature and uses of these products
would form an interesting topic for futher study.
158
COMPOSITION OF GAS 145
The composition of water gas is somewhat as follows :
Hydro-carbon vapors 1.2
Heavy hydro-carbons 12.0
Carbon dioxide 3.0
Carbon monoxide 28.0
Oxygen 0.4
Hydrogen 31.4
CH 4 (Methane) , 20.8
Nitrogen 3.2
100%
Notice that this gas contains less methane and
hydrogen (which are combustible), and their place
is taken by carbon monoxide, which, although com-
bustible, is very poisonous. There is some carbon
monoxide in ordinary illuminating gas but not nearly
so much. The water gas has a strong odor ffom the
hydro-carbons (crude gasoline) added to make it
luminous, but comparatively little of it in the air is
likely to produce very injurious effects upon living
things, plants and animals alike. It is the most poison-
ous substance that comes into the house. It is estimat-
ed that about fourteen per cent of the gas manu-
factured escapes into the earth through leaky gas
mains. In passing through the soil the odorous part
of water gas may be strained out, so that it becomes
odorless. Whole families have been poisoned from
deodorized water gas leaking into the house by way of
159
146 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
the cellar. This emphasizes the importance of having
a perfectly tight cellar, with cemented walls and
floor, and the importance of ventilating the cellar, for
the cellar air finds its way to the rooms above.
Natural gas contains practically no carbon monoxide.
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION
We often hear of fires apparently "starting them-
selves." Such cases are due to accumulation of heat
produced by slow oxidation. If a pile of oily rags,
cotton waste, etc., be allowed to stand for a time, the
oily matter will begin to combine slowly with oxygen.
This may occur in the inner part of the heap, and
the outer layers retain the heat until, perhaps, the
kindling point of some of the inflammable oils is reach-
ed, when the whole mass will burst into flame. This is
much more likely to happen with linseed oil and
certain* other vegetable "drying oils, " as they unite
readily with oxygen, and so become hard and varnish-
like. The mineral oils (paraffine oil) do not combine
with oxygen at ordinary temperatures, and probably
will not cause spontaneous combustion. Still, all
oily cloths should be burned or disposed of in some
safe fashion.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
An interesting and important principle, ex-
plained on page 23 of Part I, and again on page no
of Part III, is Conservatism. This principle has been
established by countless experiments, but it is not
160
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 147
one that the housekeeper can well investigate. It
is, however, one she must continually bear in mind.
Matter and energy can never be created or destroyed ;
both may be transformed, and may therefore appear
in many different ways. The voltaic cell is a simple
device for transforming chemical energy into elec-
trical force. The chemical affinity of two substances
causes them to unite under the right conditions.
This union results in the liberation of energy, -which
may appear as heat, light, or electricity. When
coal and oxygen unite, we get both heat and light
as a result. Chemical union usually produces heat.
The energy of our bodies we get solely from the
food we absorb. We should eat such foods as best
give us the needed energy, and we should learn to
expend this energy wisely, as we have but a limited
amount of it. One student wisely comments upon
this, as follows:
"In the economic plan of housekeeping, it would
be well if each one would endeavor to realize that
she is a part of the machinery of the household, and
that to be continually on the move is as disastrous
to the equilibrium of the home as it is to rust, as it
were, for want of use. A given amount of rest each
day is a true part of economy. ^ Then, too, in the
daily regime, there are ways and ways of doing things.
Always choose the easiest, if it conflicts not with the
quality of the work done. For example, do not
stand while paring potatoes, apples, etc. It is just
161
148 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
as easy to do this work sitting, and you can then get
some rest at the same time. Don't worry to worry
is a very extravagant thing, for it uses up valuable
force, and does no good at all."
162
BIBLIOGRAPHY 149
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, Richards and Elliott,
($1.00, postage 8c.)
Chemistry of Daily Life, Lassar-Cohn. ($1.50, postage
IOC.)
Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life, Snyder. ($1.25,
postage roc.)
Chemistry of Cooking, Williams. ($1.50, postage 120.)
Chemistry of Common Life, Johnston. ($2.00, postage
i6c.)
Chemistry of Life and Health. C. W. Kimmins. ($1.00,
postage ice.)
First Lessons in Food and Diet, Ellen H. Richards. (300.,
postage 4C.)
Laboratory Notes in Household Chemistry, H. T. Vulte
and G. A. Goodell.
Laundry Work, Juniata L. Sheppard. (5oc., postage 6c.)
Story of a Lump of Coal, Martin. (350., postage 40.)
Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Bailey. ($1.40, postage
I2C.)
Elements of Chemistry, R. P. Williams. ($1.10, postage
IOC.)
An Introduction to General Chemistry, Smith. ($1.25,
postage i2C.)
Essentials of Chemical Physiology, Halliburton. ($1.50,
postage i4C.)
First Course in Physics, Millikan and Gale. ($1.25, post-
age I 4 C.)
Introduction to Organic Chemistry, Ira Remsen. ($1.20,
postage i2c.)
Organic Industrial Chemistry, S. P. Sadtler. ($5.00
postage 28c.)
163
I5o CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
U. S. GOVERNMENT BULLETINS
Industrial Alcohol: Sources and Manufacture. Farmers'
Bulletin No. 268 (free). .
Industrial Alcohol : Uses and Statistics. Farmers' Bulletin
No. 269 (free).
Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home. Farmers' Bul-
letin No. 270 (free).
Composition of American Food Material. Bulletin No. 28.
Office of Experiment Station. (Price 5C.)
Some Forms of Food Adulteration and Simple Methods
for their Detection. Bulletin No. 100, Bureau of Chemistry.
(Price ice.)
Arsenic in Wall Paper and Fabrics Bulletin No. 86,
Bureau of Chemistry. (Price 5c )
Chemical Composition of Apples and Cider. Bulletin No.
88, Bureau of Chemistry. (Price 5C.)
Note. For the free bulletins, send to the Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ; to obtain the for sale bulletins,
send coin or money order to the Superintendent of Documents
Washington, D. C.
164
SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM - ARRANGED FOR CLASS
STUDY ON
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
BY MAURICE LEBOSQUET, S. B.
Director, American School of Home Economics
As in the study of chemistry and physics so much emphasis
is placed on laboratory work, the following supplementary
program is made up chiefly of simple experiments, such as
may be performed with little or no apparatus. When heat
is required, it may be supplied by a small gas stove, a one
burner oil stove, or an alcohol lamp. The lamp of a chafing
dish might be used. A thermometer will be loaned by the
School for 6 cents postage, or one may be purchased for
50 cents.
MEETING I
(Study pages 1-29)
Water
To show that ordinary water has gases dissolved in it.
See experiment on page 2. The gas dissolved in water is
not exactly of the same composition as air. It usually con-
tains more oxygen and more carbon dioxide than ordinary
atmospheric air, varying somewhat with the sources of the
water. This dissolved gas enables fish and other marine
animals to live. A fish cannot live in water that has lost its
dissolved air by being boiled. It is drowned just as human
beings are, because of lack of oxygen.
Water of Crystallization
Make crystals as described on page 5. A certain definite
amount of water is present in the crystals which varies with
each substance. Clear crystals are pure or nearly so. The
"mother liquor" remaining after the crystals are formed
165
152 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
contains most of the impurities; thus crystallization is a
method of purification.
The water in the crystals of washing soda may be shown
by heating some in a tin dish. The crystals will melt and
on continued heating, steam will be given off. Not all crys-
tals contain water of crystallization, for example, common
salt, cane sugar.
Boiling Point
It is almost impossible to convince any "domestic" that
water boiling furiously is no hotter than when it is just barely
boiling. It is instructive to prove this with a thermometer.
Also observe that the "simmering" temperature is very
nearly the same as the water when boiling, so that cooking
may be done nearly as rapidly by simmering and with far
less fuel.
Latent Heat
This is a somewhat perplexing phenomenon. We all recog-
nize that steam is hot, but that it contains a much greater
supply of heat than hot water is not so easy to realize. The
following may make this a little clearer: In a small sauce
pan or dish put about two tablespoonfuls of water. Heat it
to the boiling point and then continue the boiling until it
has all boiled away. Note ( i ) how long it takes to raise the
water to the boiling point, and (2) how much time is required
to convert it all into steam.
To start the boiling, the water is raised from about 6oF.
to 212 F., or through 152. In converting the water into
steam, there is no rise in temperature, but the heat has
to be applied for a much longer period. On page 12 is the
statement that "966 times as much heat is required to change
a given quantity of water into steam as to raise it one degree
F. " but the water in this experiment was raised 150. As
966 divided by 152 equals 6 (plus), we might expect that it
would take six times as long to boil the water away as to
166
PROGRAM 153
raise it to the boiling point. Of course no exact results can
be expected in this experiment, as not all the heat ap-
plied is absorbed by the water and used in boiling it, but the
experiment will show that the steam must contain a great
deal of heat.
A similar experiment will show the latent heat contained
in water in reference to ice. If a teaspoonful of ice cold
water and an amount of snow or ice which when melted
would make a teaspoonful, each be added to a glass of water
of the same temperature, it will be found that the pulverized
ice or snow lowers the temperature much more than the tea-
spoonful of ice-cold water. That is to say, a great deal more
heat would have to be added to the "ice and water mixture, "
to bring it back to the original temperature, than to the "ice
cold water and water mixture. "
Oxygen in the Air
To show that tfce atmosphere contains a gas which is used
up in combustion, attach a candle an inch and a half long to
the bottom of a saucer with some of the melted wax. Pour
about one-fourth of a glass of water into the dish, light the
candle and invert the glass (one with straight sides) over
the lighted candle. The flame will grow dim and soon be
extinguished and the water will rise about one-fifth way up
the glass. This shows a number of things. In burning,
the carbon of the hydrocarbons of which the candle is made
unites with the oxygen, making the gas carbon dioxide.
This takes up the same volume as the oxygen out of which
it was formed, but the water quickly dissolves the carbon
dioxide and the pressure of the atmosphere on the water
outside the glass forces it up into the partial vacuum formed.
The nitrogen of the air remains, but this will not "support
combustion," and so the candle is extinguished.
Manufacturing Water
That the burning of a candle produce 61 water as well as
167
154 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
carbon dioxide may be shown by placing the flame against
a window pane. A film of moisture may be seen, also, when
a lamp having a cold chimney is first lighted. The burning
of a match will show water when it is placed against a cold
surface, but this experiment is not so conclusive, for the
wood may contain moisture. The candle contains no moist-
ure, so the water must have been manufactured by the
burning.
Atmospheric Pressure
We have had one example of the result of atmospheric
pressure in the candle experiment. The working of a siphon
i an interesting example. Take a small rubber tube, fill it
with water, pinch both ends, put one end in a glass of water,
and lower the other end into an empty glass at a foot lower
level; release the pressure of the fingers, and the water will
run from the tube, apparently going "up hill" over the edge
of the glass. The explanation may be found in any text
book on physics. This is a good way to empty wash tubs,
etc., using a piece of rubber hose.
Carbon Dioxide
Light a splinter of wood and let it burn in a wide-mouthed
bottle until it is extinguished. Add a tablespoonful of clear
lime water (obtained at any drug store, or add a small lump
of lime to warm water in a fruit jar, stir well, cover and let
settle over night) , close the bottle, and shake the lime water
around. It will grow milky from the formation of carbonate
of lime (calcium), with which we are more familiar in the
forms of chalk, marble, and clam shells.
Again with any sort of a tube (a straw), blow into a little
clear lime water. It will grow milky, showing that the
breath contains carbon dioxide. If you will continue to
blow into the lime water for a long time, the milkiness
will be seen to disappear. This is because the carbonate of
lime is dissolved by the excess of carbon dioxide in the water,
168
PROGRAM 155
after the lime water (hydrate of lime) is all changed into
carbonate of lime. This point comes up in connection with
hard water and laundry work.
Flash Point of Kerosene
The flash point of a sample of kerosene may be determined
approximately by placing about two teaspoonfuls in a cup,
then adding hot water to a bowl of water in which the cup
containing the oil is placed. Stir the kerosene with a ther-
mometer, and apply a lighted taper to the surface of the oil
from time to time as the temperature of the oil rises. A
quick flash over the surface of the kerosene will show the
flash point. Read the temperature indicated by the ther-
mometer.
References: Chemistry of Daily Life, by Lassar-Conn. Chapter
I, Atmosphere, Combustion. ($1.50, postage
I2C.)
'Story of a Lump of Coal, by Martin. (35C.,
postage 6c.)
Air and Water as Food, in Plain Words about
Food, by Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage
IOC.)
Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, by Bailey,
Chapter on The Atmosphere, Fuels. ($1.40
postage i2c.)
Topics: The Formation of Coal See any good encyclo-
pedia and geologies.
Fire Worship See "Popular Science Monthly,"
Volume X, page 17, also "Public Opinion/ 8
Volume XIV, page 251.
169
l$6 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
MEETING II
(Study pages 29-55)
If the Food Course is being taken, some of the experiments
here suggested might better be postponed until the lessons
on Principles of Cookery or Food and Dietetics.
Starch
The blue color produced by a tincture of iodine (obtained
at the drug store) on the faintest trace of starch is a very
delicate test for starch. Cooked starch shows the test much
better than uncooked. Note that the blue color is destroyed
by heat, but appears again when the test is cool. Test
various foods grains, vegetables, fruits, and nuts for
starch.
The conversion of starch into dextrin may be shown by
heating a little flour or corn starch in a hot oven for half an
hour or so, or until it becomes a deep yellow color. Dis-
solve in a little cold water, filter out the unchanged starch
by pouring through absorbent cotton in a funnel; test the
filtered liquid to see if there is still any unchanged starch in it.
Add double the quantity of alcohol to a part of the liquid.
The dextrin will be precipitated, i. e., thrown out of solution
and will settle as a fine powder,because dextrin is not soluble
in alcohol. The water solution should be concentrated by
boiling if much is used.
That the starch is changed by heating with butter or other
fat may be shown by adding two teaspoonfuls of flour to
one teaspoonful of very hot butter, stirring for some time.
Remove a drop on a piece of white paper and test it with
tincture of iodine.
Make starch paste by mixing a quarter of a teaspoonful of
laundry or corn starch with a spoonful of water and adding
it to a cup of boiling water and boil. To about half a glass
of this when it has cooled to body temperature (100 F) add
a half teaspoonful of saliva. Keep the mixture warm (not
170
PROGRAM 157
hot) for some time by placing it in warm water. From
time to time test small portions with iodine solution as it
grows clearer. Add saliva to a portion of hot starch; to a
cold portion testing as before.
Gluten
May be the gluten separates from flomr as described on
page 49, or better as described in "Food and Dietetics" page
41. Bake part of it in an oven.
Experiments with other proteids also described on pages
41 and 43 of "Food and Dietetics."
Experiments with yeast described on page 45 of "House-
hold Bacteriology, " Part I.
"Digestion is Synonymous with Solution"
This statement is made on page 35. To show the relation
of the length of time required to make a solution, take two
equal portions of any crystals, such as washing soda or alum,
and pulverize one portion. Stir each in a glass of water and
observe the tim3 for each in dissolving. Note that the time
required for complete solution is determined by the largest
crystal.
This experiment shows how important a part of digestion
chewing is and that the teeth are primarily digestive organs.
Cooking Meat
See experiment on pages 50 and 51.
Mineral Matter Gelatin
See experiments on page 53.
References: Chemistry of Cookery, by Mattieu Williams
Pages 19-31. Albumen. ($1.50, postage i6c.)
Chemistry of Daily Life, by Lassar-Conn. Pages
56-66. Digestion of Food. ($i. 50, postage loc.)
(Select and send to the School a composite set of answers
to Test Questions on Part I, and report on rupplemental
work and experiments.)
171
158 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
MEETING III
(Study pages 55-65)
Cleaning: Acids, Alkalies, and Salts
Strips of litmus paper may be obtained at a drug store or
will be sent from the School on request. Moisten the blue
paper in vinegar, le*mon juice, tomato, solution of cream of
tartar, etc., and then in ammonia (even the vapor will
change it), in solution of washing soda, baking soda, borax,
soap, and various washing powders. If the paper is washed
in running water after being turned blue with ammonia, a
test for acid may usually be found in milk, molasses, and
sometimes butter. One piece of paper will be found to turn
from blue to red and back again to blue an indefinite number
of times when wet with solutions of acids and alkalies alter-
nately.
Buy five cents' worth of hydrochloric acid and a little
caustic soda at the druggist's. As caustic soda is unpleasant
to handle, it is best to have the druggist dissolve it in water.
Now pour a part of the acid into a saucer or glass, with a
little water, and add the solution of caustic soda until the
mixture begins to turn the litmus faintly blue. In an agate-
ware dish, free from worn places, evaporate the solution to
dryness. A whitish substance will be found, which by test-
.ing will be recognized as common salt.
From two very active chemical substances has been
formed a neutral substance salt. Not all salts, however,
are neutral. Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is chem-
ically a salt, but it is made up of a very strong alkali forming
element sodium and a very weak acid carbonic acid
and the alkali properties predominate. Cream of tartar is
an example of an acid salt. It is acid potassium tartrate,
which is a double salt, that is, tartaric* acid is added to neutral
potassium tartrate, the result being a substance which has
acid properties. Common alum is slightly acid to litmus paper.
172
PROGRAM 159
Soap
Soap chemically considered is a salt, made up of a fat
acid and the metallic substance sodium. The fatty acid
can be separated by adding any acid like vinegar to a solu-
tion of soap. If the solution is warm, it rises as a scum
to the top. It can be dissolved in ammonia, forming an
ammonia soap. The sodium part of the soap unites with
the acid and forms a salt. If hydrochloric acid is added to
a soap solution (a sufficient quantity to make the solution
very slightly acid), the fatty acid removed, and the residue
evaporated to dryness, common salt will be found.
If lime water be added to a solution of soap, white clots
of "lime soap" will be formed which are insoluble in water,
but on collecting and drying will be found to dissolve in
gasoline, naphtha, cr kerosene. This is why naphtha or
gasoline is useful in cleaning bath tubs, bowls, etc. Quite
a good varnish can be made of aluminum soap, made from
alum and white soap, dried and dissolved in gasoline.
Washing Powders
It is not difficult to get some idea of the composition of
the various washing powders on the market. When acid
is added to a solution, if there is effervescence, washing soda
is probably present. A skum would indicate that soap
formed a part of the mixture.
Hard Water
In the experiment with cabon dioxide it was shown how
carbonate of lime might be dissolved by an excess of carbon
dioxide gas, the bicarbonate of lime being formed, which is
soluble in water. This is an example of an "unstable"
chemical compound. Simply boiling drives off the excess
of carbon dioxide gas, leaving the ordinary carbonate of lime
which is insoluble and is deposited on the sides of the tea
kettle or other vessel. This may be shown by blowing into
lime water until the cloudiness which at first appears begins
173
160 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
to dissolve. As it is difficult to dissolve it completely, the
solution may be filtered. On boiling the clear solution, the
milkiness will appear again.
Hardness that is brought about by the sulphate of lime
"permanent hardness " is difficult to remedy by any house-
hold means. Washing soda helps a little, but not very
much. The so-called alkali waters of the west, in addition
to sulphate of lime contain sulphate of soda and other salts,
so that they are beyond remedy.
Reference: Chemistry of Daily Life The Manufacture of
Soda. Page 194.
MEETING IV
(Study pages 66-88)
Laundry Work
Bluing May Yellow Clothes: On page 70 is the statement
that the repeated use of ordinary bluing may stain the clothes
yellow. To prove this, dip a piece of white muslin into a
strong bluing solution about a teaspoonful of liquid blu-
ing to a cup of water dry the cloth with a hot iron and boil
it in a little strong soap solution. The color will be seen to
fade. Rinse and dry with the iron. On comparing the
cloth with part of the original piece, a slight yellow stain
will be seen. This is oxide of iron (iron rust) and can be
proved to be such by adding a drop of pure dilute hydro-
chloric acid and then a drop of yellow prussiate of potash
(potassium f erro-cyanide) , the intense blue color produced
being a test for iron. The conditions in this experiment
are, of course, much more severe than obtained in ordinary
washing, as most of the bluing is washed out before the
clothes are boiled again, but the experiment proves the pos-
sibility. As indigo costs about a dollar a pound and Prus-
sian blue only a few cents, practically all the bluings on the
market are Prussian blue.
174
PROGRAM 161
Iron Rust Stains
Make "rusty water" by letting a few nails stand in a can
of water over night or longer. Boil some white cotton cloth
in a little of the water. Try the same with wool. Strain
some of the water through white muslin and boil the muslin
in soapy water.
Stains
One of the classes gave a demonstration before a large
audience on the removal of stains as outlined in this lesson.
As the only way to learn how to remove stains is to remove
stains, it would be advisable to make a few, if none are at
hand, and then try the experiments on them.
References: Chemistry of Daily Life Inks. Page 178.
Laundry Work, by Juniata L. Sheppard. (SQC.,
postage 6c.)
(Send answers to Test Questions on Part II, and report
on supplemental work.)
MEETING V
(Study pages 89-111)
Baking Powder
Perform experiments suggested on pages 90 and 91.
Reference: Baking Powders. Bulletin No. 119, Maine Agri-
cultural Experiment Station. (Loaned for 2C.)
Lighting
(1) See Experiment page 93.
(2) Insert the small end of a clay pipe stem in the inner
part of a candle flame and touch a lighted match to the
other and so prove that the candle is a "gas factory. "
3) With a piece of wire gauze make the experiments
illustrated on page 95.
(4) Visit the local gas plant if there is one or the electric
light station obtaining permission first from the office.
175
162 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD
Electric Batteries
(1) Detach one of the batteries that furnish the current
for the electric bell, attach a wire to each pole and place
the other ends on the tongue and note that the electric
current gives a slight "taste" i. e., stimulates some of
the nerves of taste.
(2) Get some one to explain the action in an electric bell
or send 2C. stamp to the School for circular giving descrip-
tive diagram, diagrams for bell wiring, etc.
Plants
Examine with a microscope the "breathing pores" on the
under surface of leaves.
MEETING VI
(Study pages 111-122)
Chemical Formulas
Reference: "Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, " by Rich-
ards and Elliott. Pages 9-30. ($ i. oo, postage
IOC.)
' ' Elementary Chemistry. " Text book of Ameri-
can School of Correspondence. (Postage 4C.)
Housekeepers' Laboratory
Make some of the tests described.
Reference: "Some Forms of Food Adulteration and Simple
Methods for their Detection. " Bulletin No.
100, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department
of Agriculture. Send roc. (coin) to the Supt
of Documents, Washington, D. C.
(Send answers to Test Questions on Part III and report on
supplemental work.)
176
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
A NATURAL starting point in the art of cookery
is the fire, since cookery without heat is an im-
possibility. Human beings everywhere use fire to pre-
pare their foods and by such applications of heat man
first showed his superiority to the beasts.
FIRE
Among the ancients fire was regarded as a gift from
the gods, to be protected in every way, and all civiliza-
tion, forms of religion, civil ordinances, and family life
have been traced to the care primitive man bestowed
upon his fire. Among the early tribes, the chieftain
was often the only one to have a fire in his home.
The hearthstone thus became the center of the home
life, the abode of the household gods, and even at the
present time it is impossible for some persons to sep-
arate the spirit of the home from the kitchen fire.
In different sections of the country may still be
seen all the types of fire and stove that have been Ancient
Stoves
developed through centuries, and every housekeeper
should be familiar with the principles underlying the
care of each. Among these are- the camp fire where
food is broiled over coals or buried in hot ashes, the
charcoal brazier of the fruit vender, essentially the
same as the portable stoves found in Pompeii, the open
fireplace, the brick oven, the Franklin stove, (an in-
177
2 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
vention of Benjamin Franklin), cookstoves adapted to
wood, to hard and soft coal, to kerosene, to gas, and
the electrical appliances which as yet are little more
than toys for the rich.
A century and more ago chimneys and fireplaces
were often troublesome by smoking
and Count Rumford and Benjamin
Franklin each in different ways
brought their inventive faculties to the
solution of this serious problem of
daily life. When the fireplace was the
dependence of the home for warmth
and cooking, the charred, half-burned
brands of wood were carefully covered
A Roman stove with ashes at night to start the fire the
or Brazier. nex f- m orning. If the wind had blown
off the ashes and the coals were gone out, it was easier
to borrow more coals from a neighbor than to use the
flint to produce a spark. All this was changed when
matches were invented.
First ^ was kut a ste P for primitive man from baking in
Ovens i lo j- ashes or in a covered kettle set on the coals to a
simple form of oven. Often one oven served a com-
munity. Brick ovens were built at one side of the
chimney. Sometimes the heat was turned through a
flue to heat these ovens, sometimes a fire was built
directly in the oven, and when it was burned down the
oven was swept out and the food put in to be cooked
178
FIRE. 3
by the heated bricks. The later brick ovens, still used
in some old houses, often had space underneath for
a separate fire.
An Oven, Showing Direction of the Hot Gases.
For the open fire, wood is the most satisfactory fuel
but it is not desirable for continuous use in cooking or
heating. Wood is sold by measure, which is an in-
accurate method at best. The drier the wood the better
it burns, and a hard wood which produces coals is
most useful.
When wood is heated and the volatile portions ex-
pelled, charcoal is produced. This is usually sold by
measure. Its weight is about one-fifth that of the wood
from which it is made. It is a primitive form of fuel
and generally used in warm countries. A succession
of small fires which can be quickly lighted and as
179
4 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
quickly extinguished are more suitable to such condi-
tions than the one large stove or range.
. The small stoves used today by the Latin races and
their colonies do not differ materially from those of
the early Romans.
charcoal The charcoal broiler is used by many hotels because
of the flavor it appears to develop in meats.
Peat is an important fuel in some sections of the
world. It must be thoroughly drained or dried, and
at best contains a large percentage of ash.
Both anthracite and bituminous coal have been in
common use for less than a hundred years.
Hard coai A dense solid, like hard coal, kindles slowly but
requires far less care to maintain a fire than wood.
Coal is a better fuel for winter than summer! If the
lumps of coal are too large they will not kindle readily ;
if too small, they choke the flame. The large nut and
egg grades are best suited to cooking purposes. The
draft and size of the fire box determine the size and
grade to be used for good results. The free burning
"Franklin" coal should be used with poor draft, while
with a good draft and large fire box all grades and the
larger sizes may be used. A dark brilliant coal will
have fewest clinkers. The intense heat resulting from
open drafts fuses in large masses the foreign matter
which is mixed with the carbon. By burning oyster
shells in such cases, new compounds are formed which
prevent the clinkers, but the clinkers seldom form with
a moderate supply of air.
180
FIRE. 5
Soft coal needs very different treatment from hard.
Little draft underneath is required, but some draft is
necessary over the top to burn the gases given off, and
the funnel draft must be open to allow the smoke to
escape. If the coal has "coked" over on top it must
be broken up when good fire is required. If the fire
is to be kept, it is allowed to coke over.
Briquettes are made from coal dust and other sub-
stances and are used extensively in places where coal
is high priced.
The wood and coal stoves and ranges are today the
most common means of cooking foods. Housekeepers
often become familiar with one stove and one kind of
fuel and are unsuccessful with another because they
are unwilling to study the laws of nature, or lack the
patience to experiment with a new adaptation of them.
Much besides personal preference must be con-
sidered in the proper valuation of fuels ; not only the
percentage of carbon, moisture, and volatile matter in
each, but the necessary waste, the by-products, and
the time required for caring for each and keeping the
surroundings clean.
The best stoves and ranges are those plain in finish
and simple in construction, with parts well fitted to-
gether so that they can be taken apart if necessary
and easily cleaned.
A portable range is one that may be moved if neces-
sary, while the "set" range is built into the chimney.
The fire box is lined on the sides with a kind of brick
181
6 PRINCIPLES OF COOKER*.
above which the fire should never come. The revolv-
ing grate is the most common in recent styles of stoves.
There is a grate underneath, and below is a place for
ashes or a pan which may be taken out to empty. The
oven is surrounded by spaces through which hot gases
circulate.
The housekeeper should investigate her stove thor-
oughly when the fire is out, take off all covers, open
doors, remove the "clean out" plate for the space under
the oven ; then see Low the dampers work and explore
all passages with a lighted match or candle if need be.
The draft given by the chimney depends upon the
difference in temperature between the air of the room
and the gases of combustion. The hot gases are more
expanded and therefore lighter and tend to rise. The
hotter the fire the greater the draft will be.
The supply of air is as essential as fuel for a good
fire ; combustion depends upon both. Smoke and an
accumulation of soot are indications of incomplete
combustion.
Several drafts and dampers are common to all wood
and coal stoves and ranges. They should be open to
start the fire, but closed to keep it. The slide under the
fire box supplies the fresh air necessary for perfect
combustion. A check in the pipe or at the back of
the stove under the pipe, or in both places, is usually
known as the chimney damper. A slide in the stove
pipe or connected with the chimney damper admits
cold air into the stove pipe when opened and thus les-
sens the draft.
182
FIRE. 7
The oven damper turns the heated air away from
the pipe so that it goes over the top, down the side,
under the bottom, and up the back flue in most stoves
and heats the oven before it makes its escape. These
differ slightly in different ranges but the purpose of
each is the same. Experiment with your own stove
until you can control it.
Many ranges have a slide or door above the fire
box which may be used for broiling. Hoods are some-
times placed over large ranges to gather odors and
excessive heat and convey them to the chimney.
Whether the fuel be coal or wood, the starting of a
fire and its care afterwards are much the same pro-
cess. First remove ashes, brushing off the top of the
oven under the covers. When the fire box is clear,
put in crumpled paper, bits of wood, and then larger
wood and a sprinkle of fine coal. . See that all drafts
are open. Replace the covers and then blacken the
stove, if necessary, but polish after the fire is started.
Light the paper and as the wood settles down, add coal,
little by little, till it is even with the lining of the fire
box. When the blue flame of coal disappears, close
the oven damper, and a little later shut the slide under
the fire box and the chimney damper. Open the
damper when more coal is added. When coal is red
it is nearly burned out.
To keep a fire several hours shake out the ashes,
fill with coal, close the dampers, and partially open
the slide above the fire.
183
8
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY,
Gas
Burners
For continual use it is better to add a little fuel at
a time, but not in the midst of baking anythingo With
wood and soft coal the chimney damper cannot be
closed as much as with hard coal, because there is more
soot and smoke which must be allowed to escape.
Gas is an invisible fuel obtained from several sources.
Pure coal gas is more satisfac-
tory than natural gas, or than the
so-called "water gas." The es-
cape of the latter is less easily de-
tected and it is much more poi-
sonous, hence there is more dan-
ger in using it.
For institutions at a distance
from large towns a private sup-
ply of gas which is fairly satis-
factory is made from gasoline,
and acetylene gas is now
often made even for the single
house.
For fuel purposes, the burners are so constructed as
to admit sufficient air with the gas for complete com-
bustion. A bluish flame is produced, which is much
hotter than the yellow blaze used for light.
It is possible to admit too much air, which causes a
loss of heat. If the air supply is adjustable, close the
opening for the air until a yellow flame is produced,
and then open it until the flame just comes blue again.
If a burner in a gas stove "burns back" and shows a
Bunsen Burner.
184
FIRE. 9
yellowish flame, leaving a deposit of soot on the bottom
of kettles, turn it out and light it again, being careful
that the gas does not ignite back in the pipe before
it mixes with the air.
Gas stoves should be connected with the main sup-
ply by a pipe large enough to insure sufficient supply of
Gas Stove with Oven. Broiler, and Hot Wa-
ter Heater Attachment.
fuel under all conditions. The amount used can then
be regulated by the cook for each burner. Care must
be taken to keep the burners and all parts of the stove
perfectly clean.
The gas stove is especially adapted to the conditions
of the present age ; it is far less care than either wood
or coal ranges, and at ordinary rates for gas, kss ex-
pensive when properly operated. Even at high prices
Gas
Stoves
185
10
PRINCIPLES OF COOKER*.
Gas
Meter
for gas it is a cheap fuel if .human energy and time
are considered. The application of a match makes the
full power of the stove available at once and as soon as
work is done, the flame may be shut off. Any desired
degree of heat may be obtained at short notice with
no waste of fuel and no debris to be cared for. The
stoves occupy small space and each part may be used
independently.
(a) (b)
Dial of a Gas Meter, (a) At the Beginning of a Month,
(b) After Registering the Amount of Gas Used for the Month.
The housekeeper should learn to read a gas meter.
Each space on the right hand circle passed by the hand
indicates the consumption of 100 cubic feet of gas, on
the middle circle 1,000 feet, and on the one on the left
hand 10,000 feet. Read from left to right, taking the
figure just passed by each hand and add two ciphers
for the hundreds. A previous reading deducted from
the present one shows the amount of gas consumed in
a given time.
Example. In the illustration, the hand on dial A has
just passed the figure 7, indicating 700 cubic feet; on
dial B the hand has passed figure 8 (note that this
186
FIRE.
ii
hand moves in the opposite direction to the first), and
on dial C the hand has last passed the figure 4. The
reading is then, 700+8,000+40,00) 48,700 cubic feet.
If in a month the hands are
in the position indicated in the
second figure, the reading is
64,900 cubic feet. The dif-
ference between the two read-
ings is 64,900 48,700=16,-
200 cubic feet. Sixteen thou-
sand two hundred cubic feet
is the amount consumed for
the month.
The small dial at the top of
the illustration indicates cubic
feet and is used only for test-
ing the system for leakage.
Kerosene and gasoline are
useful fuels for summer and
emergency use. These are
sold by the gallon and only
the best qualities should be
us^d. The blue flame kerosene probably are the best
of this class of stoves. The small lamp stoves also
have merit. They are similar in construction to read-
ding lamps and should receive equal care. Two small
stoves often are more useful than one large one, be-
cause more readily moved where needed. It is essen-
tial that such stoves should stand out of a draft.
Steam Cooker, Circular
Form.
Kerosene
and
Gasoline
187
12
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Steam
Cooker
Chafing
Dish
A steam cooker is an invaluable adjunct to the small
stoves whether gas or kerosene is burned. Several
articles may thus be cooked over one burner and both
time and fuel are saved.
The Aladdin oven is an arrangement for saving
I heat. It may be used with an
ordinary large lamp or with gas.
The iron oven is placed inside a
jacket of non-conducting sub-
stance, hence little heat is lost.
It is especially useful for slow
cooking.
The Norwegian cooking box
is another plan for saving heat.
A kettle of food is raised to the
boiling point and then packed in
a box lined with non-conducting
materials.
The modern chafing dish is
but slightly different in effect from the primitive char-
coal stove or brazier. The use of alcohol for fuel
makes it simple and clean. Wood alcohol a by-
product from distillation of wood is often used for
fuel, but its disagreeable odor makes it less desirable.
Anything that may be cooked over any other stove
in a frypan, saucepan, or double boiler may be pre-
pared in the chafing dish.
Aladdin Oven Heated
by Lamp.
188
FIRE. 13
Heat brings out the flavors in food and develops
new ones and makes soluble, substances which the
human stomach could not otherwise digest. In most
cases moderate heat long continued produces better
results than intense heat applied for a short period.
A MODIFIED NORWEGIAN COOKING BOX.
Graniteware Palls with tight covers are packed with asbestos and covered with a pad, the
lid of the box is then closed and the whole wrapped in an old blanket.
The degree of heat best adapted to make food digesti-
ible is not always that which produces the most ac-
ceptable flavor, hence cooking must be more or less of
a compromise. As yet we know little about the de-
gree of heat best suited to the perfect cooking of each
food and the temperature at which it should be served.
Nothing will cook until it is warmed, and warming
and drying are usually the first steps in the cooking
process.
189
Boiling
Roasting
14 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
The transmission of heat from a fire to our foods
may be by conduction, as when heat travels along a bar
of metal, by convection, when heat is transferred by
the motion of heated liquid or gas, and by radiation
through the air. The effect of heat on the food is fur-
ther modified by the way the metal or other substance
containing the food is affected by heat.
The use of asbestos in the form of mats and linings
for ovens and jackets for kettles to modify the heat
transferred to food is likely to increase in the future.
Broiling probably was the first attempt at cooking
since it required little beside the fire and the heat.
Roasting is a similar process applied to larger sections
of meat and therefore requiring a longer time. The
relationship of roasting and broiling is most apparent
with a gas range for there is no line of separation be-
tween the cooking of thick steaks and thin roasts.
Much so-called roasting is really baking.
In broiling and roasting, tender portions of fish, flesh
or fowls are exposed to intense heat at first to sear the
outside and close the open tubes or pores which con-
tain the juices. The fire should be free from smoke
and may be charcoal or half-burned wood or coal or
gas. After the surface is browned the section of meat
should be drawn away from the intense heat and kept
at a more moderate temperature until cooked thor-
oughly. More depends upon the shape of the article
to be broiled or roasted than upon the weight.
When a thick mass is to be cooked in this fashion it
190
FIRE. 15
becomes necessary to modify the heat on the outside and Basting
to aid in driving it in by the process known as basting ;
that is, dipping up the hot fat which has dripped into
a pan beneath the meat and hence is known as drip-
ping, and pouring it over the outside of the mass. The
glossy brown secured by basting may have suggested
to some early cook the advantage of deep frying.
Chafing-Dish the Modern Brazier.
The difference between broiling over coals and in a
hot pan is but slight and dry frying or sautering is a
similar process. Toasting is a similar application of
heat to foods already cooked once.
The earliest forms of baking were in the hot dishes
and then in covered kettles set in coals or hung over
the fire. Our ovens are an outgrowth from those
primitive methods, and now much so-called roasting
is really baking.
A point to study in this connection is the fact that
food is fuel for the human body. The amount and
191
16 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
quality of fuel is varied according to the work to be
done, so should the food be chosen according to
the work of the individual and the climate or season
of the year.
WATER
Water is not always considered to be strictly a food
in itself, but by its aid many foods and flavors are put
in forms more acceptable to the palate and more readily
absorbed by the body than they could be in any other
way.
importance Immense quantities of water are necessary for
incooking the preparation of food and the cleansing of dishes
in addition to what is needed for laundry and bathing
purposes. Cities make provision from some source
safe from contamination for the water needed by their
inhabitants. In small communities the individual fam-
ily must each be responsible for its water supply. This
is not the place to discuss the medical aspect of the
water question, but all agree that water should be
above the suspicion of danger of transmitting disease.
Moreover, for household purposes water should be
clean and soft, since hard water containing mineral
salts hinders processes of cooking and cleaning.
A limited water supply or inconvenient arrangements
for its use and disposal afterward, tend to reduce the
consumption to such an extent as to interfere with the
proper cooking and service of food, if not below the
actual standards for health.
192
WATER. 17
Nearly three-fourths of the human body is water and
a similar proportion will hold in most foods served at
our tables. The total amount of water taken by a
human being daily averages two or three quarts, or
from four to six pounds. The portion of this which
is taken as a beverage depends upon the solidity of the
food.
The benefit gained from mineral waters often is quite Minera
as much due to an increased consumption of water as Water
to the mineral constituents they contain. The tendency
of civilized man in feeding himself is toward too con-
centrated foods, too little water as a beverage and too
little watery food. Water not only brings solids into
the stomach in an acceptable form, but it is essential
in building new tissues and removing wastes. ' The in-
side of the body, as well as the outside, sometimes re-
quires washing.
The temperature at which water is taken into the
stomach is an important point. A glass of cool water
sipped slowly may have as stimulating an effect as one
of wine. Often more ice than water is found in the
glasses on American tables, and the ice water is taken
hurriedly and interferes with digestion.
Hot water taken slowly will often revive tired peo-
ple as effectually as tea or coffee. The merit of soup
as a first course at dinner probably is due to the fact
that it contains ninety to ninety-five per cent hot water
and that the solids are largely in solution and absorb-
able.
193
i8
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Flavor
of Water
Dishwashing
If clear hot water is an unpalatable beverage, salt
or lemon juice may be added to give a distinct flavor.
There is a marked difference in flavor between water
freshly boiled and that which has been kept hot for a
long time. The latter has lost the gases which give
life to fresh water. For any purpose in cooking stale
water will injure the flavor of foods whether it be
taken from a hot water faucet or from a teakettle where
it has stood for hours.
Other ill flavors come into our foods because of im-
perfect utensils, badly washed. A rough surface or
seam will retain something from previous cooking to
add to the next substance cooked therein, or greasy
dishwater or soap may be left in sufficient quantity to
give an appreciable change of flavor.
Another important use of water essential in good
cooking is for the cleaning of utensils.
Dishwashing is not a popular occupation probably
because repairing or setting to rights is never quite as
interesting as the construction of something definite.
Insufficient appliances and inconvenient conditions for
the work are other causes for its unpopularity.
With a convenient sink of the right height, ample
table room for soiled and clean dishes, abundance of
towels and hot water, dishwashing loses its terrors.
A knowledge of the composition of each food and the
way it is affected by different degrees of heat is as de-
sirable in dishwashing as in cooking. For example,
where gelatine has dried on a strainer it should be
194
WATER. 19
softened in cold water, but that treatment would not be
helpful if the strainer had been used for fry fat, while
an egg beater plunged in boiling water would be all the
harder to wash because the egg would be cooked.
Time is saved by careful sorting and scraping of dishes
before washing. Detergents are helpful but less im-
portant than abundance of water.
Strong soda water boiled in a utensil will remove soaking
food that has burned on. Soaking is as helpful in Dishes
dishwashing as in the laundry and dishes that cannot
be washed as soon as used should be covered with
water. After washing, any dishes are improved by
rinsing in scalding water.
The usual plan is to wash dishes in this order, glass,
silver, crockery, cooking pans, or kettles. Often it is
more desirable to get the large pieces out of the way
first.
It is half a century since the first dishwashing ma-
chine was invented and though they are in general use
for hotels, hand work seems better adapted to most
households.
To illustrate the effect of the range of temperature
from the block of ice at 32 F to the steaming kettle at
212 F let us follow the process of making a simple
gelatine jelly. The gelatine has been extracted for us
in factories from bones of animals and needs no cook-
ing, but must be dissolved and combined with liquid
and flavoring. It is first softened in cold water, the
time required varying according to the size of the parti-
195
20 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
cles of gelatine. Then it must be dissolved with boil-
ing liquid. Use only as much boiling liquid as is neces-
Geiatme sary to dissolve the gelatine. The sugar, if that is to
be used, added next, because it will dissolve more
rapidly in a warm medium, and then is put in the fruit
juice or whatever is to flavor the jelly.
The compound is to be strained and cooled. The
larger the mass the slower the cooling.
Experiment. To illustrate this put half the jelly in
one mould and the other half in several cups. The cup
will be firm before the large mould at any tempera-
ture.
To illustrate another point put one cup in a pan of
snow or cracked ice mixed with coarse salt. When
some of the jelly is half thickened combine with it
whipped cream or white of egg.
If possible take temperature of each with a ther-
mometer. The key to all gelatine desserts, is to have
proper proportions of gelatine and liquid and to have
the right temperature for the different stages. The
proportions are given by each manufacturer on the
package.
METHODS OF COOKING IN WATER.
Water is as essential as fire in all processes of cook-
ery. No food can be cooked without water and un-
less it naturally contains a large proportion of the
fluid, more must be added during the cooking process.
Boiling Cooking food in water indicates further progress in
196
WATER. 21
this art than either broiling or roasting. It implies
the invention of a kettle to contain the water, though
the earliest cooking of this sort may have been done by
dropping heated stones into a hollow one containing
the water and meat or into a water tight basket. Homer
and other ancient writers have nothing to say about
boiled meats, though they mention those which were
broiled or roasted.
Boiling, stewing, and steaming are slight variations
of the same process. Under ordinary conditions, with-
out pressure, no food thus cooked can be raised to a
higher temperature than 212 F at sea level, and at
high altitudes few foods can be cooked in' this way,
since water boils at a lower temperature.
Experiment. Much may be learned by heating a
given measure of water and watching it until it reaches
the boiling point.
Tiny bubbles hardly larger than the point of a pin
soon form and rise to the top, but this is not boiling.
The same thing may happen in a glass of water stand-
ing for an hour on the table. How will you explain
this?
When the water is actually boiling large bubbles
rise rapidly and break on the surface. Keep up this
process until nothing appears to be left in the pan.
Where has the water gone? Has anything been left
behind ? There will usually be a trace of coloring mat-
ter to indicate that solids do not evaporate.
This point may be made more apparent by putting a
197
22
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Evaporation
Choice of
Utensils
tablespoon ful of salt in the water that is to be evapo-
rated.
What is left behind in a teakettle which is never
cleaned inside though the water is allowed to boil day
after day?
Experiment. Other simple experiments may be made
with two dishes of uniform size containing the same
amount of water exposed to the same heat, one covered,
the other uncovered. Which reaches the boiling point
first ? From which does the water first evaporate ?
The evaporation of water is an important factor in
cooking. The rate of evaporation is proportionate to
the surface exposed to the air and not to the amount
of water in the kettle.
Thus the same quantity of syrup or sauce made in a
shallow pam will naturally become thicker than when
cooked for the same time in a deep pan having only
one-fourth the surface.
The art of the cook is displayed by the proper choice
of utensils, or, if utensils are limited, by varying the
time of the process or by the addition of more water
for different purposes. Where long cooking is neces-
sary choose deep utensils, reserving the shallow ones
for the occasions when haste is essential.
The use of a cover serves several purposes; it pro-
tects the food in the kettle from foreign matter from
outside, it aids in retaining the heat, and prevents the
loss of water to some extent, as much of the steam
condenses and runs back.
198
COOKING IN WATER. 23
Even without a thermometer it is evident that water
cannot be made as hot as fat, for a potato, a bit of meat,
or a lump of dough might be cooked in water indefinite-
ly without assuming the brown color which would
come to any one of these articles in hot fat.
By observation also, we might discover that, however
rapidly the water in a kettle boils, potatoes or other
foods do not cook more quickly. In the same way we
should find that absolute boiling or bubbling of the
water was not necessary in order to cook some foods.
Through such observation and experience certain
common laws of cooking have been established and
these have been verified and explained by the experi-
ments of modern scientists. The temperature of the
water should be adapted to the type of food material
to be cooked in it. Vegetables containing woody fibre
to be softened require the boiling-point, while meats
and eggs, of different composition, will cook more per-
fectly at a lower temperature. To extract juices and
flavors of meats and vegetables to the fullest degree
divide the substance finely to expose as much surface as
possible to the action of the water and let that be cold.
Soak first, then heat the whole slowly and hold below
the boiling point till the end is gained.
When water is used only for the purpose of convey-
ing heat let it be boiling hot when the food is put into
it. Even then some of the solids in the food will be dis-
solved in the water and lost unless it be used. In some
cases, as in strong flavored vegetables, this may be a
199
24 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
desirable loss. Mediums like hot fat, a thick syrup, or
a' gravy in which water is thickened with flour, by
their density prevent loss of shape and flavor in the
articles cooked in them. Rapid boiling in water tends
to disintegrate foods. Meats are cooked to rags,
potatoes become a soggy paste, and no intensity of heat
is gained.
A Double-Boiler an Invention of Count
Eumford.
stewing Stewing implies moist heat, a sort of sweating
process. Boiling requires much water, at its highest
temperature ; stewing is done with little water at a heat
sufficient to soften the substance, but considerably be-
low the boiling point. Hence boiling is more applica-
ble to vegetables and stewing to animal foods.
Braising Braising and fricasseeing and pot roasting are com-
binations of broiling or frying and stewing. Sections
of meat are first browned to secure a good flavor and
then stewed until tender in broth or gravy.
200
COOKING IN WATER. 25
Water is a restless substance and is constantly escap-
ing from the surface of our foods while they are being
cooked. Keep the water in the right place, is a watch-
word against many of the difficulties that arise in
cookery.
When a sauce or soup is too thick water may be
added. On the other hand, when such foods are too
watery the surplus often may be evaporated by cook-
ing rapidly, uncovered, for a short time.
Besides kettles of various shapes, the double boiler The
and the steam cooker are important utensils dependent ^li
for use upon water. The double boiler we owe to the
inventive genius of Count Rumford. Here is one ket-
tle set in another containing water, and so long as
there is water between a food and the fire no browning
can take place in the food. This utensil is especially
associated with compounds of milk and with the cook-
ing of cereals. Though the food in the upper part
does not quite reach the boiling point, this disadvantage
is more than balanced by the long time which may be
allowed for cooking with no danger of burning.
The steam cooker is found in many patterns, all on
the same general plan. It differs from the double
boiler in having several parts above the kettle contain-
ing the water, each with perforated bottom, so that
the steam and vapor have direct access to the food.
The"bain marie" is a French device to serve the same
end. One large kettle of water contains a number of
201
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Making
Tea
Coffee
Coffee Pot for Making
Drip Coffee.
deep sauce pans. This is especially useful for food
already cooked which is to be
kept hot for intermittent serving
in restaurants.
The prevalent idea that all
food must be served the moment
it is cooked is due in many
cases to imperfect methods for
keeping it warm.
For tea and coffee a moder-
ately soft water is generally con-
sidered best.
The different kinds of tea re-
ceive their name from the local-
ity where they grow and from
the size of the leaf, the younger leaves furnishing the
choicer varieties. (See the illustration and descrip-
tion given on page 139 of Food and Dietetics.)
To make tea, use an earthen pot, fresh boiling water,
and from one-half to one teaspoonful of tea for each
half pint of water. Leave covered in a warm place to
steep for three to five minutes and serve. For cold
tea drain from the grounds at once.
Names mean little in brands of coffee further than
to indicate the original home of a special variety of the
plant. The berry improves in quality for several years
but loses flavor after roasting and more after grinding.
One pound of good coffee measures about one quart
and will make at least thirty full cups of strong coffee.
Thus one pound should supply one person for a month
202
COOKING IN WATER.
27
or four persons for a week. It is better to buy coffee
in small lots often, unless it is ground as used.
Coffee may be steeped like tea or boiled. All things
STEAM COOKER WITH DOORS.
considered, the drip coffee pots are most satisfactory
and the beverage thus made is more economical and
uniform and probably less injurious than when it is
boiled.
203
28 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
ICE
Ice is becoming more and more essential to civilize
man, not only for summer use but for the year arounc
The future promises many improvements along thi
line, in more rigid inspection of the sources of th
natural ice supply, in improved facilities for the mant
facture of artificial ice, perhaps even in the individu;
home, by the transmission of cold brine as gas an
water are now supplied from house to house from cen
tral plants, making it possible to dispense with th
iceman's daily round. Patents have been issued fo
methods of cooling houses in summer similar to thos
used in cold storage plants. Food is now sent long dis
tances in refrigerator cars and the whole subject c
refrigeration has received much study. It has bee
found that different foods require various degrees o
temperature.
cold The preservation of food by cold storage is of gres
Storage b ene fit to armies and navies, but is not an unmixe
blessing to the housekeeper for it has upset the season
of foods, and when we can obtain a food at any tim
of the year it loses the charm it possessed when th
season was a short one. Moreover, though food i:
cold storage does not spoil, it parts with something an<
undergoes certain changes which are not fully ex
plained as yet. The housekeeper is usually safer in th
use of canned foods than of those subjected to a lonj
period of cold storage.
ICE.
29
The household refrigerator is frequently expected to
do impossibilities in, caring for foods. It is a great
labor saver when properly used and may be depended
upon the year around and not merely in summer.
It should be placed in a cool, light, airy place, con-
venient to kitchen and dining room unless a second
A Refrigerator showing Direction of Air Currents.
refrigerator be placed there. If possible place it near
the door so that the ice man need not track all over
the kitchen floor. The cellar is no place for a re-
frigerator. A good cellar is a safe place for most
foods, and a poor one will injure the refrigerator.
In many households the cost of ice is more than
saved by the preservation of food that would other-
wise be' lost. The average family will use from one to
two dollars' worth of ice a month at city prices.
In modern houses the water pipe from the ice com-
The
Refrigerator
205
30 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
partment of the refrigerator is often connected with
the sewer pipe. This should never be direct. Let the
pipe drip into a spout.
A refrigerator should have several compartments,
that foods like milk and butter may be kept apart
from others. The coolest place is usually under
the ice. A tile or enamel lined refrigerator has many
advantages, but any that are properly made if kept
clean will do good work. Any break should be repaired
at once, for an overflow of water or a crack in the lin-
ing may cause an odor which will flavor all food.
Care of The ice should be washed clean before putting in
Refrigerator place and no food should ever be placed upon it. The
jars of water chilling for table use are the only things
to be allowed beside the ice in its compartment. No
food should be put away while warm.
How often a refrigerator should be cleaned depends
upon the way it is used. If nothing is allowed to spill
or rub against the sides or shelves, or, when this hap-
pens, if it is cleaned away at once, and if nothing stays
there until unfit for food, frequent scalding is un-
necessary. Every week or fortnight when the ice is
nearly out remove shelves and scald them thoroughly
and wash throughout.
Glass and stone jars, deep earthen and agate plates
are the best utensils in which to put foods away in the
refrigerator.
The principle of the refrigerator is exactly that of
206
ICE. 31
the Aladdin oven a closet with shelves is put inside a
case of non-conducting substance.
On the same plan, our ice cream freezers are built. i ce cream
The outer tub is a non-conducting substance to pre-
vent the entrance of heat.
There are jugs for hot water and coolers for ice
water constructed according to the same idea.
Salt is mixed with ice because its affinity for water
will cause the ice to melt, and when a solid changes to
liquid form, heat is absorbed from the surrounding
objects. Cracked ice about the size of coarse rock salt
is used, the proportion being three parts ice to one of
salt.
Ice cream, custard, or fruit juice to be frozen, should
be more highly flavored and sweetened than if it were
to be eaten at an ordinary temperature. The organs of
taste are benumbed by the cold, and a stronger flavor
is necessary to produce an effect. The cost of ice for
making frozen desserts is less than the cost of fuel for
cooking many.
207
Uncooked
Food
Preserving
Food
PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION OF FOODS
All processes of cooking are the result of gradual
evolution. Nature ripens fruits and seeds in the sun-
light. Dry nuts and seeds are stored by squirrels and
other creatures. Primitive men were but little in ad-
vance of the squirrel when they saved different grains
and pounded or parched them for food.
We may understand better the origin of our proc-
esses of cooking if we first consider the foods avail-
able without special preparation. Tropical countries
have always afforded a variety of fruits capable of sus-
taining human life. It is estimated that many more
persons may be supported on a given piece of ground
planted to bananas than by the same surface planted
with any crop in a temperate climate. The breadfruit,
fig, date, and raisin are other important fruit foods.
In temperate climates without knowledge of agricul-
ture mankind must depend largely upon animal foods,
and doubtless here would come the first application of
heat to change the flavor or to aid in preservation of
the food from day to day.
The drying of fruits and the smoking of meats natu-
rally were the earliest methods of preserving foods.
Probably the preservative action of smoke was acci-
dentally discovered and the salting of fish may have
been derived naturally from its association with salt
water.
Since all foods are mainly water it was an immense
advantage to wandering tribes to reduce their burdens
32
208
PRESERVING FOOD. 33
by drying their foods. Even the most primitive house-
keepers discovered that in proportion as food parted
with water it was less liable to ferment, mould, or de-
cay, though the scientific reason for this that most bac-
teria can live and develop more rapidly in fluids has
only been discovered recently by bacteriologists.
The modern housekeeper seems to be losing the art Dried
of drying foods, yet in many cases that mode of preser-
vation is more desirable than canning or cold storage.
Dried Prunes Before and After Soaking.
One reason why dried fruits have fallen into dis-
repute is this : To remove the discoloration which takes
place when cut fruits are dried or evaporated in fac-
tories they are often bleached by sulphur and suffer
loss of flavor. Another reason for not using dried
foods is that it takes time to soak them.
When they are to be made ready for use the first
step is to supply as much water as they lost from
evaporation. This is best accomplished by long soak-
ing without heat, merely cooking them enough at the
end to soften tough fibres and to prevent fermenta-
tion.
209
34 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Honey and olive oil may be considered with the food
products requiring little preparation. They were
commonly used by the ancients.
Nuts Nuts are an important food in some parts of the
world. The peasantry of southern Europe find in the
chestnut a substitute for cereals. It is made more di-
gestible by a partial cooking. The neglect of nuts in
our country is due to the cheapness of cereal products
but there is an increasing use of them as a substitute
for meats. Average shelled nuts have weight for
weight about twice the fuel value of wheat flour be-
cause they contain so much fat. Chestnuts are about
two-thirds starch, and contain little fat. Other nuts are
from one-third to two-thirds fat.
It is a common idea that nuts are very indigestible.
That may be changed if we learn to masticate them
properly or to grind them and combine with other
foods instead of eating them without chewing properly,
as dessert after sufficient nourishment has been taken.
Nuts and fruits supplement each other, to some ex-
tent, the one containing what the other lacks.
The leguminous seeds, peas, beans, lentils, and pea-
nuts, are somewhat like nuts, but are not so rich in
fat and are unpalatable unless cooked. Most of our
common vegetables are the result of ages of cultivation.
Fruits We are only on the threshold of the possibilities of
combining and preserving fruits. An increased use of
fruit, fresh and preserved, will tend to cause a di-
minished use of alcoholic beverages. Fruit juice is one
210
CANNING. 35
of the best agents to quench thirst. A desire for some
other beverage than water may be taken as a cry for
food. Fruit juices, hot or cold, will better supply this
desire than tea or coffee. The expressed juice of real
fruit may be sterilized and then charged with carbon
dioxide, as well as the chemical compounds now sold
as soft drinks.
Inferior fruits and skins and cores, if clean, may Jellies
under pressure yield juice for jellies, or to flavor other
foods. Fruits may be blended, pressed, and strained,
and used in many ways even for children and invalids
when the solid particles and seeds would prove irritat-
ing. The juice of the lemon or orange and the pulp
of the banana may thus be combined.
Since modern housekeepers lack patience to dry foods canned
and soak them out again the canning factory has come
to their aid. Within the last half century this business
has developed immensely. Home canning cannot com-
pete with that of the factory, because there a higher
temperature is gained which more effectively sterilizes
the food.
Canned foods keep because the bacteria in them are
destroyed and others cannot enter because the air is
kept out. Fruit will not spoil even if the jar is not
full, provided the air above it has been sterilized.
Unfortunately, ignorance of the processes involved
makes the consumer demand impossibilities in color
and form, and this has led the manufacturer to use
artificial colorings freely.
211
36 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Preservatives of different kinds have been found to
be cheaper than care and time expended in the prepara-
tion. Clean foods keep better than unclean ones, but
skilled human labor is the means to cleanliness and that
is expensive.
Preserving Pound for pound preserves which include jellies
sugar mac [ e f rom f ru it juice and marmalades from fruit pulp
with equal weight of sugar keep even if exposed to air,
because bacteria do not flourish in dense substances.
Some fruits are preserved half by drying in the sun-
shine, half by sugar. Spiced fruits were more common
before the days of air-tight jars, for spices are enemies
of bacteria.
Canning The cann i n " of fod is not a complicated process.
Everything must be clean, that is, free from spores
of mould or germs that promote decay. Such cleanli-
ness may be accomplished in part by water, partly by
heat. The jars, covers, tunnels, and spoons 'must be
subjected to boiling water to render them sterile. They
are usually put in cold water which is slowly brought
to the boiling point. The scalding of tomatoes and
peaches not only renders the skin easy of removal but
sterilizes the outside so that nothing is rubbed on to the
inner surface as it is peeled.
An accumulation of dust, mould, and decayed por-
tions, even if each be slight, cannot but affect the re-
sult. Therefore the fruit for any purpose must be care-
fully picked over and washed. Very juicy fruits, like
currants, may have the juice expressed without first
212
CANNING.
37
Cooking, while others, like the crab apple, require the
effect of heat to start the juice.
The utensils for cooking and straining should not be
of metal if the best flavors of the fruit are to be re-
tained. Agate or earthen ware kettles, wooden spoons,
and linen strainers are desirable for this work. If
'LIGHTNING."
PRESERVE JARS.
IMPROVED "MASON."
necessary to use metal anywhere, do it as quickly as
possible, and never leave an iron spoon in a kettle of
cooked fruit.
Sugar is not essential to canning, but is usually
added for flavor and because fruit cooked in a syrup
keeps its shape better than when cooked in water.
The best jars are those having glass covers and
fastening with a spring. The screw tops are easily
rendered imperfect and are hard to close and open.
Preserve
Jars
213
&8 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
The less lettering there is in the glass the surer we
are of keeping it clean. The rubber rings spoil
quickly and none that are stretched or brittle
should be used. New ones are usually required every
year. Pint jars are more satisfactory for the average
family than the larger sizes.
A grocer's tunnel is desirable for filling the jars,
and a half-pint dipper with a long handle is another
help.
The essential points in canning fruit may be summed
up in very few words. All that is necessary is to have
the fruit and everything that comes in contact with it
sterilized, and then keep the air away from it. That is,
the fruit and whatever it touches must be raised to a
sufficient degree of heat to destroy any micro-organisms
already there that would cause change of form or de-
cay. This being done care must be taken that no others
are allowed to enter through the air. There is no
magic about it, only constant watchfulness.
Gentle cooking, long continued, seems to be fatal to
the bacteria, which might work so much ill, and this
method is more conducive to preserving the natural
appearance of the fruit than is intense heat for a short
period.
Fruit, vegetables, milk, and meats all are prepared
in similar fashion. Animal foods spoil easily because
of their composition.
214
CHOICE OF FOOD
Primitive man made use of anything near his hand
to satisfy his need and accidents and extreme hunger
made many foods appetizing to our ancestors which
might not appeal to us today if we had not inherited the
taste for them.
According to W. Mattieu Williams, "the fact that
we use the digestive and nutrient apparatus of sheep,
oxen, etc., for the preparation of our food is merely a
transitory barbarism." Other authorities agree with
him that the art of cooking may some time be so de-
veloped as to enable us to prepare the coarser vegetable
substances in an easily assimilated form without de-
pending upon animals as middle ,men.
The art of the cook has done much to make un- - The Art
likely food materials attractive, but there is another of Cookin s
phase of the question, and that is the problem how
to make what we know is nourishing both pleasant
and attractive. The cook of the past had to make
the best possible use of the meager nutrients at hand.
The cook of the present and future has the harvests of
the whole world within reach all the year around.
How shall such abundant material be combined to sat-
isfy the palate without overloading the digestive or-
gans ?
More important still, how shall we select and pre-
pare foods that they may produce sufficient energy in
the human body for the great tasks awaiting it in our
complex civilization.
215
4 o
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Classification
of Food
Organic
Foods
During the last twenty years or less much material
has been published by the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture recording the results of investigations. Many
of these pamphlets can be secured for the asking.
For practical use all the principal substances found
in our foods may be classified under five heads : water,
mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate.
The first, and its importance in cooking, has already
been considered. The second appears in different forms
in all foods, rarely exceeding one per cent, of their
natural weight. This it is which remains as ash when
a food is burned. It is most prominent in the refuse
portions of food which are removed before coming to
the table, such as the husks and bones. Some of these
mineral matters are readily soluble in water, hence are
lost when no use is made of the water in which vege-
tables are boiled.
Common salt is the principal mineral substance in
use in cooking.
The other three great classes of food substances
are known as organic compounds, the protein, fat,
and carbohydrate.
The proteins are subdivided into many classes, but so
far as practical cooking is concerned, little need be said
of these here. Since this type of material constitutes
about one-fifth of the human body by weight it must
be found in the daily food. Lean meat, eggs, milk
*Following the nomenclature of the U. S. Department o
Agriculture, the term protein is used to denote all classes o
nitrogenous foods.
216
CHOICE OF FOOD. 4!
curd, and portions of grains and seeds are the princi-
pal sources of this class of food. As a whole, protein
of vegetable origin is more slowly and less perfectly
absorbed than animal protein. The principal duty of
nitrogenous foods is to build up the body and to keep
it in repair.
Fats are obtained from both animal and vegetable Fatg
sources and for the convenience of the cook are com-
monly separated by heat or pressure. Considerable fat
is stored as a reserve fund in the normal human body.
Its principal office is that of fuel to keep the body's ma-
chinery going.
Carbohydrates are chiefly of vegetable origin and in- C arix
elude starch and sugar. They are not apparent to any hydrs
extent in the body but are important fuel foods, though
more than two pounds of starch or sugar would be re-
quired to produce as much energy or bodily heat as one
pound of fat.
The provider of food, the cook, and the consumer
all should be familiar with the composition of com-
mon foods in order that the daily meals may be adapted
not only to purse and palate but to climate and the con-
dition of individual bodies.
217
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS
Milk is a complete food for the young animal because
it contains the five fundamental types of food ma-
terial water, mineral matter, fat, carbohydrate, and
protein.
The analysis of average milk is about as follows :
Per cent.
Water 87
Mineral 01
Fat 04
Casein .03
Sugar 05
i.oo
Since the fat is the most valuable portion commer-
cially, dairymen study to feed their cows in such a
way as to increase it, and in some instances milk has
been produced containing 6 per cent of fat.
Use of Though mainly water, milk is a valuable nutritious
Mllk food and should be used freely by itself and in com-
bination with other food materials, in soups, sauces,
and puddings. When we remember what the depart-
ment of agriculture has proved for us, that a quart of
milk is quite as nourishing as a quart of oysters for
which we pay six or eight times -as much, we can
see that it is desirable to use it more freely than is
generally done. Especially during the summer months
we do well to substitute milk and cheese for meats.
There are average families which do not use over a
pint of milk a day ; there are others who find it neces-
42
218
MILK. 43
sary to take a gallon, and the meat bill in the latter
cases becomes proportionately small. A pint of milk
a day is not an excessive allowance for each member
of a family, though many households consume much
less.
To study the composition of milk put a quart of
fresh milk in a glass jar and leave it twenty-four hours
or longer until it is thick and sour. What percentage
of the whole is the cream? Remove the layer of
cream on top to another jar, screw on the top, and
shake until the fat separates from the watery por-
tion of the milk. Collect the butter on a spoon, wash
out the milk by pressing and folding with a knife.
Weigh or estimate carefully the value of the butter ob-
tained. What proportion of the original bulk of milk
does it represent ? Persons fond of unsalted butter may
thus prepare it for themselves.
Why is salt added to butter ?
The remainder of the milk, now a thick mass of
curd, may be pressed out with a spoon or cut with
a knife to show the greenish water known as whey.
What nutritive substances are there in this?
Turn the thick milk into a two-quart pan and fill
with hot water, in twenty minutes drain the water off
through a strainer, that no curd need be lost, and pour
on more hot water. Do this several times until the
curd loses its sour taste and has contracted, but do
not allow it to become too hard. If boiling water is
used the curd will become unpalatable and indigestible.
219
44 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Buttons have been made of sour milk treated by heat
and pressure.
Sour Press as much water as possible from the curd and
cheese compare the quantity with the original amount of
milk. Remember that this still contains much water.
Now combine the curd with butter or thick cream, salt
it and shape in small balls or pack in cups. Thus
we learn something of the value of milk and have
made a sour milk cheese more palatable than when
the whole mass of curdled milk is heated on the stove
or strained in a cloth.
junket With prepared rennet in liquid or tablet form the
curd and whey of sweet milk may be separated. The
milk should be warmed slightly before the dissolved
rennet is added, then chilled in the dishes from which
it is to be served. This is known as junket or rennet
custard.
Absolute cleanliness is essential for every utensil to
come in contact with milk. The souring of the milk
is .due to the action of bacteria which come to it from
contact with utensils and the air. Its fluid form and
nutritive material afford a medium peculiarly favor-
able to the development of germs of disease, as well as
to the growth of useful bacteria which aid in butter
and cheese making.
The growth of such micro-organisms is hastened by
moderate heat, but most of them are killed by raising
the milk to the boiling point.
Sterilization requires a temperature of two hun-
220
MILK.
45
dred and twelve degrees F, continued for about
twenty minutes ; this process usually changes the flavor
of the milk so that it is disagreeable to many palates.
The high temperature also causes the fat globules
to separate instead of being retained in the form of
cream.
Pasteurization takes its name from the noted French
scientist, and consists in raising the milk to a tempera-
ture of about one hundred and fifty-five degrees F. By
this means the flavor of the milk is unchanged.
The cook finds it safe to scald the milk for soups,
bread, cr puddings, to prevent its souring during the
process, before cooking it with the other ingredients.
There is a gain in the time of cooking when the milk-
is heated while the other materials are being pre-
pared.
A bit of bicarbonate of soda dissolved in milk before
it is heated often will neutralize any incipient acidity
and make it usable for puddings or soups. The
"cream" of tomato soup is liable to curdle unless the
acid of the tomato is neutralized by soda or the milk
thickened with flour before the two parts are combined.
It is safer with all "cream" soups to keep the stock
and thickened milk apart until just before using.
Lemon or other acid fruit juices are sometimes
mixed with milk for sherbet without curdling if, before
the juice is added, the milk is thoroughly chilled in the
freezer can.
221
46 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Salt sometimes curdles milk, especially when it is
added to hot milk.
Since the solid portions of milk readily adhere to
the bottom of the saucepan placed in direct contact
with heat, and the resulting burned flavor rapidly pene-
trates the whole of the milk, a double boiler or its
equivalent, one dish set in another of boiling water,
is the best way to heat milk.
Milk is an important ingredient in preparing cocoa
and chocolate, and such beverages rank with soup in
nutritive value. Hot milk sipped slowly is a simple
remedy for exhaustion and sleeplessness. Hot milk
should be served with coffee when cream is not avail-
able. The milk soups are valuable foods and have as
their foundation the white sauce described further on.
Most of our puddings require milk, especially the
cereal and custard varieties.
cooking Because there are solids in the milk more time must
be allowed for the grains of rice or corn meal to
absorb the moisture than when cooked in water. The
protein portions of the milk have somewhat the same
effect as the egg used to coat the croquette or oyster
before frying. If the particles of grain are thus var-
nished over they cannot absorb moisture as rapidly
as from clear water. Hence, it is often advisable to
cook the grains in water first and finish the process
in the milk.
In making blanc mange from Irish moss, if the
moss is first cooked in a small quantity of water and
222
MILK. 47
the thick paste strained before it is added to the milk,
there is no loss of milk. When the moss is cooked di-
rectly in the milk there is some loss of milk when the
mosa is strained out.
The baked Indian meal pudding and the creamy rice
pudding require long, gentle baking. There is a
continual evaporation of moisture from the surface of
"BLANC-MANGE."
the pudding pan, and really a condensing of the milk.
In proportion as the pudding dish is refilled with milk,
the pudding increases in nutritive value.
Milk is commonly used for mixing dough of many
types and this adds to the nutritive value of bread
and cakes.
Bread made of milk or part milk will have a browner,
tenderer crust than bread made wholly with water.
There seems to be good ground, however, for the prev-
alent idea that bread or cake made with milk does
223
48 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
not keep so well as that made with water. A cer-
tain cheesy flavor develops where milk is a principal
ingredient.
Sour Sour milk is often used for mixing griddle cakes and
quick doughs, because the acid it contains will be neu-
tralized by the soda added, and thus produce the effer-
vescence which makes the dough light. The souring
process seems to have so affected the protein sub-
stances in the milk that such a dough is tenderer than
one made with sweet milk and baking powder. The
use of sour milk will be further treated in the section
on doughs.
Skimmed For doughs, soups, and puddings, in which additional
fat is introduced, skimmed milk may be used as well
as full milk.
The use of cream in well-to-do families is increas-
ing. Whipped cream is demanded as a garnish or
sauce for many desserts quite complete in themselves.
The process of beating or "whipping" cream gives
it an attractive appearance, and by expanding its par-
ticles probably makes it more digestible.
BUTTER
Butter is one of the most digestible forms of fat. An
ounce of butter a day is a fair allowance for each
person when meats, lard, olive oil, and cream are used.
To test this in your own case, divide one ounce of
butter in three portions, one for each meal, and see
whether you naturally use less or want more. Or, this
224
BUTTER. 49
may be tried in a family by shaping a portion of but-
ter into balls with butter paddles and noting the
amount consumed by each person at the table. An
ounce of butter is easily secured by cutting a quarter
pound pat into quarters. Or, if -that is not available,
measure the butter. Two level or one round table-
spoonful is equivalent to one ounce. A pound of but-
ter will measure one pint.
Individual Shortcakes to be Served with Whipped Cream.
Butter is probably rendered slower of digestion by
cooking, and for this reason it is wiser to flavor foods
with it after they are cooked. Often it is better to
allow the individual eater to butter the broiled meat,
or fish, or mashed vegetables, according to his own
taste. Then there need be no waste if a portion of
the whole dish is not eaten, and if the food is re-
heated the flavor is better.
In one dietary study of the Department of Agricul-
ture of the United States (Bulletin 75 from *he office of
Experiment Station), so much butter came back in
225
White
Sauce
50 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
the platters where it had been poured over steaks,
chops, and fish, that it was assumed l^hat none was con-
sumed. .Certainly, in every household considerable but-
ter and other valuable fat finds its way to the dish
water. One of the first steps in the application of
science to housekeeping is to stop such needless waste.
In a glass measure cup, or a tumbler, put a quar-
ter of a pound of butter, set the glass in a pan of
warm water and leave until the butter melts.
Estimate the percentage of clear fat.
What other substances appear to be present?
How does this explain the sour and cheesy tastes
sometimes noticed in butter?
Milk thickened by flour and made richer with but-
ter and flavored, is known as milk gravy, drawn but-
ter, or white, or cream sauce. It is a substantial food
in itself and forms a valuable addition to fish, eggs,
meats, and vegetables. By its addition a small por-
tion of any food substance is extended and made to do
more service, and flavors too pronounced to be agree-
able to all are much modified.
There are several ways of compounding this sauce
which apply to other sauces in which butter is the
principal ingredient. A general formula covering the
ordinary sauces white, tomato, and brown is this:
one ounce of butter, one-half ounce of flour, and one-
half pint of liquid ; or, to express the same quantities
in other terms, two level tablespoons of butter, the
same of flour, and one cup of liquid.
226
t. Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the dry Method
flour, cook and stir until frothy all over, then draw ofMak
to a cooler part of the stove and stir while adding
the liquid hot or cold, then cook again till thick, stir-
ring till smooth.
2. Another way is to rub butter and flour together
and stir into the warm liquid in a double boiler, then
stir till thick and smooth.
3. When thin cream is substituted for butter and
milk, or when less butter is to be used, rub the flour
smoothly with a little cold liquid and stir into the re-
mainder, which should be hot, and cook over water
until smooth. Then add butter and season.
The theory of the" first method is that the butter at-
tains a slightly higher temperature than the milk and if
the flour is combined with the hot butter it is cooked
more quickly and thoroughly than when put into
milk.
In the second case, longer time is required, but the
flavor of the butter is changed less than by the first
method.
The third way is more economical of butter.
Butter is also used for brown sauces. These are _
Brown
made after the first plan for the white sauce, but the Sauce
butter is allowed to brown before the flour is put in,
and is cooked until a reddish brown hue is acquired
before the liquid, which is usually brown meat stock,
is added.
227
Varieties
of White
Sauce
Creamed
Dishes
$2 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
In many other sauces the plan is similar to that
followed in making the white sauce, but meat stock,
strained tomato, or other vegetable stocks, are used
in place of part or all of the milk.
These sauces are the foundation of many entrees or
made dishes, such as croquettes and souffles.
For meat or fish croquettes the sauce is made of a
double thickness by using only half as much liquid.
It is then combined with about an equal quantity of
meat, seasoned and cooled, when the mixture may be
shaped. Souffles have the sauce as the basis and the
puffy effect is produced by eggs.
The usual white sauce, combined with an equal quan-
tity of meat, fish or vegetable stock, gives us the cream
soup, cream of chicken, cream of cod, cream of as-
paragus, etc., etc.
Since butter is not pure fat but contains water and
curd, it is less desirable than other fats for greasing
pans unless it is melted and the fat used alone.
Except in cases when it is necessary to brown some-
in using thing quickly, butter should not be used for frying or
or sauteing. It is too expensive and burns easily. Be-
cause of the quantity of milk, often sour, contained in
butter, it is not strange that some recipes for riclf
cake call for small quantities of soda to balance this
acidity. For such purposes, butter is frequently
washed to remove milk and salt.
That butter responds quickly to changes of tempera-
ture should be remembered in mixing any dough,
precautions
Butte
228
CHEESE.
53
like pastry, when a large proportion of butter is
used.
Slightly rancid butter may be made usable for some
purposes by scalding it in water, then chilling and re-
moving the cake of fat on top. If further treatment
is necessary the fat alone may be heated with bits of
charcoal.
CHEESE
The origin of cheese is probably more ancient than
that of butter. It is a form of dried or condensed milk
convenient for transportation. Milk is nine-tenths
water, while cheese contains but a trifle over three-
tenths water. Average cheese is about one-third each
water, fat, and casein.
A pound of cheese costing sixteen cents contains
about twice as much nutritive matter as a pound of
meat which will vary in price. There will be less
waste in the cheese than in an average piece of meat.
Moreover, cheese has the advantage of keeping better
than the meat under adverse conditions. Its disad-
vantages are that because of its concentration it is" not
easy of digestion. This may be overcome somewhat
by diluting the cheese with milk, as is done in many
of the rarebits, fondues, and souffles. The addition of
a small quantity of bicarbonate of potash or soda' aids
in making cheese soluble. There is danger that the
cheese will be over cooked. When merely melted it is
probably quite as digestible if used moderately, as
Rancid
Butter
229
54 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
many of our common ways of preparing meat. Judg-
ing from the types of people who depend upon cheese
largely it might be used with us more generally than
it is. The annual consumption of cheese in this coun-
try is only about three pounds per capita. We might
well use cheese more freely in cooked dishes, for flavor
as well as for nutriment.
230
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY,
PART I.
Read Carefully* Place your name and address on the
first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write
on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from the
lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instructor
may know that you understand the subject. Read the les-
son paper a number of times before attempting 1 to answer
the questions.
1.
2.
Give a rough diagram of the stove or range with
which you are most familiar. Show where in
the oven and on top of the stove the heat is
greatest, and explain why.
What is your method of starting and regulating
a coal fire?
Counting the time required to keep fire and stove
in good condition, what is the most economical
fuel within your reach?
Fig. 1. Fig. 2,
4. Fig. i represents the dial of gas meter at the
beginning of the month; Fig. 2, at the end of
231
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
the month. What is the reading in each case,
and what will be the amount of the bill at $1.25
per 1,000 feet of gas?
5. If you use a gas stove, read the meter before and
after a day's baking and find the cost of fuel.
If other fuel is used, give the amount and ap-
proximate cost.
6. Where, in your experience, would a thermometer
be helpful in cookery ?
7. Mention several foods requiring the action of
heat, yet which need little preparation and few
utensils.
8. What different ways have we of cooking with
the aid of water ?
9. Is it possible to cook in water that does not boil ?
Give examples.
10. What gain in cooking certain foods over, rather
than in, water? Describe utensils by which this
can be accomplished.
11. What kinds of foods should be kept in the refrig-
erator? Describe the refrigerator, or whatever
is used in its place.
12. What are the essential points in canning fruit?
13. How should dried fruit and vegetables be pre-
pared to restore them as nearly as possible to
their original condition?
14. Are there any substances suitable to add to foods
as preservatives?
232
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
15. What are the relative merits of paper bags,
wooden boxes, tin cans, and glass jars for keep-
ing groceries in pantry or store closet?
1 5. How can you determine for yourself that there is
water and fat in milk, cheese, and butter?
17. Make a menu for meals for two days, introducing
as many dishes as feasible that contain milk or
cheese.
18. Suggest treatment and uses for sour milk, dry
cheese, and butter of poor flavor.
19. Make a white sauce three times or more, putting
the ingredients together in different order each
time, and report which seems the most satis-
factory and expeditious.
20. Are there any questions which you would like an-
swered, relating to the topics taken up in this
lesson ?
NOTE. After completing the test sign your full name.
233
I
234
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
PART II
EGGS
Since the egg is similar to milk in composition, both
containing water, fat, and protein, without starch,
and as there are many simple dishes in which milk and
eggs are combined, it is natural that that should be our
next topic.
The egg may seem a small article to have much space
devoted to it, but there is no other food so indispensable
to the art of cooking. A French chef has compared
the office of eggs in cooking to the usefulness of the, an,
and a, in conversation, both would be difficult without
them.
Aside from its great food value, and there is no egg
of bird that may not be eaten, the egg is a general
harmonizer in the kitchen ; it serves t thicken cus-
tards and sauces ; to clarify soups and jellies ; to make
a coating of crumbs adhere to chops or croquettes; it
puffs up souffles ; it leavens a whole group of cakes ;
it garnishes salads and emulsifies oil into a smooth, rich
dressing for them, and combined with odd bits of
fish or meat, it makes many a savory dish of what
would otherwise be lost.
235
56 PRINCIPLES OF COOKER^.
The composition of eggs varies with the kind of fowl
and its food. The edible portion of the average hen's
egg is nearly 75 per cent, water, 12 per cent, protein,
12 per cent, fat, and I per cent, ash or mineral mat-
ter.
Since carbohydrates are lacking, we naturally com-
bine eggs with starches and sugar which supply the
class of substance missing.
Like milk, eggs may be eaten either raw or cooked,
and the ways of cooking eggs, however elaborate they
seejn, may be reduced to a few simple processes.
We shall have the key to all cookery of eggs if we
study some eggs cooked by moderate and some by
intense heat.
Effect To see how the egg is affected by different degrees
on ?Ss of heat, we may poach several eggs, or drop them
from their shells into water at different temperatures.
When an egg is dropped into a saucepan with cold
water, and heat applied, before the egg begins to cook,
the egg and water mingle somewhat, showing that a
portion of the raw egg is soluble in cold water. As the
water is heated, this soluble egg becomes cooked and
rises in a thick froth on top, and if the cooking is
continued longer, this froth may contract and settle.
This point is turned to the cook's advantage in clear-
ing jellies, soup stocks, and coffee c Thus even the lit-
tle portion of the egg white adhering to the shell is
sometimes utilized for clearing coffee.
236
EGGS.
57
When an egg is dropped directly into boiling water,
the outer portions of it are hardened by the heat. This
cooked egg does not appear to be soluble itself and,
moreover, protects the under portion until that also
is penetrated by the heat.
Experiment. Boil one egg rapidly ; put another into
the boiling water, remove from the . stove, and let
stand for fifteen minutes or more. Compare tempera-
tures with a thermometer. See which egg is more ten-
der, and presumably, more easy of digestion.
The white and yolk of eggs cook at different tem-
peratures, and these appear to vary slightly with the
freshness of the egg. For general use it is sufficient to
remember that 150 to 180 F is ample heat for dishes
composed mainly of eggs and milk. When starch is
used, a higher temperature is required, and whenever
possible, this should be obtained before combination
with the eggs. Having learned this, we have the key
to the successful cooking of all custards and the like.
A custard that has curdled, or wheyed, or settled in
the center, has cooked too long, or in too hot an oven.
The custom of setting a custard in a pan of water
in the oven is wise, for the moisture lowers the tem-
perature of the oven. Excessive beating of eggs may
aid the curdling of the custard ; it certainly is a waste
of effort here, however it may be in cake making.
Average custards are made with three to six eggs to
a quart of milk ; naturally the larger number makes a
firmer custard, but the other is quite palatable. Often
Custards
237
Eggs
ri.th Starch
58 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
gelatine or corn starch is used to assist in thickening
milk when eggs are expensive, but these combinations
are not real custards.
There is a long list of puddings where a custard
or egg and milk are combined with starchy materials.
In such cases as have already been stated, it is wise to
have the starch, whether in the form of rice, tapioca,
sago s or corn starch, cooked in the milk before the
Dropped
Egg
POACHED EGGS ON I- ISH BALLS.
egg is added. Bread or cracker crumbs may be com-
bined directly with the milk, for then the starch has al-
ready been cooked.
A single dropped egg may show that water need not
boil in order to cook an egg. Even if a thermometer is
not available, it can be seen that the white of the
egg instantly changes in appearance when it comes in
contact witfy water far below the boiling point. A muf-
fin ring placed in the water assists in keeping the egg
238
EGGS.
59
in good shape. A little salt and lemon juice or vinegar
in the water makes the egg harden quickly on the out-
side instead of mingling with the water.
Since we reckon the cost of other foods by the
pound, for easy comparison we must estimate the value
of eggs on the same basis. It will be found that the
average hen's egg weighs about two ounces, and that
eight good sized eggs in their shells, or nine or ten
shelled eggs, weigh one pound. The fuel required,
the labor of preparation, and the waste are much less
with eggs than for most other foods.
Some experiments recorded in "Eggs and Their
Uses as Food" (Farmers' Bulletin No. 128, U. S.
Dept. Agl.), show that it cost more than twice as
much to serve and satisfy at breakfast a family of over
one hundred women in a college boarding hall with
mutton chops or beefsteak at less than 2oc. per pound,
than with eggs at 25c. a dozen.
Commercially, there are many grades of eggs, de-
pendent upon their age. Cold storage has done away
with most other methods of preserving eggs. Anything
that will exclude air, without bringing ill flavor to the
egg, will aid in preserving it. Eggs are available al-
most everywhere at all seasons and even at their high-
est prices, are not more expensive than the choicer
cuts of meat.
An inferior egg injures all other materials with
which it is combined, therefore it is never economy to
buy poor eggs. When eggs are high do without them,
Value
Preserving
239
6o
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Variety
Combinations
to Reduce
Cost
making dishes which require few, if any; then when
they are again plenty they will be all the more appetiz-
ing. With proper conditions for keeping eggs, it may
be economy for some housekeepers to buy a large quan-
tity in the fall and pack them carefully in an upright
position, but many find it better to give the grocer
a few cents more than to take the time and rfsk of
loss.
COMBINATION OF EGGS WITH OTHER FOODS.
Any fundamental food, like the egg, must be served
in a variety of ways or we tire of them. Foods having
short seasons should be prepared in the simplest
fashion.
The nutritive value of the food is not materially
changed by a variation in the method of cooking, pro-
vided no additions are made to it. It may appeal more
to the palate in one form than another, and the time
of digestion may vary, though in the end as much may
be absorbed in the one case as in the other.
To illustrate this point, let us take two eggs costing
at average prices two cents each, or four cents.
. Whether boiled in the shell or dropped from the shell
into boiling water, their food value would be practi-
cally the same ; when scrambled or made into an
omelet there is a slight addition of nutritive material.
But the rigid economist says that eggs at two cents
apiece are too expensive for the family of limited
means. Then comes in the art of cooking to show how
the eggs may be combined with less costly food ma-
240
61
terials to make several palatable dishes which may
take the place of meats and yet require but little more
labor in preparation.
First, the two eggs may be combined with one cup of
white sauce ; this may be served with the omelet, or
blended with the scrambled egg, or made into a souffle,
or served with hard boiled eggs chopped or sliced.
The identical quantities might be used in each case.
By such combination the cost of the dish is doubled, but
it will go at least twice as far and it fuel value is more
than trebled. Or, instead of the sauce, we may use
one cup of milk thickened with white bread crumbs and
well salted and omit the butter or use less. This will
reduce both cost and fuel value.
The foundation may be again extended and varied.
To the two eggs and cup of white sauce may be added
two ounces of grated cheese or two ounces of chopped
ham. If the ham is of average fatness, the fuel value
of the cheese and ham will be about the same. The
ham might be more expensive than the cheese were
it not that this is a way to turn to good account the
smaller bits of meat. By this addition the dish, at two
and a half times the cost of the eggs, becomes about
five times as efficient in fuel value.
This combination may be served in many forms,
the cheese may be warmed in the sauce and poured
over the eggs hard boiled, poached or made into an
omelet, and the ham might be used in the same way.
After mixing sauce, cheese, and yolks of raw eggs,
With
White
Sauce
With
Cheese
or Ham
Serving
241
62 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY.
the stiff whites of the egg may be folded in and the
mixture baked in one dish or several little ones.
All such combinations are naturally eaten with some
form of bread, and here again the whole cost is di-
minished with an increase of fuel value.
A summary of these possible combinations may be
clearer in tabular form, as follows :
Weight. Cost. Cal.
2 eggs 4oz. 40. 161
White Sauce:
i C. milk 8 oz. 2c. 162
Butter i oz. 2c. 217
Flour . . . ]/2 oz. 51
Cheese 2 oz. 2c. 246
Ham 2 oz. 2c. 207
It would be interesting to trace the history of egg
cooking and find who first discovered that eggs cooked
in milk, sweetened and flavored, made the palatable
compound we know as custard ; or who first discovered
the delicious sponge cake or "diet bread," as our fore-
mothers called it.
All our modern recipes for sponge cake, angel cake,
Cake lady-fingers, and sponge drops, are but slight varia-
tions from the recipes to be found in old cook books,
which call for the weight of the eggs in sugar and half
the weight of the eggs in flour.
The tendency of the artistic cook is to separate the
two parts of the egg, using the yolk to produce cer-
tain effects and the white for others.
The proportions are about the same in the angel cake
242
EGGS,
63
as in the sponge cake, but the egg whites only are
used. The egg yolks, left from such cakes, are more
desirable than the whole egg for many custards and
sauces, producing a richer and more creamy effect,
since the yolk of egg contains considerable oil.
Eggs in doughs may better be studied here with
other qualities of eggs rather than later with doughs.
Under this head may be included noodles, pop-
overs, Yorkshire pudding, cream puffs, eclairs, tim-
bale ca.ses, fritters of many varieties, as well as sponge
and angel cakes and macaroons.
From a study of these distinctly egg doughs we may
see why eggs are added to muffins, puddings, etc.
These may be divided into three classes : ( I ) When
the egg is used merely to stick flour together, such as
noodles and timbale cases.. (2) When the cake re-
sulting is to be hollow like popovers and puffs, then
the egg is beaten with the other ingredients. (3)
Where a spongy texture is desired, the eggs are sep-
arated and beaten separately.
For such mixtures as the first class lightness is not
essential, is really undesirable; hence, the eggs are
Eggs in
Doughs
64
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY,
r< oodles
Timbales
beaten only enough to blend yolk and white, and not
to mix air with them. In noodles, which are a kind
of egg macaroni, the egg supplies liquid as well as aids
in sticking the particles of flour together. After a stiff,
smooth dough is made, it is rolled much thinner than
would be possible if it did not contain egg. Then it is
Pop Overs an Example Dough Raised by the Expansion of Air.
cut in strips or fancy shapes and may be cooked at once
or dried and used like macaroni.
The timbale cases are made from a thin batter, in
which, to egg and flour, milk and .small quantities
of fat and sugar are added, and the whole beaten to-
gether until smooth. If the batter is then allowed to
stand until the air bubbles escape, the timbale cases
will have fewer holes in them. The hot timbale iron
is then dipped into the batter and the coating adher*
ing is fried until crisp.
244
EGGS.
The second class should be hollow, and to secure
this result the eggs are beaten without separating
yolk and white, or better still, are dropped in with the
other ingredients and all beaten together.
Popovers are the result of a very thin batter, usually
one cup each of flour and milk, one egg, and a little
salt. This is beaten thoroughly together with a Dover
SPONGE CAKE.
beater, poured quickly into greased cups, iron or
earthen, and baked until thoroughly done. Yorkshire
pudding is a similar combination.
Cream puffs have a cooked foundation of water, but-
ter and flour ; to this when cool the eggs are added and
beaten into it one by one. Because of the scalding
of the flour this is a stiff mixture and will keep its
shape when dropped on flat pans, and will puff while
baking. The same mixture, fried in deep fat, produces
a hollow fritter which may be filled like a cream puff.
Popover
Creac?
Puffy
245
66 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Spongy For tne third class of egg doughs and for meringues
Mixtures an( j puffy omelets, the whites of eggs are beaten by
themselves and mixed with special care into the other
ingredients that none of the air which has bee^ ,.*-
tangled may be lost. This air expands when ' .ted,
" producing the delicate lightness of the meringue, or
sponge, or angel cake.
Beating The use of a whisk on a platter is the best way of
Eggs q u i c kiy converting the slippery egg. white into a frothy,
flaky mass, so firm and dry that it may be turned up-
side down without slipping from the platter.
Egg beaters are not absolutely essential, for the work
may be done with a fork in time. The whisks are
best for beating whites alone those with cog wheels
for the whole egg or for beating batters.
When yolk and white are mixed, it is impossible to
beat in as much air as into the white alone, probably be-
cause of the oil contained in the yelk. Even a very
little of the yolk will prevent the whites from becom-
ing a stiff froth.
Cooking Popovers, meringues, and sponge cake, like other
articles containing large proportions of egg, require
long cooking at moderate heat. When taken from the
oven too soon they shrivel out of shape.
It is not wise to make cheap cakes and try to make
baking powder take the place of eggs in making the
mass light. When eggs are cheap, make good cakes
and custards, but when they are high in price, de-
pend upon desserts where they are not required.
246
FISH, FOWL, AND FLESH.
Two important animal products, milk and eggs, have
. 4 i, studied, and we come now to a consideration of
tht sh of animals as food. The cooking of the flesh
in any way is a comparatively simple matter once we
have mastered a few fundamental laws which are prac-
tically the same as in cooking eggs.
The choice of different sections -of a creature for
different purposes and the decision as to best ways of
cooking whatever cut happens to be available, are less
simple.
The primitive cook applied heat to his fish, fowl,
or section of meat and consumed it when cooked. The
modern marketmen first divide and clean, then the
chef seasons and applies the heat in different ways to
the various portions. One part is naturally tender and
ready for immediate cooking, another will be better
if kept a week or a month, others will be improved by
salting or smoking.
Savages have fewer kinds of food and simpler meth-
ods of preparation than civilized man. Because of
greater abundance it is a natural tendency in civiliza-
tion to discard as refuse certain portions formerly
eaten. On the other hand, business competition makes
it necessary to save all by-products and every por-
tion of an animal is used for some purpose and brings
some money return, even though small. Were it not
for this, our animal foods would be higher in price
67
247
68
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Comparative
Composition
of Animal
Food
than they are. As it is, they are the most expensive
part of the daily food.
Meat a This * s P art ty due to the fact that the flesh of ani-
Se poduct ma ^ s * s a secon dary product. Animals consume grains
and require additional human care, and thus must
cost more than the grains, themselves, alone. More-
over, it has been learned by dietary studies th^t average
families in the United States obtain from half to
two-thirds of the protein in their food from animal
source, and the cost of food is usually proportionate
to the demand.
The composition of all animal foods is similar.
Milk is mainly water, but contains some of each of
the food principles. Eggs have less water than milk,
and no carbohydrates, but furnish larger proportions
of fat and protein. Fish would average about the
same proportion of protein as eggs, but rather less
fat. Poultry yields more protein than eggs, but about
the same amount of fat. The flesh of the larger ani-
mals will average about two-thirds water, the pro-
tein and fat being in varying proportions according to
the age and condition of the animal.
Without regard to the names given by marketmen of
different localities to the cuts of meat, we may learn
the location of the choicest pieces. Cuts which offer
tender muscle or large proportion of muscle will natu-
rally command the higher prices.
In any of these animals the framework of bone is
practically the same. The larger portion of bone is
Costs of
Meat
248
MEAT. 69
in the forequarter. This is one reason why the fore-
quarters are cheaper than hindquarters in our mar-
kets. Consequently, there is less nutritive value per
pound and what there is is less accessible, for the meat
is not easily carved unless boned before cooking.
Meat of any kind should have little odor when in Judging
good condition. It should be firm and dry rather than Meat
LAMB CHOPS AND KIDNEYS.
moist, and should be well marbled with fat.
The lower part of the legs will have little muscle in
proportion to the bone, and there will be tendons hold-
ing the muscle to the bone.
Muscles getting little motion or exercise will be Tou hne
tender, while those which are active will be tough,
though juicy. The neck and legs, therefore, will be
suitable for broths but not desirable for roasts.
A general rule is this: the market value of meat
increases backward from the head, but decreases down-
249
;o PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
ward toward the legs. This brings the choicest cuts
in the back upper part of the creature and includes
the rump and loin.
The muscle of good beef is dark red when first,
cut and grows brighter when exposed to the air for a
short time. The fat is yellowish white.
Mutton Mutton and lamb have a hard white fat. The flesh
and Lamb o f mu tton is a duller red than beef. The lamb is
pinkish in tinge. The bones of veal and lamb are
smaller than those of beef and mutton. Veal and fresh
lean pork are somewhat the same shade of dull pink,
but the pork has more fat mixed with it.
Meat from young animals is tender but not so nu-
tritious, and does not keep so well as that from older
ones.
The heart, liver, sweetbread, kidney, tripe, are also
used as food and the same general laws govern the
methods of cooking them.
The chef may not recognize the same elements in
meat that the chemist does, yet his choice and prepara-
tion of a cut of meat are based upon its composition.
From this point of view, meat consists of three
parts : lean muscle, fat, and bone, and the market value
of any cut is based upon its relative proportion of
these.
Lean meat is most desired and tender fibres com-
mand the higher prices. Some fat is utilized with
the meat, but a large part goes to the manufacture of
artificial butter, lard, and soap. Much of the bone is
250
Some Fat
Needed
MEAT. 71
refuse, but some of its substance may be extracted by
right treatment.
The lean portion of meats is about one-fifth or twenty
per cent, protein about, five times as much as in an
equal weight of milk.
The muscle or the lean meat may be freed from Preparation
skin, gristle, bone, and fat, wholly or in part before
cookingo It is easier to serve when this is done, and
there is no waste at the table, but there may be loss
of flavor. Raw meat may be digested readily, but we
cook it to make it more attractive in appearance and-
more appetizing in flavor.
Some fat is required to keep the meat from drying
during the cooking process. Often the muscle is so
closely associated with bone, tendon, and gristle, that
to remove them would cause serious loss of juice. In
any case, when the tougher portions are removed they
should be used for stock and their flavor returned to
the muscle as a sauce or used for soup or other good
purpose.
Tender muscles may be cooked quickly steaks and
roasts and should be exposed to intense heat at first.
Tougher portipns may be made more palatable by
pounding to separate the connective tissue, but this is
often accompanied by loss of juice, or they may be
put through the meat chopper or cooked slowly for a
long time in a gravy, or both.
By browning tough meat first we give it a good Browning
flavor and sear the surface so that more of -the juice will
Tough
Meat
251
Braising
Salt Meat
Fatness
72 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
be retained than if raw meat were used. Some scraps of
fat may be browned, an onion sliced and fried in the
fat, an equal measure of flour added, and when it is
mixed smoothly with the fat, water is put in, in the
same proportions as for white sauce. The meat is put
in the gravy and left covered on the back of the stove
to cook slowly, later vegetables are added.
Braised meat and pot roasts are similar in effect, but
large pieces of meat are used and more time is re-
quired. All the trimmings, except the fat, are put with
the bones, covered with cold water and the kettle is
set on the stove to heat slowly.
Salt meats should be cooked slowly in plenty of
water until tender. When the meat is very salt, it
should be put on in cold instead of boiling water.
Wild animals usually are less fat than those that
have been raised for food. Excessive fat may mean
disease. Young animals have but little fat compared
with older ones. Half the weight of a pig may be
fat and a fourth of a fat sheep or ox. Some portions
of a creature will contain much more fat than others.
Layers of fat occur around the inner organs of ani-
mals. Some fish have fat or oil in the liver and little
or none elsewhere. Fat mingled with the lean tissues is
partly visible, partly detected only by chemical meth-
ods.
To a certain extent fat takes the place of water in
the tissues, In fat meat the purchaser gets the same
amount of protein but buys fat instead of water*
MEAT. K
The surplus fat purchased with meats should be
turned to good account by clarifying it for shortening
or frying. It should be freed from the protein mat-
ter as far as possible by- trimming and soaking in cold
salted water. The water should be changed often, and
the fat, after being cut in small pieces, may soak from
twelve to twenty-four hours. Then it is drained and
Saving,
the Fa^
SAUSAGE AND FRIED APPLES.
heated slowly to separate the clear fat from the heavy,
honeycomb-like tissues which contain it. At the end
of several hours the fat will have melted and may be
strained from the crisp brown tissues. If raised to
too high a temperature the fat is less wholesome and
well flavoredo
In the average household, trimmings of beef, pork,
veal, lamb, and poultry, may be prepared together for
253
74
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Frying in
Deep Fat
Testing
Temperature
Bones
fry fat, and where much meat is used will keep a sup-
ply in the frying kettle.
Frying in deep fat is a satisfactory method of st
curing a crisp, brown crust. When the process is prop-
erly conducted very little fat is absorbed by the food.
The temperature of fat suitable for cooking is much
higher than that of boiling water and ranges from
300 to 400 F, according to the nature of the article
to be cooked. For doughs which should rise, and fish
which must be cooked through, a lower temperature
and longer time are required than for fishballs or cro-
quettes, already cooked and only to be browned.
If many pieces of cold food are put into the kettle
of fat at one time, the temperature will be lowered so
much that they may absorb fat and even fall to pieces.
A bit of bread dropped into the kettle will brown
in one minute if the fat is right for frying doughs, and
in less time if it is ready for croquettes.
Fat by itself does not boil, but when moist food
is put into it large bubbles of steam begin to form.
At first the foods being cold and heavy sink to the
bottom of the kettle ; as they warm and the water es-
capes, they rise toward the top.
As soon as the food is brown it should be removed
from the fat and drained on soft paper before serv-
ing.
The bones of animals yield considerable nutritive
material if we use proper methods to extract it. Mar-
254
MhA'l.
75
row is found in the leg bones, but they have not so
much protein matter as the spongy rib bones. When
meat is boned before cooking, bits of meat cling to
the bone. By soaking in cold water, then cooking
gently, a large part of the flavor and nutritive part
of the bone is dissolved in the water. Cartilage, gristle
MEAT LOAF IN RICE.
and tendons are also somewhat soluble when exposed
to moisture and* heat. The smaller the pieces- into
which bone and meat are divided the greater the sur-
face exposed to the dissolving action of the water. The
flavors of meat which are drawn into the water are
known as extractives and are stimulating rather than
nourishing.
Extracting
Nutriment
255
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Soup
Stock
This process of extraction from portions unsuit-
able to eat is known as making soup stock. Bouillon
and beef tea are made from tough lean meat with little
Names
of Soups
FILLET CUT FROM SIDE OF FISH.
or no bone. Consomme is made from meat and poul-
try together. Anything that would give a strong
flavor must be removed. The skin of lamb or beef
should be thrown away.
The flavoring of the soup or the garnish served in it
gives its distinctive name. All meat, poultry, and
fish soups have as their basis a stock made from the
portions undesirable to use in any other way.
Yet stock contains but a small proportion of the
nutriment of the meat, and fibre of the meat from
which stock has been made may be used for hashes,
with herbs, etc., to give flavor.
256
FISH, FOWL AND FLESH.
77
FISH.
Fresh fish have full lifelike eyes, red gills, silvery,
not slimy skin and scales, firm tail, not flabby and
drooping, and firm flesh. Plump short fish are better
than long thin ones of the same variety. The time of
their transfer from the water to the table should be as
short as possible. While fish "as a whole is not so nu-
tritious as meat, it may often take the place of meat
on our tables. It is the province of the cook to sup-
plement the fish with such sauces as will supply both
flavor and nutriment.
In general, the methods of cooking fish are the same
as those followed in cooking meats. The flesh should
be thoroughly cooked, but not overdone. Oily fish, like
For Fish Stock,
PREPARATION OF FISH.
Ready to Fry.
salmon and mackerel, are best broiled. Almost any
fish may be baked whole or in fillets. Boiling is an
extravagant method of cooking unless the water is
used for a soup or a sauce. Steaming is better than
257
78 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
boiling, as more of the flavor is retained in the fish.
Frying in salt pork fat is a desirable way to cook fish
lacking flavor or fat, but for uniformity in cooking the
kettle of deep fat is to be preferred to the thin layer
in a shallow pan.
If a fish lacking in fat is brushed over with oil or
melted butter and broiled under gas, the result gives the
best effects of frying without the disagreeable odors.
Sauces
with Fish
FISH STUFFED AND TRUSSED FOR BAKING.
Fish stock may be kept for several days if convenient,
or it may be used as* the basis of a sauce to serve with
the fillets of the flesh.
Since so many varieties of fish lack fat, rich sauces
are generally considered a necessary accompaniment.
The composition of the fish and the way in which it is
cooked should decide the kind of sauce to be served
with it. Acids like lemon juice, pickles, and tomato
are often agreeable additions to a fish sauce.
258
FISH, FOWL AND FLESH. 79
POULTRY
Young birds are to be chosen for broiling and other judging
quick cooking, but full grown fowls are more nutritious
for broths and stews. A fowl is usually fatter than a
chicken, the skin is tougher, and the bones especially
the tip of the breast bone are harder. In the skin of
the young bird there are usually pinfeathers, the feet
are smoother, and the muscles or flesh are less well
developed than in the fowl.
To prepare poultry, pick out, pinfeathers, singe and Preparin
rub off the hairs and wipe clean. Cut through the Frksse<
loose skin on the back, pull away from the- neck, take
out the crop and windpipe in front, cut off the neck.
Cut through the skin on the legs about an inch
below the joint, break the bone, twist the leg and
pull out the tendons one by one. Take off the wings
and cut through the loose skin on the sides and sep-
arate the leg and thigh joints.
From backbone to tip of breastbone cut through thin
muscles on either side. This exposes the interior or-
gans 1 so that it is easy to learn their relative positions.
Then one knows how to proceed when preparing a
bird to roast when the opening is small.
Loosen the membranes which attach these organs
to the body, following the breastbone with the fingers
until the point of the heart is felt. Then remove heart,
liver, and gizzard together. The gallbag is protected
by the liver, so there is little danger of breaking it if
259
260
POULTRY. 81
they are not separated. The intestines should be re-
moved when the fowls are dressed for market.
Next detach the lungs from the backbone near the
wings, and the kidneys, which are lower down in the
back. These are not used.
Separate trie gallbag from the liver without break-
ing, and cut away any portions of the liver which are
tinged with green. Cut across the larger end of the
heart and slip it out of the membrane enclosing it.
Cut through the gizard on the wide side and take out
the inner portion without breaking, if possible.
Learn the order of removal of these portions from order of
the body, and then nothing will be forgotten when emova i
preparing a bird for any purpose, the crop and wind-
pipe from the neck.
The heart, liver, and gizzard, together, from an open-
ing near the tail.
The lungs and kidneys from the hollows in the back- .
bone.
The oil bag on the upper part of the tail.
The backbone can now be^ divided near the middle,
and by slipping a knife under the sharp end of the
shoulder blade and then cutting through the ribs from
the point where the wings come off, the upper part
of the back is separated from the breast.
If desired, the fillets of white flesh can be separated
from the breastbone and wishbone by running the
knife Close to tlu- hones,
82
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY,
Never soak a fowl in water, as is often the practice.
If any parts need washing rinse them off quickly one
by one.
The breastbone, upper part of back and neck, and
sharp ends of wings should be put in cold water and
Putin
Boiling
Water
CHICKEN STUFFED AND TRUSSED FOR ROASTING.
heated slowly ; thus more flavor is extracted from these
portions which have but little meat.
When the water is boiling hot the otHer sections are
put in and the hot water coagulates the juices on the
outside and thus more flavor is retained. To accom-
plish the same end, the joints are often browned in hot
fat and then are stewed afterward,
262
VEGETABLES AND
Like the foods already studied, vegetables are mainly
water, but all the five food principles may be ob-
tained from the vegetable kingdom. Here we secure
our supplies of starch and sugar, or the carbohydrates,
but the proportions of proteid and fat are, as a whole,
smaller than in the animal foods. From fruits, vege-
tables, and grains we obtain mineral substances valu-
able for making bones and teeth and keeping the whole
system in good condition.
The woody fibre or cellulose, abundant in vegetable Soft ening
structures, is the great obstacle to be overcome by cellulose
cooking. Plants growing rapidly with plenty of
water and sunshine usually have less of this fibre, and
it is the aim of the gardener to eliminate it as far as
possible. By improved methods of cultivation the
agriculturist has removed the acrid flavors of the nat-
ural vegetables and has reduced the proportion of
woody fibre.
The cell walls cannot be separated wholly from the
nutritive substances they contain, and unless softened
by cooking may irritate the alimentary canal so that
the whole is hurried through before digestion is com-
t)leted. Cellulose, though of little food value, may aid
digestion by providing the necessary bulk for its me-
chanical processes.
Experiment. To get a clear idea of the structure
and composition of vegetables, grate a portion of a
83
263
84 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
potato or turnip. Let the pulp fall from the grater
into a strainer placed over a glass and press out all
the watery juice possible. Some of the starch of the
potato will settle from the juice, and more may be
washed out of the mass remaining in the strainer. The
presence of sugar in the juice of a carrot may be recog-
nized by tasting it after evaporation.
By examination of the woody fiber left in 'the strain-
er we see how closely it is connected with the starch
and sugar, how impossible it would be to separate
it, and the necessity for softening it that we may be
able to digest the nutrients.
We discard portions of vegetable foods, the pods,
husks, cobs, etc., because of our inability to cook them
so they can be digested.
Chopping and straining aid the cook in dividing the
' cellulose so that the particles are less irritating and
the nutrients are more accessible.
Parts of It is interesting to note the different parts of plants
Pla ?orFood which are used for food the roots, tubers or bulbs,
stems, leaves, fruits, and seeds. The last are used
mainly in the dry form, and absorb much water in
preparation. This must be remembered when study*
ing analyses of dried legumes and cereals.
The botanical grouping of plants is helpful. Once
we have learned how to prepare and cook one member
of a plant family we have something to guide us with
its relatives. Among the principal classes to' study in
264
VEGETABLES. 85
this way are the pulses, the grains, and the cabbage
family.
There are many kinds of each vegetable offered by
the seedsmen. Moreover, any vegetable differs ma-
terially in different years and at different seasons- of
the year.
From the standpoint of the cook a convenient classi-
fication of vegetables may be made according to the
general preparation, the time, and the amount of
water required for cooking them.
Dried vegetables must have abundant water sup-
plied and must be allowed time to soak, thus absorb-
ing an amount of water similar to that lost in the dry-
ing process. There is little difference aside from the
fat added in cooking, in the analysis of the dry bean
which has been soaked and baked, and that of the
green shelled bean. Sometimes we try to hasten this
process of absorption by heat, but the best results
are attained when dried fruits or vegetables are soaked
until at least double in size before cooking.
Old or strongly flavored vegetables, such as pota-
toes, turnips, and onions, will be improved by the re-
moval of the skin and any imperfections before cook-
ing, and by soaking in cold water for an hour or two.
Inferior onions may be scalded in soda water before
cooking, and by changing the water once or twice dur-
ing the cooking process will be rendered less strong
in flavor. It is wiser to make the vegetable palatable
Dried
Vegetables
Strongly
Flavored
Vegetables;
265
266
VEGETABLES.
87
Vegetables
Vegetables
Pulses
at the risk of some loss of nutriment than to retain
everything and have it uneatable.
Young vegetables in summer and those having Young
sugary juices, like squash and beets, should be cooked
in little water or by steaming or baking, so that all
their sweetness may be retained, unless the water is
reserved for soup or used in a sauce for the vegetable
itself.
Slightly wilted vegetables may be improved by wilted
washing and soaking or by wrapping in a damp cloth
and placing in the refrigerator or by hanging in a
draft of air.
The pulses or leguminous plants include the bean,
lentil, pea, and peanut.
In the bean we have an example of a vegetable which
differs- much at different stages of growth. We may
use the pods before the seeds they contain have
reached their normal size, the full grown seeds may
be cooked green, or dry after first being soaked.
This class of plants is of great value where people
must be fed at small expense. They are staples in
in China, Japan, Southern Europe and Mexico, are in-
valuable in prisons, charitable institutions, and for the
pioneer or logger. Because they lack fat, cream,
butter, or pork are added before eating.
Some varieties like the Japanese soy beans, contain
as much as sixteen per cent of fat, and peanuts are
more than one-third, or about forty per cent fat.
Fat
Contents
267
Digestibility
Pea*
88 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Though rich in nutrients this class of vegetables ap-
pears to be slow of digestion. The ease and complete-
ness of digestion are aided by thorough cooking and
by removing the skins, grinding, mashing, or strain-
ing. Long, gentle cooking develops new flavors and
removes the peculiar granular texture present in beans
and peas insufficiently cooked, even after straining.
Black Bean Sou^ Garnished with Lemon and Parsley.
The main object in cooking beans, like all vegeta-
bles, is to soften the tough fibres of the pods of the
string beans and the skins- and cellulose of the dry
ones.
Split peas have the skins removed and thus are
more readily digested. The skins of the larger beans
may be rubbed off after soaking and parboiling.
Hard water retards the cooking of beans and a bit
of soda is often added to soften the water and loosen
268
VEGETABLES. 89
the skin this water is poured off when the beans are
partly cooked.
Few people use the variety of beans they might, as Beftng
the black beans for soup, the limas or red kidney
for stewed beans, the pea bean and yellow eye for
baking" and the French flageolets for salads.
Potatoes are generally liked because of their lack p ota toe&
of pronounced flavor, and for the same reason, may
be combined with many other foods.
A peck of potatoes may cost from fifteen to seventy-
five cents, according to the season of the year, and the
abundance of the crop. This quantity will weigh fif-
teen pounds and will average from fifty to sixty po-
tatoes. That is, one pound will be about four pota-
toes of medium size, and will cost from one to five
cents.
If pared before cooking and all bad places removed, Logg in
average potatoes will lose from twenty to twenty-five Preparin
per cent, or one of the four potatoes in a pound. From
selected potatoes the government experts scraped the
skins, removing as little flesh of the potato as possible.
This was about eleven per cent of the weight. In po-
tatoes as usually purchased, the green ends, decayed
places, and the potatoes gashed with the hoe easily
bring the total loss up to the higher percentage.
It may be a profitable loss to pare old and inferior
potatoes before cooking. The main point to notice in
th^ cooking of the potato is to let out the steatfy pr to
Potatoes
with Meat
Combinations
Cooking
Vegetables
go PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
pour off the water as soon as the fibre and starch are
softened.
Because the potato is lacking in protein and fat, the
instinct of man has taught him to eat it with meat,
since it gave him the food principles the meat lacked,
and also the bulk desirable for the process of diges-
tion.
The art of the cook has devised many methods of
combining butter, oil, milk and eggs with the potato
and other vegetables to supply protein and fat. The
fried potato absorbs fat while cooking ; the white sauce
of creamed potato adds both fat and protein ; a potato
soup is creamed potato with more milk ; the potato
croquette contains egg and is cooked in fat; a potato
salad has oil and often eggs.
Such additions, though increasing the cost of the
food, make the result equivalent to vegetables with a
moderate allowance of meat. Hence vegetable souf-
flees, or croquettes, may be served when the meat sup-
ply is limited.
Almost any vegetable, by due combination with
milk, butter, and eggs may appear as soup, fritters,
croquettes, soufflees, or salads. For these complicated
dishes, it is essential that the vegetable first shall be
perfectly cooked in a simple fashion.
The methods of cookery applied to vegetables are
similar to those used for meat, but must be adapted
to the composition and condition of the individual
specimen.
270
VEGETABLES. 91
It is impossible to give the exact time for 'cooking
any variety of vegetable, for every sample will differ.
They are unpalatable when underdone and also at the
other extreme.
There is usually some way of cooking best for each
vegetable, but if one kind only is available it is neces-
sary to serve it in a variety of ways. This, perhaps,
explains why the average cook book gives more re-
ceipes for the potato than for all other vegetables.
Suitable utensils are essential ; vegetables should not
be cooked in iron kettles when others are attainable;
strainers, mashers, cutters, ricers and presses are de-
sirable.
Strong flavors frequently are due to careless prep- Preparation
aration. Careful trimming and thorough washing are
essential. . Wilted vegetables are improved, as has been
said, by soaking. Salad plants need especial care in
washing to remove parasites and insecticides.
Any portion of a root or tuber grown above ground
becomes green and strong flavored and will impart
its flavor to other portions with which it may be
cooked. A decayed bit, or the scorching where the
water evaporates, may often ruin the flavor of all.
Young, tender, well flavored vegetables should be
cooked and served in the simplest manner. Inferior
specimens, like tough asparagus or celery which has
lost its crispness, by boiling, straining, and flavoring
may be made into palatable soup when they would be
worthless under simple treatment.
271
92 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
vegetable Vegetable soups are of two types; for one, the
vegetables are cooked till tender, cut in convenient
bits and added to a meat stock. For the other, by long
cooking in water a single vegetable or several together'
are made into stock, and all that is soft enough is
rubbed through a strainer and then put with about an
equal quantity, according to the strength of each, of
Preparation
and
Digestibility
TOMATO JELLY WITH BEETS.
meat stock or thin white sauce. Thick, pulpy stock,
like that from peas, beans, or potatoes, needs a much
thinner sauce than would celery or asparagus. Un-
less some thickening of flour is used, the solider por-
tions will settle, leaving the soup watery on top.
In one of the publications of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture the difference in digestibility
of the same food cooked in various ways is thus stated :
Whole peas soaked and cooked, 60 per cent digested;
272
VEGETABLES.
93
peas cooked a long time and strained, 82.5 per cent ;
pea flour cooked with milk, butter and eggs, 92 per
cent. This would seem to prove that the portion of
vegetable food considered undigestible can be reduced
by right methods of cooking.
Mashing is a form of preparation suited to squash,
turnip, parsnip, and potatoes. A seasoning of cream,
INDIVIDUAL APPLE AND CELERY SALAD.
or butter, and salt and pepper, is usually added. Frit-
ters and croquettes usually have mashed vegetables-
as their foundation, or small bits are mixed with a
thick cr^.am sauce.
The white sauce is a useful additori to vegetables
since it increases their nutritive value and modifies
strong flavors. Almost any cooked vegetables may
thus be "creamed" or ''scalloped'' by adding both the
sauce and buttered crumbs and baking. This is an ex-
cellent way to 'reheat something left from a previous
day.
Mashing
Creamed.
Vegetables
273
94 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
salads Salad is a term belonging especially to a class of
uncooked vegetables and in all cases implies a vegeta-
ble foundation though meats or fish may be added.
The dressing of oil and vinegar is likewise of vegeta-
ble origin.
Here is another of our attempts to bring together
the five food principles in a single compound. Water
and mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate are
usually blended in fairly balanced proportions. This is
especially true of salads containing eggs, fish, or meat
and eaten with bread.
GRAINS
The grains or cereals are the main dependence of the
human race for food and have been known from very
early times. Some member of this- family ef plants
is found in every section of the world. Rice, wheat
and corn are most largely used as food, while oats, rye,
barley, and millet follow closely. Animals can eat these
grains- or grasses as they grow. For the human stom-
ach the coarser portions must be removed. All are
similar in composition, being from two-thirds to three-
fourths starch.. The protein ranges from 7 to 15 per
cent ; fat varies from i to 10 per cent ; there is about
i per cent mineral matter and 10 to 12 per cent of
water.
Addition Before we can eat -and digest such foods a large
amount of water must be combined with them. Analy-
ses have shown that the percentage of water in mushes,
274
GRAINS.
95
boiled rice, macaroni, and mashed potato is nearly the
same.
When we buy cereals in paper packages we pay a
little more for them than when they are bought in
bulk, but that is a convenient, clean form in which to
keep 'them. All cereals should be looked over before
cooking since they are liable to attacks from insects.
A Cup of Corn Meal, and the Amount of Mush It Will Make.
To make mushes start with the desired proportion of
liquid, as that regulates the final amount. If too much
water is used it can seldom be drained off, as it might
be from potatoes, and if there is too little at the begin-
ning it is practically impossible to add more without
making the mush lumpy and pasty. A double boiler,
a dish set in a steamer or a covered pail in a kettle of
water, are the utensils- suitable for cooking mushes.
Musne,
275
96 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Cooking The coarser the grain, the more water required, and
cereals ^g i on g er w {\\ foe t| ie time of cooking. Whole grains
are improved by soaking in cold water, finely ground
preparations must be mixed with cold water to pre-
vent the formation of lumps. All others should be put
into boiling water. Add one teaspoonful of salt to each
quart of water. Ordinary oatmeal and granulated
wheat need four times their bulk of water, cracked
wheat and hominy require more. The rolled grains re-
quire but twice their bulk of water.
The cooking at first should be rapid and the upper
part of the double boiler should be placed directly on
the stove for five minutes. Then put it over the other
part, cook closely covered and do not stir. Such foods
are not injured by cooking for a longer time than the
usual directions allow. Coarse hominy, oatmeal, or
cracked wheat for breakfast should be cooked several
hours the previous 1 day.
Bice Rice may be boiled in a quantity of water which is
afterwards drained off, but this is wasteful unless some
use is made of the liquid.
Macaroni and tapioca are not strictly cereals but con-
form to the same rules of cooking. *
Fried Most mushes or cooked cereals may be moulded and
Mush serve( j co \d f or variety, especially in warm weather, or
be packed smoothly in oblong pans or round tin boxes
and when cold sliced and fried to serve with syrups or
to eat with meats.
276
GRAINS. 97
A portion of cooked cereal may be added to the
liquid used in mixing muffins.
Manufacturers of the present day seem to be trying
to see in how many different forms they can prepare
the few standard grains ; they are left whole, are
cracked, are crushed into flakes, or broken into gran-
ules. As the result of this variety of preparations- and
Cereals shaped in Fancy Moulds.
the generous way in which they are advertised cereals
are used more and more.
During the last few years they have been cooked in
the factories and prepared in forms ready for immedi- to Eat -
ate use. These forms- have many merits though not
all that are claimed for them. In some respects they
resemble the primitive forms of unleavened bread
which were the first attempts among all races, the
bannock, the hoe cake, the tortilla*
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
PART II.
Read Carefully* Place your name and address on the
first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write
on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from the
lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instructor
may know that you understand the subject. Read the les-
son paper a number of times before attempting to answer
the questions.
1. In what ways are eggs used in cookery?
2. What substances are naturally combined with
eggs and milk, and why?
3. What is the fundamental principle in cooking arti-
cles containing a large proportion of egg?
4. Mention five dishes where egg is an essential in--
gredien-t, and five others where it may be used
or omitted. ' Explain why.
5. If we find it necessary to reduce the number of
eggs in a cake or custard, what other changes
would be necessary?
6. Make a two days' menu for the season when eggs
/ are at the lowest price, and two days' menu
for the season when they are expensive.
7. Which forms of animal food are the most ex-
pensive and why?
Which most economical and why?
So What portions of meat are best for soup stock?
What should be discarded ? Describe the proc-
ess of making soup. Has the extracted meat
nutritive value?
278
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
9. Why is less fat absorbed by food in frying in
deep, fat than in sautering?
10. Give methods of preparing tough meat so that it
is palatable and nutritious.
11. Give the names of soups which have (a) little,
(b) much, and (c) great nutritive value.
12. Why do we add stuffing and sauce to meats and
fish?
13. What is the greatest obstacle to be overcome in
cooking vegetables?
14. Give methods for cooking fish. What is the
proper appearance of a fresh fish?
15. Plan a rotation of different cereals for five break-
fasts in winter and five in summer, giving rea-
sons for your choice.
1 6. How may different methods of preparing a veg-
etable change its nutritive value?
17. Describe your own method of roasting meat.
1 8. Give the names of the vegetables and grains used
in your household. Name some that are not
used.
19. Is there any question you wish to ask or subject
you would like to discuss relating to this les-
son?
NOTE. After completing the test, sign your full name.
279
280
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
PART III
BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS
Having considered the whole grains we must learn
how to use them when ground into flour. Although
some forma of bread like hoe cake and tortillas can be
made from cracked grain without making it into a
flour, most people depend upon flour for a large part of
their daily food.
In the best cook books the ingredients are mentioned
in the order in which they are to be put together to
secure the best results and to save dishes ; the dry cups
and spoons are used for the flour and spices, then for
the shortening and liquids. The flour is- sifted before
measuring and sifted again to mix the other materials
with it.
There is such variation in flours that it is impossible
to give exact recipes for doughs, but it is easy to learn
certain general proportions and experience must teach
the rest. A simple formula will be helpful in inter-
preting old recipes in which the exact quantities of
flour or liquid are not stated, or in analyzing recipes to
decide whether they are doughs or batters.
One measure of flour to one of liquid makes a bat-
ter.
Two measures of flour to one of liquid gives the
usual mufnn mixture.
Order of
Mixing
Ingredients
General
Proportions
in Doughs
281
ioo ' PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Three measures of flour to one of liquid makes a
soft dough, but one that may be kneaded.
Four measures of flour to one of liquid is the usual
proportion for doughs to be rolled thin like pastry or
cookies.
Batters and muffins can be stirred with a .s-poon.
Doughs are mixed more thoroughly and easily with a
knife.
Doughs are made light because thus they are more
palatable and digestible.
Making The almost endless variety of breads, cake, and pas-
Li!ht try may be classified according, to the means used to
make them light. Yeast has been known. to the human
race from a .very early period, the others are much
later inventions.
The principal means are these:
The mechanical introduction of air, as by beating
or by the addition of eggs or by the folding of pastry,
or in the aerated or Daughlish bread.
The use of yeast, the growth of a plant filling the
dough with gas.
The chemical combination of a bi-carbonate of soda,
with some acid substance.
Yeast For practical use in every-day life it is essential
to remember that yeast must be treated like other forms
of plant life and if we want it to grow, we must pro-
vide the right kind of soil, sufficient moisture, and suit-
able temperature. After its work is done, the vitality
of the yeast must be destroyed by beat.
282
BREAD. 101
It may be desirable to know how to manufacture Yeast
yeast at home and how to utilize the dried yeast cakes Cakes
in emergencies, though compressed yeast cakes are now
so generally used that it is hardly neces-ary. A com-
pressed yeast cake should be firm and solid, not soft,
and pasty ; it should look something like fresh cheese,
not dark colored and moldy. When only part of a
USEFUL UTENSILS.
yeast cake is to be used, it should be cut off squarely
and the remainder wrapped smoothly in tin foil again,
when it may be kept a few days longer.
BREAD
The essential ingredients in bread making are yeast,
liquid, and flour; the proportions may be varied ac-
cording to conditons.
Sugar and shortening are commonly used, but if
they were omitted wholly it would be possible to have
palatable, nutritious bread. Salt is essential to suit the
taste of most persons, but as bread is usually combined
283
102
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Causes of
Slow Rising
Kinds of
Flour
wkh salted butter its absence would be less noticeable,
and bread might be made without it. Fermentation is
hindered by the presence of salt, a small amount of
sugar hastens the process.
Sugar in large quantities makes the dough dense and
the yeast cannot expand so readily. An excess- of short-
ening has much the same effect. If a dough is made
stiff with flour it rises more slowly. A stiff dough
usually has small air cells and is finer grained than
when the dough is made softer.
The liquid may be milk, whole or skimmed, or water,
or half of each. The milk supplies some sugar, fat and
nitrogenous matter and produces a more nourishing
loaf than that which is made with water. Mashed po-
tatoes or sifted squash or cooked cereals are some-
times added to a bread dough for variety, but the proc-
ess is not changed by such additions.
The best bread flour is made from spring wheat and
pastry flour from winter wheat, though they .may be
used interchangeably if necessary. The spring wheat
flour contains more gluten and less starch, so that less
of the bread flour is required to produce a dough of a
given consistency.
The entire or whole wheat flours provide more bone
making materials than white flour, otherwise there is
little difference in the nutritive value of the better
grades of each.
The presence of gluten makes wheat the favorite
flour for yeast dough. Gluten is adhesive when moist-
284
BREAD.
103
ened and thus retains the gas- bubbles formed by the
yeast in somewhat the same way that egg-whites hold
air when they are beaten.
Old recipes for mixing yeast bread usually give di-
rections for rubbing shortening into the flour and then
"BREAD CAKE" OR BUN BREAD.
adding the other ingredients with liquid to make a
dough that can be kneaded. The best authorities to-
day reverse the order, thus saving time and energy and
producing a better result.
The liquid is warmed that the fat, sugar, and salt
may readily blend with the other ingredients and that
the dough may rise more rapidly. When it is below
100 F, or cool enough to avoid cooking the yeast, that
Order of
Mixing
Liquid
Warmed
285
104 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY
is added and well mixed through the liquid. Sufficient
flour then is mixed in to give the desired consistency
for kneading.
At first the mixture may be stirred with a spoon, but
as it becomes stiffer a knife will more easily serve to
produce a smooth dough.
Double Thl * process of mixing bread may illustrate the bat-
P Brtfa 8 d ter ancl dro ^ Batter or muffin mixture as well as the
dough. To make a sponge, half the quantity of flour to
be used is- mixed with the liquid and this allowed to
rise till foamy, when the remainder of the flour is add-
ed. The advantages of this double process are that a
trifle less flour is required since the first has time ^6
expand before the second is- put in, and that the process
is somewhat shortened because in the first stasre there
o
is- less resistance for the yeast to overcome and the
whole sponge becomes full of yeast for the second
stage..
Sometimes it is more convenient to use a small pof-
Amount
of -ieast tion of yeast and allow the dough to rise for a longer
time, and again to use more yeast and thus do the work
more quickly. Until the scientists decide which is real-
ly the better method, the housekeeper will find it de-
sirable to vary the quantity of yeast according to her
conditions-. Time, temperature, and quantity of yeast
must be considered, if one must be diminished, the
others should be increased.
short For common use, a short process is to be preferred
J Q the o | c j custorn O f letting the dough rise over, night-
286
BREAD. 105
When it rises by day we can regulate the temperature
and stop the process at the right time. One yeast cake
to one pint of liquid and about three pints of flour, will
make two medium-sized loaves of bread, which can be
completed inside of six hours.
BREAD MAKING MACHINE.
When necessary, a dough well risen and ready to Holding
shape may be cut down and put in a refrigerator or STchec
other cold place and thus held in check for several
hours without injury. Sometimes half the bread may
be shaped in a loaf and the remainder in rolls and the '
pans containing the latter set away in a cool place for
several hours before baking that they may be hot for a
later meal.
When first mixed, dough is kneaded just enough to i S ing
blend all ingredients, then it is put back in the bowl,
287
io6 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
brushed over with water or with melted fat and cov-
ered while it is rising. Such precautions aid in pre-
venting the formation of a dry crust caused by the
evaporation of the water on the surface during the
process- of rising. The bowl containing the dough
may be set in a pan of warm water which is changed
often enough to keep the temperature even. When the
dough must stand over night in a cool kitchen, the
bowl may be wrapped in a blanket to prevent the es-
cape of heat.
Kneading Much time is doubtless wasted in kneading doughs,
though it seems to be agreed that this process works
all ingredients together and thus give a better texture
to the bread. To knead work the edges of the dough
little by little toward the center, pull it over, press
down into the mass and press it away with one hand
while turning the whole around with the other. When
the dough is smooth, elastic, and rises quickly when
pressed and does not stick to the hand then it is done.
After the dough is double in bulk it should be
kneaded enough to redistribute the air bubbles which
have run together and formed larger ones, and to
shape it for baking. At this stage no flour should be
added, for here much time would be required to work
in a little flour, and that is why long kneading has
been thought necessary. Dip the fingers in soft fat if
the dough inclines to stick, as one would do when pull-
ing candy,
shaping To shape biscuits or rolls,. first make smooth round
288
BREAD.
107
balls, then by gentle rolling and pressure make the fin-
ger rolls then farther extend till the strips can be
twisted or left as sticks for soup. Thus one form may
be developed from another.
When rolls are to be cut out and folded, the pressure
of the rolling pin will equalize the air bubbles without
previous- kneading. Instead of making the dough for
rolls rich with butter or lard, it is wiser to brush over
the outside of the rolls with melted fat when they are
put in the pan.
BUNS SEPARATE AND IN LOAF.
Again the dough must be allowed to double in bulk
and then it is ready to bake.
To summarize the points already covered. The time
required depends upon the quantity of yeast used, and
the temperature at which the dough is kept. One
measure of liquid to three of flour is the usual propor-
tion. For fancy breads make a sponge first, and let
the mixture rise three times. Large quantities of sugar
and butter tend to retard the growth of the yeast plant.
For bread add all the flour at once. Small shapes- are
Suxninftr?
289
io8
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Baking
of Bread
Cooking Soda
with Acids
preferable to large ones, as thus more thorough cook-
ing is insured.
The baking of bread is not easily disposed of in a
few words. Yeast doughs having risen before being
put in the oven will bear rather a higher degree of heat
at first than other doughs. A more moderate oven
is required for loaves than for rolls that the heat
may penetrate evenly, but the loaf must remain a suf-
ficient time to raise the center to a degree of heat that
will insure the destruction of the yeast. A moderate
temperature might allow the dough to continue rising
and even to sour from the growth of bacteria when in
the oven.
When thoroughly baked, a loaf of bread will seem
light and hollow and no steam will come from it to
burn the hand as it is turned from the pan.
The usual temperature for baking bread is about
400 F, though a good result may be reached by a
more moderate heat continued for a longer time.
Experiment. Three or four glass tubes or common
tumblers are all the apparatus needed for some prac-
tical experiments which will make the use of these leav-
ening agents much clearer than does the ordinary cook-
book. Dissolve some soda in half a tumbler of water ;
in another tumbler dissolve some cream of tartar, in
a third have a little molasses; in a fourth place some
sour milk, and in a fifth some vinegar.
Now put a .part of the soda water into each of the
other glasses, stir well, and watch the result. Leave
290
BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS.
109
these till later to see how soon the gas escapes and
that it cannot be revived. By tasting soda and cream
of tartar we shall see that it is desirable to combine
them in such proportions that each may neutralize the
other. This is done in baking powders.
In another glass dissolve some baking powder, first
in cold and then in warm water to show that the gas
escapes more rapidly at a high temperature.
CORN BREA.D.
These experiments show us why we should sift
cream of tartar and soda or baking .powder with the
flour instead of dissolving it in liquid. The gas which
is to make the dough light begins to escape from the
soda when it comes in contact with an acid liquid.
Some baking powder manufacturers try to convince
us that their product is so perfect that it is useless for
the housekeeper to continue to keep soda and cream of
tartar in her store closet. But much as we owe to their
perfect methods 1 of grinding 1 , and sifting and combining
Soda and
Cream ot
Tartar
291
no
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Molasses
and Soda
Sour Milk
and Soda
these substances in the right proportions, there are
times when we must use them separately.
Angel cake, for example, requires the addition of
cream of tartar to stiffen the egg-white which is its
foundation. This aids in holding up the spongy mass
until it is made firm by heat. In any case where there
is a large proportion of egg-white a slight excess of
cream of tartar is desirable.
That molasses is acid in spite of its sweetness is evi-
dent by testing it with a bit of soda. For this reason
soda is added to molasses candy since if it is filled with
air bubbles it will be more brittle. The acidity varies
in different grades of molasses, and modern methods
of manufacture and quick transportation give us a less
acid product than that of the past. - This explains why
many of the recipes of our great-grandmothers called
for such large quantities of soda in gingerbread, etc.
In such recipes it is usually wise to reduce the quantity
of soda and use a small amount of baking powder.
Brown bread and all cakes and puddings containing
molasses, because of its acidity, are usually more pal-
atable if some soda is used to make them light instead
of baking powder only.
Butter contains so much buttermilk that, unless it is
washed before using, a bit of soda is- essential for all
rich cakes and cookies which are to be kept for any
length of time.
Because of the tendency to use an excess of soda
with it, the use of sour milk has been condemned. But
292
BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS. in
thick, sour milk is not very variable in acidity, and the
use of one even teaspoonful of soda with each pint of
sour milk is safe. Soda is inexpensive and sour milk
is also, while cream of tartar and baking powder are
costly. One half level teaspoon of soda is usually
enough when one cup of molasses is used, as it is with
one cup of sour milk. When it is more convenient to
BOSTON BROWN BREAD.
substitute sweet milk for sour, we retain the soda and
add one slightly rounding teaspoonful of cream of tar-
tar.
Baking powder contains some starch, but two or
three level teaspoonfuls of baking powder are equal in
effect to one rounding teaspoonful of cream of tartar
and the half level teaspoonful of soda.
Just why some good old recipes recommend dissolv-
ing soda in hot water before adding it to the other
ingredients, or mixing it with hot molasses, is uncer-
tain. Perhaps the housewives wanted to "see with
293
ii2 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
their eyes" that action would result. Or the habit
might have been the result of the impure quality of
the alkaline substance. The "pearl ash," as saleratus
was called, was not as finely pulverized as is the soda of
today, and may not have been as thoroughly purified
from other ash. Hot water would dissolve it quickly,
any impurities would settle, and even if some gas es-
caped enough was left to do the work of puffing up
the dough.
Such small quaniities relatively of soda, cream of
tartar, and baking powder are used in a dough that it
has- been a question how they should be mixed with
the other ingredients to secure the most perfect result.
The dough should be light throughout, not here a solid
streak, .and there large bubbles.
Some teachers of cookery have recommended sifting
the one or two teaspoon fuls of baking powder over a
cake after it was mixed and beating thoroughly just
before pouring into the pan in which it is to be baked.
But as soon as the powder comes in contact with the
moist surface of the dough some gas will be lost, and
moreover, it is doubtful whether two teaspoonfuls of
baking powder can be evenly mixed through a quart
of cake batter without much beating which does not
improve the quality of the cake at that stage and de-
lays the baking.
The accepted plan at present is to sift with the flour
the baking powder or cream of tartar and soda or the
294
BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS. 113
soda alone when it is to be used with some sour milk
or molasses.
The sooner the process is completed after the acid
and soda meet each other the better. Therefore we
keep all the materials dry until the last moment, then
mix quickly and bake at once.
Similar recipes are found in all cook books, and once
the general, proportions and the office of each ingre-
RYE MUFFINS.
dient are learned, it is easy to make many variations.
The process 1 of mixing is practically the same in all
cases. Prepare the fire and dishes for cooking, be-
fore mixing any of the ingredients measure every-
thing, sift all dry materials together, add liquids, mix
all thoroughly, and cook immediately.
Changes in the proportions of materials often lead
to a change in the manner of mixing them. For ex-
ample, when a small quantity of shortening is used in
batters, it may be melted and beaten in, but if a large
General
Directions
Manner
of Mixing
295
H4 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
proportion is required, it should be rubbed till creamy
and blended with the sugar as for cake, or mixed into
the flour as in pastry making. For stiff doughs which
are to be rolled, it is essential that the fat should be
put in cold since even a small quantity, if warm, will
tend to make the dough soft and sticky. We grease
'Shortening" pans, griddles, etc., because fat prevents adhesion; in
the same way fat in a dough keeps the particles sepa-
rate and makes it break apart readily, so that we call
it "short" or "tender." Hence shortening is any form
of fat that will accomplish such a result. To give like
results, more shortening is required with bread flour
high in gluten than with pastry flour low in gluten.
Eggs in doughs, as in other cases, have the quality
of making particles hold together, just the reverse of
shortening. Any dough containing much egg will be
elastic and spongy, and if cooked too quickly will be
tough. Doughs to be made rich with butter, like
pound cake, may be saved from heaviness by the use
of eggs.
PASTRY AND CAKE
Shortcake and pastry are illustrations of the use of
much fat in doughs and the result is brittle and tender.
Success in pastry-making depends more upon keeping
the ingredients cold and handling the dough deftly
than any special formula or order of mixing. When
but a small amount of shortening is used, a small quan-
tity of baking powder is helpful ; this, of course, is
omitted in puff pastry, in which the weights- of the
296
PASTRY AND CAKE.
flour and butter are equal, and it is not essential in
other cases.
Few doughs require a smaller number of ingredients
than pastry ; flour, salt, shortening, and liquid are the
essentials, and air is incorporated in the process of mix-
ing. When the flour and shortening are warm they
stick together so that less air is mixed into the dough.
APPLE PIE IN DEEP PLATE.
The process of rolling and folding is a device for catch-
ing more air in the dough. This air, when heated, ex-
pands and puffs the layers apart. The colder the air
mixed in the dough the greater its expansion in baking.
In cake-making a single, well proportioned formula
may be made the basis for a great number of varieties.
Therefore, it is essential that the fundamental princi-
ples be understood, then the variations can be accom-
plished easily.
Pastry
Cake
Making
297
CAKE.
117
The principles underlying sponge cake were ex-
plained in the section on eggs. The main points in
such cakes, which contain no butter and are made light
by eggs only, are to mix carefully that sufficient air
may be entangled in the dough to make it light, and
then to bake slowly but thoroughly.
The shape in which cake is to be baked should de-
cide the proportion of flour to be used. Layer cakes or
small cakes require less flour than large loaves. This is
probably because the small cake is- stiffened more
quickly by the heat, while the large mass must be
stiffened with flour to hold up the air cells until the
heat can penetrate the whole. Variations in cake are
easily obtained through changes in flavoring ingredi-
ents. To mix chocolate in the cake melt it and mix
with the sugar and butter. Such a cake might have a
white frosting flavored with vanilla.
A cake flavored with almond may have a few shred-
ded almonds- sprinkled over the top just before the cake
is put in the oven. Almond paste can be rubbed into
the butter and sugar in making cookies ; it is rather
rich and heavy for a cake. Desiccated cocoanut,
chopped nuts, raisins, currants, dates, citron, candied
orange and lemon peel, singly or in various combina-
tions, serve to give us many cakes from a single recipe.
The ingredients mentioned for pastry are com-
mon to all cakes as well, but further variety is gained
by the addition of sweetening and seasoning. Air or
gas- to make the cake light is obtained by the use of
Sponge
Cake
Flavoring
299
Sweetening
Relative
Proportions
in Cake
ii8 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
beaten eggs and of baking powders, etc., as well as by
creaming butter and beating the blended ingredients.
The shortening for this class of dishes may be lard,
dripping, nut oil, cottolene, butter, or cream, each hav-
ing its own special characteristic. When these are
known, combinations and substitutions are possible to
adapt a given formula to the available materials.
The range of sweetening is limited to sugar and mo-
lasses, but the quantity to be used in a cake should be
SPONGE CAKE STUFFED WITH CREAM.
reduced if a frosting or sweet filling is to be added
later.
When we consider the long list of spices and ex-
tracts and fruits and nuts available for seasoning the
cake, we can see how it is possible to make many va-
rieties of the same cake.
There is a certain relative proportion to be followed
in the use of these ingredients which, once learned,
300
COOKING OF DOUGHS.
119
enable us to decide whether a recipe is reliable. In
butter cakes there is usually less butter than sugar,
and less sugar than flour. When baking powder is
used less is required than would be necessary for a
dough where there are no eggs. Thus two even tea-
spoonfuls of baking powder is enough for three cups
of flour for a cake in which three or four eggs are use.
Some cooks use from one to two teaspoons of bak-
ing powder for each cup of flour in all cases, forgetting
that the eggs alone would make a cake quite light.
When there is an excess of baking powder, the cake is
liable to be coarse grained and will dry quickly.
Dutch apple cake and cottage pudding are similar to
the common muffin mixture in the proportions of flour,
liquid, etc., but are made richer by increasing the quan-
tity of fat and sugar.
The ordinary doughnut mixture is not unlike a cot-
tage pudding dough, with the addition of flour to make
it stiff enough to roll easily. Or it is similar to the
quick biscuit dough with the addition of sugar, egg,
ad spice. Because doughnuts are cooked in fat, less
shortening is required than for most stiff doughs.
Cooky doughs are more like pastry with the addi-
tion of sugar, spice, and egg, and the same care should
be given to keeping the dough cold in order to roll and
cut it without adhering to the board.
COOKING OF DOUGHS
Doughs are steamed, baked in the oven, or on a grid-
dle on top of the stove. Such mixtures of many differ-
Cottage
Pudding
Cookies
301
120
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
ent ingredients are more difficult to cook than the sepa-
rate substances of which they are composed, though
heat affects each ingredient in combination much a.s it
does singly. Sugar carmelizes and this aids in pro-
ducing a golden brown color in the crust of anything
AN ACCURATE OVEN THERMOMETER.
Punch a hole in a comnjon gas stove oven and insert thermometer,
which will register to 600 degrees F, wrapped with asbestos and wire
where it passes through the top.
containing it. Since it burns readily, cakes and cookies
are more liable to be scorched than unsweetened
doughs. Flour browns when exposed to dry heat.
Eggs cook at a low temperature. Butter melts,
hence doughs containing much must contain more flour
than those that have little or none.
302
COOKING OF DOUGHS.
121
The heat applied should conform to the way in
which it affects the principal ingredients in any dough.
Those containing many eggs need moderate heat, etc.,
etc. The size and shape of the article are also to be
considered. In general, small thin portions require
less time but will bear higher temperature than larger
portions as with bread doughs.
There are various tests for the heat of the oven.
Oven thermometers are valuable aids, showing com-
parative if not actual degree of heat. When a ther-
mometer is inaccessible, a piece of white paper or a
teaspoonful of flour if charred from a five minutes'
stay in the oven indicate too great heat and other de-
grees may be gauged accordingly. All parts of an
oven are not equally hot and each housekeeper must
study her own.
The lower part of a gas oven is very hot because
the full force of heat is below ; in the wood or coal
range one side is usually hotter than the other because
of the position of the firebox.
Heat
Required
303
FORM AND FLAVORS
Thus far we have studied the fundamental princi-
ples- of cooking and have seen that some knowledge
of the chemical composition of each food is necessary
before we can secure the best result through the ap-
plication of heat and moisture. But this is only the
foundation of the art of cookery.
variety The form in which our food is served may attract
or repel, and the flavor may make it appetizing or the
reverse. We must depend mainly for sustenance upon
a few kinds of meat, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and
unless variety were secured in some way we should
quickly tire of them.
Through the ingenuity of cooks of all times and
countries, so many combinations have been devised, by
changes in flavor and form, that some of our common
foods might appear in different guise every day in the
year.
The multiplicity of formulas in our cook-books, even
when well classified, are puzzling to the beginner who
has not learned to analyze each recipe and thus find the
simple processes- of which it consists.
"Fancy" What is generally termed "fancy" or "high-class"
Cookery cookery is merely the application of the simple proc-
esses to costly foods or a further complicated prepara-
tion to foods which have first been cooked as perfectly
as possible, according to the principles 1 already out-
lined.
123
304
FORM.
123
For example, if we have learned how to make a
white sauce and how to cook meats and vegetables, we
do not require separate detailed recipes for creamed
chicken, creamed oysters, creamed potatoes, creamed
cauliflower, or creamed asparagus; we only need to
make the sauce a little thinner or thicker to offset the
Creamet
Dishes
CREAMED FISH IN RAMEKINS.
dry or watery nature of the article with which it is to
be put and to vary the flavor slightly to adapt it to an-
other material.
Furthermore, any such creamed meat or vegetable
may be served plain, or on toast, or in timbale cases, or
combined with buttered crumbs, as a "scallop," or by
the addition of stiff egg whites it becomes a "souffle"
when baked. When the sauce is made of double thick-
ness, and combined with the meat or vegetable and
chilled, the mass may be shaped into croquettes or cut-
Variety
in Serving
305
124
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Adaptation
Principle
of Contrast
Made
Dishes
lets which are then coated with egg and crumbs and
fried.
Thus any intelligent woman knowing something of
the nature of foods and the effect of heat and moisture
may to some extent make her own recipes or adapt oth-
ers to the supplies available at the moment.
No cook-book can be sufficiently expanded to pro-
vide for great variation in climate, food materials, and
utensils. The cook must constantly adapt to her condi-
tions, she must be observant of the changes of tem-
perature and learn when one food material or flavor
may be substituted for another.
If uncertain about the wisest combination of ar-
ticles of food, whether in a single dish or for the differ-
ent courses in a menu, it is safe to follow the plan of
contrast. Thus the cream soup is served with crisp
crackers or croutons, the creamed fish is covered with
buttered crumbs and baked till crisp, the croquettes
are crisp outside and creamy within.
Another point is to add to any food, substances sup-
plying any of the food principles it lacks. Potatoes are
mashed with cream or butter because they lack fat, are
blended with egg for croquettes or souffle because they
lack protein. Eggs lack starch, so we serve them on
toast or use them in puddings with rice, tapioca, etc.
. Composite preparations of food, often classed as en-
trees or made dis-hes, are known by many names de-
rived from different languages, especially from the
French.
306
FORM. 125
Here is no place to attempt to define all the terms
Names
used on a menu card, but we may group some of these
compound dishes under a few general heads and study
their characteristics.
Soups have as their basis either animal or vegetable Soups
stock or both combined. Stock is secured by the aid of
heat and moisture from portions of meat and vegeta-
bles too tough to be used in other ways. Flavor and
some nutriment are soaked, cooked and strained out,
and this water is the stock which is then further fla-
vored and garnished by the addition of some contrast-
ing substance. Thus a meat stock is usually garnished
with grains or shreds of vegetable, and a vegetable
stock is often combined with milk and thickened.
Stews are thick soups containing larger portions of stews
the meat and vegetables. These are also known as
chowders, ragouts, salmis, etc., etc. Sometimes a stew
has- dumplings steamed over it, sometimes it is cov-
ered with a crust of pastry, mashed potatoes, or cooked
cereal and baked as a pie. Here again are combined
contrasting food principles.
Hash is a term that also may include the assortment H ash
of foods known as scallops, timbales, etc., since the
substance giving a specific name to each of these is
minced or chopped fine before it is combined with other
materials. Meat and fish are put on toast or mixed
with potatoes or bread crumbs or encased in rice or
in a pastry shell. The exact proportions of the con-
307
126
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Souffles
Salads
Left Overs
trasting ingredients is of less importance than their
proper moistening and flavoring.
The scallop owes- its name to the shell in which it is
often served. Au gratm is another name for the same
combination of a meat or vegetable with sauce and
crumbs. The croquette gets its name from its crisp
crust, the timbale from its thimble-like shape. Rissoles
and kromeskies are kinds of fried meat pies or cro-
quettes in a pastry crust.
Souffles have as a foundation fruit or vegetable pulp
or minced meat in a sauce and are puffed up by the in-
troduction of stiffly beaten egg whites. The name is
sometimes given to cold dishes where a similar effect is
gained by whipped cream.
Salads may consist of cold cooked meats, fish, etc.,
vegetables cooked or raw, fruits and nuts. Almost any
food may be served in a salad, singly or in combina-
tion. The distinctive feature of a salad is the dressing
of fat, oil, butter, or thick cream, which is variously
flavored.
Many of the most satisfactory of these made dishes
doubtless had their origin in an effort to use left-overs.
Milk surplus may be used in many ways. Skimmed
milk answers as well as full milk for soups and doughs
when fat is also used. Even if otherwise likely to
curdle in heating, the addition of a little cooking soda
makes it possible to scald milk, and then it may be used
for custards, puddings, etc. Sour milk is available for
308
FORM.
127
doughs and cheese, and cream may be substituted for
butter and milk in simpler cakes and cookies.
Eggs left at the table in a soft-boiled condition may
be cooked again until hard and then combined with
sauces and served on toast or used as a garnish in
soups or salads.
Meat left-overs should be carefully sorted.
The obloquy heaped upon hashes is due to careless-
ness. All uneatable portions, bone, skin, and gristle,
should be removed, but may yield a little stock if put
in cold water. The clear lean may have about one-
fourth as much fat with it if it is to be used in the com-
bination with potatoes, bread or cereal. There may be
two grades of the lean, one cut in pieces of uniform
shape an inch or more across, to be served in a sauce
or moulded in a jelly; the other to be chopped fine for
hashes, croquettes, etc.
Vegetables. Cooked vegetables spoil quickly but
often may serve as soup, or a scallop, or a salad for a
second meal.
Fruits. It seems practically impossible to put to-
gether several kinds of fruit without good results.
Combinations of left-over fruits, raw or cooked, will
serve as the basis of a gelatine dessert made like the
jelly described elsewhere, or may be frozen alone, or
combined with crea'm, or thickened for a pudding
sauce, or diluted with water for a fruit punch. Add
sugar as desired.
Meat
Left Overs
309
128
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Attractive
Form
Garnish
Shapes
Bread. No scrap of bread of any kind need be lost.
Brown bread and muffins of different kinds are some-
times wasted when they might be steamed, or toasted
and served in cream sauce, or made into puddings like
a baked Indian pudding. Slices of stale raised bread,
dried, gives us croutons, cut in cubes, or crumbs white
and brown, coarse and fine, to use for scalloped dishes,
stuffing for fish and poultry, and for many kinds of
sweet puddings.
The use of gelatine is an instance of our endeavor
to make foods attractive in form. It has doubtful food
value and m> agreeable flavor, but it gives solidity to
fruit juices, or in aspic jelly to soup stock, and in such
jellies we may mould fruits for dessert, or meat and
vegetables for salad.
Garnish is often desirable to make foods more ap-
petizing, but it is a question whether this purpos-e is
served by the addition of unedible materials which
must be laid one side before the food itself is accessible.
The truest art does not waste effort on useless things.
The form of foods is further varied by utensils pro-
ducing different shapes, the meat choppers with ad-
justable knives for particles of different sizes, the
fancy knives for making thin slices or balls of vegeta-
bles and fruits, the muffin pans, waffle iron, the timbale
iron, the many cutters and moulds for puddings, etc,
The tendency of the present day is plainly towards
small portions for individual service, and here again a
310
FORM.
129
new recipe is not required, only the necessary changes
in time of cooking which would result when a mass was
divided into several portions-. Moulds in which a food
is to be cooked should be greased, but rinsed with cold
. water when the food is only to be cooled in them.
Scales and measures are lacking in many kitchens
and accurate work is impossible without them. The
SALMON LOAF.
average kitchen need not be furnished with many
special utensils, but there should be a full supply of
"general purpose" articles of the best grade of mate-
rial and finish.
The utensils should be adapted to the size of the
family and to the physical ability of those who are
to use them. The saving of human life and energy
is more to be considered than the durability of imple-
ments.
Weighing
Utensils
311
Preparation
Eight
Heat
Common
Salt
FLAVOR
The art of cooking shows us many ways of develop-
ing the appetizing flavor of foods.
First, by the removal of whatever might pf oduce bad
flavors, such portions as skin and tainted bits- of meat,
decayed parts of vegetables, and over brown portions
of bread and cake.
Second, by the right application of heat and moisture
to bring out the natural flavors in each food. The
steeping of tea instead of boiling, the browning of the
coffee berry and cocoa bean before they are ground,
the flavor developed by long cooking in cases like the
baking of beans and steaming of 'puddings and brown
bread. Sometimes a portion of the nutritive value is
sacrificed to flavor, as in the browning of the outer
surface of the steak or roast.
Third, by the use of many additional flavoring ma-
terials to intensify natural flavors to supply deficiencies
and to produce variety.
Salt is useful as a preservative, seems to supply a
need in the human system and therefore is an agreea-
ble addition, but it also serves to bring out natural
flavors. As an illustration of this power, taste of a
meat or chicken broth that is unsalted, and again after
salting, when the flavor of the meat will be much more
apparent. For this purpose salt is often eaten with
fruits, is added in minute quantities to lemon and other
jellies made with gelatine, to custards, ice creams, and
often even to coffee.
130
312
FLAVOR. 131
Lemon juice is also an .aid in extending other flavor
and is acceptable with many foods, especially fish.
Salt, pepper, lemon, and onion are the extent of the
flavors used in some households, and food need not be
insipid if no others are tried, but it is wiser to make
occasional use of the long list of condiments and
spices.
The distinction as usually made is that the condi-
m /its pepper, mustard, etc., are used with meats,
wKle spices, cloves, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, etc.,
are associated with fruits and sweets, but this classi-
fication has exceptions. Spices are neglected nowa-
days and it often seems as if people hardly were ac-
quainted with any other flavor for dessert dishes than
vanilla. The list of flavoring herbs is a long one, run-
ning through sage, thyme, majoram, summer savory,
bay leaves, tarragon and parsley, which are used dry
or fresh, to the green mint, cress, and salad plants
which are condimental rather than nutritive.
There are many compound flavors which every
housekeeper should keep in her store closet, and use in
her cooking instead of supplying a single perennial
:atsup on the table, such are curry, tabasco, tarragon
vinegar, mushroom catsup, poultry seasoning, etc.
Onion, celery, cheese, chocolate, coffee, meat ex-
tracts, each may have an important place in our list of
flavors.
Sugar is an important food and also must be looked
upon as a flavor, since it will often bring an insipid
vegetable up to its normal condition.
Common
Flavoring
Material
Condiments
and Spices
Sugar
as Flavoring
313
132
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Blended
Flavors
Adding
Flavoring
Reasons
for the Use
of Flavoring
French cooking excels in that blending of flavors
which produces an agreeable effect, though no one is
apparent.
The best results are usually reached when the flavor-
ing is combined with the food in the process of cook-
ing, but there are right and wrong ways of doing this.
If salt is put on the cut surface of a roast, juice will be
drawn out, but if sprinkled over the fat will gradually
flavor all. Whole herbs and spices, tied in a bit of
cheese cloth may be left to cook in a soup stock or
brown gravy until the desired flavor is attained and
then withdrawn, leaving the stock clear. Ground spices
would give a cloudy effect.
The use of flavors is economic, for thus inexpensive
foods are varied and made palatable. It is a part of
the art of cooking, since nowhere are greater skill
and intelligence required than in the distribution of
these elusive yet powerful substances, and by discrim-
ination in the. use of condiments' and spices our foods
may be made more healthful.
314
FOOD FOR THE DAY
In the preceding pages the most important foods,
heir composition and preparation for the table have
>een considered. Our study would be incomplete with-
>ut some reference to their best combination for the
laily meals that they may appeal to the palate and pro-
note health without exceeding the bounds of mod-
erate incomes.
There are three important divisions in the prepara- Buying
ion of food for a family, wise buying, good cooking, jjjf
md careful serving. When buying foods the house-
Deeper should know the sum available for feeding each
person for the day or week, she must note the season
>f each food, and also adapt her choice to the climate
md weather. She must remember the individual
needs of each member of the household, depending
apon age, health, and occupation.
The art of cookery finds its field between the Artof
:hoice of food and the serving of the cooked dishes- at cookery
the table. As with other arts perfection can come
3nly through constant practice in manipulation, and
from continual adaptation of conditions to the desired
snd. No formulas for combinations of foods can be
devised so complete that continuous care is not re-
quired in every step of the
133
315
134
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
Cost of
Food
"Constants 9
Few housekeepers have the time or take the trouble
to keep their accounts in such a way as to know how
much it costs to feed each person in their charge for
a day, week, or month ; fewer still know anything of
the relative proportion of protein, fat, and carbo-
hydrate which is placed on the family table week by
week.
When purchasing clothing we take note of its wear-
ing qualities and the ability to keep us warm, but we
seldom apply the same reasoning to our foods, al-
though it is quite as necessary.
Some one has estimated that in the average house-
hold one-tenth of the sum spent for food will go for
flour, a tenth for butter, another for sugar, another for
milk, one-fifth for meat, one-fifth for fruit and vegeta-
bles, and the remaining fifth for sundries.
There are certain articles of which equal quantities
will be used each week or month, and by an examina-
tion of previous bills it is easy to estimate the amount
required for a given period. Many of these "con-
stants'' like butter, sugar, and flour, can be bought in
quantities sufficient for a month, then the housekeeper
knows how to apportion her money for the variable
supplies.
It is not necessary for the housekeeper to attempt
to estimate the proportion of food principles in every
dish she serves, but once a month or a quarter, if her
accounts are well kept, she can see how nearly she ap-
316
FOOD FOR A DAY. 135
preaches such daily estimate as the one below for each
member of her family :
A DAY'S RATION
Ounces.
Meat and fish . . 12 to 16
One egg 2
Butter i to 2
Milk, i gill to i pt 4 to 16
Sugar 2 to 3
Dry fruits i
Legumes i
Fresh vegetables and fruits 6 to 8
Potatoes 8 to 12
Flour and grains , . 12 to 16
Multiply this by thirty and we have a fair allow-
ance for one person for one month. Multiply this by
the number of persons in the family, or, to be more
accurate, by the fractional parts of a man's ra-
tions, usually allowed for women and children, and
we have an ample supply for one month for the fam-
iiy.
If the larger quantity of potatoes has been used the
smaller amount of flour would have been ample, while
if eggs were cheap and two or more consumed by each
person daily there should be a corresponding reduc-
tion in the amount of meat and fish.
Of the amount purchased there will be not far from Refuse
andWastB
10 per cent refuse and waste. Refuse in the form of
bones, skin, and parings, waste of what is- left on in-
dividual plates and odd bits that are spoiled and are
317
136
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
A Day's
Alowance
Cost of
Labor
Prepared
Food
Buying
thrown away. Much fat also is thrown away, but it
should be remembered that fat is worth more than
twice as much as the carbohydrates in keeping the body
warm.
Twenty-five cents a head a day is a fair allowance
for an abundance and variety of wholesome, satisfying
food. Life may be sustained on half that amount, while
fifty cents daily cannot nourish more completely, but
may provide luxuries and foods out of season.
The actual cost of table board appears, from studies
made under different conditions, to be about equally
divided between the raw material and the labor re-
quired for the preparation and service. It may be
cheaper to pay a little more for a prepared food than
to use one's own strength or pay for service to get
ready a less expensive article.
The woman who has time and strength and no
other wa^ to earn should choose the cheaper grade
of food. Cheapness does not always indicate mean-
ness, it may mean an abundant supply or less human
labor in preparation.
There is a growing tendency toward the fuller
preparation of food outside the home, but there is the
more need that the housekeeper should be familiar
with processes of manufacture that she may know
when she is well served.
The housekeeper who never goes to grocery and
market and does not study the market reports in the
318
FOOD FOR A DAY. 137
papers is rarely an economical buyer. She is liable
to go on in the same old routine instead of varying her
menus with the litcie surorises that may be found by
visiting the markets. There are bargains to be had in
foods as well as in clothing, when the market is over-
stocked, or some odd lot is left over. Cuts of meat
cannot be made to order and the first choice falls to
the early visitor to the market.
Where one woman must take .entire care of a fam- planning
ily, she must plan carefully if she would have a well
balanced household. Elaborate cooking and meals of
many courses are out of the question even if they were
desirable. Meals should be planned several days in
advance and the buying- done accordingly, though such
plans will be much modified in the performance.
A reserve store of canned foods, etc., is a great aid
in the emergencies that arise in all households.
By wise use of outside supplies and by making one's system
head do more work and hands- and feet less, the food
for a family may be provided without exhausting the
energy of the housekeeper.
The actual cooking necessary for a family through
a day may be done in a shorter period than is usually
allotted to it if the work is planned wisely. The de-
tail of arrangement depends upon the kind of fuel
used, and whether the chief meal is served at noon or
night.
319
Breakfast
Dinner
138 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
The breakfast should be a simple meal fruit, raw
or cooked, cereal or warm muffins, (seldom both at
the same meal), and eggs, bacon, creamed salt fish or
some cold meat. When the meat is cold the bread is
warm, while with bacon or omelet toast may be served.
Some one must be in the kitchen for some time to
prepare and serve even a simple breakfast, especially
if there are tardy members of the family. With the
same supply of fuel required for the muffins, it is not
difficult for a woman of average ability to bake a cake
or pudding which will then be ready for the noon or
the night meal. Or at this time the vegetables may be
cleaned, fruit picked over and little details attended
to which save much time later.
Noon dinners usually are considered easier for
housekeeper and cook, since the work can all be done
by daylight and the hours of work if not actually less
are not so extended through the day. When supplies
are ordered early and delivered promptly, much energy
and worry is saved. At least half the time the soup
may be derived from previous supplies, and be pre-
pared in advance.
One kind of meat or fish, potatoes or rice and a
single other vegetable or salad are enough for all
ordinary occasions. Fruit or a dessert prepared earlier
in the day completes a meal sufficient for all needs of
the human body if the articles have been chosen wisely
to supplement each other.
320
FOOD FOR A DAY.
139
For a noon luncheon or night supper there are many
variations of the souffles, hashes and scallops already
described. One of these with bread and butter, tea or
cocoa, fruit and a simple sweet will provide all that is
essential.
To prepare meals for a family year in and out
is not an easy task. The housekeeper must remember
not only the cost and nutritive value of the foods- but
the whims and notions of her family. The ability of
the human being to talk makes him much harder to
feed than the animals who must accept the balanced
ration bestowed upon them.
A few points to be observed in planning menus are
these : avoid routine, introduce novelties, cheap or ex-
pensive, in attractive form, but say little of nutritive
value or cost. Do not allow the same meat or fish to
appear too many meals in succession. Let some-
thing else intervene. When the meat course is sub-
stantial let the dessert be light and make the dessert
especially nutritious when the meat course is insuf-
ficient. Let there be variety on the table through the
'week or month but have few dishes at each meal.
The fundamental processes of cookery are not many
and the essential points have been outlined in these
pages. An intelligent woman can adapt the recipes in
any reliable cook-book to her Own conditions after she
knows something of the composition of foods and the
way each is affected by heat and moisture.
Supper
Planning
Menus
In
Conclusion
321
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boston Cooking School Cook Book ($2.00). Fannie M. Farmer.
Boston Cook Book ($2.00). Mary J. Lincoln.
Catering for Two ($1.25). Alice J. James.
'Century Cook Book ($2.00). Mary Roland.
Home Science Cook Book ($1.00). Anna Barrows and Mary
J. Lincoln.
Kitchen Companion ($2.50). Maria Parloa.
Practical Cooking and Serving ($2.00). Janet M. Hill.
Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking ($0.40). M. H. Abel.
Young Housekeeper ($1.00). Maria Parloa.
Rorer's (Mrs.) Ne*w Cook Book ($2.00). Mrs. S. T. Rorer.
Easiest Way in Housekeeping and Cooking ($1.00). Helen
Campbell.
Hostess of To-day ($1.50). Linda Hull Lamed.
Luncheons ($1.40). Mary Roland.
Note. These books may be borrowed by Members. Any one may pur-
chase them through the School by sending price.
GOVERNMENT BULLETINS
Free, of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
34. Meats: Composition and Cooking Charles D. Woods.
85. Fish as Food C. F. Langworthy, Ph.D.
93. Sugar as Food Mary Hinman Abel.
121. Beans, Peas and other Legumes as Food M. H. Abel.
128. Eggs and their uses as Foods C. F. Langworthy, Ph.D.
182. Poultry as Food Helen W. Atwater.
183. Meat on the Farm Andrew Boss.
203. Canned Fruits, Preserves and Jellies Parloa.
249. Cereal Breakfast Foods Woods and Snyder.
256. Preparation of Vegetables for the Table Parloa.
263. Use of Milk as Food R. S. Milner.
293. Use of Fruits as Food C. F. Langworthy.
295. Potato and other Root Crops as Food Langworthy.
298. Food Value of Corn and Corn Products.
332. Nuts and their use as Food M. E. Jaffa.
359. Canning Vegetables in the Home J. F. Breazeale.
375. Care of Food in the Home Mary Hinman Abel.
389. Bread and Bread Making Helen W. Atwater.
391. Economical use of Meats in the Home Hunt
322
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
PART III.
Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the
first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write
on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from
the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instruc-
tor may know that you understand the subject. Read the
lesson paper a number of times before attempting to
answer the questions.
1. Mention and describe three methods of making
doughs light.
2. What are the advantages in the use of baking
powder ? When should baking soda and cream
of tartar be used separately?
3. Describe some mixture where more than one
means of making it light is used.
4. How does the bread obtainable outside your home
compare with what you can produce there as
to cost, including time and fuel, substance, and
palatability ?
5. Experiment, if you can, under your own condi-
tions and report of the effect of too rapid and
too slow baking on different types of dough.
6. Rearrange this recipe for a simple cake in proper
proportions and order of mixing: J/ egg, 2
teaspoonfuls butter, 2 c. milk, I c. flavoring, I
teasp. flour, 3 c. baking powder, I teasp. sugar.
323
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY.
7. Give examples wherein the form and manner of
serving may add to the attractiveness of food
and not require too much time.
8. How does bread flour differ from pastry flour?
How does this affect its use in doughs ?
9. Give the general proportion of flour and liquid
in (i) soft doughs, (2) a batter, (3) muffin
mixtures, (4) pastry or cookies.
10. Why does shortening make doughs flaky?
M. Give the one method of making bread. What
conditions will hasten the process ; what will
retard the process?
. Successful pastry how made?
13. What varieties of cake are there and what ai
th general proportion of the ingredients ? Give
some of the reasons why a cake "falls ?" What
makes cake dry and coarse in texture?
14. Discuss the use and abuse of "fancy cookery."
15. What is meant by contrast in foods? Give ex-
amples.
1 6. What can you say of flavoring?
17. How may "left-overs" of meat of vegetables
of bread, be used?
1 8. On what principle should menus be planned?
19. Give the menus for the meals served in your
household during one week and suggest how
they might be improved without additional la-
bor or expense.
324
SUPPLEMENT
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
IN
APPLICATION TO DAILY LIFE
BY ANNA BARROWS
Director, Chautauqua School of Cookery; Lecturer, Teachers,
College, Columbia University, and Simmons College.
The conditions of life in the households represented
by the pupils of this school vary greatly with locality
and climate, and, taken together, would give a fine
composite picture of the average American home.
While reading the hundreds of papers which have
passed through my hands since the School opened,
nothing has impressed me more than the variety of
conditions to which any woman in this country
must be ready to adjust herself at short notice.
Much human energy might be set free for other pur-
poses, and much money saved, if men and women
gave closer study to some of these e very-day questions.
Emerson has said truly : ' ' We must learn the homely
laws of fire and water; we must feed, wash, plant,
build. These are the ends of necessity, and first
in the order of nature. Poverty, frost, famine,
disease, debt, are the beadles and guardsmen that
hold us to common sense."
COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FUELS
Every householder and housekeeper should have
more definite knowledge regarding the amount of
heat available from a given bulk of each of the stand -
325
148 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
ard fuels. One cord of wood is approximately equal
to one-half ton of coal; 1,000 cubic feet of coal-gas
is equal to 50 or 60 pounds of coal, or about four and
one-half gallons of oil or gasoline. The time re-
quired to keep stove and fire in good condition must
be counted with the cost of the fuel.
Irr this connection, facts reported in some of the
test papers received are interesting.
From a southern plantation, wood is reported as
costing only the labor of preparation for the stove,
and that only sixty cents a cord. In another locality,
one sixteenth of a cord of wood is used daily at a cost
of twelve cents, or about two dollars a cord. Else-
where, a housekeeper finds wood at five dollars a
cord the cheapest fuel within her reach, and estimates
her daily supply to cost ten cents, or about one fiftieth
of a cord. Another burns a cord of wood each week
for cooking only.
An English pupil writes: "The range to which I
am most accustomed is the almost universal farm-
house open fireplace and Glendenning oven, used in
Cumberland and Westmoreland. The oven is heated
by the hot air from the fire by a passage at the back
of the fireplace, with only one damper for oven. At
the opposite side there is nearly always what is called
here a 'set-pot' for heating water. The heat of
my oven is greatest at the bottom, on account of the
hot air being underneath. What is not cooked in
the oven is done over the open fire."
326
FUELS . 149
COAL
The price of coal varies according to quality and
distance from the mines, and may cost from three to
twelve dollars a ton. A hodful or scuttle of coal
may weigh from fifteen to thirty pounds, but after
weighing the contents of an average hod, any house-
keeper may estimate readily the amount used daily,
or for different purposes.
One woman writes that she can do her day's work
with a single hodful of coal, making a ton last nearly
three months, while a maid in her kitchen usually
disposes of a ton a month. Another housekeeper
runs a fire day and night on half a ton a month,
while in a colder region three hods daily is the usual
winter allowance.
GAS
Gas is available in- comparatively few sections of
the country outside of the large cities, but wherever
it is used, housekeepers soon learn to plan their cook-
ery to save fuel. This usually results in economy
of time, so that fewer hours are spent in the kitchen,
though all the necessary work is as well done as
before.
A thousand feet of gas a week is a generous allow-
ance for kitchen use in an average family. Accord-
ing to one report, gas at $1.50 a thousand feet has
proved cheaper than coal at $5.00 a ton.
One cannot use a gas range in the same fashion as
the wood or coal stove, but must adapt herself to its
327
150 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
plan and the nature of the fuel. A steam cooker
makes it possible to cook enough food for two days
over one burner at one time. Today's dinner, a
cereal for tomorrow's breakfast, some cup custards
for supper, a stuffed fowl to be browned over in the
oven for tomorrow's dinner, all may be cooking at
once.
Then, with the ovens as commonly arranged, we
may broil or roast beneath the flame which is heating
the other oven to bake potatoes, bread or cake.
One pupil reports that she boils potatoes in the
lower part of the double boiler while cooking cereal
for the. next day, and above that sets a basin of milk
to heat for a pudding or sauce or soup. By such
forethought the expense of gas is no greater than
any other fuel, and the labor of housework is much
reduced.
ALCOHOL
The removal of the tax on fuel alcohol, January,
1907, may mean much to the housekeeper as well as
to the manufacturer. Every one who has used a
chafing dish or alcohol lamp has wished that alcohol
was as cheap as kerosene. Under the new law it
may reach that point.
Since it may be made of many coarse and inferior
vegetable products now unused, there need be no
lack of this fuel, which is practically without odor or
smoke.
Thus the housekeeper must be ready to adapt her-
328
FUELS 151
self to another change in fuels and apparatus for its
use.
With the alcohol lamp and the hay-box much of
the discomfort and dirt now associated with kitchen
processes will be banished, never to return, and the
kitchen itself well may be dignified with the name of
"laboratory."
KEROSENE
The small oil and gasoline stoves are not used as
much as they deserve. With intelligent care and
high-grade oil, a well-made oil stove is safe. Fire in
any form is not a plaything.
Every household without gas or electricity should
be supplied with a good three-burner lamp stove and
small oven to fit it. These will cost about $3 . oo. If
this lamp is given the same care that is given lamps
for evening use, results will be satisfactory. But
one must not expect a small stove to work as rapidly
or accomplish as much as a larger one. Have the
lamp full of oil to do good work. Do not let it burn
many hours in succession, but give it a chance to
cool off. Keep the wicks even and clean, and have
new ones when they become discolored, or too short
to reach the bottom of the lamp.
Oil stoves are liable to smoke if they stand in a
draft, and therefore should be protected. Choose
utensils to fit the stove and oven, and never fill them
so full that there is danger of boiling over into the
lamp. Since the heat is greatest in the lower part of
329
152 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
the oven, cook on the upper shelf as much as possible,
or exchange when possible. Asbestos mats may be
used on the lower shelves. With two three-burner
lamp stoves, and an oven to fit one, it has been easy
several times, in my own experience, to do all the
cooking for a family of six or eight persons.
FIRELESS COOKERS
The Norwegian Cooking Box or Fireless Cook
Stove is described and illustrated on pages 12-13.
This device has been exploited so much of late that
it deserves further description.
The new interest in this method of cooking is prob-
ably due to the experiments made in 1905, under the
direction of the Commissary-General of the War
Department, and these were the result of a report
from United States Consular Clerk, George H.
Murphy, of Frankfort, Germany. Below is a con-
densation of Mr. Murphy's report, as it appeared in
Daily Consular Reports in April, 1905.
"In an address to an audience of working people,
Mrs. Back, wife of the director of the industrial
school at Frankfort, brought to the attention of her
hearers, the hay -box or fireless stove.
"Every housewife knows that a pot of coffee can
be kept hot for some time, without fire, simply by
wrapping it in a dry towel to hinder escape of heat.
The Norwegian "automatic kitchen" attracted at-
tention at the Paris exposition of 1867 but failed to
come into general use. Now in Berlin, Munich, and
*
EIRELESS COOKER 153
other cities popular lecturers are showing the prac-
tical value of this method of cooking.
"Mrs Back stated that she had used the hay-box
for thirteen years, thus greatly reducing the cares of
housekeeping. At first she used the box merely to
keep finished food warm. Discovering that the
process of cooking continued, she experimented and
found that she could finish, in the box, all boiled
and roasted meats, sauces, fish, soup, vegetables,
fruits, puddings, etc.
"The box cannot be used for articles whose chief
attraction lies in the crispness resulting from rapid
cooking on a hot fire, but the rest of the meal may
be ready and hot in the box. Patience will secure
needed experience, and remove all doubts. In
general, two or three minutes actual boiling on the
fire is sufficient for vegetables, while roasted meat
requires twenty to thirty minutes. Most articles
should remain tightly closed in the box for two or
three hours, and may be left to keep hot for ten or
twelve hours.
"Dried legumes, fruit, etc., should be well soaked
in cold water, allowed to boil two to five minutes and
left for two hours in the box. Soft vegetables should
be merely brought to a boil and then placed for an
hour or two in the box. Soups are improved by
being allowed to develop for two or three hours in
the box.
"Covers of pots should not be lifted when they
331
154 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
are being transferred. The object is to retain the
heat as long as possible when it has once been de-
veloped. Too much water is better than too little.
"A home-made hay -box will usually be found
cheaper and more practical than those with immovable
felt and upholstery. Almost any box will do, which
has a tight cover. The wood should not be too thin,
and there should be no knot-holes or cracks. Old
trunks and valises may sometimes be used in this
way.
"The box should be loosely filled with shavings,
paper or hay, the last being probably most satis-
factory. The hay should be renewed every two or
three weeks. Nests are made for the pots and the
hay packed tightly under and around them. Any
kind of pots can be used, although, of course, earthen
ones hold the heat best. The tighter the tops fit,
the better, but if the food is to be used within six
or eight hours, they need not be hermetically closed.
When the pots have been placed in the box carefully,
without lifting the lids, they sh6uld be covered with
a pillow and the lid at once securely closed.
"When not in use, the box should always be left
open and the hay loosened, the pillow being hung
in the air to dry thoroughly.
"The chief advantages of the hay-box may be
summarized as follows:
"The cost of fuel can be reduced four-fifths or
even nine-tenths.
332
FIRELESS COOKER 155
"The pots are not made difficult to wash; they
are not blackened, and they will last for an almost
indefinite period of time.
"The food is better cooked, more tasty, more
nutritious and more digestible.
"Kitchen .odors are obviated.
"Time and labor are saved.
"There is no need of stirring, no fear of scorching
or burning.
"The cares of the housewife are lessened, and her
health and happiness are protected.
"The kitchen need not be in disorder half of the day.
"Warm water can always be had when there is
illness in the house and during the summer when
fires are not kept up.
"Where workmen's families live crowded in one
or two rooms, the additional suffering caused by
kitchen heat is obviated by the hay -box, for the pre-
liminary cooking can all be done in the cool of the
morning.
"At picnics the appetites of young people are only
half satisfied by sandwiches and other cold food.
The hay-box can furnish a hot meal anywhere at
any time.
"Similarly, men and women working in the fields,
or having night employment, can take with them
hot coffee, soup or an entire meal, thus avoiding the
necessity of returning home at a fixed hour or having
it brought to them by another member of the family.
333
156 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
''When different employments make it necessary
for the various members of a family to take their
meals at different hours, this can be arranged with-
out a multiplication of work with the assistance of
the hay -box."
This consular report covered the ground so fully
that any intelligent woman can make it the basis of
experiments adapted to her own surroundings.
A small trunk measuring 18x22x24 inches, an
agate-ware kettle with close tin cover, made to order
to fit in, or merely rest on the kettle, were the appli-
ances which served me satisfactorily this summer.
It was not easy to secure hay, so we looked about
for a similar non-conducting substance, and found
some boxes of excelsior and sawdust not quite
enough of either, so they were combined and put
in bags and sewed up closely enough to prevent clut-
ter. The most of the bags were of denim, but some
thin cotton bags, in which five and ten pounds of
sugar had come, were filled, and did good service in
filling chinks.
To test the heat- retaining capacity of this outfit,
two gallons of water was raised to the boiling point
in the kettle. Closely covered, it was placed on one
of the thicker cushions in the trunk and the others
fitted in closely around and over the kettle. A
blanket and some newspapers were spread over all,
and the trunk locked. Twenty-four hours later the
water was hot enough for dish-washing or bathing.
334
FIRELESS COOKER 157
The statements made in the above report were
fully verified by my own experience. This method
of cooking is especially adapted to any article requir-
ing long, gentle heat, such as the making of soup-
stocks and broths and rendering tough meats tender.
With very tough fowls, when the water cools down
below 150-160 F., the whole may again be raised to
the boiling point and started again in the hay-box.
It must not be expected to do everything, but
every housekeeper who must depend upon a gas or
kerosene stove should arrange a fireless cooker for
economy of fuel and to increase her own comfort.
Many an American housewife uses both coal and
gas ranges in her winter home, and in the summer
cottage must depend upon wood and kerosene stoves.
Probably during the year she also uses a chafing-dish
occasionally, and that may derive its heat from alco r
hoi or electricity. Wherever a house is supplied
with electric lights there should be at least one elec-
trical cooking appliance. Some excellent ones are
already on the market, and the next generation, doubt-
less, will use this force in housekeeping as freely as
we use gas.
Each of these methods of securing heat for cooking
may be the best under certain conditions and have
disadvantages under others. The housekeeper needs
to be keen in judgment anct quick to see in order to
adapt her formulas of cookery successfully in turn
to wood, coal, gas, kerosene, gasoline, alcohol or
335
158 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
electricity. She must know how to tell when a thing
is "done," and not trust wholly to the number of
minutes prescribed in a recipe.
Women who are called upon to make such rapid
transitions become adaptable, inventive, and are
less "set in their ways" in other directions. The
study of processes of cookery may thus become a
broadening influence and means of general education.
CO-OPERATIVE COOKING
But there are certain household traditions which
hold many intelligent women in a firm grasp, and
these traditions may be traced to the generations
behind us, when no money value was placed upon
woman's labor. It does not yet seem easy for
women to count fairly the cost of foods cooked
under their own roof. Until this can be done there
is small chance for co-operative industries, which
might relieve the pressure of home cares where house-
workers are not readily secured.
Few families to-day find it wise to make butter
for themselves, and many would do well to buy
bread, also. When there is a demand for high-grade
bread made outside the home, it will be supplied, as
has been the case here with other commodities, and
with bread in other countries. There are many
small towns to-day to which bread is sent from first-
class bakeries 100 to 200 miles away.
With stronger laws, better enforced for the clean-
liness and purity of food products; with greater
336
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 1 59
intelligence on the part of the consumer, and greater
skill on the part of the producer, there is no reason
why we should not in the future be able to secure
wholesome prepared foods of all grades at fair prices
outside the home, rather than attempt to prepare
everything under the home roof.
The isolated home must still be its own^ factory,
and its director must be a Jack of all Trades. Such
households should be supplied with all helps to make
labor easy, but even then, much hard labor is neces-
sary. Only where large quantities of any product
are to be prepared does it pay to have all manner of
machines and cunning devices to produce the most
perfect results.
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS
Where many people are to be fed, a few good tools
like a bread-mixer (Seep. 105), meat-chopper, etc.,
are often more helpful than another pair of hands,
unless they are especially efficient ones.
One pupil has asked for a list of necessary kitchen
furnishings. A good list is given in Household Man-
agement, page 105. Here is another designed for
beginners in housekeeping, or for small families living
in city flats, where there is no room to store super-
fluous utensils. The stove and refrigerator are usu-
ally supplied with such apartments.
For light housekeeping, where a chafing-dish or
small oil or gas stove is the only means for cooking,
still fewer utensils would suffice. With the addition
337
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS
161
of a few fancy molds, all the foods illustrated in this
book could be prepared by the utensils here men-
tioned. On page 101 some of the most useful are
shown.
When selecting any utensil, be sure that it is of
good quality, with no imperfections that will inter-
fere with keeping it perfectly clean.
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS.
High stool $i . 50
Scales i .00
Fibre pail .50
Dish pan .50
Soap shaker .10
Dish mop .10
Vegetable brush .10
Tea kettle i . oo
Pastry board 40
Rolling pin .10
Chopping bowl and
knife 50
Bean pot 30
Lemon squeezer(glassj . 10
Tea pot 25
Coffee pot 50
Muffin pan, agate ware .50
Quart measure .35
Pitcher .50
Stew kettle and cover, i . oo
Roasting pan .50
Sauce pans (three) . . .75
Bowls (two) .50
Double boiler .75
Two quart pans (two) . 50
Deep plates, to fit pan
as covers (two) 50
Cups for moulds (six) . 75
French knife .50
Paring knives (two) . . .30
Spatula .30
Cork screw .25
Can opener .50
Measure cups, glass
and tin .20
Wire egg beater .10
Dover egg beater .10
Fine strainer .05
Coarse strainer. .10
Colander 20
Flour sieve .20
Wire potato masher. . .10
Grater .10
Wooden spoons (two) . 20
Tablespoons (six) 20
Teaspoons (six) 10
Long fork 10
Cutters (two) 20
Omelet pan .25
Loaf pans (three) .... .60
Cake pans (three) .... .30
Cake pans (three) .... .30
Scotch bowl .50
Glass jars (one dozen), i . oo
Total $20.00
339
162 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LIBRARY
Quite as important as helpful utensils to the house-
keeper are the right kind of books.
When we remember that cooking -schools have
been established for a generation in all our large cit
and that the lessons given in such schools ru, , e in
several places been put in book form, and when we
see the lists of cook-books sent out by publishers, we
might suppose that every housekeeper in America
would be the possessor of several reliable cook-books.
But even the intelligent women taking this course
are rarely well supplied.
One pupil honestly states the matter thus :
"My failures have been many, owing partly to my
lack of a cook-book. I have overcooked custards,
and undercooked corn starch. I have stirred and
beaten all the gas out of pancakes, and wondered why
they did not rise, etc., etc."
Many women everywhere are content to depend
upon cook-books issued by patent medicine venders,
and upon newspaper clippings liable to typographical
errors. Such things may afford helpful suggestions,
but much food-material has been wasted by blind
following of careless printers, and writers who have
little knowledge of the art and science of cookery.
Enterprising business men realize that they must
read their trade journals to keep abreast of the tide
of competition. Many a woman spends more than a
dollar a year for tissue paper patterns for clothing,
340
HOUSEKEEPER'S LIBRARY 163
who would hesitate to buy a cook-book once in five
years, or to subscribe for a reliable household maga-
zine.
There has been little cash recompense for the
^ i se keeper, however^ much she studied her trade,
but now we are beginning to realize that personal
health and family comfort are above price; that they
depend chiefly on the air we breathe, the water we
drink, and the food we eat.
On page 140 of this hand-book, there is given a
list of reliable books relating to food and cookery,
the whole costing about $20. The average American
housekeeper, especially if she does her own house-
work, should own at least half of these books. While
she may not find it feasible to spend more than a
dollar a year in this way, still she may be sure that
ten dollars spent in the purchase of helpful books
would save more than that amount, in a single year,
in her bills for food materials.
Any one near a public library has the opportunity
to read such books, and thus discover which are the
ones she wishes to own. If the library is not already
supplied in this direction, send in requests that cer-
tain books be purchased. (Any of the books will
be loaned to members by the School).
The study of this hand-book lays the foundations
in the fewest words possible for the fundamental
processes of cookery. As one pupil has expressed it:
"I have found the lessons wonderfully helpful in
341
CARD CATALOG OF FOODS
classifying and fixing facts in my mind, and I feel
that I am much better grounded in the principles of
cookery than I ever should have been by merely
studying cook-books."
After such a beginning, each one reading a cook-
book will instinctively select arid add to the founda-
tion principles, already acquired, such explanatory
details as are best adapted to her home conditions.
CARD CATALOG OF FOODS
The up-to-date housekeeper is ready to accept
modern ideas and adapt methods from other depart-
ments of life to her business of housekeeping. She
finds a card catalogue one of the simplest means for
keeping addresses, and has another for an inventory
of her household possessions, and a third for a list of
foods especially, suited to her family. In this list
each card records not only the name of a food, but
the approximate beginning and end of its season, its
average price, the quantity required to serve a given
number of persons, and several of the best methods
of using it. Here, also, may be references to certain
pages of the cook-books in her library. Or the cards
may have copies of the recipes; such cards should
have a hole in the top, so that they may be hung up
in the kitchen within view of the worker.
When uncertain what to chose for the next day's
dinner, or for some special occasion, she looks over
these cards, and several possibilities will be suggested .
From this plan one naturally comes to the study of
dietaries and an application of the principles laid
down in Food and Dietetics.
342
COOKING A FINE ART 167
Among the helps in study along these lines are the
series of dietary studies which have been issued from
time to time by the office of Experiment Stations,
United States Department of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, D. C. Two of the best to begin with are Bulletin
28 (Revised), "The Chemical Composition of American
Food Materials" (5 cents), and Bulletin 129, "Dietary
Studies in Boston, Springfield, Philadelphia, Chicago"
(10 cents). The latter gives menus for several days at
different prices, with itemized list of materials used
and cost of each.
These may be obtained by sending coin to the Su-
perintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
COOKERY A FINE ART
In cookery, quite as much depends upon the order
and manner of combining the materials as upon the
ingredients themselves. The manipulation of the
cook-stove has something in common with that of
a musical instrument. It is possible to play by ear
with little knowledge of scales and chords, or to cook
without knowing the laws of heat or the chemical
composition of food materials.
Or, by continual practice, a single composition
may be committed to memory and be reproduced in
a mechanical fashion either upon the piano or on the
kitchen range. Only after much study and repetition
of processes does one become able to interpret intel-
ligently the works of great masters, and the funda-
mental laws of harmony must be known, before one
343
CAKE MAKING 169
can produce new creations either in music or more
material things.
As music appeals to the sense of hearing, so does
cookery to that of taste. The truest art in cookery
is not the ability to construct wondrous complica-
tions of food materials, or to carve roses from beets,
or model f.aces in butter, but rather to develop the
full flavor of a food by the simplest process, to make
the "mouth water"- that is, to stimulate the flow
of the digestive juices by savory odors and flavors.
Brillat Savarin well said that the invention of a
new dish meant more happiness to the human race
than the discovery of a constellation, but quite as
important is the constant preparation of the simple,
old foods in the very best way the baked potato,
the boiled egg, the broiled steak, etc., etc.
CAKE MAKING
The mixing of cake often has more to do with its
texture than the proportion of materials used, though
both have their influence.
It is an interesting experiment to make a good
cooky dough and bake portions of it with different
proportions of flour. Take, for example, the familiar
1-2-3-4 cake formulas and transpose the flour and
eggs so that we use one cup of butter, two cups of
sugar, three eggs and four cups of flour. The stiffness
of this dough will vary with size of the eggs and the
quality of the flour. Often some liquid and more
flour are added, making a less rich mixture, and then
345
1 70 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
some baking-powder or its equivalent will be needed,
otherwise the creaming of the butter and the eggs
will bring sufficient air into the dough.
Even before all the flour is worked in, some of the
dough may be spread on a tin and cut in shapes after
baking. When slightly stifter, bits of the mixture
may be dropped on the tin, fruit or nuts put over
them, and they will spread out in dainty little cakes.
If still more flour is added, but before the dough
is quite firm enough to use a .rolling-pin, small balls
of the dough may be shaped round with the hands
and flattened on the pan with the under surface of
a smooth tin cup.
A dough in this stage may be chilled, and then
can be rolled easily, and the resulting cakes will be
much richer than if more flour had been worked in.
Deft, experienced hands produce satisfactory results
with doughs, because they can shape them without
working in an excessive amount of flour.
MENU MAKING
Through the test questions, the attention of our
pupils has been called to the planning of meals for
a household, for this is an important part of the house-
keeper's duties. Under Part I we asked for menus
introducing as many dishes as feasible containing
milk and cheese. Such menus would be useful where
the meat markets were poor, and milk abundant,
since one may thus secure similar nutritive elements,
and usually at less expense than for meats.
346
MENU MAKING 171
After Part II, the request was made for a menu
for two days when eggs were cheap, and for two days
more when they were expensive. This was done
because few housekeepers pay sufficient attention to
market prices. They get the idea that a certain
food is costly, and therefore not to be used at all,
when, perhaps, a careful comparison of the prices of
all ingredients would show it to be cheap at some
seasons. Angel and sponge-cakes, for example, when
eggs are at their lowest price, are less expensive than
average butter-cakes.
With eggs at 25 cents a dozen and butter at 25
cents a pound, a sponge-cake with five eggs costs no
more than a cake with two eggs and half a cup of
butter. If the whites of twice as many eggs are used,
the actual cost is no greater, since the yolks are avail-
able for other purposes.
At the close of the lessons we asked for a week's
menu from each householder represented, with sug-
gestions for their improvement, without increase of
labor or expense.
The responses show an increased attention to the
details that count in feeding a family satisfactorily
to all concerned.
Yet menu-making is still a great bugbear to many
pupils, and a few more hints on the subject may be
helpful.
Many are hampered seriously by the habits and
wishes of different members of their households.
347
172 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
One young woman writes: "My father demands
griddle cakes every morning the year round."
Naturally, with such tastes, it is difficult to intro-
duce many new dishes, or to secure a very varied
menu.
In the old days of the brick oven, most of the
necessary cooking for a family was done on one day
of the week, for the proper heating of that oven could
not be accomplished hurriedly.
Now with" the gas stove, condition's are very djf-
ferent, and .two or three hours each day should be
ample time for the actual cookery for an average
family. But to accomplish everything in these
limits wise planning is required. Whatever requires
long cooking for breakfast, must be started the pre-
vious day, and preparation for the dinner or luncheon
is begun while breakfast is being made ready, and
so on.
Many business women keep house in this way,
and their families are as well fed as those where
more time is frittered away on petty nothings. It
is only by application of business methods in our
kitchens, that the routine in many households can
be simplified and untangled.
The preparation of food for an average household
is not a difficult matter when the manager has
learned her trade and each individual member is not
unreasonable in his or her requirements.
The housekeeper must think out her plan of action
348
MENU MAKING
173
for days in advance and thus save unnecessary dupli-
cation of processes.
When one pair of hands must do all the cooking,
it is a foolish waste of time and strength to cook
fresh food for the purpose of making composite dishes.
Let those come occasionally as an easy way of finishing
up some bits too good to throw away, which have
already appeared in other forms. For example, it
Making Timbale Cases.
takes no more effort or fuel to boil twelve potatoes
than is required to cook six. These may appear
one day as plain boiled, if we have a roast with a good
gravy. The next day we are to serve the meat cold
or perhaps fried fish with no sauce, so the second
portion of potatoes is cut in cubes or slices and
reheated in butter, flavored with onion, and sprinkled
with chopped parsley just before serving, giving
us Lyonnaise potatoes. Or we might prefer Delmonico
potatoes and put them in layers in a pudding dish with
349
MENU MAKING 175
a sprinkle of cheese between, pour a thin white
sauce over, cover with buttered crumbs, and heat
through in the oven. Or the potatoes may be mashed
and for a second appearance take the form of a huge
cone, or apples, or pears for individual service.
Sometimes in our zeal to use up left-overs, we
expend much time and strength and more additional
material than the value of the original article war-
rants. But if one owns a timbale iron, those fragile
Shells resulting from frying a batter on it are attractive
receptacles for a little creamed chicken or a sweet-
bread.
Croquettes have their place occasionally, and often
save the purchase of more meat and thus justify the
time they require. A garnish of crisp triangles of
toast around a dish of creamed meat disposes of
both the scraps of meat and bits of bread or
cases may be made of bread and browned in the oven
and filled with meat.
The store closet should be kept well stocked, and
this is less expensive and far easier than buying
things as needed. One order a week ought to be
enough for the staple groceries, and two orders a
week in winter and three in summer for meats,
fruits, and fresh vegetables. Do not order by tele-
phone, but at least once each week visit the market
and make the order according to what is available
there.
The time often spent in a daily visit to markets or
351
MENU MAKING 177
a daily call from the store-man can be used to better
advantage in an average home.
A fair supply of good-grade canned goods should
be kept in the house for emergencies ; but as a whole
these are more expensive than fresh cooked meats
and vegetables; but where fuel is expensive and
labor high, they may be used more~ freely.
Milk should be used generously. Many families
would do well to double their present milk supply.
Where milk is abundant and canned vegetables at
hand, it takes but a few moments to prepare a nour-
ishing and attractive cream soup of corn, beans, peas,
or tomatoes. If the top 'of the milk has been used
for cereal and coffee, the remainder will be quite as
satisfactory as whole milk for soups or puddings,
when butter or other fat is added.
If our home is at a distance from markets and we
have an abundance of one type of food material and
little of others, then it may be necessary for us to
devise many ways of serving this one, and then we
must use different forms and flavors that we may
not tire of the monotonous diet. But when the sea-
son of any fruit, vegetable, or meat is brief, then we
need serve it only in its natural form or cooked in the
simplest manner.
As the seasons change, cold merging into heat
and heat into cold again, we let our fires go out, then
we kindle them, and we decrease and then increase
our .clothing. But few households make a corres-
353
178
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
pondingly marked change in their food, adapting it
to the differing needs of the body as the external
temperature changes.
All of us know places where pork and pies occupy as
prominent a position on the tables in July as in Janu-
ary, though their heat-giving qualities make them
out of place in summer, even if admissible in winter.
Some Ways of Serving Oranges.
"Pork and beans," where the fat predominates, may
be suitable for midwinter, while "baked beans," with
a small amount of fat be it pork, beef, butter or
olive oil are not out of place at any season.
Another phase of this matter is the improvement
in nagging appetites, which is accomplished by a
change in food. The city dwellers are often better
off in the spring than the country family. From
the South to the city markets come greens of several
kinds, asparagus, lettuce, cucumbers, and radishes,
while the country garden is still bare. A small
bunch of asparagus as a garnish around some inex-
354
MENU MAKING
179
Lambs Heart with Asparagus.
pensive meat like lamb or calf hearts will give relish
when a larger quantity would be an extravagance.
Those who prepare the food for the family deserve
a change of labor from season to season, and many
women in the country would do well to strike from
pie making and spend the time so saved out of doors.
It is no harder to care for a strawberry bed than to
Apricotcor Peach Jelly.
355
i8o PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
wield the rolling pin or bend over a hot stove, and
strawberries may well be substituted for pies.
True economy must be practiced in .the planning
of menus and one thing fitted into another so that
nothing is lost.
USE OF FATS
Perhaps trie re is no one thing more often wasted
in the average household than fat, yet this is essen-
tial to our health, and we pay high prices for it in
cream, olive oil, and butter, when cheaper forms
might be substituted in some cases.
The fat trimmed from meats is too often left
at the market or thrown away after cooking, instead
of clarifying it according to the directions on page
73, This, when properly prepared, would be far
superior to the lard and cooking butter often bought
for culinary purposes.
The flank fat from beef, or "cod fat," as some
market-men call it, is much softer than suet, and, if
carefully prepared, is to be preferred to cooking-
butter for making ordinary cookies, gingerbread,
pastry, etc. This clarified fat usually costs less than
ten cents a pound, even after the weight of the scraps
is deducted.
When a housekeeper has not time to prepare
such fat, she may buy uncolored oleomargarine at
about half the price of table butter, or in the vicinity
of fifteen cents a pound. (Colored butterine is taxed
ten cents a pound.) Many preparations of cotton
356
TABLE SERVICE 181
seed oil are on the market, which are satisfactory
when fresh for frying and for use in doughs.
One must use discretion in combining fats for
different uses. It is not desirable to use smoked
fat like that from bacon, or highly seasoned fat, such
as comes from sausages, for frying doughs, but these
should be kept each by itself and used for warming
potatoes and other vegetables.
The hard suet and soft chicken oil clarified together
give an excellent compound, which may be substi-
tuted for butter in tomato sauce and some soups, as
well as in many doughs.
In the same way all bits of meat and bone should be
used for stock, alone, or combined with vegetables.
Where meat is served once or twice daily in a house,
there is rarely need of buying any especially for soups.
TABLE SERVICE
The desirability of careful table service for the
simplest foods is shown by this incident told by one
pupil.
"My aunt had great difficulty in getting us to
eat cereal for breakfast, so she bought us each a very
pretty blue bowl. We were allowed to use these
only when we had cereal for breakfast. The result
was that we eagerly asked for it every morning and
now are very fond of the various kinds."
No one can deny that such attention to details
is an important part of the housekeeper's duty.
Where there are no servants, a housekeeper must
357
1 82 .. PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
be careful that her efforts for dainty service do
not involve her in labor beyond her strength. Each
member of the family should have a part in the table
service that everything may move smoothly.
MENUS FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
Every housekeeper occasionally has to plan a
special menu for home or club or church society, and
consideration of this matter may be helpful here.
It is of first importance that we do not undertake
more than we can carry out well. This applies to
the choice of the food material, to the number of
courses, and the way in which they are to be served.
Instead of sending away for rare luxuries with
which our guests might be familiar every day, let us
make the most of the specialties of our own locality.
The table decorations may take the form or color
of the season, but .beware of special shapes or gar-
nishes which might cause any deterioration of the
food to be served.
Other essential points are to have everything served
at the proper temperature, to alternate brown and
white or crisp and soft effects, and to avoid having
the same article appear in two different courses.
This couplet from an old English poet sums up the
whole matter:
"Three dishes well dressed, and a welcome withal,
Both pleaseth thy guest, and become th thy hall."
358
SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR
CLASS STUDY ON
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
Ample material for a course of six or more lessons may be
secured from the lesson books on Principles of Cookery
and from the Government Bulletins. The Farmers ' Bulletins
may be obtained without charge by writing to the United
States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. As
many copies of each will be sent as desired. The bulletins
for which a price is given may be obtained by sending coin
to the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
The Government will not accept postage stamps. A few
reference books are mentioned which will be loaned by the
School for the cost of postage given, if not available in the
local public library. Any encyclopedia will furnish much
on every subject, and a book of standard quotations will also
add to the interest of the meeting.
All the common daily foods may be studied from the
historical or literary standpoint, for each has a history and
literature of its own. Often it is wise to set the practical
housekeeper to look up the historical side of a food, while
a philosophical member is required to report upon its prac-
tical use. Thus each, gets a fresh point of view and a new
^ interest in an old subject.
It might prove interesting to arrange for a series of lunches
to illustrate the foods being studied. Here it is best to
keep out of the conventional lines and make the menus
educational. When the class is large, a few may be chosen
to prepare the lunch for all and directed to keep the expense
within certain limits, 10 to 20 cents apiece, and to give
a report. Chafing dishes should be provided for each group
of four to eight and some experimental cookery tried,
189
359
1 9 o PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
MEETING I
(Study pages 139)
Fuels and Appliances for their Use
Work of Count Rumford: Rumford Kitchen Leaflets, No. i.
($1.00, postage 8c.)
Work of Benjamin Franklin. See encyclopedias.
Aladdin Oven. See Science of Nutrition, by Edward
Atkins. ($2.00, postage i4C.)
Fireless Cook Stove. Pamphlet, postage 4C. See also
Supplement to Principles of Cookery.
The Gas Stove. If gas is in common use, have members
calculate the amount of gas required to bake a loaf of
bread, a cake, to boil two quarts of water, etc., by observ-
ing the length of time taken to burn two cubic feet i, e.,
one complete revolution of the hand of the small dial D.
See page 10. See also Question 5.
Electric Cooking Technical World Magazine, July 1906.
(Postage 6c.)
Water
Experiments: See pages 21, 22. Test the water boiling
slowly and boiling hard with a thermometer. Note the
simmering temperature and- observe how much less heat
is required to keep the water at this temperature' than to
keep it boiling vigorously. (If a gas stove is not available,
use a small kerosene stove or a chafing dish burner.) A
suitable thermometer may be obtained through the school
for 50 cents. Loaned for 6c postage.
The experiment on page 22 can be made with one dish using
the same quantity (say a cup) in each case.
Topic: Kitchen Experiment.
References: Chemistry of Cooking-, by Williams. Chapter
II. Boiling of Water. ($1.50, postage i2c.)
Drinking Water and Ice Supplies, by Prudden.
(750., postage 6c.)
360
PROGRAM 191
Preserving
Canning of Fruit, Preserves and Jellies, Maria Parloa.
Farmers' Bulletin No. 203, free.
Improved Method of Canning, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 262.
Use and Abuse of Food Preservatives. Extract No. 221.
Free, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
MEETING II
(Study pages 39-54)
Milk
Make sour milk cheese and junket. (See page 44.)
Show how acid may be used with milk without curdling.
(See page 45.).
References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 42, Facts about Milk;
No. 74, Milk as Food; No. 29, Souring of
Milk and othe^ Changes in Milk Products;
No. 63, Care of Milk on the Farm; No. 210,
The Covered Milk pail; No. 227, Clean Milk.
Milk and its Products, by Wing. ($1.00,
postage IDC.)
Butter
See experiments page 50.
White Sauce: In a chafing dish, or over a small kerosene or
gas burner, make white sauce by three methods described
on page 51.
To what extent may other less expensive fats be substi-
tuted for butter.
Make white sauce with oleomargarine.
Have some membar make two or three small cakes from the
same recipe. In one use butter, in another oleomarga-
rine, in another a mixture of equal parts of lard and beef
suet. Bake all at the same time and have all conditions
as nearly the same as possible. Show results.
361
192 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
Topic: French Sauces and their Inventors. See Hand
Book of Domestic Science, by Wilson, page 69.
($1.00, postage loc.) And other books.
References: Extract No. 44. Butter Substitutes.
Sanitary and Economic Cooking, by Mary Hinman
Abel. Chapter on Fats and Oils. (4oc. , postage
6c.)
Cheese
Make and serve Welsh rarebit made from- different recipes.
using the same kind of cheese, or make two lots by the
same recipe and method, using two or more grades of cheese..
See Question 17.
Exhibit: Show samples of all possible kinds of cheese;
prices and composition.
Topic: Ways of using Cheese in Cookery. See Sanitary
and Economic Cooking and Cook Books.
References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 82, Curd Test in Cheese
Making; No. 144, The Curing of Cheese; No.
162, Cheese Prints; No: 202, Manufacture of
Cottage Cheese; No. 244, The Food Value of
Cottage Cheese; No. 166, Cheese Making on
on the Farm.
Chemistry of Cooking, by Williams; Chapter IX,
Cheese. ($1.50, postage 2C.)
(Select answers to Test Questions on Part I and send them
to the School for correction and report on experiments.)
MEETING III
(Study pages 55-82)
Eggs
See experiments on cooking of eggs in water, page 57.
Try similar experiments in "frying" eggs with fat at high
and low temperature.
See Question 6.
Show egg mixtures a's custards, sponge cakes, etc., cooked
at too high a temperature and the same ingredients cooked
at correct temperature.
362
PROGRAM 193
References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 128, Eggs and their Use
as Food; No. 103, preserving Eggs; No. 122,
Flavor of Eggs; No. 262. Color of Eggs.
Meat, Fish, Fowl
Sanitary and Economic Cooking, "Methods of Cocking
Meat, " by Mary Hinman Abel. (4oc., postage 6c.)
See Cook Books.
Farmers' Bulletin No. 34, Meats: Composition and Cooking;
No. 85, Fish as Food; No. 182, Poultry as Food; No. 193,
Cooking Meat; No. 162, Cooking Meat.
The Roasting of Beef, by Isabel Bevier. Circular No. 71,
University of Illinois (postage 2C.).
Topic: Methods of Cooking Cheap Cuts of Meat in Palatable
Form.
MEETING IV
(Study pages 83-97)
Vegetables
See experiments, pages 83-84.
Get up an exhibit of uncommon vegetables.
Illustrate the effect of overcooking vegetables by boiling
a peeled potato, one until it is just soft, another until
it becomes soggy.
Topic: History of the White Potato.
References: Farmers' Bulletin No 256, Preparation of
Vegetables for the Table, by Maria Parloa.
Farmers' Bulletin No. 121, Beans, Peas and
other Legumes as Food, by Mary Hinman
Abel; No. 127, Sweet Potatoes; No. 244,
Cooking Qualities of Potatoes; No. 73, Losses
in the Cooking of Vegetables; Extract from
Year-Book, 1900, Value of Potatoes as Food.
363
194 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
Grains
History: See "Corn Plant" by Sargent. (750., postage 6c.)
Experiment: Cook cereal breakfast food for twenty minutes
as directed. Start another portion the night before and
cook for two hours, heating before serving. Compare
results.
References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 249, Cereal Breakfast
Foods; Extract 324, Wheat Flour and Bread;
Extract 326, Macaroni Wheat.
The Cooking of Starch in Cereals, Extract No. 7,
Illinois Experiment Station. (Postage 2C )
(Select and send answers to Test Questions on Part II.)
MEETING V
(Study pages 99 122)
Bread
Demonstration: Illustrate proportion of flour and liquid
for (i) Batters, (2) Muffin Mixtures, (3) Soft Dough,
(4) Pastry Dough. See pages 99 - 100.
See experiments with Leavening Agents, page 108.
If members are in the habit of making their own bread,
hold a bread contest, appointing judges to grade the bread
according to the chart designed by Professor Isabel
Bevier for the Illinois Domestic Science Association, viz.
Flavor 35
Lightness 15
Grain and Texture 20
Crust
Color )
Depth [ 10
Texture )
Crumb
Color )
MoistureJ '
Shape and Size . . ,. 10
100
Size of pan recommended, 7^ x 3 \ x z\ inches.
364
PROGRAM 195
Pastry and Cake: Illustrate the difference between bread
and pastry flour by making two cakes exactly alike and
baking at the same time.
Illustrate the effect of a quick and a slow oven on the same
dough.
Topic: Use of thermometers.
Bread: Quotations from prose and poetry by members.
References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 112, Bread and the
Principles of Bread Making; No. 114, Skim
Milk in Bread Making.
Story of a Grain of Wheat, by W. C. Edge. ($i . oo, postage
IOC.)
MEETING VI
(Study pages 122-138)
Food and its Appeal to the Senses
The importance of flavor, etc., as an aid to digestion: See
The Work of the Digestive Glands, by Pawlow, the
"Psychic or Appetite Juices." ($2. oo, postage i6c.)
Also Food and Dietetics, by Hutchison. Pages 396397.
($3.00, postage 26c.)
Cut illustration of cooked food from magazine to be discussed
and criticised by members.
Topics: The Use and Abuse of Garnish in Food.
Harmony in Colors, Flavors and Odors in our
Foods.
Salads.
Use of Left-overs.
Menus
See Supplement.
Menus for a week: Have each member give her method of
planning meals.
Menus for Social Occasions.
Topics: Economy of Time and Strength in Cooking.
Is Hospitality a Lost Art .
Serving by different Methods. Illustrated
365
CYLINDER TYPE FIRELESS COOKER
BENCH TYPE FIRELESS COOKER
The "Caloric," Alummoid Lined with Aluminum Utensils. The
aluminum utensils with clamped covers can be purchased separately
for home-made cookers.
366
FREEHAND COOKING
THE purpose of this Bulletin is to tabulate the material
in Principles of Cookery and to give the compara-
tively few fundamental recipes in cooking which are
capable of infinite variation.
Exact proportions, conditions, and materials are essen-
tial to obtain identical results in cooking, but materials vary
somewhat and conditions differ, so that it is often necessary
to modify a recipe. By "free hand cooking" is not meant
hit or miss cooking, or cooking by guess, but the compound-
ing of food materials on scientific principles not following
blindly by "rule of thumb" recipes which may have been
made for different conditions.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
3 teaspoons=l tablespoon 2 pints=l quart
16 tablespoons=l cup 4 quarts=l gallon
2 cups=l pint 1 cup=8 ounces (volume)
A gallon of water weighs 8 1/3 pounds a cup of water, 8 1/3
ounces (avoirdupois). A gallon contains 231 cubic inches.
All materials are measured level, i. e., by filling cup or spoon
more than full and leveling with a case knife. This applies to
liquids which "round up" in spoons. Flour, meal, and fine sugar
are measured after sifting. Measuring cups are not always accu-
rate and ordinary tea and tablespoons vary considerably.
Test spoons witli each other and with the cup before using.
APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF ONE POUND.
2 cups milk 2 5/6 cups granulated cornmeal
2 cups butter 2 2/3 cups oatmeal
2 cups chopped meat 6 cups rolled oats
2 cups granulated sugar 4 1/3 cups rye meal
2 2/3 cups brown sugar 1^ cups rice
2 2/3 cups powdered sugar 2 1/3 cups dry beans
3]/ 2 cups confectioners' sugar 4 1/3 cups coffee
4 cups patent flour 8 large eggs
4 cups entire wheat flour 9 medium eggs
4*/2 cups Graham flour 10 small eggs
Note. Read "tablespoons" in place of cups in the above and the
weight is about 1 ounce.
Copyright 1910, by American School of Home Economics.
357
No table of weights to measure can be more than
approximate, as different samples vary in weight for bulk.
In truly scientific cookery quantities should be measured
by weight. The table is useful for comparison, i. e., pow-
dered sugar is more bulky than granulated and less so than
confectioners', hence the greater sweetening power of gran-
ulated; ordinary white flour (sifted) is less bulky than
Graham flour, and so on.
Experiments have shown that there may be a difference
of 25 per cent in the weight of a "cup of flour" measured
by different persons in different ways. One method is to
sift the flour onto a square of glazed paper (or oil cloth)
and pour it into the cup placed on another piece of paper
tap the side of the cup once with a knife and level.
METHODS OF APPLYING HEAT.
BROILING Cooking before or over glowing coals or under gas.
Radiant heat. High temperature at first to sear outside, thus
developing flavor and retaining juices; then lower temperature
for the heat to penetrate and to avoid burning.
PAN BROILING Cooking on very hot griddle with only sufficient
fat to prevent sticking.
ROASTING Same as broiling, superseded by baking in oven.
BAKING Cooking in oven by heated air and radiation.
Slow oven, 270 350 F.
Moderate oven, 350-400 F.
Quick oven, 400^80 F.
(Temperatures taken by a thermometer through the top of a
gas stove oven.)
BOILING Cooking in boiling water, 212 F.
STEWING Cooking in water at temperature 160 to 180 F.
STEAMING Cooking in contact with steam, 212 F.
DRY STEAMING, as in a double boiler, 192 F.
FRYING Cooking by immersion in deep fat, approximately 350 F.
for uncooked foods, 380 F. for cooked foods. The fat used:
all lard, 2/3 lard and 1/3 beef suet, "cod fat" from the flank of
beef, oil, "cottolene" and mixtures. Temperatures vary to
produce similar effects with different fats.
SAUTEING Cooking in small quantity of fat often called frying.
BRAISING Combination of stewing and baking. Meat is often first
seared to develop flavor and prevent escape of juices.
FRICASSEEING Combination of sauteing and stewing.
4
368
COMPOSITION OF RAW FOODS.
Parts in 100 (approximate).
Wheat Flour 12 water, 12 gluten, 75 starch, 1 fat.
Cornmeal 12 water, 9 protein, 75 starch, 2 fat.
Beans and Peas, dry 13 water, 24 legumen, 60 starch, 2 fat.
Potato, white 78 water, 2 protein, 18 starch, trace of fat.
Parsnips, Carrots, Turnips 85 water, 1 proteid substance, 912
starch and sugar, y* fat.
Banana 75 water, 1 protein, 22 sugar and starch, ^ fat.
Loin of Beef (avg.) 60 water, 13 protein, 20 fat.
Eggs 74 water, 13 albumen, 10 fat.
Egg, white 86 water, 12 albumen, no fat.
Egg, yolk 50 water, 16 albumen, 33 fat.
Milk 87 water, 3 casein, 5 sugar, 4 fat.
Cheese 33 water, 26 casein, 33 fat.
Nuts 3 water, 20 protein, 15 starch, 55 fat.
Butter 12 water, 1 protein, 85 fat.
Lard, Olive Oil 100 fat.
All the above foods except refined fats, sugar and starch, contain
from y* per cent to 1 per cent of mineral matter (salts), apparent
when the foods are burned as ash. Butter and cheese have 2 per
cent or 3 per cent of common salt added.
Protein foods are eggs, meats, fish, cheese.
Starchy foods are the grains wheat, rice, rye, oats,
corn, etc., beans, peas, potatoes, chestnut.
Fats are prominent in fat meats, nuts, cream, butter,
lard.
Cellulose or woody fiber is found in vegetables, unscreened
flours and meals, and in fruits, especially when unripe.
EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOOD MATERIALS.
STARCH absorbs water, swells and becomes partially soluble
in water. This begins at about 150 F. Dry starch
begins to change to dextrine at about 320 F.
CELLULOSE itself is not affected by cooking, but the con-
necting substances are softened and it may be separated.
ALBUMEN is hardened, "coagulated," and will no longer dis-
solve in water. Temperature about 160 F. Other pro-
teins, as the gluten of flour, casein of milk, legumen of
5
369
peas and beans, myosin of meat, are hardened some-
what.
GELATIN is formed from gristle and connecting tissue of
meat, and from bones, by long continued heating in
the presence of water.
SUGAR is not changed at low temperatures unless acid is
present. It melts at about 365 and begins to caramelize
at about 420 F. Sugar, boiled with acid, changes
slowly to glucose or non-crystallizing sugar.
FAT is not changed, except at a very high temperature,
500 F. and over, when it is broken apart "split"
into fatty acid and glycerine. Some of the glycerine is
changed to "acrolein," which is very irritating to the
mucus membrane, as is recognized by the smarting
sensation given to the eyes and nose when fats are
heated too hot. Butter begins to "split" at 374 F, lard
at 446 F, olive oil at 630 F.
BAKING POWDER, a mixture of cooking soda and an acid
substance, as cream of tartar, or phosphates, or alum,
undergoes chemical change ; the acid part of the mix-
ture drives out the carbon dioxid gas of the soda and
salts as Rochelle salts, or phosphates, or alumina
compounds are formed.
The heat of the oven expands any air or gas in the food,
evaporates part of the water and drives out volatile sub-
stances like alcohol.
All these changes are, for the most part, physical rather
than chemical in their nature. For example, in a cake. after
baking, the sugar is still sugar, the starch is still starch, the
fat is still fat, and the albumen is still albumen. All the
materials have been blended, flavors having been developed
through minor but complex chemical changes and a small
proportion of the starch and sugar in the crust have been
changed to dextrin and caramel.
TEMPERATURE AND TIME OF COOKING.
All food materials are poor conductors of heat it takes
time for the heat to penetrate.
The correct time and temperature depends on (1) what
6
370
is to be accomplished, (2) size to thickness, i. e., the extent
of surface exposed to the heat, compared to the bulk.
Foods with a large proportion of eggs require low tem-
perature to prevent toughening.
Starch requires nearly the temperature of boiling water
for cooking.'
No food containing much water can be raised to a tem-
perature above the boiling point 212 F. Water gives off
vapor at all temperatures, but at 212 F. steam forms rapidly
and in so doing absorbs a large quantity of heat. No brown
crust can be formed until the water from the surface is
nearly all evaporated. A full oven in which much water
vapor is being given off requires the application of more
heat than when only one or two dishes are in it.
In baking doughs, the larger the mass the lower must be
the temperature in order that the heat may have time to
penetrate to the interior and expand the gas and harden
the albumen and gluten. If the temperature is too high at
first, a crust forms, preventing the proper expansion of the
loaf and hindering the penetration of the heat.
Thin loaves, pieces of meat, etc., need much less time for
cooking, because the heat pentrates quickly. Higher tem-
peratures may be used, as the food is cooked before the
surface begins to be burned.
Mixtures containing much sugar or molasses burn easily.
Vegetables containing much fiber need long boiling to
soften them and separate the cellulose. Young, green vege-
tables contain less fiber and require less time in cooking.
Bearing all the above in mind, the following tables may
serve as a general guide for beginners. When it is possible
to do so, TEST.
371
TIME TABLE.
BOILING
Meats (4 to 5 Ibs.) 2 to 5 hours.
(Tough meats should be kept
below boiling, 180 F.)
Fish (2 to 5 Ibs.) 30 to 45 min-
utes.
Ham (12 to 14 Ibs.) 4 to 5
hours.
Corned Meat (6 to 8 Ibs.) 4 to 6
hours.
Potatoes, white 20 to 30 min-
utes.
Potatoes, sweet 15 to 25 min-
utes.
Peas, green 20 to 60 minutes.
Beans, string % to 1 hour.
Beets, young 45 minutes.
Beets, old 3 or 4 hours.
Onions 40 to 60 minutes.
Cauliflower 20 to 25 minutes.
Cabbage, cut up 20 to 25 min-
utes.
Turnips, parsnips 30 to 45 min-
utes.
Carrots 1 hour ; less if young.
Green corn 8 to 15 minutes.
Spinach 15 to 20 minutes.
Squash 20 to 30 minutes.
Asparagus 20 to 30 minutes.
Diced Vegetables 10 to 20 min-
utes.
BAKING
Beef rib (medium, 4 Ibs.) 1 hour,
15 min.
Beef rib (medium, 8 Ibs.) 2 hours,
15 min.
Leg of lamb 1 hour, 30 minutes.
Pork (rib) 3 to 4 hours.
Veal (leg) 3 to 4 hours.
Chicken (3 to 4 Ibs.) 1 to iy 2
hours.
Turkey (8 to 10 Ibs.) 2 to 3
hours.
Fish (3 to 4 Ibs.) 45 to 60 min-
utes.
Braised beef 4 to 5 hours.
Bread, white 45 to 60 min. de-
pending on shape of loaf.
Bread, Graham 35 to 45 min-
utes.
Quick Doughs 8 to 15 minutes.
Cookies 8 to 10 minutes.
Cake, thin 15 to 30 minutes.
Cake, loaf 40 to 60 minutes.
Pudding, Indian, etc. 3 hours or
more.
Bread Pudding 20 to 45 min.,
depending on shape and num-
ber of eggs.
Pies 30 to 45 minutes.
Scalloped Dishes 15 to 20 min.
Baked Beans 12 hours or longer.
OVEN TEMPERATURES.
ENTER AT KEEP AT
Roast Meats , 480 F. 350 F.
Fish 425 F. 350 F.
Bread 440 F. 400 F.
Popovers 480 F. 450 F.
Cookies, Puff Paste 480 F. 450 F.
Quick Doughs 480 F. 480 F.
Ginger Bread and Molasses Mixture 380 F. 380 F.
Plain Cake 380 F. 380 F.
Sponge Cake 350 F. 340 F.
Baked Custard 350 F. Higher in water
These temperatures are for gas ovens, with thermometer through
the top. An oven door "thermostat" should register from 50 to
70 less. Few of these are accurate in their readings, but after being
tested a few times they are useful in obtaining desired temperatures
thereafter.
8
372
PROCESSES
IK addition to the methods or processes of applying heat,
there are a few fundamental processes in cooking, i. e. f
thickening, leavening, shortening and flavoring.
THICKENING AGENTS.
The common thickening agents are flour, corn starch, eggs,
gelatin, sea moss, junket for milk, and pectin of unripe
fruits for jellies and freezing.
One level tablespoon of flour will thicken one cup of
liquid for soups.
Two level tablespoons of flour will thicken one cup of
drippings or other liquid for gravies and sauces.
Five level tablespoons of browned flour will thicken one
cup of liquid for gravy.
The thickening power of corn starch is about twice that
of flour.
Four level tablespoons of corn starch will stiffen about
one pint of liquid, as in corn starch pudding.
One level tablespoon of granulated gelatin will stiffen
about one pint of liquid, if cooled on ice.
Two good sized eggs to one pint of milk make a custard -
one egg to a cup for soft custard or baked cup custard:
three eggs to a pint of milk for a large mould custard.
LEAVENING AGENTS.
Doughs are made light or porous in the following ways:
(a) By the production (and expansion by heat) of car-
bon dioxid gas from the baking soda in baking
powder or baking soda, combined with some acid
substance.
(b) From carbon dioxid gas produced .by the growth
of yeast a plant.
. (c) From the expansion of entangled air, incorporated
in the dough by means of beaten eggs, especially
the white, and by the beating batters, and by
folding thick doughs.
(d) From the expansion of water to steam.
9
373
Two level teaspoons of baking powder are equivalent to
one-half teaspoon of baking soda combined with one and
one-fourth (i. e., slightly rounded) teaspoon of cream of tar-
tar; or one cup of thick sour milk, or one cup of molasses,
in place of the cream of tartar.
Two cups of flour made into a soft dough requires two to
four level teaspoons of baking powder.
Batters and muffin mixtures require somewhat more bak-
ing powder to the flour than soft doughs.
One teaspoon less of baking powder may be used for each
egg added.
The yeast plant grows best at 75 to 90 F. It changes
sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxid gas. Flour contains
a small proportion of sugar and during bread making some
of the starch is changed into sugar, but the yeast begins to
act more quickly if a little sugar or glucose is added at first.
Salt and fats hinder the growth of the yeast. Low temper-
atures stop the growth almost completely ; high temperatures
kill the plant.
When eggs are used as leavening agents, the whites are
beaten separately, as they will hold much more air than the
yolks, and folded into the mixture the last thing, breaking
as few air cells as possible.
When air is depended on for leavening agent, all mate-
rials are kept as cold as possible. Cold air expands more
on heating than warm air. In pastry making, heat also
melts the fat, so that the dough cannot be handled.
SHORTENING.
Fats are added to doughs to make the product brittle
friable "short," and to enrich the mixture. The fat coun-
teracts the adhesive properties of the gluten and starch
in flour.
Pastry flours contain less gluten than bread flours and
so require less shortening.
Butter and oleomargarine contain about one-eighth water
and salt, and thus have less shortening powers than lard,
drippings, cottolene, and the like, which contain no water.
Two cups of flour (eight ounces) made into puff paste
requires eight ounces (one cup) of shortening.
10
374
Two cups of flour in ordinary pie crust requires four
ounces (one-half cup) of shortening.
Two cups of flour in cookies requires four ounces (one-
half cup) of shortening, or less.
Two cups of flour in cake requires about three ounces of
shortening.
Two cups of flour in short cake requires two ounces (one-
fourth cup) of shortening, or more.
Two cups of flour in tea biscuits requires one-half to one
ounce (one to two tablespoons) or more of shortening.
In yeast doughs less shortening is used from one-half
to an ounce to two cups of flour. The tenacity of the gluten
is required to hold the carbon dioxid gas slowly formed by
the yeast, hence too much shortening prevents proper rising.
Shortening for batters may be melted and mixed in, but in
doughs which are to be rolled pastry, cookies, short-cake,
biscuit, etc. the fat should be cold and hard and cut into
the flour with a knife, or rubbed in with the tips of the
fingers.
FLAVORING.
The flavoring materials most commonly used are salt,
sugar, spices and extracts. The fine art of cookery consists
of developing the full natural flavor of the foods themselves
and in combining them in pleasing ways.
The amount of salt to be used depends, in general, on the
total volume of the food. When food tastes salty, too much
has been used. A safe proportion is one teaspoon salt to
one quart of liquid in soups, cereals, sauces, or to one quart
of flour in doughs. When the flavors are delicate, some-
what less salt is used, and with strong flavors, somewhat
more. Cakes in which much salt butter is used do not need
more salt.
The quantity of sugar to be used depends on the taste
desired. Foods served frozen need more sweetening than
when at ordinary temperatures. On the other hand, foods
that are served warm taste somewhat sweeter than when at
ordinary temperature.
11
375
RECIPES
The following recipes were furn. hed by Miss Anna Barrows,
teacher of cookery, Columbia University, author of Principles of
Cookery, or adapted by the editor from the various standard recipes
used in cooking schools:
WATER: EXTRACTING FLAVOR.
Tea.
Heat an earthenware teapot with hot water. Empty it
and put in one teaspoon of tea for each measuring cup of
fresh boiling water. Let it stand in a warm place two or
three minutes. Strain and serve at once. If the tea boils or
stands too long with the leaves it is unfit to drink.
Coffee.
Use one-fourth cup of coffee for one pint of water.
Place fine ground coffee in strainer in the coffee pot; add
actually boiling water slowly, a spoonful or two at a time.
Cover between additions Pour through a second time if
desired stronger.
OR: Mix one-fourth cap coffee and one teaspoon beaten
egg with a little cold water, add the remainder of one pint
of water boiling hot. Let it boil up, pour from the spout
and turn back into the pot and leave for ten minutes where
it will keep hot but not boil.
Stock.
Stock is the basis for all soups, except milk or cream
soups, to which it is sometimes added. From a pint to a
quart of cold salted water is used to each pound of meat
and bone, both of which should be in small pieces. Let
stand one hour, heat slowly and simmer gently for four
hours or more, strain and cool quickly. Remove the hard-
ened fat before using. About a cup of mixed vegetables
carrot, onion, parsley, celery, etc. may be added during
the last hour. Mixed herbs and spices, as bay-leaf, blade of
mace, two or three cloves and pepper corns, may be tied
in cheese cloth and removed from the liquor when sufficient
flavor has been extracted.
12
376
BOUILLON usually made from beef with little bone and
no vegetables. BROWN STOCK some of the meat and a part
of the vegetables browned in hot fat or marrow. WHITE
STOCK made from chicken, veal, or fish; no flavoring
which gives color added. MACARONI, VERMICELLI, NOODLE,
RICE, BARLEY SOUP and the like cook about one-fourth
cup of dry material until tender and add a quart of hot
stock, or use cooked left-overs. JULIENNE SOUP one-half
cup mixed cooked vegetables cut in cubes, strips or fancy
shapes, to one quart of stock.
RESTORING WATER.
Dried Fruits and Vegetables.
Pick over, cover with cold water, leave for half an hour,
then wash thoroughly, inspecting each portion and drain.
Again cover with cold water and soak 12 to 24 hours, and
then cook slowly until tender. Add sugar if desired for sauce
when nearly done, or use like fresh fruit for pies, short-
cake, etc.
Prunes, apricots, peaches, apples, pears and vegetables
are treated in this way.
THICKENING.
Sauces.
Methods of mixing: (i) Melt butter (or other fat) in
saucepan, stir in dry flour, cook and stir until frothy all
over, then add liquid slowly, hot or cold, while stirring;
cook again until thick, stirring until smooth.
(2) Rub butter and flour together and stir into the warm
liquid in a double boiler, then cook and stir until thick and
smooth.
(3) When cream or less butter is used, rub the flour
smoothly with a little cold liquid and stir into the remain-
der, which should be hot, and cook in double boiler until
smooth. Then add butter and seasoning.
THIN SAUCE: One level tablespoon fat, one tablespoon
flour and one cup liquid, one-fourth teaspoon salt, few grains
pepper (white).
Suitable for creamed potatoes, macaroni, toast, etc.
13
377
MEDIUM SAUCE: Two tablespoons fat, two tablespoons
flour and one cup of liquid. Seasoning.
For general use with fish and vegetables.
THICK SAUCE : Two to four tablespoons of fat and three
or four of flour for each cup of liquid, either milk or milk
and stock.
This is the basis of souffles and croquettes.
WHITE SAUCE may be varied by different flavors and gar-
nishes, such as capers, celery, mushrooms, oysters, lobsters,
etc., etc.
TOMATO for the liquid in sauce may be seasoned with
onion, herbs and spices, by cooking them with it for a short
time before straining.
SPANISH SAUCE is tomato sauce with the addition of
onion and peppers.
DUTCH OR HOLLANDAISE SAUCE: To one cup white or
milk sauce add one or two beaten egg yolks and cook in
double boiler like custard. Flavor with one tablespoon lemon
juice.
BROWN SAUCE FOR ROAST OR PAN BROILED MEATS : After
placing the meat on the platter drain out any fat in the pan
and put some water to soak off the browned juice and flour.
For each cup of gravy put two tablespoons of the fat in
a saucepan and brown two tablespoons of flour in it; then
add one cup of the water from the pan. Cook like white
sauce. Season as desired with salt and pepper.
OR, Melt and brown two tablespoons of butter in a sauce-
pan ; add two or three tablespoons of flour and continue
the browning. When coffee color, add one cup water or
stock or milk.
Welsh Rarebit.
Heat one-half cup of cream in the blazier of a chafing dish
or in a skillet, add one tablespoon of butter creamed with one
teaspoon of corn-starch, one-fourth teaspoon of salt, and a
few grains of cayenne. When thick, set over the hot water
or heat very slowly and add one-half pound of soft mild
cheese cut up fine and one-half teaspoon of mushroom ket-
, * - " ,- . , , -
14
378
/:hup or Worcestershire sauce or one-fourth teaspoon of
mustard. Stir until the cheese is melted and pour over crack-
ers or thin toast.
Cream Soups.
Cook the vegetable till soft and rub through a strainer,
using all or a part of the water in which the vegetable is
cooked, except with potatoes. Combine with an equal quan-
tity of white sauce or white stock or mixture of the two.
Season. If too thick, add hot milk. Beaten egg may be
added just before serving if too thin.
Asparagus, Carrots, Cauliflower, Celery, Corn, Cucum-
bers, Lettuce, Mushrooms, Onions, Spinach, Summer
Squash, Turnips, Water Cress.
CREAM OF PEAS. BEANS, LENTIL, POTATO and other thick
soups have half quantity or less of white sauce added to
keep the materials from settling.
CREAM OF CHICKEN, FISH, etc., made of stock from bone,
skin and other inedible portions combined with about equal
quantities of hot white sauce seasoned in various ways.
Corn Starch Blanc Mange.
Blend two tablespoons cornstarch with an equal bulk of
milk, heat remainder of one cup milk in double boiler. Stir
the hot milk into the moistened starch, return to double
boiler, stir on stove till thick, put over water, cover and
cook twenty to thirty minutes or longer. Add two table-
spoons sugar, a bit of salt, flavor and put in moulds.
VARIATIONS : For liquid use part thin cream and part
strong coffee, or all fruit juice.
Put layers of raw or cooked fruit alternately with the
blanc mange in the moulds.
Blend two tablespoons of cocoa with the sugar before it
i? added to the cornstarch mixture.
Irish Moss Blanc Mange.
To soften the moss, soak one-half cup in cold water, wash
pick over and cook in one pint of water in a double boiler
for about half an hour. Strain and make up to a quart with
scalded rich milk or thin cream ; add a teaspoon of extract
379
flavoring and one-fourth teaspoon of salt. Or cook the
softened moss directly in one quart of milk, season and
strain. Put in molds.
Use of Gelatine.
One level tablespoon granulated gelatine will stiffen about
one pint liquid. Different makes of sheet, shredded, granu-
lated and powdered gelatine may be used interchangeably
by weight. A larger proportion of gelatine is required for
large moulds than for small. A little salt improves most
gelatine combinations.
Soak gelatine in cold water until soft, dissolve by adding
boiling liquid, sweeten and flavor with coffee, lemon, or
other fruit juices and pulp. Keep the proportions of gelatine
and total liquid right. A little more gelatine is required in
hot weather, unless ice is used.
Such jellies may be served with whipped cream or boiled
custard. Every package of gelatine is accompanied with
directions for its use.
Fruit Pudding.
Make a jelly flavored with fruit juice, slightly increasing
the proportion of gelatine. As it begins to stiffen, combine
nearly an equal amount of fruit with it. With each half
cup of jelly may be used one date, one-half fig, two or three
almonds, one-fourth orange, one-fourth banana, etc.
Snow Pudding or Fruit Sponge.
Beat one egg stiff and add one cup half stiffened jelly
gradually. Or, beat the jelly till frothing and blend the
stiff egg with that. Mould and chill. Serve with soft cus-
tard sauce made of the egg yolks.
Bavarian Cream.
Stiffen a soft custard, or fruit juice, or combination of
the two, with gelatine. As it begins to stiffen, fold in stiff
whipped cream.
Baked Custards.
Scald one pint milk. Beat two eggs till smooth, add
one-fourth cup sugar, a bit of salt, and blend with the hot
milk. Strain into buttered molds, set in a pan of hot water
16
380
and bake until firm. Put a thin knife blade in center of
custard and if clone no milk will adhere to the blade as it
is removed.
The same proportions may be used for custard pies, or
may be combined with cooked rice for a pudding.
Soft Custard.
Use the same proportions as for baked custards, or three
egg yolks in place of two whole eggs. Pour hot milk over
the beaten eggs, stirring constantly. Sugar may be added
before or after cooking the custard.
Return milk and egg to the double boiler and cook,
stirring all the time until the custard thickens and coats the
spoon, three minutes or longer. If cooked too long the
custard will curdle. Cool quickly. Flavor before serving.
Egg Timbals.
Use only one-fourth to one-half cup liquid, milk or stock,
for each egg. Flavor with salt, pepper, etc. Cook like
custards, turn from mold and serve hot with tomato sauce.
Thickened Custards.
Filling for Cream Puffs, Layer Cake, Sauces, Ices, etc.
Make a smooth paste with one-fourth cup flour and a
little milk and scald the remainder of one pint of milk.
When it is hot, blend carefully with the flour and cook in
a double boiler twenty minutes or more. Then combine
with the beaten yolks of two or three eggs and stir steadily
while cooking three to five minutes longer. Take from the
fire and sweeten and flavor according to its use. For
filling for a layer cake one-fourth cup sugar may serve,
while for cream puffs one-half cup or more will be needed.
The same foundation may be combined with an equal
quantity of cream or of fruit juice, or of each, made very
sweet and frozen as ice cream.
Frozen Desserts General Directions.
All mixtures must be sweeter and more highly flavored
than if served without freezing. Cool thoroughly before
packing in ice and salt. Use three measures fine cracked
ice to one measure of salt.
17
381
Lemon Ice.
Mix in proportion of the juice of one lemon, one-fourth
cup of sugar and one cup of water. Or, make a quantity
of syrup, 4 measures of sugar to 2 of water, and use 4
measures of syrup to I of fruit juice. Strain into a tin can
or straight glass jar with a close cover. Pack this in a
pail or pan with ice (or snow) and salt. Turn the can
around and occasionally scrape down the ice which forms
inside. Use other fruit juices in the same way orange,
pineapple, raspberry to which lemon juice is usually added,
grape juice or acid jelly.
Pineapple Sherbet.
One can of grated pineapple, one cup of sugar, juice of
two lemons, one tablespoon of powdered gelatine, one quart
of water or milk.
Ice Cream.
Scald thin cream in double boiler, dissolve sugar in
the proportion of one cup to a quart, add flavoring when
cool extract, one tablespoon to a quart. This is "Phila-
delphia" ice cream. Thickened custard made very sweet
and highly flavored is often called "New York" ice cream.
Mousse or Parfait.
Mix together one cup thick cream, two tablespoons pow-
dered sugar and flavoring. Whip cream with egg beater,
skimming off froth as it rises and draining on a sieve.
Return liquid to bowl and whip until no more froth will
rise. Turn drained froth into a mould ; cover, and bind the
lid with a strip of muslin dipped into melted fat. Bury in
ice and salt for three to four hours before serving.
Junket.
The active principle in junket is reiinin or "rennet," which
is extracted from the lining of calf's stomach. This will
coagulate or thicken warm milk but nothing else. Its prop-
erties are destroyed at the boiling temperature and it has
no action in the cold. Heat two cups of milk to body tem-
perature, 99 degrees, powder junket tablet and dissolve in
a little water, add one-third cup of sugar dissolved in one-
"From Home Science Cook Book.
18
382
third cup of warm water and flavoring extract. Pour into
serving dishes and keep warm until set. Cool.
Caramel syrup or maple syrup may be used in place of
sugar. Chocolate may be added or beaten egg yolks with
beaten whites on top.
Jellies.
Pectin is the gelatinizing agent in jellies and jams. It is
a substance similar to starch and is found in most fruits
and some vegetables. It is most abundant when fruit is just
ripe or nearly so. The making of good jelly depends on
having the ccrreci proportion of fruit juice, sugar, and
acid and on boiling. The density of the mixture should
be between 24 degrees and 30 degrees as measured by the
syrup gage at the boiling temperature, and the boiling
point 217 degrees F. or 103 degrees C. Long boiling alters
the gelatinizing properties of pectin. Too great a propor-
tion of sugar and violent boiling cause the sugar to crys-
tallize in the jelly.
Pick over and clean, or pare, core and cut up large fruits,
heat with or without water and cook until very soft. Juicy
fruits like currants and grapes need no added water, while
fruits like apples should be barely covered with w'ater.
Strain the juice from the pulp through cheese-cloth or.
flannel. To the strained juice granulated sugar is added
usually in the proportion of pint to pint, but good jelly may
be made with half the volume of sugar to juice. The pro-
portion depends on the acid and sugar in the fruit. Heat
slowly to dissolve sugar, and boil gently until proper density
is obtained, skimming froth that rises. If no syrup gauge
is used, fest by dropping a little on a cold plate to see if
the jellying point is reached. Pour into sterilized glasses
and when set cover with melted paraffine.
The pulp may be squeezed in the straining bag to get a
marmalade or even a second quality jelly: or, better, heat
pulp again with a small amount of water and strain without
pressure. This process may be repeated. Boil down some-
what and add sugar and finish as before. Jelly may be made
from parings and cores.
As the presence of acid is essential to make the materials
jelly, lemon or currant juice is usually added to sweet flavored
19
383
fruits. (Summary of the result of experiments made by Dr.
Goldthwaite at University of Illinois- and Miss Snow at
University of Chicago).
Soft Cooked Eggs.
Place eggs in one cup of boiling water to each egg in a
saucepan, cover and remove from the fire.
From five to ten minutes will be required according to
the firmness desired.
Or, put one egg in one cup of cold water and bring slowly
to the boiling point. Then remove the egg.
Hard Cooked Eggs.
Keep eggs in water just below the boiling point for thirty
minutes. The yolks should be dry enough to mash easily.
Such eggs are suitable for salads may be warmed in any
well flavored sauce, may be stuffed by blending the yolks
with chopped meat or nuts or seasoning of any kind.
THICKENING AND LEAVENING.
Omelets.
There are but two types of omelet to which special names
are given from the garnish added.
French Omelet.
Beat an egg slightly. Add one tablespoon water or milk,
season with salt and a dash of pepper. Turn into a hot
buttered frying pan, which must be perfectly clean and
smooth. Lift cooked portions with a fork. Shake the pan
to prevent adhesion. When all is firm, fold and serve at
once.
Puffy Omelet.
Separate white and yolk of one egg. Beat white stiff,
add yolk and blend together. Add salt, pepper and one
tablespoon of water or milk. Turn into buttered pan and
place where it will cook slowly and evenly. When firm,
fold and serve.
Two tablespoons of white sauce or bread softened in
milk may be used instead of one of milk or water. Chopped
parsley, or other vegetable, any nice bits of meat or fish,
cheese', jelly, etc., may be folded into the onielet just before
serving. ^
20
384
Meringues or Kisses.
Beat egg whites with a speck of cream of tartar. When
stiff fold in one-fourth cup powdered sugar for each white.
Flavor slightly, drop on ungreased paper, and bake slowly
until dry, thirty minutes or more.
For soft meringues on puddings, use half as much sugar.
Fruit Souffles.
For each stiffly beaten egg white fold in one- fourth cup
thick, sweetened fruit pulp, or marmalade, or jam. Partly
fill buttered molds, and bake like custards, until firm.
Serve with soft custard as a sauce.
Sponge Cakes.
Equal measures of eggs, sugar and flour, or the weight
of the eggs in sugar, and half of the weight of the eggs in
flour. This also applies to the use of egg whites only as
in angel cakes.
In other words, two large or three small eggs rightly
blended with one-half cup each of sugar and flour and
carefully flavored and baked slowly will produce such a
cake as that shown on page 65.
The yolks of the eggs should be beaten until thicker and
lighter colored than when beginning the process. To them
add the sugar, one or two teaspoons of lemon juice and a
bit of grated rind. Over the whites of the eggs sprinkle
a bit of salt and beat until stiff. Fold them into the yolks
and gradually sift the half cup of flour over, blending care-
fully without stirring. . Put into the pans and bake in a
gentle heat for twenty minutes, if in small cakes; twice as
long if in one mass.
Cream Puffs.
In a saucepan heat one-half cup water with two ounces
of butter or less. When boiling hot mix in one-half cup
of flour and continue to stir while it cooks into a smooth
mass. Cool till it will not cook eggs and mix in one egg
and a second and beat the whole vigorously with the spoon.
Shape on greased pan some distance from each other in
six to twelve mounds and bake about thirty minutes ac-
cording to the size. They should be light and dry when
taken from the* pan, otherwise they will shrink and be
heavy.
21
385
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LEAVENING AND SHORTENING.
Biscuit.
Two cups sifted flour, three teaspoons of baking powder,
one-half teaspoon of salt ; sift together, rub in one table-
spoon of shortening butter, oleo, lard, cottolene or drip-
pings. Mix to a soft dough with about two-thirds cup
of milk or water. Turn onto a floured board, roll and pat
gently to three-quarters inch thick, cut and bake. Pastry
flour make more delicate biscuits than bread flour.
DUMPLINGS FOR STEWS : Omit shortening, add milk until
dough may be dropped from the spoon into boiling stew.
Cover tightly and cook rapidly 10 minutes.
SHORTCAKE: Rub in one-fourth cup of butter in biscuit
mixture. Cut like biscuit for individual shortcakes or use
a square pan and divide with knife dipped in melted butter
so that portions may separate readily after baking.
Use shortcake mixture for covering to meat pies, apple
dumplings, .etc.
Muffins.
Two cups of sifted flour, two teaspoons of baking powder,
one-half teaspoon of salt, one tablespoon of sugar; sift and
add one tablespoon of shortening melted, one beaten egg and
one cup of milk. Beat together thoroughly and bake in a
quick oven.
BLUEBERRY MUFFINS: Use a little less milk in muffin
mixture and add one cup of blueberries and a little more
sugar. Chopped apples or other fruit may be used in same
way.
TEA MUFFINS: In the above muffin mixture use one-
fourth cup of sugar and of butter and add two more eggs.
Drop Cakes.
One and one-half cups of graham flour, one-half teaspoon
each of salt and soda, and one-fourth cup of brown sugar;
sift together and mix with three-fourths cup of thick sour
milk into stiff batter which drop from a spoon onto a
greased pan or in heated gem pans and bake quickly 12 to
15 minutes. Sweet milk and two teaspoons of baking powder
may be substituted as well as rye and other flours.
23
387
Cereal Gems.
Use even quantities of flour and softened cooked break-
fast food, one teaspoon of baking powder to a cup of ma-
terial ; add sufficient milk to make a batter which will drop
from the spoon. Mix thoroughly and bake in hot buttered
gem pans.
Boston Brown Bread.
Sift together one cup of cornmeal, one cup of rye meal,
or entire wheat flour, one teaspoon of soda, one-half tea-
spoon salt. Mix with one-half cup molasses and one cup
sour milk. If not soft enough to smooth out in the bowl,
add a little water. Put in greased tins with tight cover
and steam three hours or more.
Corn Cake.
Use one cup cornmeal, one cup flour, one-half teaspoon
of salt, one tablespoon of sugar, three teaspoons baking
powder; sift together and add one egg, one cup of sour
milk and one tablespoon of shortening. Bake in pan 20 to
30 minutes, according to thickness, or in muffin pans.
The cornmeal may be scalded with an equal volume of
boiling water ; let cool, and more shortening, sugar and two
more eggs may be added.
Griddle Cakes.
Sift together two cups of flour, three teaspoons of baking
powder and one teaspoon each of salt and sugar; add two
eggs well beaten and one and one-half cups of milk grad-
'Ually and two tablespoons of melted butter. Beat well and
add more milk until the batter is as thick as thick cream.
Beat vigorously before each frying.
Fry on hot griddle, grease with rind of pork or ham.
Drop batter from end of the spoon, making circular cakes.
Turn when full of bubbles.
Waffles.
Are cooked on a waffle iron, using the griddle cake mix-
ture with an extra egg added.
24
388
Plain Cake ("Lightning" Cake).
Place the flour sifter in the mixing bowl and put in it one
and one-half cups of flour, three-fourths cup of fine granu-
lated sugar, two level teaspoons of baking powder, one-half
teaspoon of salt. Sift into the bowl.
In the measuring cup, melt one-fourth cup of butter (or
oleo), break in two eggs, fill up the cup with milk. Add
one-half teaspoon flavoring extract or saltspoon of spice.
Mix with the dry ingredients and beat well two or three
minutes. Bake in sheet or greased muffin tins in quick
oven.
VARIATIONS : Add two tablespoons of cocoa, or an ounce
of melted chocolate. Use one cup caramel or maple syrup
in place of sugar. Leave out part of the sugar for Cottage
Pudding.
Cookies.
Cream, one-half cup of butter, adding gradually one cup
of sugar; add one egg and beat well. Now mix in, a little
at a time, one-third cup of milk and two cups of flour sifted
with two teaspoons of baking powder. Add more flour, from
one to two cups, depending on the absorbing power of the
flour, to make a soft dough, which rpll out thin, and cut
with cookie cutter in fancy shapes. Bake in a quick oven 10
minutes.
VARIATIONS : Before all the flour is added, divide into
four portions ; to one add one teaspoon of lemon extract,
to another one-half cup of desiccated cocoanut ; one-half
ounce of chocolate melted, or a teaspoon of cocoa, sifted in
with a little flour; to the fourth, one teaspoon of mixed
spice and one-half cup of chopped raisins, etc. Or flavor
the portions with ginger, almond with chopped almonds on
top, or with dates, figs, nuts. Or use less flour and drop
from a spoon for a soft thick cake.
Gingerbread.
Two cups of flour, one-half teaspoon of salt and of soda,
one teaspoon of ginger ; sift together and mix with one cup
of molasses and one-half cup of hot water in which two table-
spoons of fat is melted. Bake in a moderate oven twenty
minutes or more,
25
389
Doughnuts.*
Sift together four cups of flour, one teaspoon of salt,
three teaspoons of baking powder, one-half teaspoon of
mixed spice and one cup of sugar. Mix with one egg and
one cup of milk.
Sour milk and soda may be used in place of baking pow-
der. For richer doughnuts, two eggs and one tablespoon of
butter may be used.
Plain Pastry.*
Sift two cups of flour with one-half teaspoon of salt and
cut in with a knife, one-fourth cup or two ounces of short-
ening. Mix with about one-half cup of ice water into a
stiff dough. Roll out and spread with one ounce' of butter,
fold and add a second ounce of butter in the same way,
making one-half cup of shortening in all. For upper crusts
more shortening may be rolled in if desired. Keep every-
thing as cool as possible. The lightne'ss of the pastry de-
pends on the amount and coolness of the air enclosed and
the flakiness on the number of layers of fat and dough .pro-
duced by folding and rolling.
YEAST DOUGHS GENERAL PROPORTIONS.
SUGAR
SHORT-
ENING
LIQUID
YEAST
CAKE
FLOUR
EGGS
Bread
I tsp
/> oz. +
i cup
j/4 tO I
7 CUPS
Muffins. . . .
Rolls
I tbs.
I tbs
l /2 OZ.
I OZ.
I CUp
i cup
y+ to i
y\ to i-
2 Clips
^ cups
) +
Fancy Rolls .
Buns
2 tbs.
^/-> cup
2 OZ.
2 OZ.
I CUp
I CUp
y 4 toi
y 4 to i
3 cups '+
3 cups 4-
i +
Coffee Cake
y 4 cup
20Z.
y* cup
Mtoi
2 Clips
2 +
390
Bread Short Process.
- For each loaf, use one cup of milk scalded or half rriilk
and half hot water, or all warm water, one-half teaspoon
of salt and of sugar, one-half or more compressed yeast
cake, softened with luke warm water, and about three cups
of bread flo.u-. Mix well and kneed until the dough is
smooth and springy. The dough should now be warm. Let
rise till double, shape, put in pan and let rise again and bake.
Or this amount of dough may be shaped into a dozen or
two dozen small rolls before final rising.
Entire Wheat Bread.
Scald one cup of milk; in it melt one teaspoon of butter
and half a teaspoon each of sugar and salt. When luke-
warm, add half a cake of compressed yeast, softened in
one-fourth cup of warm water. Stir in between two and
three cups of flour to make a dough stiff enough to hold
its shape. Mix thoroughly with a knife, but do not knead
it until after it has risen to double its bulk, then shape into
small loaves, let rise until double in size, bake in hot oven
about half an hour.
One-fourth cup of molasses may be used in place of the
sugar if preferred.
Rolls Long Process.
For rolls or two loaves of bread, put into the mixing bowl
one tablespoon of butter or lard, one tablespoon of sugar,
one teaspoon of salt and one pint of scalded milk. When luke-
warm, add one quarter yeast cake softened in water ana three
cups of flour. Cover and let rise. In the morning, add to
this sponge about three cups of flour to make thick enough
to knead. Let rise till double, shape, put in pans, rise again
and bake.
MUFFINS : Add two or three eggs to the sponge, but no
more flour. Bake in muffin pans.
Coffee Cake.
Work into one pint of light dough, two-thirds cuj? of
white sugar, one egg, and two ounces of melted butter,
thoroughly to a creamy, smooth batter by beating,
m
Pour into shallow pan and let rise again. Sift sugar and
cinnamon over the top and bake in a quick oven. Serve
warm.
Use of Stale Bread.
Bread Cases.
Cut slices of bread two inches thick and three inches
long. Remove part of crumbs from the center, leaving a
hollow space. Spread with butter and brown in the oven.
Croutons.
Cut stale bread into slices about one-third inch thick and
then in cubes. Bake in moderate oven until golden brown.
Dry Crumbs.
Crusts remaining from croutons, etc., should be dried
in the oven, rolled and sifted, the fine ones used for cro-
quettes, etc., the coarser for stuffing or escalloped dishes.
Cracker crumbs may be used in the same way.
Buttered Crumbs.
Melt butter and stir in crumbs till the butter is evenly
distributed.
One ounce of butter for one cup of crumbs is a fair pro-
portion. Buttered crumbs seasoned and moistened are used
for stuffing peppers, tomatoes, fish, poultry, etc.
Filling for Fish or Fowl.
One cup of crumbs will serve for a small fish or chicken,
while a large fowl or turkey will require two or three.
With each cup of crumbs blend one ounce or more of butter
or chopped fat salt pork, one teaspoon parsley or mixed
herbs, one-half teaspoon salt and a little pepper. Moisten
with milk, water or stock. For fish season also with lemon
and onion juice.
Mashed potato or chestnuts may be used instead of
crumbs. .. ..--'
28
392
Fat To Try Out and Clarify.
Cut the fat beef suet or flank fat in small pieces, re-
moving skin and bits of lean meat. Cover with cold salted
water and leave in a cold place for several hours. Drain
off the water, and if possible soak again, and drain. Cook
slowly in moderate oven or in upper part of the double
boiler till the fat has melted and the scraps are crisp, but
not brown. Strain and cool. Slices of raw potato or pieces
of charcoal cooked in the fat before straining will absorb
any impurities.
Beef, pork and chicken fat may be combined. Surplus fat
from roast beef, corned beef, etc., may be added.
Such fat may be used for shortening muffins, ginger-
bread, etc., for greasing pans, for some sauces and soups,,
or for deep frying. Mutton fat may be prepared to add to
fry fat.
Fat from bacon, ham or sausages should "be reserved for
hashes or warming over potatoes.
MEATS.
Broiled Meats, Chops, Steaks.
The meat should be cut in convenient pieces, and some
of the bone, gristle and fat removed. Sections one inch
thick will be more juicy than thinner ones. Wipe the meat
with a damp cloth, grease the broiler or pan with a piece of
the fat, or brush melted fat over the meat. Place the meat
where intense heat will reach it. at first, under the gas flame,
or in a hot pan on top of the stove, or over hot coals. "Turn
often at first, every half minute if directly over the coals,
until well seared and browned on both sides, then move it
farther away from the fire so the heat may penetrate to
the center without burning the outside.
As the meat is seared on the surface the juices are driven
towards the center, and expanding with the heat tend to
make the surface of the meat puff outward. This is very
apparent between the wires of a double broiler and probably
is the best indication that the meat is cooked.
Steaks one incji thick should cook in five or six minutes
to be rare, eight or ten minutes to be well done, the time
29
varying according to the method of cooking and intensity
of heat. Mutton chops may be served rare, lamb usually
well done, veal and pork always must be thoroughly cooked.
Broiled meats should be served 'at once on a hot dish
and with slight seasoning beside their own juices. If kept
hot the cooking is continued too far.
Fish and chicken may be partially broiled arid then fin-
ished in the oven. Apply the direct heat mainly to the cut
inside surface, as the skin burns easily.
Roast Meats.
Trim, wipe, score the fat portion and rub salt into that,
place on rack in pan, sprinkle flour all over it, put skin side
down. Have oven very hot at first to sear outside quickly
to prevent escape of juice, then "reduce heat. Baste occa-
sionally as needed 'with the fat which cooks out into the
pan, and turn the roast over to cook it evenly.
If there is danger of burning put some water in the pan
after the meat is seared, but this is not necessary if heat of
oven is lowered.
A sirloin or rib roast, weighing five pounds will require
about one hour, or longer, if it is to be well done. A surer
rule for time of cooking is to allow fifteen minutes for each
inch in thickness, or twenty minutes if wanted well done.
Braised Beef.
Use a thick section of the lower part of the round, two
to four pounds. Trim, wipe and sprinkle with flour, season
with salt and pepper. Brown under the gas or in hot fat.
Put in casserole, partly cover with water or brown or
tomato sauce. Cover closely and cook in very slow oven
three to five hours.
Meat Stew.
Neck or breast of lamb, of veal or inexpensive cuts of
beef may be used in this way. Cover bones with coid water
and heat slowly. Cut meat in convenient pieces, roll in
flour seasoned with salt and pepper, Fry bits of fat, then
30
394
brown sections of prepared meat and onion if desired. Put
meat in kettle with bones when water is hot.
When nearly tender add -carrot, turnip, peppers, or celery
cut in small shapes about one cup each to one pound of
meat.
Potatoes pared and cut in quarters may be added 20 to 30
minutes before serving, and dumplings 10 minutes before
serving.
Escalloped Fish or Meat.
Equal measures of cooked minced meat, bread crumbs
and white or tomato sauce ; -or, for one measure of meat,
half as much sauce and one-fourth as much buttered crumbs.
(Boiled rice or macaroni may be used instead of crumbs.)
Remove all uneatable portions from meat and mince or
chop. Put in layers in a butterejd dish, having crumbs for
the last. Bake until heated through and brown on top.
Fish or Meat Loaf, or Timbales.
Remove skin, gristle and bone from meat or fish and
mince fine. Combine with an equal quantity of bread
crumbs or stuffing from a baked fish or roast fowl, season as
desired, moisten with milk or stock. Add one beaten egg
or more to each pint of the mixture. Pack in buttered
moulds, steam or bake until firm in center. Turn out and
serve with sauce.
Meat Loaf in Rice.
Line a mould with well-cooked rice. Fill with the meat
prepared as above. Cover with rice. Steam an hour. Serve
with tomato sauce.
Fish Balls.
In a stew pan put one pint potatoes, pared and quartered,
and one cup salt cod fish which has been picked apart in
cold water. Cover with boiling water and cook until the
potatoes are soft. Drain in a colander till no water can
be shaken out. Return to pan, mash thoroughly, add salt
if needed, a shake* of pepper, one teaspoon butter, one raw
egs:, and beat all together. Shape on a spoon or in small
balls and fry in deep fat, hot enough to brown them in one
minute. Drain on soft paper.
31
395
CEREALS AND VEGETABLES.
Breakfast Foods.
Usual proportions one-half cup flakes or one-fourth cup
granules to one cup water, one-fourth teaspoon salt to one
cup water.
The denser the cereal, the more water and the longer the
time required.
Bring water to boiling point in upper part of double
boiler, placed directly on the stove.
Pour cereal slowly into boiling water, stirring constantly.
Let boiling continue about five minutes till mixture begins
to thicken. Place over boiling water in lower part of the
boiler. Cover and cook gently with little stirring one hour
or more, or till tender and soft. Or put in Fireless Cooker
for three hours.
Serve hot, with or without sugar, with milk, cream or
butter. Put in moulds with fruit and serve cold as dessert.
Pack solidly in loaf shape, slice when cold, brown in hot
fat, serve hot.
Corn Meal Mush.
Mix one cup cornmeal, one-fourth cup of flour, one tea-
spoon salt, one cup cold milk or water. When smooth
blend with one pint boiling water, stir for about five min-
utes. When thick place over water or in steamers and
cook one hour or more. Serve hot or pack in pan to fry,
or dip in fat and toast under the gas.
Rice.
Pick over and wash thoroughly or parboil five minutes
and drain. Then put in a buttered dish with twice its bulk
of boiling water and set in a steam cooker. In three-
quarters of an hour it should be tender and every kernel
distinct, and it may be cooked longer without becoming
mushy.
Rice Croquettes.
With one pint of cooked rice (if cold, reheated) blend
one tablespoon butter and one or two beaten egg yolks.
Season with salt, pepper and parsley, or with sugar and
32
396
spice. Divide in ten or twelve portions, press in firm
shape, roll in egg and. crumbs, and fry in deep fat.
Boston Baked Beans.
Soak one pint beans over night. Parboil in the morning
until the skins crack readily with a slight pressure. A
very little soda may be put into the water to help this
process. Score the rind of one-fourth pound fat salt pork
and rinse it. Drain the beans and put part in the t>ean pot,
then the pork and cover with the beans, leaving only a
little of the pork rind exposed. Mix one teaspoon of salt,
one-fourth teaspoon of mustard and a tablespoon or more
of molasses as desired, add water and pour over the beans.
Cover and bake twelve hours or more, keeping the beans
filled up with water until the last hour, when the cover
should be removed and the pork rind and the top layer of
beans should brown.
Potatoes.
Baked.
Choose those of equal size and scrub with brush. Cook in
hot oven 30 to 40 minutes, or until soft. Then crack the
skin to let out steam. The potato should be plump (not
^shriveled), and the inside white and mealy.
Boiled.
Wash, pare if imperfect or old. If not of uniform size,
divide the larger ones. Put in boiling salted water and
cook for 20 to 30 minutes, till tender. Drain off the water
and shake the uncovered kettle to let the steam escape.
Riced.
Put boiled potatoes through strainer or ricer into a hot
dish from which they are to be served.
Mashed.
In a hot pan mash boiled potatoes. For each half pint,
add two tablespoons milk, one teaspoon butter, season with
salt and pepper.
33
397
Croquettes*
Prepare mashed potato with less milk and one egg yolk
for each half pint and season with celery salt, paprika and
parsley. Roll in crumbs, egg and crumbs, and fry in deep
fat.
Stuffed Potatoes.
Cut a slice from end of baked potatoes, scrape out inside,
mash and season. Add chopped meat, cheese or parsley for
variety. Refill skins and reheat in oven.
Canoes, or Potatoes on the Half Shell.
Cut the potatoes in two lengthwise, refill each part and
brown.
Creamed.
Cut boiled potatoes in cubes or slices and reheat in thin
white sauce, one-half cup to each cup of potato.
Hash.
Use two parts potato to one part meat, or equal amounts
of each. Chop meat, chop or mash potato. Season with
salt, pepper, onion, etc., moisten with gravy or water. For
one cup hash, put one tablespoon fat in a frying pan. When
hot, put in the hash" and cook slowly, without stirring, until
a brown crust forms on the bottom. Fold like an omelet.
French Hash.
Put meat and gravy in a deep dish, cover with mashed
potato and bake till golden brown.
SUGAR.
Caramel.
Put sugar in a smooth iron pan over a hot fire and stir
constantly with an old wooden spoon until melted to a light
brown syrup. Scrape off any sugar that forms in lumps.
When all is melted add an equal amount of boiling water
and simmer a few moments until blended into a thick syrup.
A quantity of this may be made at once and kept on hand
to flavor and sw r eeten custards and ice cream, or to serve as
a sauce with other puddings.
If it should happen to brown beyond the shade of good
maple syrup, let it go a little further until the sweet flavor
34
398
would be lost. Then dissolve as above and bottle to use for
coloring soups and meat gravies.
Syrup.
Combine equal quantities of water and sugar in a sauce-
pan and stir until dissolved. Boil five to ten minutes until
only slightly reduced in quantity. Can while hot in small
jars and keep on hand to sweeten fruit drinks or ices as the
'dissolving of the sugar in cold liquids is a slow and unsat-
isfactory process.
Fondant.
In an agate saucepan put one cup granulated sugar, about
one-sixteenth of a teaspoon of cream of tartar a bit the
size of a small pea and one-half cup of hot water. Stir
till sugar, is dissolved, then cover and cook without stirring.
Skim and wipe the sides of the pan if necessary. Boil
about ten minutes or till 238 to 240 degrees F., when it will
form a soft ball in cold water. Turn into a greased bowl
or platter and cool slightly. It will grain if stirred while
too warm. Beat and knead till a smooth, creamy mass. If-
it hardens too rapidly dip the hands in water and continue
the kneading.
Pack away in covered dish for a day or longer, then shape
as desired. Colors and flavors must be very concentrated.
By combination with chocolate, dates, figs, nuts, etc., a
'great variety of candies may be secured. This fondant is
a very satisfactory frosting for cake and may be kept on
hand. Warm it over water until it can be spread on the
cake.
Boiled Frostings.
Cook one cup of sugar with one-half cup of water or
less, and a bit of cream of tartar until it will thread, not
quite reaching the soft ball stage. Then pour slowly on
the stiffly beaten white of one egg and continue beating
until cool enough to spread. Much depends on the moisture
in the atmosphere as well as the dryness of the cake.
For a still softer frosting a larger proportion of egg white
is used. This may be varied with different flavors and
colors.
35
399
MISCELLANEOUS.
French Dressing for Salads.
One-fourth teaspoon salt, speck pepper, one tablespoon
vinegar, two or three tablespoons oil.
Blend thoroughly and pour over the salad.
Mayonnaise Dressing.
One egg yolk, one-half to one cup oil, one tablespoon
vinegar, one tablespoon lemon juice, one-half teaspoon salt,
one-half teaspoon mustard, few grains cayenne.
Mix vinegar, lemon juice and seasoning.
Beat egg yolk, add oil drop by drop at first, beating con-
tinually. When thick acid a little of the seasoning mixture,
then more oil and alternate until all is used.
Utensils and materials should be kept as cool as possible.
Chocolate.
Melt one ounce chocolate in saucepan over hot water,
add a few grains salt, one tablespoon sugar, one-half pint
boiling water ; stir till smooth ; boil one minute. Blend with
one pint hot milk and cook in double boiler.
Beat with Dover egg beater to prevent skin forming on
top. Just before serving, an egg yolk may be added to the
chocolate. Serve with whipped cream.
Chocolate and cocoa both contain starch which requires
cooking.
36
400
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
IN THE study of Economics there are two great
divisions production and consumption. Until
within a few years, by far the lion's share of time and
study has been given to the first of these divisions. It
has been deemed sufficient for the securing of happi-
ness and prosperity to a people to point out how the
greatest degree of efficiency in producing wealth might
be obtained. The manner in which that wealth was
expended was considered less important. Recently a
decided change has taken place. A conviction has
been growing, especially among students or economics,
of the equal importance of the other division, which
covers the use made of the money after it has been
acquired. This emphasizes the important place of the
home in Economics as will be realized by those who
consider how largely the home is the center of the
consumption of wealth.
In former times the home was practically the entire
economic world. Most of what was produced to meet
the needs of the people originated there, while all of
it found ready consumption within the family circle
or by limited exchange. To-day the shop and factory
have taken most of the productions and developed them
Place of
Home in
Consumption
of Wealth
401
2 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
one by one, into large industries outside the home,
such as the manufacture of dress goods and cloth of
all kinds, carpets, bedding, candles and soap; trades,
such as tailoring, shoe-making and millinery, all hav-
ing their origin in the home. The preparation of food
is almost the only work left to the home which may
be called creative, unless we include the supreme work
of developing men and women.
Yet with production passed practically out of the
control of the home, we find the other branch of
Economics, consumption, still chiefly confined there.
Most of the wealth acquired outside is expended on
either the home or the interests closely connected with
it. Women thus become the main directors of these
expenditures. It is generally conceded that most of
them stand in great need of a better understanding
of the importance of the work that is theirs, and of
the principles which underlie all correct economy.
Economy Two aims are of equal importance, in the practice
of economy; (i) to increase the income, and (2) to
diminish the expenditures. The last contains possi-
bilities of comfort of quite as high order as the first.
There are, according to Devine, "three methods by
which general prosperity may be increased ; a better
choice, a better production, a better consumption. In
comparing the relative importance of the three
methods it will be found that there are greater imme-
diate possibilities in the third (a better consumption)
than in either of the others, and that of the two that
402
ECONOMICS 3
remain, the first (a better choice) is more important
than the second."*
In the light of all these facts it is a surprising thing
that anyone can look lightly upon the share that is
given to woman in the economic struggle. There
are those who urge that the reason why women are
finding the care of their homes less attractive than
formerly is the fact that all which adds zest and is
worth while is taken from them. Rather is it true that
some things which demanded time and strength have
yielded to more vital things, and there is now op-
portunity to perfect that which is left, with a better
appreciation of its importance.
Devine further affirms that "it is the present duty
of the economist to magnify the office of the wealth
expender, to accompany her to the very threshold of
the home, that he may point out, with untiring vig-
ilance, its woeful defects, its emptiness, caused not
so much by lack of income, as by lack of knowledge
of how to spend wisely. There is no higher economic
function than that of determining how wealth shall
be used. Even if man remains the chief producer, and
woman remains the chief factor in determining how
wealth shall be used, the economic position of woman
will not be considered by those who judge with dis-
crimination, inferior to that of man. Both may in their
respective .positions contribute directly and powerfully
to the advancement of general prosperity."
* Devine: Economic Function of Woman.
Office
of the
Wealth
Expender
403
Use of
Money
Business
Side of
Home-Making'
4 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
As women awaken to a realization of this truth,
and bend their energy to acquire the knowledge and
skill necessary to do their part more successfully, we
shall begin to attain the degree of comfort and pros-
perity possible for us to enjoy. There is far more
money earned in the majority of families than is wisely
spent. The error is frequently careless expenditure,
not sloth in acquiring, a misuse rather than lack of
income. The old adage, "A penny saved is a penn>
earned," should be daily before the housewife. She
should weigh in a less vague and general way the
saying that "one cannot have his money and spend it
too." Money has but a limited purchasing power:
if it goes to gratify one desire, another must be denied.
Few, very few, are able to satisfy all material desires.
The mistake is made in giving too little thought to the
various avenues of expenditure, the desire uppermost
at the time being the one gratified, regardless of the
relative importance of others. Combined with this
are usually the failure to exercise foresight and the
lack of sufficient knowledge of values to insure full
money value for each outlay. 'The woman who longs
to get where she 'won't have to count every penny'
will never have her longing satisfied until she makes
every penny count."*
As the economic importance of the home is more
fully realized, the business side of home-making is
emphasized. The home has a close and intimate rela-
* Miss Richardson : The Woman Who Spends.
404
HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION 5
tion to the business world in general. The house-
wife in her customary purchases comes in touch with
retail trade of almost every variety and adds her con-
tribution. If she makes use of the bank as the best
medium of exchange, she shares in the interests of one
of the large business enterprises. With a surplus to
invest, she has to do with one or another branch of
the business world in selecting the form of invest-
ment, and in looking after the income from it. To
conduct any and all of these interests in the most ef-
ficient and successful manner requires as thorough
training as for any other line of business. Only busi-
ness-like methods can succeed. The reason why so
many women fail at just this point is from a lack, in
their early life and education, of the training which
develops business ability.
HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION
Housekeeping ranks among the professions as truly
as any other occupation. It is more than a trade, since
one who works at a trade performs each day the task
assigned, the work being planned and directed by
another. Thus little of the worker's energy is ex-
pended in deciding his activities. It is the director
who must possess and exercise the power to guide;
his work being to initiate, plan and direct. This re-
quires larger capacity and ability than is required of
the one who merely practices a trade.
It is the work of the housewife to initiate, plan
and direct the business of the house. The woman
who considers this work as the opportunity to assist
405
Need of
Education
Estimation
of Values
Education
of the
Home-Maker
6 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
in sharing the responsibilities of the wage-earner, and
in developing the powers of those making up the fam-
ily, has grasped the truth concerning the possibilities of
her work.
There should be no more question as to the need of
education and training for the woman who selects the
food, clothing and works of art which minister to the
highest welfare of a family than there is for the need
cf study on the part of the farmer, the manufacturer,
or the artist who produces them.
Everywhere training is showing its benefits in the
greater efficiency and skill of those who take ad-
vantage of it. Women will never be able to spend
money so as to bring adequate results,, until they
have in some way acquired a broad training in the
estimation of values. The word of the salesman is
a poor guide, yet one who has had no training to aid
her is unable to select for herself any more satis-
factorily. Houses which are turned over to "experts"
are usually striking witnesses of abundant expendi-
ture, but pitiably fail to convey to eye or heart the
refreshing individuality or the satisfaction to be real-
ized in the cultivated woman's home.
The fullest, most completely rounded education is
none too good for one who is called upon to use and
impart so varied information as is the housewife. The
study of science is especially practical for one who
aspires to master all the things that come within the
range of her work. A knowledge of chemistry is
406
HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION 7
necessary to an understanding of food composition, of
cooking, cleaning, etc. The laws of physics are as
closely related. For the mother, modern psychology
is an indispensable study, if she is to understand her
child, and wisely guide its development. If this
knowledge may not be secured in school, a great deal
may be done to supplement such training. Study in
this course should do much along this line.
In addition to the knowledge gained through study,
there should be a liberal amount of practice in the
various duties before one assumes the care of a house.
Unfortunate the home where the practical experience
all comes after marriage. It comes at the hardest
of periods and is unjust to any man. In no busi-
ness can failure be graver or the results more serious.
The fact that some very efficient housekeepers have
evolved from unpromising beginnings is no argument.
Such are, without exception, most eager for their
daughters to receive training, since they know by dear
experience its value.
Much of the present aversion to household duties
would vanish before adequate preparation to perform
them. The American Kitchen Magazine published, in
January, 1901, some suggestions of leading men on
the general subject of Housekeeping on a Business-
like Basis. Some of their remarks are significant.
One says : "Whenever one's knowledge of a subject has
passed the stage of drudgery and becomes a science,
its performance immediately becomes a pleasure. The
ability to do a thing in the highest known perfection,
4O7
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
A Right
Spirit
Training
and
Devotion
Essential
Business
Principles
or a little better than anyone else, is always a source
of delight, and it matters little what that something
is. This spirit imparts its influence to everyone in
any way associated with the work. The men or
women who know their business seldom have diffi-
culty in keeping those under them happily employed.
.... Wherever the circumstances of our life land
us, we should make our stand, do our part of the
world's work, and do it well The woman who
would have a home of her own and a happy one,
should know, not only how to manage the chamber-
maid, but the cook as well. The moment that either
discovers that there is method on the part of their
mistress and knowledge superior to their own, they
will comply with her requests There will be no
trouble with the kitchen end of the house when women
take the same pains to know their business as men do.
"The first essential is the proper training. The sec-
ond essential is such a desire for success that she is
willing to perform her part with industry and devo-
tion.
"It is not as necessary to show that housekeeping
has in it elements of business as to make house-
keepers themselves recognize its business character
and apply to it ordinary business principles. A quick
attention to details, a fine sense of values, good judg-
ment in buying and selling, and a ready adaptation of
means to end with the le^st possible loss, are points
of a good business man, the housekeeper certainly
has need of them."
HOME EXPENDITURES
Whatever the condition of a family, whether large
or small, in city or country, in private house or apart-
ment, the successful expenditure of money to supply
the family with needed comforts depends vastly more
upon brains than upon dollars, upon the standard of
life than upon circumstances. To know where to
economize and where to lavish, to be on the alert for
the small wastes, so often disregarded, only train-
ing and experience can realize the ideal in these things.
The extreme economies practiced in former years
are beyond doubt questionable in these days of aston-
ishing increase in the production of wealth. Time has
become too valuable to be profitably spent in weaving
rag carpets merely to save the rags. If done, there
must be some aesthetic value found to justify it. The
same holds true of many occupations of the earlier
housekeeper. The taking of these occupations from
the home and the development of them into independ-
ent industries has liberated much time and strength,
which it is the duty of the housewife not to waste.
The changes have been phenomenally rapid, and ad-
justment could hardly be expected to keep pace, but
there is much to indicate an appreciation of the sit-
uation on the part of manv women and a sincere
desire and endeavor to co-operate in meeting the
changes intelligently.
.There is no less need of the practice of economy in
the expenditures of the present time than formerly,
409
io HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
even if the methods necessarily differ. For instance,
while we may afford ourselves finer materials and
more variety in clothing there is a correspondingly
greater demand for wise and intelligent choice of ma-
terials for bodily needs and the avoidance of such as
purport to be what they are not. Otherwise extrav-
agance in the loss of time through illness, or even of
life itself, results. Economy in food no longer re-
. quires the family to forego certain food-stuffs which
were formerly luxuries. The requisite is rather the
exercise of foresight in buying the product when in
season, or legitimately within the reach of the limited
purse.
standards O ne niust have a standard, conciously defined and
recognized, in order to choose successfully. A stand-
ard of life consists of those principles which guide
one's motives and direct one's activities. Conscious
standards are not often enough realized in things
ethical. We have standards of weights and measures
by which all weights and measures are tested. We
have standards by which we discriminate in music, art,
and many other things. But who can define his
Standard of Life readily ? We may reveal it to others,
in fact we are constantly doing so as we decide this
or that. The great difference between a successful
person who accomplishes much, and one who never
seems to amount to anything in particular, is the dif-
ference in which their standards of life have been
made clear and conscious, thus becoming a vital, guid-
ing factor in action.
410
HO USEHOLD EXPENDITURES 1 1
We recognize innumerable varieties of standards,
as the result of varying education and training, advan-
tages and opportunity, or the lack of them. False
standards arise from failure to discriminate between
needs and wants. There are conflicting opinions as
to what vital needs are, although it would seem self-
evident that they consist materially, in those things
which man must have to live under the best conditions,
such as pure food, healthful clothing, sanitary houses,
sufficient air and light together with those things
which will minister to his highest intellectual and
spiritual development. Through failure to distinguish
intelligently the majority of people spend two-thirds
or more of their income for what fails to bring them
the best results in health and happiness.
We are too inclined to scorn the women of former
days because of their more limited horizons. We
may profitably study their understanding of their con-
ditions and needs and the wise adaptation to them,
which gave them an important place in the work and
progress of their time. The women who succeed to-
day in the use of larger opportunities are those 'who,
like them, dare to live in intelligent independence,
true each to her individual standard of life. Such
women do not indiscriminately copy the manners of
living or dress of others merely to be like them or in
fashion. They are not ashamed to acknowledge a
liking for home-making and housekeeping. They
spend with care and judgment A suggestive, com-
Needs
and
Wants
411
12
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Differing
Standards
parison between the women of the past and those
of the present is that of Miss Richardson in The Wom-
an Who Spends: "In olden times women thought
and thought and thought before they spent, often mak-
ing the spending a burden. Now women often spend,
and then think and think and think. Nor does the
lack of thought beforehand ease the burden of the
results of her spending."
As urged elsewhere it is not enough that we be well-
intentioned since even then we may be painfully or
harmfully extravagant through ignorance. We must
know not only that pure food, hygienic clothing and
durable furnishings are well, but we must know what
constitutes each and how to secure them. Other-
wise we must be classed among the extravagant.
No true economy can be practiced in the home" until
a standard is adopted by all the members of the family,
in which there is agreement of effort to promote the
family well-being; at the same time that all unite to
accept with intelligent grace the common deprivations
necessary to lessen family waste either of money,
labor, time, health, strength, or possessions.
Standards in regard to living must necessarily dif-
fer greatly with different individuals and families.
The education, tastes, and occupations of people dif-
fer so widely that it would be entirely impossible to
establish a universal standard. That one may have
greater demands than another is purely accidental, yet
must be reckoned with. Even our individual stand-
412
HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 13
ards are not stationary but are ever giving way to
new and higher ones if we are as progressive as we
should be. All this makes it difficult to proportion ex-
penditures so that the highest good shall always be
secured.
The most important reason for attempting to classify
our wants and our provision for their gratification, is
that thereby we may provide ourselves with a defi-
nitely recognized standard which can be reckoned
with, studied, and, from time to time improved. Man
shares with the brutes a low or primitive range of
desires consisting of the satisfying of the physical de-
mands for food, rest, shelter and clothing. Gradually
he comes to desire other things, his standard is raised,
and by the repression of his desires in the lower range
he is able to secure satisfaction in the higher. The
day laborer necessarily has standards as to food which
differ from those of the scholar. The scholar must
expend more for dress, perhaps, regardless of the dif-
ference of income but this difference is not vital, since
all genuine and legitimate differences seem to pro-
mote progress in the people. The danger lies rather
in "accidental accompaniments" which are not neces-
sities.
In deciding upon a standard of life, one acts upon
his best judgment at the time, independent of others,
except as he recognizes that he may improve his stand-
ard by comparison with theirs. "Style of living/' on
the contrary, is thrust upon one from without Ac-
style of
Living
413
Accurate
Record
Important
I 4 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
cepting it, he becomes its slave, entirely depend-
ent upon what "they" will say as to this or that ex-
penditure, never upon the consideration of the real
good to be derived.
Only by keeping an accurate record of expenditures
can one follow the outgo so as to find how the stand-
ards of the family measure up to the ideal. Without
indisputable facts in black and white one is easily de-
ceived. It is natural to feel that economy is being
practiced when many a coveted article is resisted. The
year's bill with its record of many other indulgences
is sometimes a rude but wholesome awakening.
Twenty-five cents to-day and another to-morrow for
some luxury in food seems too slight to take account
of, but multiplied by three hundred and sixty-five the
increase in the food-expense becomes a considerable
sum. It is well to look frequently to aggregated ex-
penses like these.
In arriving at a basis for the classification of ex-
penditures it is helpful to compare those of a large
number of families, studying the avenues of expense
to determine in what way the maximum of health ;
physical, mental, and moral is reached. Several such
comparative studies have been made and a few typical
budgets have been selected to illustrate the method
pursued in attacking the problem.
In making a classification of one's own, it will be
most useful to decide upon a tentative division of the
year's income under the heads which seem most valu-
414
HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 15
able to keep as separate divisions. These proportions
may be studied in per cents, or the salary for each
week or month or quarter may be divided and the
amount for each division reserved to defray the ex-
penses which arise in connection with that division
during the period. As time goes on one is able to
see how accurately the provisional division was made
to fit the needs.
Such a theoretical division should always be de-
cided upon as a check to undue expenditure, as one
will try to bring the actual expense within the limits
that seemed wise to set when all things were taken
into account at the time of deciding upon the propor-
tions.
A regular income is the fortunate arrangement in
many families. This tends to develop thrift and to
remove the tendency to run up bills leading to debts.
The tendency for such is to live up to the limit of the
income and the division for saving and higher life in
general is usually small. It is found that salaried
people seldom get deeply in debt, but also seldom
accumulate very much.
For those without regular and known income
the problem of apportioning expenditures is very dif-
ficult. The only safe course is to determine upon a
definite minimum income. The surplus will then be
an unexpected pleasure.
The actual per cent of the income allowed for each
division will depend chiefly upon two things; namely,
415
iC
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Real Values
Budgets
the size of the income, and the ideals or standards of
the family. The necessities of life must be provided
and if the income is small, barely enough to cover these
needs, there is little choice left but to spend all for
them. Yet as a matter of fact, choice is possible for
most families. While a large wage-earning class are
receiving smaller incomes than one would wish, at
the same time we find choice playing an important
role in determining the purchases of the day laborer,
as well as of those who are not limited for money. In
fact, it is with those who can least afford to be gov-
erned by caprices that the most pitiful lawlessness in
these things prevails because of ignorance.
Enlightenment through education in real values is
needed by all alike, that correct divisions may be made
and lived up to, and that the division for higher life,
most often cut to a discreditably low per cent, may be
recognized and properly provided for.
The following table from The Cost of Living by
Mrs. Ellen H. Richards gives some actual and typical
family budgets :
HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES
Typical Budgets
Perc
entag
3 for
Oc
3|~2
*s
Family Income Per Year.
<s3j|
too
hn
Aff
<$$
*| * fcC
I
>"
1
ill
|
,d eS 2
.jftno
8
Q
n
$3,098, three adults, two chil-
dren
27.5
21.1
16.8
10.
2i.6
2,500 (Mass.), three adults,
no children
25.
25.
13.
12.
25.
2,500 (Mass.), two adults, one
child, much company.
32.
18.
18.
10.
22.
1 ,980 (St. Louis) , four adults,
two children
36.3
24.2
20.9
18.
JO
950 (Mass.), two adults.
three children
20.
19.
16.
15.
30.
600 (Boston), two adults
(women) , two children.
23.
26.
4.
5.
C 26.1
1 Travel,
', Sickness, etc.
535 (N. Y.), two adults,
I 15.9
three children.
55.2
22.4
5.3
9.4
7.7
312 ' ' mean ' ' Englishman,
two adults, three chil-
dren..
E5 2
15.5
8 9
13.1
7 3
300, Dr. Engell's estimates
62.
12.
5!
16.
5
From Cost of Living, Mrs.
E. H. Richards.
From these budgets it will be seen that little choice
is given the families of most limited means. The
necessities cost about the same for all. It is in the
range of luxuries that the greatest divergence is to
be found. Only there can limitations be wisely set.
In those where choice is possible, one observes a va-
riety of results, showing that one family preferred to
economize in one way, another in another. The com-
forts to be secured through increase of rent appeal to
417
iS
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Ideal
Budgets
one, those of additional service, another, and so
throughout the list.
Extravagance is most frequently found in the Food
and Operating expense divisions. Individual extrav-
agance occurs most frequently in clothes.
With these actual and typical budgets in mind note
the Budgets, as suggested by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards,
which give the ideal theoretical division of incomes
varying from $500 to $4000. The interest and profit
to the housewife in the comparison of these widely
differing standards will be the stimulus to keep sys-
tematic accounts, that she may be able to determine
the percentages of her own family expenses. Such
an account with its day of reckoning is an excellent
moral support since one will learn to think twice
over the temptation to spend for personal gratifica-
tion, or for those things which have at best little
to recommend them either for pleasure or profit.
418
HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES
Ideal Budgets
Percentage for
*!
| 1
Family Income.
||i
bb
-US!
d
5^*I3 M ,
_j
^
2 S cs
2
c8 w
o
a
8,S
^wS o
ft
H
Two adults and two or three children
(equal to four adults) :
Ideal Division
$2,000 to $4,000 ....
25
20
15
15
25
2,000 to 1,000
25
20 *
15
20
20
800 to 1,000 . ..
30
20
10
15
25
500 to 800
45
15
10
.10
20
Under $500
60
15
5
10
10
From Cost of Living, Mrs. E. H. Rich-
ards.
Four laws have been formulated by Dr. Engel,
which state the tendency in the changes of per cents
noted in such budgets as we have been considering:
DR. ENGEL'S LAWS
1. The proportion between expenditure and nutri-
ment grows in geometric progression in adverse ratio
to well-being; in other words, the higher the income,
the smaller is the per cent of cost of subsistence.
2. Clothing assumes and keeps a distinctly con-
stant proportion in the whole.
3. Lodging, warming and lighting have an in-
variable proportion, whatever the income.
4. The more the income increases the greater is
the proportion of the different expenses which ex-
press the degree of well-being.
419
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
DIVISION OF INCOME CHAET
Typical Family of Two Adults and Three Children
Running Expenses include Wages, Fuel, Light, Ice, Etc. With $1 000
Income the Children Would be Educated in the Public Schools. '
The above chart was adapted from a large colored
chart prepared under the direction of Mrs. E. H.
Richards for the Mary Lowell Stone Exhibit on Home
Economics.
420
RENT
21
The classes of expenditure discussed in the follow-
ing pages are those which, on the whole, best repre-
sent the different divisions into which money expendi-
ture may fall. These are Rent, or its equivalent paid
for shelter, Operating Expenses, such as fuel, light,
wages and repairs, Food, Clothes and Higher Life.
The latter includes all that ministers to mental and
moral well-being, as education, travel, amusements,
charities, savings and insurance. These will be con-
sidered in order.
RENT
The question of buying or renting a house which
shall offer shelter and make a home for the family
is often a difficult one in these days. Formerly private
possession was much more universal than at the pres-
ent time. It is more or less impossible within a wide
radius of the center of our largest cities to-day to
buy a single house at any price. For this reason peo-
ple are more and more forced to rent, and must share
a house with other families, usually, either in double
houses, apartments or flats. Many of the objections
which are to be urged against boarding are equally
forceful for this manner of living. The too close
proximity of others is a misfortune, yet it is preferable
to boarding, since some privacy and individuality may
still be preserved. Some, feeling the natural instinct
of ownership too strongly to be content to give it up
so completely, will prefer to go into the suburbs and
Buying
or
Renting
421
22
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
rely upon electric cars or other means of transporta-
tion, for going to and returning from business.
The difficulties which present themselves when one
considers buying, may be summed up under the fol-
lowing heads:
1. Scarcity of available houses in places of any
size.
2. Greatly increased cost, due to increasing valua-
tion of property.
3. Tendency of fluctuating business, causing
changes in plans or place of residence, necessitating
the disposal of a house at a sacrifice.
4. Unforeseen changes in business centers in our
rapidly growing towns, and cities, greatly affecting
the desirability of the location for a home.
5. Constant expenditures required to keep a house
in repair, often in excess of rent.
6. Decreasing tendency on the part of young peo-
ple to have a saving fund which can be used or which
they are willing to use for purchasing a home.
The advantages of owning a home when it is at all
possible or feasible, far outweigh these disadvantages.
Renting tends to develop demoralizing habits of care-
lessness and indifference. The word "home" should
have a meaning for us vastly deeper and richer than
can be bounded by four walls, it is true, or than can
be centered in material or outward covering, yet a!7
such aids prove vital in developing and strengthening
the highest regard for the name with children. The
422
RENT 23
man or woman is to be profoundly pitied to whose
mind the name does not recall a definite and loved spot
as the home of childhood.
Nothing contributes more surely and steadily to the
development of a worthy citizen and through him of a
worthy community than proprietorship in his home.
It removes the temptation to move from place to place
always a great hindrance to the development of an
ideal home. The family that rents tends to disregard
property rights and to enter with less pride or con-
cern into the neighborhood life. As soon as a home
however humble, is acquired, a pride is taken in
it and its surroundings and the sense of personal re-
sponsibility for the tone of the community is much
keener.
In providing for shelter either by buying or renting,
three factors should play a part, (i) sanitary require-
ments, (2) those things which, like location and archi-
tectural appearance, answer the social requirements,
(3) and standards of living. Sanitary requhements
may well be placed first. Money is well and econ-
omically expended which secures the best possible
sanitary conditions. Failure at this point has cost
many families far more than the two or three dollars'
difference per month in rents by adding doctor's bills
most uneconomical of all expenditures to the
lowering of vitality and decreasing of efficiency.
Distinction should be made between essentials and
non-essentials, between showy cheats and real worth.
423
24 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Bright gilding does not make good plumbing nor
does an especially fine porch bespeak a carefully con-
structed cellar. Some of the principle requisites are:
Ample air space for each individual, (300 cu. ft. for
each person having been found to be the lowest amount
permissible according to sanitary rules) ; light, fresh
air and water in abundance. Drainage conditions
should be above suspicion within and without. A
house so constructed as to require the minimum of
labor to care for is also a wise and economical con-
sideration. The housewife will be surprised in her
search for these requirements to find what poor pro-
visions exist in most houses. The demand for the
best sanitary conditions has been so slight up to the
present time, that those who build have not found
it essential to give them large attention, since selling
or renting so seldom depends upon these things.
Reasons If a house is found which is offered at a price less
for price than others which are similar in the vicinity, one
of three reasons may be found to account for it.
Either it is an old house out of repair, or is in an
undesirable neighborhood, or it is simply cheaply con-
structed. In weighing its merits great care should
be exercised to distinguish as to the cause. If it is
such as to be a menace to health, physical or moral,
one has no right to choose it. If it will cost more
to put it in good condition to live in than the difference,
or if operating expenses, as fuel, will be increased
more than enough to offset the difference, then it is
424
RENT 25
poor economy to select it; but if the difference is
merely one in incidentals such as more or less expen-
sive woods for finishing, etc., then it may be wise to
sacrifice a little at this point rather than in something
more vital.
In building, the demands of modern life require,
not including cost of land, an expenditure of about
$1000 per person, or $4000 for the typical family of
five persons. It is easy to vary this to the two ex-
tremes. In most localities, $10,000 should build all
that any family could use for themselves alone so far
as essentials go.
The cost of building varies so greatly that no very
definite estimates can be given. In parts of the United
States where building materials and labor are high the
cost of a house may be nearly double that in places
where prices are low. The recent experience of others
or the conservative estimate of a local architect or con-
tractor is the only safe guide.
The difference in expense too often represents other
than legitimate reasons: A large expenditure fre-
quently represents bad taste and showy ornamentation
rather than more abundant sunlight, fresh air and
cleanly surroundings. A good rule to bear in mind
is that "less should be spent for the mere house and
more for what goes on in it the real life."
In deciding what may be legitimately spent for rent
one may safely estimate whatever is necessary to se-
cure the requisites for health. It ought to be possible
425
26
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
to secure safe surroundings at a cost not exceeding 20
per cent of any income between $500 and $5000 a year,
not including the expense of heating and lighting. If
more than that is necessary, it is an indication that
the sanitary standards in the community are not as
high as they should be. As a matter of fact low
standards which the individual alone is powerless to
correct often force the expense to 25 per cent to secure
safety.
The location of a house in its relation to place of
business, school, etc., should be considered. If at a dis-
tance so that carfares are necessary these should be
reckoned as a part of the rent. In considering the rent
of a heated apartment about $5 per month should be
credited for the heat, in addition to janitor service and
hot water if these are furnished.
OPERATING EXPENSES
Operating expenses consist, for the most part, of
the necessary expenditure to keep a house warmed,
lighted, clean and in repair. The skill with which
these expenses are managed is the supreme test of
the ability of the housewife, materially speaking.
Other decisions may be turned off more easily or at-
tended to once for all, and there is some end to them.
In these the highest success can only be realized by
the woman who has a genius for details, who will
allow nothing to escape her consideration, yet who has
the ability to carry them with a degree of ease and
4.9 fi
OPERATING EXPENSES 27
mastery so that it will not be apparent to others, at
least, that she finds them perplexing or burdensome.
The over-anxious, wearied woman is as lacking in the worry
element of success as the careless and heedless one.
She may be able, through her greater watchfulness, to
save more money, but family happiness is perhaps
more endangered, through the depression of spirits and
the friction which result, than in the other case. To
remove friction and reduce to a harmonious unit are
parts of what she must accomplish through the direc-
tion of the operating expenses.
The same standards should control in deciding the Deterir
avenues of expenditure here as in selecting a house or Factors
deciding any of the other divisions. Health, comfort
and happiness in the highest and broadest conception
of these words should be the only factors having
weight. Whether my neighbor has a maid should be
nothing to me in my decision as to the necessity of
having one. To be met at the door by a suitably at-
tired official ought not to be as important as it would
sometimes seem to be, in leading us to decide whether
we have had a pleasant and profitable 'call on a friend.
All these things are well in their place, but they are
by no means so vital that one should sacrifice far more
important things and magnify these out of all propor-
tion.
Much of the necessary operating expense is deter-
mined when the house is selected, and the two should
always be considered together. If the number of
427
28 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
rooms is limited, the expense of caring for them will
be correspondingly less. If the house is conveniently
arranged so that the work may be swiftly performed,
the work of each helper will "go further" than if much
time is wasted through unnecessary steps or move-
ments. So, also, in the expense of heating. One
should consider whether the house is arranged com-
pactly or not, what the loss of heat through exposure
of rooms will be, etc., so that the cost of heating can
be correctly reckoned with.
It has been estimated that, for an ordinary city
house, the sum paid .annually for wages of servants
should be equal to one-half the rental value of the
house. This can only be realized, however, by those
who are willing to simplify their manner of living so
as to reduce expenses more than the average at the
present time, or by those who give assistance in the
duties.
When servants are kept the cost of the other operat-
ing expenses will be increased without corresponding
satisfaction. In general, they should be kept equal to
the amount paid as wages. An excellent standard to
keep in mind is the maintenance of the "maximum of
efficiency at minimum cost." It is true economy to
expend for what will remove friction or prove time-
saving.
Wage The wages of a general helper for housework vary
according to location, from $3.00 per week or less in
some small towns in the East and through the middle
428
OPERATING EXPENSES 29
West to $4.00 or $5.00 in the larger cities. This must
be doubled in allowing for board and room and for
the additional outlay because of more wasteful cook-
ing and more careless handling of furnishings. One
housekeeper who kept a careful record of expenses
both when with and without help, found the weekly
expense from one-fourth to one-third more when help
was employed.
The average cost of hiring by the hour for work Hour
done in the house is from 15 to 25 cents per hour in- Work
eluding the midday meal, if the helper remains over
that time. Laundry work for unstarched, flat pieces,
averages 25 cents per dozen.
When all the main avenues of expense have been Small
carefully considered to eliminate excessive or 'unnec- waste
essary expenditure, there remains for the thrifty
housewife the daily exercise of much watchful care
over the "littles" which otherwise astonishingly run
up the expense. A three-burner chandelier ablaze in-
stead of one Welsbach burner which would give better
light at less than a third the cost ; a range fire opened,
at the loss of at least a hod of coal, to prepare a
warm dish for supper when the use of a gas or oil
stove for a short time would accomplish the desired
result much more cheaply; daily orders in piece-meal
over a limited telephone service, because the difference
is not considered sufficiently important to necessitate
the thought required to combine all the orders for that
day, or for several days, in one message: these are
429
30 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
all trifles in themselves, but five cents here and ten
there make a surprisingly large difference in the sum
total. The difference between skilful, thoughtful out-
lay and careless spending, is to be measured in the
added comforts to be secured by the one who learns
the secret of successful management in this group
of expenses.
FOOD
The influence of food upon the welfare of the house-
hold must be first considered in apportioning the
share of income rightly devoted to it. In referring
to the budgets we find that as the income decreases the
percentage devoted to food increases. Why is this, or
why should it be so? It is because the life of the in-
dividual depends upon his nourishment. His shelter
may be poor, his clothing inadequate for his needs,
but food he must have and upon proper food depends
his capacity for doing work and doing it well.
Proper The child must be properly nourished that it may
Food be a strong little animal, growing into healthy happy
youth. The adult must be well nourished to be an ef-
ficient member of the community, whether as a wage-
earner or as a household spender. The food supply
must be right for errors and wrong doing here show
their effects in a weakened power to perform work
or resist disease. In 'this lies the justificatoin of the
poor man who possibly spends two-thirds of his in-
come for food.
430
FOOD 31
. The wide variation, however, as shown in the bud-
gets, does not indicate proper nourishment in one case,
improper food in another. Over-nutrition is often as
dangerous as under-nutrition and the cost of food does
not determine its nutritive value. It by no means fol-
lows that because a family has large butcher's and
grocer's bills it is therefore better nourished. The
same causes affect the cost of foods as influence the
price of other commodities. The demand for and
scarcity of any article ; being in or out of season ; cost
of transportation; loss through waste in foods that
deteriorate quickly; fancy price asked for certain rare
flavors, all these determine price outside of any con-
sideration of nutritive value.
Bullock gives five ways in which he estimates that
one-fifth of the money expended for food is actually
wasted.
1. Needlessly expensive material, providing little
nutrition.
2. A great deal thrown away.
3. Bad preparation.
4. Failure to select rightly according to season,
j. Badly constructed ovens.
In 1900 when Mrs. Richard's book on The Cost of
Living was published experiments in dietaries were
made and the cost of the raw material required for so
many persons a day estimated. The conclusions
reached at that time were that twenty-five or thirty
cents per person a day is ample to supply all the
Cost per
Person
431
High Cost
of Food
Sources
f Waste
32 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
physical demands of one whose tastes have not been
perverted by wrong habits of eating. Good, sub-
stantial living, meeting all the needs of people of sim-
ple habits, can be secured at less than that. When
the expense exceeds that sum it is due to one or more
of the following reasons :
1. Waste.
2. Buying out of season.
3. Choice of food of which there is a limited sup-
ply therefore price is high.
4. Perishable food stuffs.
5. Fads or fashions in dishes.
6. High priced products because of choice flavors
as "Gilt Edged Butter," or food which is "in season"
but a short time, as venison.
Since the year in which the experiments and in-
vestigations were carried on certain staple food stuffs
have increased nearly twenty per cent in price, so
that the margin for the same bill of fare now should
be wider, or from twenty-five to thirty-five cents per
person a day.
The housewife should carefully consider these esti-
mates and the causes most fruitful of waste in the
household. Far too lavish provision is often made in
ordering. Study and observation must be given to the
necessary quantity of meats, vegetables, etc., to be pro-
vided and served. Large portions are left to be improp-
erly warmed over, wasted in the kitchen, or thrown
away altogether. Waste in the household arises mainly
432
FOOD 33
from lack of thought, planning, or carefulness in de-
tail, just as in any other business. A study of foods
and food values is necessary in order to know what
less expensive material may be provided to sup-
ply the same need, but above all else must the house-
wife who desires to make a study of these things,
and reduce the waste in the household realize that no
waste is greater than poor material, illy prepared. The
more knowledge, the more science used in the selec-
tion and preparation of food for the table should mean
more, not less appetizing results.
It is of 'course easier to provide a good table for Numbers
eight people on $2.40 per day than for four people at
$1.20. It must be remembered that many people live
well on less ; many more are well nourished on much
less.
The pecuniary economy of food is seen in the ac-
companying charts, and those articles which would be
classed under unnecessary expense may be easily sepa-
rated from the more legitimate.
Of course the price paid for food cannot be regu- Aesthetic
lated entirely by a consideration of nutriment alone.
It must satisfy aesthetic demands as well. Food must
be enjoyed in order to be thoroughly well digested.
This is a strong argument in favor of a moderate use
of animal foods. Although vastly more expensive
than vegetable foods, they do gratify the palate of
most people in ways which vegetable foods do not.
This fact together with their superiority in being more
433
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Chart of Composition of Foods
Nutrients.
Protein. Fats, Carbo- Mineral
hydrates, matters,
Non-nutrients.
mm
Water. Refuse.
Fuel valnft.
Calories.
without bone.
FOOD
35
Chart of Pecuniary Economy of Food
Fats.
Carbohydrates
FOOD MATERIALS
flmiutt c/tudnMt ajut salaries <f fiuLvalu* in X>tntU
worth*.
tUu ili>
toooCaL toooCat ooooGU,
From Farmers' Bulletin, No. 142.
435
Real
Purpose
36 ' HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
easily and completely digested are valid reasons for
paying somewhat more for the sake of securing them.
CLOTHING
Clothing, like food, should be considered first of
all in its relation to the possible increase of health and
efficiency. Like the function of food, this is too much
lost sight of at the present time while the aesthetic
side of the subject is receiving an undue share of
emphasis. The cost of clothing is too largely the re-
sult of an attempt to gratify the desire to please the
world at large, rather than of protecting the body.
We all know too many instances of the rashest ex-
cesses to which this may lead, destroying all hope of
realizing higher and worthier ideals. A safe-guard
to such excess lies in an intelligent training and
thoughtful study of these things.
Sufficient and suitable protection from clothing, so
that one is enabled to meet the varying changes of cli-
mate without loss of energy, is a distinct advantage,
offering grounds for reasonable expenditure. This
should debar either too scant provision, or too great
excess, which weakens power of resistance. The
aesthetic has a legitimate place in the consideration,
but should be subordinate to health, if the two ever
seem to conflict. There is, as we know, the greatest
possible difference in people in ability to "make a lit-
tle go a long way" in providing satisfactorily for cloth-
ing. Knowledge and care will aid greatly in helping
436
HIGHER LIFE
37
one to conform to the laws both of health and beauty.
A pleasing, becoming color or style is little, if any,
more expensive than one which is unbecoming. One
should seek to develop true individual taste and ex-
pression, relying less upon the not infallible dictum
of dress-makers. To secure clothing, then, which shall
be a protection from heat and cold should be the first
motive. Along with this should go a recognition that
the outer garments may be and should be a means of
contributing to the pleasure of others, through a cor-
rect selection of pleasing colors and graceful forms.
Both these may be entirely legitimate considerations,
but there should not result, from over emphasis, a
dwarfing of the more important things in life.
HIGHER LIFE
The preceding divisions have to do chiefly with
those things which support and protect the physical
well-being. The fifth important provision should be
for the higher life, or the demands of the intellectual
and spiritual nature. The most important business
of any life is to develop this side to its highest possi-
bilities and to find its fullest expression. Other con-
siderations are in reality subordinate to this.
Unless a definite allowance is set aside for the pur-
pose material demands encroach until all is spent.
Even if something more is realized each year than is
spent, the money itself seems too often to be the
most valuable possession, rather than the comforts and
Good
Taste
437
Wide
Range
38 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
aesthetic ideals which it might secure. It is a battle,
in these days of materialism, to reserve one-fourth of
an income for the satisfaction of the needs of the
higher nature, yet there is no greater need in our
nation than that of more families who realize the im-
perativeness of doing it, and who independently insist
upon proving it to be possible. Those who resolutely
decide upon this course tend to more refined living,
give "more thought to the meaning of life, to the object
for which all exertion should tend, more thought for
the manner of accomplishing a given result, less for
the money value of it."
It means making a place for ideals, recognizing their
necessary place in life, and resolutely setting one's face
toward realizing them. Such a purpose serves as an
admirable check to the gratification of lower desires
and unnecessary spending, while whatever is found
to be necessary and worthy will have a double value
because of the thought -and care exercised in the de-
cision.
There is a very wide range possible for difTerent
tastes in ministering to the higher life. One will pre-
fer travel, another literature, a third art, while church
and charity must find place in all higher life. It mat-
ters, perhaps, less what particular side is developed
than that there shall be conscious effort toward a
higher and a fuller life, and that choice rather than
idle drifting rules. It is true that all altruistic motives
which look to the good of another, be he kin or other-
438
HIGHER LIFE
39
wise, are more full of elevating influence upon a life
than those which seek merely one's own highest good.
One should gain the habit of choosing those things
that endure, and have abiding value rather than those
of momentary or temporary advantage.
Even when guided by an impulse to make provision
for one's family, it is to be borne in mind that the best
possible investment which can be made for a child is
a liberal education. All that anyone in normal health
and strength should need is a thorough preparation
to do his or her work efficiently, with motives toward
the best things which life has to offer and the possi-
bilities of a better life than his parents have had.
Too liberal provision is often seen to destroy incentive
and the things of highest value are cheapened when
they cost little effort. Progress can only be made
through striving. Conscious effort is as necessary for
the health of mind as for health of body. For this
reason it is best that what we enjoy should be the
result of choice and denial, and we should learn early
to pay for what we get. A surplus should be reserved
against emergencies, that a feeling of independence
may be fostered, yet this should not be insisted upon
to the point of crippling life.
As to ways of saving, the field is large. Some
methods employed at the present time are to be com-
mended in highest terms. Against others too severe
condemnation cannot be passed. Among those forms
which are safe may be classed life insurance, savings
Ways of
Saving
439
Life
Insurance
Railroad
Securities
40 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
banks, loans on real estate and investments in stocks
and bonds.
In selecting, one should consider whether the busi-
ness which the company is transacting is legitimate
and also whether it is probably permanent because
it serves a real public use with elements of growth
and lasting development, or whether it is merely a
"flash in the pan" scheme. Again, it is important to
know whether the company has sufficient capital to
make the business a safe one, and whether the man-
agement, so far as can be determined, is wise and
honest.
Life insurance is becoming an increasingly popular
form of saving. With a reliable company, and under
some of the favorable arrangements possible at the
present time, such as terminal endowment policies,
yielding a fair interest for money invested, as well
as insurance, it is without doubt one of the best
methods. Some find the imperative demand to meet
the annual payments a very helpful check upon ex-
penditure. There is not the risk of loss through fail-
ure to pay at any time which formerly existed, since,
in emergencies, money can be loaned on the insurance
or one can secure at some sacrifice the return of the
amount paid in.
Railroad securities are possibly first in value, such
bonds, if good, being unquestionable security and
yielding good return. There is little fluctuation in
value, and the reports are frequent and controlled by
440
HIGHER LIFE 41
state law, so that one may know the exact condition
of the investment at any time.
Loans on buildings, or real estate are excellent
forms of investment, if one knows beyond question the
value of the property secured. These may not be as
readily transferred or their value realized, as with
stocks and bonds.
In general it may be said that for the ordinary in-
vestors in our country any investment yielding over
4 1-2 or 5 per cent is to be classed as a risk, and is
not consistent with sound finance. A safe investment
yielding that return is far wiser than a questionable
one promising more. A high interest rate is almost in-
variably, in the very nature of things, a warning of
insecurity. Shrewd capitalists of the country are cer-
tain to know of any especially favorable opportunities
and seize upon them, if desirable, so that the small
investors should not look for phenomenal returns.
The frequent reports of failures, and cases of those
involved who have met with pitiable losses emphasizes
the danger and evils of speculation. These often rise
in the form of local crazes, with heated booming for
a short lived career, or as investment in some gold or
copper mines at too great distance to be personally
investigated. These should be condemned and avoided
as almost without exception dangerous. Women are
found to be particularly susceptible to such alluring
opportunities to "get rich quick" because of failure in
training in sound business principles.
Safe
Interest
Get-Rich-
Quick
Ventures
441
What
Accounts
Should
Show
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS
The management of the money affairs of a family is
usually the most perplexing part of its domestic prob-
lem. Yet, in spite of this fact, the least candid study
and thought are given to it. The value of accurate
accounts, as well as their necessity, is recognized in
the entire business world. Few associations of indi-
viduals are organized for any specific purpose without
careful regard to the maintenance of the proper rela-
tion of income and outgo. The value and importance
of this is no less to the housekeeper than to the banker
or grocer. The appallingly frequent examples of reck-
less disregard in this respect, leading to a constantly
increasing number of unpaid bills and final ruin, ought
to teach the sad lesson of the unthrifty. Yet statisti-
cians tell us that at least one-half of our well-to-do
families are seriously handicapped by debt. Along
with that fact should be emphasized another the
number of families in which accounts of personal and
family expenses are kept is astonishingly small, and
in few instances where such records are kept is .suffi-
cient study given to them to lead to advance in stand-
ard of living from year to year.
In conducting any business it is of the greatest
importance (i) to follow the receipts and expenses,
(2) to keep a record of investments and (3) to deter-
mine at the end of the year, or shorter period, the
results of the business and the exact condition of the
42
442
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 43
capital. The modern household is an intricate business
concern. Its financial administration demands as per-
fect exactness, order and method as any other, if it is
to attain in any degree its possible efficiency. Such
exactness alone renders the accounts of any real worth.
They may be made of priceless value in directing the
activities and ministering to the comfort of all in the
home.
The question who shall be head bookkeeper and The
director of the household expenditures will probably Keeper*
be best decided by determining which grown member
of the family has a genius for accounts. It naturally
falls to the housekeeper as the one who can manage
best and has the most intimate acquaintance with the
entire situation. In any case, it should be one who
loves it or who sees in it possibilities large enough to
create a willingness to give the necessary thought and
time to make it a success. It has been made a profitable
and interesting business training in some families for
growing boys and girls. Possibly promotion from
the keeping of their own personal accounts to those
of the household might be made an excellent stimulus.
With a clear, convenient system, adapted to the needs
of the particular records to be kept, and with a busi-
ness-like promptness in entering each night the trans-
actions of the day while fresh in mind, what is often
looked upon as a perplexing hardship may become an
interesting study. A helpful aid to memory is a card
neatly fitted into the purse, upon which sufficient entry
443
44 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
may be made at the time of the expenditure to assist
in recalling the details when they are wanted for enter-
ing in the account. A shopping list filled out with
prices as one purchases is a useful aid to memory.
Systems The system employed in keeping the accounts may
be very simple. The only necessary requirement is
that it be sufficiently complete to record in concise,
available form the necessary facts to indicate clearly
the details of income and outgo. It must be possible
to compare these two sides of the account at any time
in order to prove that the balance as shown by the
account corresponds with the cash on hand.
Various systems have been devised and successfully
used. The efficiency of anyone depends quite as much,
perhaps, upon the thorough, painstaking effort of the
user to bring it to its utmost point of efficiency and
utility as upon the system itself.
Envelope Some find a series of envelopes a very convenient
Method form of keeping the records. Each envelope is labeled
with the name of the particular division of the
expenses which it is to hold. After it has been decided
what proportion shall be spent for each division the
sum is put into its envelope, to be drawn as needed.
A slip of paper or card in the envelope records each
addition, and the expenditures from that envelope
during the week or month, or a cash account is also
kept of the household expenses and personal account.
Any division like the following may be made with the
envelopes :
444
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS
45
Suppose a family consisting of a man and wife live
in a steam-heated flat and have an income of $30 a
week. The following divisions might be made each
week:
Rent $7.00
Household expenses 7.00
Fuel and light i.oo
Man's personal allowance and expenses,
including lunches and car fares 5.00
Madam's personal allowance 4.00
Extras and emergencies, including dentist,
doctor, etc 2.00
Church and charities i.oo
Insurance and savings bank 3.00
$30.00
For amusements there may be a separate envelope,
or, as there are four months in which there will be
five payments to the envelope, these extra four pay-
ments may be used for amusements in connection with
household expenses.
A system like this has the advantage of keeping
always before one just what is at hand to draw from.
The leading disadvantages over other methods is its
cumbrousness. It involves the keeping of a considerable
amount of money on hand and also presents a great
temptation to borrow from one envelope to another
for making change, etc., which is likely to lead to
confusion of accounts.
445
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Journal
If the records for the envelopes were kept on cards,
these might be filed in a card index for comparison
and permanent reference as explained later.
On the whole, a system by which the accounts are
finally entered in books intended for that purpose
proves most satisfactory. Such books may be pro-
cured already ruled for entries, or a blank book can
easily be ruled as desired. For a complete record the
same books are useful as for other accountants a
journal, ledger and balance sheet. The journal and
ledger may well be combined in one book, as will be
explained in connection with Table III.
The household account records exchanges whereby
the housewife buys the goods or services which her
household needs, giving in exchange of her means.
The simplest statement of such exchanges is made in
a journal. A single page is used to enter both receipts
and expenses. Thus :
TABLE I
1904.
Received.
Paid.
Jan. 1
Cash in hand
$20 00
2
Washing
Grocer
$1.50
8 00
3
Coal
14.00
Flour.
4 75
5
Salary
50 00
Car fares
.50
<
Cleaning .
1 25
8
Eggs
1 10
Washing
1 50
10
Potatoes
1.70
$70.00
34.30
$34.30
"
Balance on hand
$35.70
446
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS
47
If purchases are itemized elsewhere for reference,
such an account as this may contain sufficient data.
It is possible to itemize more fully in this journal
record if desired, as is illustrated in Table II.
TABLE II
1903.
Cr.
Dr.
Daily
Totals.
Feb. 1
2
By balance brought forward . . .
To washing
$75.70
$1 50
3
2 tons coal at $7 per ton
3 bu. potatoes at 80c. per bu
14.00
2 40
$15.50
5 doz. eggs at 22c. per doz
1 10
3.50
5
cleaning one day.
1 25
rent for January
8 Ibs. beef at 14c. per Ib
15 00
1 12
17 37
8
washing
1.50
1.50
10
Bv salary . .
50 00
"
To car fares.
.60
.60
Totals . . .
$125.70
$38 47
(Balance. $87.23.)
In the second table it will be noted that the terms
usually employed in bookkeeping are introduced.
These are easily understood. The term "By" intro-
duces all terms belonging to the credit or receipt
column; the "To," items of the debit or expense col-
umn. The abbreviation "Cr." for credit heads the
column of receipts, indicating that the house account
has that much more to its credit, while the "Dr."
abbreviation for debit shows to what extent the house
has become indebted or has placed itself under obliga-
tion for benefits received.
Table II also includes a column for daily totals,
which carries the account a step further in efficiency.
In the final footing up of the columns these totals are
Terms
Daily
Totals
447
Use of
Ledger
Credit
Accounts
48 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
a convenience, since it is always easier to add a short
list of large figures than a long column of small items.
It is sometimes helpful also to be able to refer to the
entire day's expenditures.
As will be readily seen, the details of expenditures,
when entered as above in the journal, are not easily
referred to. One could at any time make a summary
of any division which would show the amount spent
for any one class of purchases, as clothes, rent or food.
As a matter of fact, few seem to make such reviews
when the accounts are kept in this way, finding it a
seemingly endless task to assort the different items
after they have become so thoroughly confused as
they do in the journal account. In this way the great-
est benefit of an account is lost. Their highest value
is in one's being able to bring each set of expenses
together, so that comparison of different divisions may
be made, and a proper proportion maintained. It is
far better to transfer the details of an account to a
second book, called a ledger, which may for conven-
ience be divided into sections, each devoted to its par-
ticular class of items.
The number of credit accounts should be limited to
as few as possible, usually to grocer, butcher and doc-
tor. Frequent settlement of such accounts should
be made. The family physician has too frequent occa-
sion to comment upon the unbusiness-like way that
family bills are allowed to accumulate from year to
year without attention. If a physician is tardy on his
448
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 49
side and does not present bills promptly he is usually
agreeably surprised, to have it called for, as it should be.
The most complete and concise way of recording the combin
facts to be preserved is to be found in the combination and 8 " 1
of journal and ledger, such as is illustrated in Table Led er
III. This will prove in the end to be one of the most
convenient, suggestive and helpful arrangements yet
devised. Opposite pages of an account book may be
used, the left-hand page for the journal record, the
right-hand for the ledger. The ledger items are
classified under a few typical heads and the amounts
expended for each are entered apart from the whole.
This tenders it very easy at any time to consult any
one division, where all the record is clearly before one.
The divisions used correspond to those suggested in
the discussion of Division of Household Expenditures,
page 21. These are optional both in character and
number, but will in the main prove to be excellent
general heads. Others may suggest themselves as
desirable for an individual family. Multiolication of
details must be avoided as far as possible, to avoid
confusion. Particulars as to prices paid may well be
left to the pass books or bills of butcher or grocer, or
in a separate memorandum book.
449
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
TABLE III
Date of
Receipts and
Expenditure.
Receipts.
Expenses.
Sum.
Daily Total.
i
o
h
Car Fares and
Rent.
[rS 1 Operating
| g j Expenses.
Clothing.
8
3
fe
&
a
w
Sources
Sums.
1905.
Jan.l
" 2
" 3
" 4
" 5
" 8
Cash in
hand.
$90.00
Flour
Dress Ma-
terial.
Meat ....;;
Coal and
Oil
$4.75
6.00
1 25
7.50
$19.50
$4.75
1.25
$6.00
Salary
150.00
Eggs
Car Fares
Washing..
1.10
.20
1.00
2 30
1.10
20
1.00
Rent
Car Fares.
35.00
.40
35.40
$35.00
.40
Groceries..
Meat
3 25
1.10
4 35
3 25
1.10
$6.00
1.00
Total.
Church
Collect'n.
1.00
1.00
$240.00
$62.55
$62.55
$11.45
$35.60
$8.50
$1.00
In carrying on weekly or monthly accounts with
butcher, grocer or at dry goods stores various methods
are employed for keeping a memorandum of the char-
acter and size of purchases made. If slips are sent
with the goods when delivered they should be pre-
served on file, to be compared with the bill when ren-
dered. Pass books are sometimes used. In that case
the entries should be made in the presence of the pur-
chaser, to avoid error or deception.
Household accounts should be balanced at least
every week. A daily verifying with cash on hand is
450
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 51
easiest and saves time in the end. These daily bal-
ances may be indicated in pencil as the aim is to prove
the account to be correct, thus showing that no item
has been omitted. Every month's accounts should
be balanced on the last day of the month and a new
page opened for a new account for the next month.
The first item on the new page should read as in
Table II, "By balance brought forward "
One should set a time for the final balancing of Yearly
accounts and opening a fresh record. This is usually
done at the close of the calendar year, although
another time might be more convenient, as the holiday
season brings other extras demanding time.
The facts to be preserved on a balance sheet are Balance
available after this summary of the year's expenses
is made. The purpose of a balance sheet is to preserve
from year to year a statement of the final condition at
the end of each year for helpful comparison. It may be
that the income has not been sufficient to meet the de-
mands upon it, when a deficit with appear. Or the in-
come may be just enough to cover expenses, or there
may be a balance of the credit side. A properly man-
aged household will show a steadily increasing gain of
this nature, provided no exceptional and unexpected
bills arise such as result from long illness and the like.
An example of a properly managed entry and a
satisfactory showing is given in Table IV.
Household Account Book, with division of income, 64 page, cloth bound, 50 cents, from
the School.
451
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
TABLE IV
Income for year 1902...
Cr.
$2,500
Dr.
Expense for year
$2,250
Balance in hand. '
250
52,500
$2,500
The household accounts may be kept by means of
the card index system, which is perhaps the best meth-
od of keeping any and all sorts of records, such as
addresses, invoices and 'miscellaneous memoranda.
CARD INDEX BOXES.
A small linen or pasteboard box containing a set
of alphabetical guide cards and some two hundred
ruled cards in sizes 5x3 or 6x4 inches may be pur-
chased for from fifty cents to a dollar. These cards are
ruled horizontally and perpendicularly as in a cash
book, or come without the perpendicular rulings.
Various systems may be used. The most concise and
452
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS
53
simple is invariably the best, and it may be so done
as to make further entering in a book superfluous.
One plan now being used is as follows : Under the
letter C in the alphabetical index are three cards for
\<905
JAN.
CASH RECEIVED
1
Cash of? htffftf
51. 64
6
salary *^
eo.ao
16
From J.M?S.oo safe of books
14.00
23
Ma0ax/r?e A/ovJIrt/cte
7.50
FB.
153.14
6
Salary
80.00
20
Extra werk for Sterling
10.00
24^.14
CARD CASH ACCOUNT.
cash, (i) an account of cash received, (2) an account
of cash disbursed and (3) the cash balance. It may
take a card for each month for Cash Received or not,
depending upon the items. In the case cited the num-
ber of cards used during the year for Cash Received
was six, two months on each.
Cash disbursed takes at least one card a month,
possibly more if there are many classified accounts.
The items on this card are the totals of items on single
cards devoted to daily or less frequent purchases. That
is, under the letter R, as indicated by the index at the
Typical
Method
453
54
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
right on the Cash Disbursed card, illustrated, is found
the card "Rents" with record of rental payments, when,
to whom, and how paid, if by check or cash. Market-
ing includes both the grocer's and butcher's accounts,
hence the index letters G and B. These are itemized
A N.
CASH DISBURSEP,
ftent
Urrtfer P.
Gas
MitK.
M.
Ltc.
s.
Carfare
C.
P.
Market/w
1.70
2.&0
6.00
2LJA
3.3$
8.00
1.25
64.36
CASH PAID CARD.
Bank
Account
Car<J
on the cards "Groceries" and "Butcher." If the ac-
counts are heavy it would be better to devote three
cards to these items divided into groceries, meats, and
vegetables.
The illustrations will probably make the divisions
clear, but these divisions are not arbitrary, the person
keeping the household accounts can adapt her own
system.
If the housekeeper has a bank account a card should
be devoted to this to check up with bank book and
454
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS
55
checks cashed and used for cash. This card should be
as follows:
1905
JAN.
BANK ACCOUNT
J
on hand
582J6
Deposited //? January
80.00
662./fe
FEB.
Drew checks asfftrtoek
33M
1
#/7 /W/</,
62&S4
BANK ACCOUNT CARD.
With this card system a weekly balance may be kept
instead of the monthly balance as illustrated. The ac-
counts are so arranged that items may be found or
traced with ease. For instance if in comparing the
January expenditures on the Cash Balance card, it is
found that it is much more than for February, it is
desirable to know why. We take the two cards of
Cash Disbursed, the one for January and the one for
February and compare the items. There it may be
found that the gas bill in January was more than in
February, that more car fare was used, and evidently
some extra supplies purchased. By turning to the
card devoted to Supplies, these may be noted and the
extra amount used at once found.
Balance
Card
455
Filed for
Reference
55 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
The entire account, daily, weekly and yearly, is in
compact form and if mistakes occur it is a more simple
matter to destroy and make a new card than to fix a
book. Like any system of keeping accounts to be
accurate and helpful this one demands promptness and
accuracy in putting down items.
In order to be of use from year to year in comparing
the increase or lessening of expenses the accounts
must be filed away for reference. A set of cards takes
up not more than six inches in length, four in height
1905
J/AN.
CASH BALANCE (MONTWI^
i
On frcmcf
5/.64
TAN.
Received \
10 150
H
1S3J4
If
spent
64.36
FCB.I
On hand
88.7B
9'
ff
Rece/Ved
=
90.00
17838
II
^pent
53 A2
MAR.1
Or? hand
12S.36
CASH BALANCE CARD.
and less than two inches space in thickness. The
entire set can be put in a desk drawer or pigeon hole
ready for easy reference. Or if preferred a small
tin or wooden box designed for such purpose and
made the exact size, may be purchased for the filing
away of the year's accounts.
456
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS
57
Unless desired for some special purpose it is not
necessary to save the entire itemized account for the
year, for the weekly or monthly grocery, butcher's,
gas, milk and other accounts may be brought together
each on a single card and kept with -the cards devoted
to the cash and bank accounts for future reference.
1905
A
10
13
17
3 0az. egs
1 Bottle vanilla j$
4 Lt?s. Coffee
1 Box &omino sugar
4-Lfrs.
32
/0/A5\ granulated sugar
3 " tarcf .30 / bu.otatd
12 orawees
Parcf
1.11
30
1.40
.so
128
.60
ffo
GROCERY ACCOUNT CARD.
The chief disadvantage of the card system outlined,
in comparison with the book system, is that the cash
balance on hand is not so easily ascertained.
In any system, it is necessary to compare frequently
the amount of cash actually in the purse (or purse and
bank combined) with the balance as shown by the
accounts. If this is not done there is usually an unac-
counted for shortage which must be charged to "sun-
dries," "miscellaneous," and the like a most unsatis-
factory procedure.
457
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Classifica-
tion
Alcott Stockwell, in discussing "The Keeping of
Household Accounts" in the April, May and June
(1904) numbers of The Home Science Magazine,
gives three tables of classification which may be help-
ful in suggesting headings for divisions of expendi-
ture in the accounts. These are as follows :
TABLE I
Classification of Household Expenses.
Housekeeping
a. Provisions
b. Ice
c. Fuel
d. Rent
e. Dometic Service
f. Miscellaneous
House-furnishing
a. General (including all fur-
niture
b. Kitchen and Dining-room
Library Supplies
a. Books and Periodicals
b. Stationery and postage
Miscellaneous
a. Sundries (expressage, flow-
er for house, thread, etc.)
b. Other (fire insurance, mov
ing, telephone service, etc.)
Gifts
TABLE II
Classification of Personal Expenses (in family}.
Clothing
a. New clothing, Foot wear,
and Furnishings
b. Repairs to clothing and
Foot wear
Transportation (street car,rail-
road, hack fares, etc.)
Personal Services
a. Toilet
b. Medical
c. Dental
Recreation
a. Outings (including bicycle,
pony, canoe, camera and sup-
plies, etc.)
b. Entertainment (may in-
clude anything as medium of
diversion, as amateur pho-
tography, musical instru-
ments;
Education
a. Books, Stationery and Sup-
plies
b. Tuition and Lectures.
Miscellaneous
a. Sundries (soda water, con-
fectionery, cigars, etc.)
b. Other (any large expense
not included)
458
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 59
.TABLE III
Classification of Personal Expenses (single individual}
1. Clothing b. Entertainments
a. New Clothing, Foot wear, 7. Education
and Furnishings a. Books, Stationery and
b. Repairs to clothing and Supplies
Foot wear b. Tuition and Lectures
2. Board and Lodging 8. Miscellaneous
3. Transportation a. Sundries
4. Personal Services b. Others
a. Toilet (shampoo, manicure,
chiropodist, etc.)
b. Medical Total Expenses
c. Dental 9. Gifts
5. Library Supplies 10. Investments
a. Books and Periodicals a. Bank
b. Stationery and Postage b. Other
3. Recreations 11. On hand at end of month
a. Outings
In following these headings it would be well for
Table I to include a division for investments, unless
a separate small account book is left for these with
such heading as:
a. Savings Banks c. Real Estate
b. Life Insurance d. Loans
Charities and Church may be classed under gifts or
investments, preferably the latter, as they indicate
within proper limits the most commendable form of
investment.
459
THE BANK ACCOUNT
Comparatively few women appreciate the advantage
and convenience of having a bank account. There is
a mistaken idea current that banks are solely for those
who have a balance to invest. This is true only of
savings banks; with this exception, the housewife
may select the most convenient bank of whose financial
soundness she is assured and open her account. In
this way the bank becomes merely a temporary safe
deposit, vault, and checks, the easiest and safest way
of making all except small cash payments.
Pass Having become identified, with her account accepted,
the depositor is presented with what is called a pass
book. This she keeps and presents with each amount
of money to be deposited. The receiving teller makes
a record of each deposit on the left-hand page of this
book, and when the book is balanced from time to
time a statement is inserted, on the right-hand page,
of the amount drawn out and the balance remaining.
Deposit In depositing, the housewife or her messenger fills
out what is known as a deposit ticket, which is always
to be found provided at the bank. If it is necessary
or more convenient at any time to send the deposit by
a messenger he should always fill out this blank in
the name of the depositor, since it is not necessarily
her signature, but merely a record of her deposit. If
there be checks to be indorsed before depositing, that
is a different matter. Those must be indorsed before
delivering them to the messenger, and should be made
payable to the bank ; they are then payable only to the
60
460
THE BANK ACCOUNT
61
DEPOSITED IX THE
EACH CHECK SEPARATELY. '*
bank. The deposit ticket is a printed form indicating
deposits in specie, bills and checks. Sometimes the
ticket reads for gold and
silver, instead of specie,
as is seen in the following
form, illustrating a de-
posit ticket properly filled
out for presenting to the
receiving teller. This is
handed in with pass book
and deposit at the window
marked "Receiving Tell-
er," where the deposit is
counted and the amount
compared with the de-
positor's figures, checks
examined to ascertain
whether they have been
properly filled out and in-
dorsed and, last of all, the
amount of the deposit is
entered in the pass book,
which is returned to the
one presenting it.
Checks, drafts, money orders or express money
orders can always be sent by mail for deposit with
safety if properly indorsed.
Kite
Do Mars
<*<?
Cents
t-0
Cold
Silver
ye
Checks . , -
ThUcJzfc&Tttt
/J
?v
p
JL<f
t*9
Total $
60
4*6
Deposit Ticket Properly
Filled Out.
461
62
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Checks
Indorsement
Every depositor is presented with a check book.
This is a book of blank checks, arranged either several
on a page, attached by a perforated line to a side,
which is called a stub, or, as in "pocket" check book,
with a single check forming the page. In this case
A CHECK FILLED OUT.
pages are inserted between each second and third
check, or between every check, upon which a record
may be kept, as upon the stubs. A check is a written
order, dated and numbered, directing the bank in
which the writer's money is deposited to pay the sum
stated to the bearer of the check, some person named,
or to the order of the person indicated.
This check is equivalent to the sum of money named
upon it anywhere the rightful bearer presents it. It
may be deposited, presented in payment of bills or
cashed upon being indorsed.
To receive the money on a check it is necessary for
it to be indorsed by the person to whom it is made
payable. To indorse a check properly it should be
held by the upper left-hand corner, turned and the
462
THE BANK ACCOUNT 63
name written across the back about on-third down
the length of the check. Other indorsements should
follow the first, in order. The signature used in
indorsing a check should always conform exactly to
that on the face, even if that should by mistake be not
correct. The simple signature across the back makes
it possible for anyone to draw its value who may come
into possession of it. For the sake of safety it is
always well to limit the payment by making it payable
to the order of anyone to whom it is desired to transfer
it. It is best to observe this under all circumstances,
unless one presents the check in person for cashing, or
must send it to be cashed by someone not known. It
makes it impossible for it to be of any value to a
chance finder should it be lost. Thus :
John L. Bentley
Simple Indorsement.
Pay to the order of
Henry E. Johnson
John L. Bentley
Safe Indorsement.
Sometimes a check is made out so that the payee's
name differs from that used in the bank. This will
happen frequently with married women. In such case
it is usually necessary to sign both names. For
example, a check made payable to Mrs. Henry Couch
would be indorsed "Mrs. Henry Couch," followed by
the proper signature, "Harriet B. Couch" underneath,
since the given name of a depositor is preferred at
the bank.
463
64
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Vouchers
Over-
drawing
Counter-
manding
Stubs
If for any reason one desires to draw cash on her
own account it may be done by making out a check,
using the word "Cash" or "Myself" in place of other
name.
A check eventually returns to the depositor's own
bank, is paid, cancelled and returned to her when her
pass book is balanced, as a voucher or receipt of pay-
ment. The vouchers are perfect receipts of all pay-
ments made by check.
Care must always be exercised not to overdraw in
checks the amount of one's deposit in the bank. When
this is done one suffers the humiliation of having the
bank refuse to honor the check, and the person infring-
ing is open to the criticism of being unbusiness-like at
least, and there is usually a small extra charge to pay.
Should one desire to countermand the order of pay-
ment on a check after it is issued the payment can
usually be prevented by notifying the bank in suffi-
cient time.
Stubs are the inner margin of a check book, from
which the checks are detached as used. Upon either
these or the inserted pages of the pocket check book
data should be recorded concerning the check which
is detached. Space is given for noting the data, num-
ber of the check, amount, the name of the person to
whom it is made payable and that for which it is given.
These facts serve as guides in proving the vouchers
when returned from the bank. Properly kept, the
stubs -indicate at a glance the amount still remaining
in the bank.
464
THE BANK ACCOUNT
From the preceding facts it will be seen that the
bank may be made as valuable aid to the housewife in
conducting her business as {or anyone else who has
exchanges to effect. By means of checks money may
OATr.,90^- DEPOS.TS, __ _ fa
-6
4.0
.T
^<?
Y0
6tf
OU.
QO
M(*J!
/
\J f <li^&sL'<f
s
/^^/ &^-C
r
m***L^** *i
j 7
TOTAL DEPOSIT*.
,.,, <>... n.w- Mn * 4 1 - 3 >~
131
31
tftl
r?
BALANCE FORWARD.
11
f-/
3. A
L*
33,
(Lu^L
a
V?
S?
THE TWO SIDES OP AN INTERLEAVED POCKET CHECK BOOK,
FOUR CHECKS TO A LEAF.
be more easily and safely transferred than in any other
way, since they can be enclosed in letters, if necessary,
and they avoid the danger of mistakes in "making
change," or of loss of money. Since they may be
made payable to a stated person only, if lost they are
of little value to the finder. Even if lost after indorse-
465
66
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Vouchers
as
Receipts
Comparing
Vouchers
with Stubs
ment, the payment may be withheld by notifying the
bank.
A check eventually becomes all the receipt necessary
in paying bills, thus saving any further trouble of
receipted bills. If checks are used entirely in pay-
ments, the vouchers constitute a comparatively com-
plete household account in themselves, but this is
rarely feasible, as employees find checks an inconven-
ient form of payment, since they are often not iden-
tified so that they can get them cashed ; besides, checks
are 1 quite unknown to them, so that they are slow in
appreciating them as money equivalent, and their
hours are such as not to conform well with banking
hours.
The pass book is important as a record of the
depositor's standing at the bank. That this record
may be kept accurately, it is necessary to present the
book with each deposit. The depositor is never at
liberty to make entries in it herself; that can only be
done by the receiving teller. The pass book should
be presented when called for and should be balanced
as often as once a month if a considerable business is
done through the bank ; even if the pass book is lost,
the money may still be drawn out at will.
Returned vouchers should always be compared care-
fully with their stubs. Should there be any discrep-
ancy between the balance as given by the bank and
that shown in the check book, one should determine
whether this corresponds exactly with the amounts of
any checks issued, but not returned.
466
THE BANK ACCOUNT 67
Neither check nor pass book need affect in any way
the household account book, except as they are made
to be valuable aids. They form a very convenient
department of the cash drawer, the cash in hand and
cash balance in the bank together making up the sum
total on hand.
In some cases if a bank account is properly kept
it may serve as a fairly complete system of book-
A CHECK WITH STUB ATTACHED.
keeping in itself. In such a system it is necessary to
deposit all money received, making careful record on
the blank sheets of the check book of the date, amount,
source, etc. Then all bills possible should be paid by
check. The vouchers are a receipt in themselves.
These returned checks, with the receipted bills, filed
in an ordinary 25-cent bill file, give a safeguard
against paying the same bill twice. All bills should,
of course, be checked up before being paid. The stubs
of the check book show for what the money was
spent so much for groceries, so much for the butcher,
for gas, milk, rent, dress goods, etc. When cash is
Bank
Account
Book-
keeping
467
68
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Better
than
None
necessary, as in paying employees or small incidentals,
this can be drawn from the bank, or in some cases
obtained from an obliging tradesman, who will
exchange cash for checks. Memorandum should be
made on the stub as to how the cash drawn is expend-
ed, or, much better, a petty cash account can be kept in
a book or on cards. At stated periods a summary may
be made from the stubs and from the receipted bills
as to how the money has been expended.
This system is not to be recommended for those
who should look after the pennies carefully. The inci-
dentals will Jbe found to foot up to a surprising
amount and it is always better to pay cash for gro-
ceries, meat, etc. However, such a system is better
than none, and as it is practically automatic, it can be
followed throughout the year with very little effort.
The poorest system, kept accurately from year to year,
is better than the most perfect system kept only inter-
mittently.
in a family which is properly organized financially
there is a definite idea as to how the income shall be
divided. A certain proportion is allowed for rent,
food, saving, etc., as already indicated. Then each
member of the family should have a personal allow-
ance, to include definite expenses, of which a personal
account is kept. As soon as a child is old enough to
trust with 5 or 10 cents of its own he should be given
such allowance regularly and taught how to spend as
well as to keep account of expenditure. Only by
experience can one learn how to spend wisely.
468
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
PART I
Read Carefully* Place your name and address on the
first sheet of the test. Use a lig-ht grade of paper and write
on one side of the sheet only. Leave space between an-
swers. Read the lesson paper a number of times before
answering 1 the questions. Answer fully.
1. What do you understand by the terms production
and consumption in economics ?
2. Compare their relative importance in Home Eco-
nomics at the present time.
3. What is true economy?
4. What do you consider valid reasons for main-
taining individual homes ?
5. (a) What do you understand by the term Stand-
ard of Life?
(b) How are you conscious of such a guide in
your own life? Have you been conscious of
your standard changing from time to time ?
6. What value do you see in a Division of Income
along some such lines as are indicated in the
text?
7. Comment upon the examples of both Typical and
Ideal Budgets in the light of your own expe-
rience.
469
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
8. What do you consider a desirable division of a
salary of $1,500 a year, the family, occupation
and location to be chosen as you please ? Indi-
cate clearly and fully both conditions and divi-
sions.
9. Estimate as nearly as possible the division of the
income in your own household and criticise.
10. Why are household accounts essential ?
11. How many housekeepers of your acquaintance
keep careful household accounts? Do you dis-
cover any indications of greater success be-
cause of it when compared with those who do
not?
12. What system of account keeping do you find most
usable? Give details.
13. Explain "Balancing an Account."
14. What is meant by "Indorsing a check?" Illus-
trate and explain value.
15. (a) What are stubs? How valuable? (b)
What are vouchers?
1 6. In what lines of expenditure does there seem to
be especial lack of thrift at the present time?
Suggest causes and corrections.
17. What do you consider the chief cause of the in-
creased distaste for housekeeping among
women and of the tendency to give up indi-
vidual homes in favor of apartments? How
do you regard the change ?
470
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
1 8. To what extent have any subjects which you
studied during your school life been directly
and practically helpful to you in your home-
making experience?
19. Is there any additional training or subject which
it seems to you might be profitably added to
the curricula of our schools or colleges for
young women?
20. Have you gained any new or helpful suggestions
for the more successful management of your
home as a result of this study? If so, what?
21. What additional suggestions can you make on
any of the topics taken up in this paper as a
result of your experience or study ?
22. Ask two or more questions on the subjects con-
sidered in this lesson.
Note. After completing the test sign your full name.
471
MY SYMPHONY
live content with small
means CJ to seek elegance
rather than luxury, and
refinement rather than fash-
ion If to be worthy not
respedable flf to be wealthy,
not rich I to study hard,
think quietly, talk gently,
ad: frankly jjf to listen to the
Stars and birds, babes and
sages, with open heart If to
bear all cheerfully If to do
all bravely, await occasions,
hurry never IJ in a word,
to let the spiritual unbidden
and unconscious, grow up
through the common Iff this
is to be my symphony.
William Ellery Channing
472
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
PART i;i
ORGANIZATION AND DIVISION OF LABOR
Few things in life are more pathetic than a house- order
hold in which no organization exists, no systematic
direction of activities, no appreciation of Heaven's first
law, order. The haphazard, aimless living in such
homes leaves an unmistakable stamp upon the inmates*.
Without knowing it, the housewife in such a home
suffers infinitely more friction, loss of time, strength
and money than it would cost her to keep her house-
keeping better in hand.
To have sufficient system and organization so that what
one knows (i) what is to be done, (2) who is to who^
do it, and (3) when is it to be done, is to have the
chief requisites for the successful working out of
ideals, coupled with ease and comfort of mind. Apply-
ing this knowledge each day, one may utilize whatever
time is at her disposal for other enjoyments, conscious
that she is not thereby neglecting what should ever
constitute her first duty the care of her home and
family. It makes little difference whether it be the
mother of several boys with limited means at her
command or the woman who can afford to hire sev-
eral helpers ; there is keen pleasure and satisfaction for
71
473
Requisites
Brain Power
Knowledge
Health
72 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
all in work so carefully divided that each has the
gratification of knowing the importance of his portion
and feels a commendable pride in his own contribution
toward the whole. This gratification may be made
as real for the helpers as for the one for whom the
work is performed. The joy of definite duties care-
fully related to the whole, in contrast with the lifeless
routine of ill-defined, meaningless details, appeals to
the one as truly as to the other.
Each thoughtful housekeeper finds her own best
methods of accomplishing this organization. Some
general suggestions as to necessary equipments may
be an aid. Certain things are absolutely essential for
success, such as the following:
Brain Pozver with Mental Alertness and Activity.
Method is impossible to one unwilling to contribute
these.
A Knowledge as to how to perform the details of
housework in a superior manner. Unless one under-
stands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain
dish, or the length of time it ought to require to clean
a room properly, it is quite impossible to direct it so
that the requisite amount of time and strength shall
be expended upon it, and no more.
Health plays no small part. Much failure has poor
physical conditions at the foundation. No truer
criticism has been made of American women in gen-
eral than that of a leader in the study of home prob-
lems, when she affirms that too many are content to be
474
ORGANIZATION
73
"just able to be about." Home is the place where
suffering resulting from this low standard is certain
to be most keenly felt. Without excellent physical
vitality, the cares of a house must, perforce, seem
mountain-high. The exuberance of spirits of one full
of life and energy is transmitted like an electric cur-
rent to all who come in contact with it, and inspiration,
each for his task, is the inevitable result. Very unfor-
tunately, the reverse is equally true. Failure to
possess the cheerfulness and optimism born of per-
fect health creates conditions well suited to spread a
contagion of a very depressing nature. Inability on
the part of a leader to do his share is soon followed
by a lessening of interest on the part of the helpers.
A dropping off of punctual and hearty performance
of duties results.
Self-control is another necessity. Ability to think
coolly and calmly, even under pressure, and to plan
carefully and intelligently at all times, goes a long
way in directing others. This characteristic is too
often thought to be entirely a matter of temperament,
beyond individual control. It is a great mistake. In-
dividuals do differ in a marked degree, it is true, in
the natural possession of it; nevertheless with good
normal conditions of health, especially of "nerves,"
that bane of woman's existence, this virtue is as possi-
ble of attainment as any other and well worth a strug-
gle to secure.
A large Sympathy, which appreciates the difficulties
Sympathy
475
74
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Forethought
Routine
Written
Notes
encountered in doing the work, proves a priceless aid
to the successful superintendent.
Forethought is an important requisite. One must
have in mind a broad survey of the work to be ac-
complished. The outline of at least a week at a time
should be clearly defined to oneself, each day being
assigned its special work in addition to a regular rou-
tine preserved from week to week. In this scheme
all work such as washing, ironing, sweeping, cleaning
and the like will find a place, if these are all done in
the home. The routine should not be infringed upon,
unless extraordinary emergencies arise. A system
broken is hard to restore, and something is sure to be
crowded out, if postponed. Each day's work should
be so planned that the menu will be given to the cook,
it one is employed, at least the day before, and market-
ing will be attended to, so as to secure early and
prompt delivery next morning. A careful mental, or
better, written note should be made of all details liable
to escape notice at the proper time. This avoids a con-
fusion in the morning of being needed in several places
at once, while the machinery will not be at a stand-
still, waiting to be set in motion again. It avoids
waste of time at a very valuable part of the day. The
early hours count for much in starting the work so
that tiring haste and over-pressure may be prevented
later. If helpers know, when they arise, what the
day's work is to include, they can plan to far greater
advantage, saving time and strength. Written orders
are a great help here.
476
ORGANIZATION 75
Adaptability of means to ends is a thing that the
would-be organizer may well study in successful busi-
ness men. A business man's office is so arranged that
it is to the highest degree labor and time-saving. It is
compact, orderly, simple, with nothing unnecessary
rilling space. Every thing is at hand and adapted to
make his work swift and easy. The successful work-
man's tools are good in quality, in perfect order, and
so arranged that every motion counts. He knows that
it is economy to have them so. How many of our
kitchens would stand the test satisfactorily in these
particulars? Most kitchens, pantries and laundries
are so arranged that there is a prodigal waste of time
and strength in passing from one thing to another.
One should see to it that the cooking table is not on
the side of the kitchen opposite the pantry of supplies
or cooking utensils, and both as far as possible from
the stove. A little trouble and perhaps no expense
will often better conditions.
It would seem far more ideal a condition than has
yet been reached were it possible to give certain fixed
standards for the division of the work of a house so
that helpers going from one to another would find
practically the same duties expected of them. To at-
tempt such outline, would be too hazardous to under-
take. Were housewives who employ, asked to define
the duties of "second girl," "nursery maid," or even
of laundress or cook, hardly two would be found to
agree, so individual has been the assignment according
to the particular needs of each household. One ex-
477
Diversity of
Requirement
Study
the Only
Solution
The Right
to Servants
;6 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
pects assistance in one line of work, another in another.
In one house the housewife rarely appears, gives no
assistance and maintains the most formal relations
with those employed. In another she prefers to direct
minutely and to assist in the performance of portions
of the work, attempting at the same time to make her
helpers feel a home-like enjoyment of what she is
able to provide them. Such diversity renders it im-
possible to arrive at any general plan or division for
each helper which shall be adapted to meet the needs
of all who employ.
Even in homes where several are employed some-
thing of the same irregularity is found. A "second
girl" at one place is expected to look after the door-
bell, wait on table and do nursery work. Perhaps
with her first change of place she is asked to assist the
cook by preparing vegetables and does laundry work.
The best guide at present is a patient, thoughtful
study of the problems of one's own house until as
equitable and consistent division is attained as can be
made, meanwhile praying for speedy release from a
condition so unsystematic and chaotic as that of the
present time, and resolutely setting one's face toward
the ultimate solution of some, at least, of the diffi-
culties through better adaptation of household manage-
ment to the demands of the age.
A woman has no right to a servant until she knows
the value of time and strength in relation to the work
to be done. She cannot understand her servant's prob-
lems until she understands a servant's duties.
478
DOMESTIC SERVICE
Even the most fortunate housekeeper recognizes in
the present situation of domestic service a state of
affairs sadly chaotic, perplexing and deplorable.
Merely to cry out against it is futile and would be but
adding to an already long list of complaints. The
following pages are intended rather as an Indicator of
some indisputable facts, to be recognized and dealt with
by would-be successful employers.
Domestic service in the United States has passed
through great changes in the last fifty years. Condi-
tions, in some respects, were never like those in any
.other country. Until within a few years in New Eng-
land and the Northwest whatever assistance was
needed in performing the work of the household beyond
that rendered by the members of the family was
secured by employing a neighbor's wife or daughter,
who shared in all particulars the interests and privi-
leges of the family in which she was employed. She
was recognized in every way as an equal, sitting at the
family table, sharing the common sitting room, often
marrying into the family. While this continues to be
true to a slight extent in rural districts to-day, there
has been, generally speaking, an entire change, the
present being a period of transition and reconstruction.
The two factors which have had the greatest influence
upon the domestic situation are immigration and the
changes in the industrial system.
77
Changes
479
Influence of
Immigration
Rural
Supply
Industrial
Changes
78 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
The influence of immigration upon domestic service
has been more or less similar to its influence upon
occupations for men. As the unskilled labor of the
ignorant immigrant has entered into competition with
the labor of the more skilled and intelligent native
workers the native employes have progressed, pushing
up and out into lines of work which have been deemed
higher, more lucrative, pleasanter. This has happened
in domestic service until very few native Americans
can be secured for housework at the present time.
Rural districts have suffered a surprising falling off
in supply due to this change, as the immigrants tend
to congregate in the large cities, especially those who
come to us from the countries of the principal supply of
domestics Ireland, Germany, Sweden, Canada and
Newfoundland and the country girl has learned to
seek the city also.
Manufacturing industries have a large influence in
determining the number of women engaged in domestic
service in any city or community, as they seem to prove
more attractive than housework at the present time.
Whenever there is competition with other kinds of
employment housework is inevitably the lesser attrac-
tion. It is done, if at all, only when there is no other
alternative; a last resort rather than a choice. It is
not surprising, in the light of these facts, that the kind
of service rendered by those who are engaged in it is
not as satisfactory as it should be and that the stand-
ards in the service are very low, with little apparent
480
DOMESTIC SERVICE 79
spirit of emulation or progress. Let us consider the
leading elements in the problem from the point of view
of both employer and employee, seeking to ascertain
the real and alleged causes of this marked preference
on the part of employees, and if there are any remedies
which may be applied to the immediate relief of the
situation.
If we turn to consider, first, the advantages of Advantages
domestic service over other forms of labor open to service 68 *
women of the class thus employed, there are several
decidedly advantageous conditions peculiar to the
work. The conditions for preserving good health are
superior to those in almost any other occupation. The
work is normal, with greater variety, better provision *
of light and pure air and more consideration in rase
of temporary illness. Steady employment is afforded
in work for the most part congenial to those who have
any understanding of it. In spite of much said to the
contrary concerning irregularity of hours, there is less
rigid confinement than in most occupations.
It affords more home life than other kinds of work, Home
although this is in the home of the employer and is not
considered as home life by the employee. The degree
in which the employee is allowed or made to feel this
differs greatly, as all know, with employers and, to
a certain extent, the number of employees. That
there is far less difficulty where there are many em-
ployees is shown in the fact that the majority of state
institutions have no difficulty in obtaining help of all
481
8o
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
kinds. Even insane asylums, where the work is very
hard, can actually make a choice of applicants for
housework instead of having to seek for them. Even
tinder the worst circumstances a certain sense of pro-
tection and comfort is offered in connection with the
work, and at its best the comforts and positive luxuries
which surround the maids far exceeds those they could
have in their own homes.
In spite of these important advantages, the work is
most universally unpopular. All are familiar with the
reasons offered for this. Irregularity of hours is a
point frequently urged. It is true that the hours of
labor are so loosely defined in most households that
employees have little sense of having completed the
work of the day. This is true to some extent in well-
regulated households on account of the nature of the
work. Lack of system and care in this respect too
often unduly increases the irregularity and makes what
might be a reasonable amount of work unreasonably
heavy.
It is also true that the employee, although nominally
in the family, is in no sense a part of it. This is a
position infinitely lonelier than to be outside it alto-
gether. Very few employes feel free to receive or
entertain personal friends in a manner natural or
pleasant to them, nor are they expected to do so.
Attempts to secure personal improvement or pleasure
are perhaps ridiculed. This is probably not inten-
tional on the part of the employer, but seems to be the
482
DOMESTIC SERVICE
81
result of failure to appreciate the needs of the
employees or to provide suitably for meeting them.
Opportunities for promotion and advancement,
which play a very important part in stimulating to
effort in other employments, are almost wholly lacking
in the present methods of conducting domestic service.
The most that can be hoped for through a change is
an easier place, a slight increase in wages, a pleasanter
employer or some trival gain. The w r ork is so ungraded
that the unskilled, inefficient worker receives practically
the same wages as the skilled and capable.
Disparity in wages is sometimes offered as a reason
for the choice of other work, but this is readily proved
to. be invalid. A comparison with the pay in any
other form of employment would be favorable for the
wages of the domestic employee at the present time.
Wages differ greatly in different sections, vet they
bear sufficiently close relation to other expenses so
that general comparisons may be made. Miss Salmon
in her admirable work on Domestic Service makes the
comparison between the average wages received by
the domestic employee and the school teacher. In this
she clearly shows that, considering the fewer demands
made upon the domestic employee in maintaining her
position in contrast with those made upon a teacher,
and also the many aids and comforts which are not
easily measured in full money values, such as board,
lodging, laundry and the like, the average wages of the
domestic employee is higher by a generous margin.
Wagec
483
Social
Stigma
Employer's
Standpoint
82 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
The average salary of women teachers is $545 a year ;
$260 must be deducted for board and lodp-inp- and $25
for laundry. There is left $260 with which she must
meet such necessary expenses as clothing, traveling,
social obligations and working capital, as books, etc.
If one considers in addition, as is certainly legitimate,
the necessary outlay for training in the one case, in
contrast with the low requirements in the other, it
becomes very apparent that one must look elsewhere
for an explanation of the great popularity of the one
form of service and the unpopularity of the other.
There remains a final objection, which is in reality
first in importance and which has more to do with
keeping desirable helpers from choosing this kind of
employment than any other. It is the reason invariably,
given first by those who express their feeling frankly
and unreservedly. This is the social disadvantage
experienced by those who engage in such service. This
stigma is subtle, but very real in its resultant evils. It
takes its rise in the false attitude of many employers
toward housework, and the utterly false idea of what
equality in this free American country really means
by those whose limitations of ignorance or opportunity
have led them to take a wrong view of the entire
matter.
When we turn to the employer's point of view there
is much to be said considering: the unsatisfactory situa-
tion. Taking the present-day employee into the home
is attempting to introduce into the life there one who
is of different nationality and who has little in common
484
DOMESTIC SERVICE 83
with the other members of the family from any point
of view. Inheritance, former environment and experi-
ences could hardly be more unlike in the majority of
cases. There can be little expectation of accomplish-
ing or even approximating perfect assimilation.
As there is no opportunity, in the majority of house-
holds, to rise in this employment, the desire for change
or betterment finds lively expression and diversion
through new places. As a result the employer is put
to her wit's end to cope with this tendency, and is
often exasperated, and rightly, by her neighbor, who
resorts to illegitimate means of influence by over-
paying, and who ignores the fact that she is thereby
only multiplying the difficulties. Much selfishness is
revealed in the methods employed bv harassed employ-
ers, who are often placed in so hard a position that it
becomes a supreme test of character to decide what to
do to secure and keep the needed help. The majority
of employees are astonishingly oblivious to real present
opportunities, so eagerly do they grasp after vague
advantages through change. As a result, the average
length of service in one place is less than one and a
half years in cities, and in towns where the desire
to go to the cities is strong it is still shorter.
The ignorance of the average employee of the
present time is profound and very exasperating, the
more difficult to cope with because of the assumed
intelligence in most cases. The perplexities and trials
of being forced to employ untrained helpers for work
Irresponsi-
bility
Ignorance
485
Summary
Time
Off
84 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
which requires skilled labor can hardly be exagger-
ated. That more of this crudeness is to be found in
this line of work than in any other is indisputable. It
is accounted for partly in the present failure to show
appreciation of good work or to properly reward it.
This is one of the greatest menaces to satisfactory
service.
These, then, are the objections to household service:
It provides no real social life; it takes the worker
from her own home and places her where, however
comfortable she may be, she is an alien, often losing
caste among her friends, hence having no social place ;
it offers no incentive to rise, no spur to ambition,
except that of personal pride or desire to please, and
this, if not lacking in the first place, may cease, because
there is no real competition.
Also, it should be stated that all places are not com-
fortable ; a cold, cheerless, illy furnished room cannot
seem a rest or refuge after a hard day's work. Work
over a hot stove, however neatly done, certainly does
seem to demand for the person engaged in it proper
hot water bathing facilities.
Fresh air is an essential to happy, healthy living.
One afternoon weekly cannot enable the maid to store
away sufficient fresh air to keep her through the fol-
lowing six days.
Simply from the selfish standpoint, that of getting
the best work from the machine, reasonable fore-
thought should be given, not only for the comfort, but
486
DOMESTIC SERVICE 85
for the personal freedom of the employee. This
means that if the best work is expected from the
worker an endeavor should be made to keep her in
the best physical condition for that work. When the
prescribed work is finished it is normal for anyone to
desire to get out and away from the place in which
she has been working. If a maid's sitting room were
or could be a part of every house there would not be
the temptation to seek the street or a friend's kitchen
for rest and recreation. This sitting room is often an
entire impossibility ; it is frequently considered in that
light because it entails a sacrifice of space or some
expense. There is far too frequently an utter disregard
of the actual condition of what may be termed the
rolling stock of this business. It is economy to keep
the machine well oiled, well repaired and well housed.
Pleasant surroundings do much to lighten labor
and make it attractive, whatever kind of work it may
be. This 'fact large manufacturers and merchants
have recognized and utilized to their great advantage.
The housekeeper may learn the same lesson, and a
maids' sitting room may become the rule rather than
the exception.
Reasonable forethought entails a recognition of the
fact that as there are now few standards of work or
methods of doing it, so that the new cook or maid, no
matter how well recommended or even equipped, has
no idea of how you desire your work done or how you
wish it systematized. Proper and sufficient directions
Pleasant
Surroundings
Standards
of Work
487
86
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Written
Directions
Daily
Outlines
should be given and proper care that they should
not be presented in a confused manner all at once.
Perhaps they can be given best in writing, a type-
written sheet placed in the kitchen or some suitable
place and used for reference. To this can be attached
the special direction for the following day each night
or afternoon, and the chances are this plan will aid
very materially in the smooth running of the ma-
chinery of the household. Such a plan need not be in
too great detail, unless the maid be very untrained.
Miss Parloa suggests such a daily outline in her
work on Home Economics, as follows :
1. Make the fires, air the dining room and hall.
2. Prepare the breakfast and set the table.
3. Put the bedrooms to air while the family is at
breakfast.
4. Remove the breakfast dishes ; put away the food.
Sort the dishes and put to soak all dishes and utensils
that have had food in them which is liable to stick.
5. Put dining room and sitting room in order, airing
them well.
6. Wash dishes, put kitchen and pantries in order.
Prepare dishes that require slow cooking and put them
to cook.
7. Make beds and put sleeping rooms and bathroom
in order.
8. Trim lamps.
9. Dust halls and stairs ; sweep piazzas.
This plan is for a maid of all work, and naturally
would be varied in many households, but indicates the
488
DOMESTIC SERVICE 87
idea. The more definite the work can be made, the
better.
Personal freedom for the maid means about what Personal
it does for the mistress ; freedom to choose and have Freedom
her own friends, to have them call and visit with her;
to receive them without unnecessary and seemingly
impertinent interruption or surveillance; freedom to
come and go within reasonable limits without asking
permission or giving explanation each time. In short,
it is an application of the Golden Rule, and means
such treatment as will insure the respect, if not the
liking, of employee for the employer. This may seem
revolutionary, actually impossible to many, and prob-
ably is where there is a succession of unknown, un-
tried, unreferenced maids passing through the kitchen
every four to six weeks. This plan, however, has
been tried with success in many places.
In a small city in Northern New York, where the A Case
majority of people are in the maelstrom of the domestic
situation, there is a family that secures help readily
and whose maids remain with them until a proper rea-
son, such as marrying, causes a change. The em-
ployer in this case considers that she employs the maids
to do the work, not simply to be in the house. When
the work is finished the maids are at liberty. If two
are in the house, one is expected to be ready to answer
the bell ; if one only is employed, there never has been
trouble or even necessity of making any rule about
this mooted point. This housekeeper has argued that
489
88 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
in general she would prefer to answer her own door
bell and have the real work cheerfully, faithfully and
well done, and that to get out of doors undoubtedly
would be better for maid and work than staying in
would be. This mistress has provided her maids with
suitable reading matter for their leisure time, and
shows that she is interested in the outside life of the
girls without unduly interfering with it. In conse-
quence she has good service, the maids are well and
happy, and so is she, for friction is almost unknown
in the running machinery of that home. Perhaps this
should be noted, that in general the mistress does not
have to answer the door bell, and many little thought-
ful services are performed for her not nominated in
the bond.
The real question is not the "reason for the dearth
cf good household workers, but what suggestions may
be made to assist the housewife in this trying situation.
In its ultimate effects the domestic situation of
to-day will probably bring about a reorganization of
the home. This is to be hoped and desired, if that
t~c organization means raising the work of the home
to its proper position as a recognized business affair,
whose director is required to have a krjowlccg? and
skill somewhat commensurate with the issues at stake,
the interests involved. It is absolutely necessary that
the director of the home should know and be trained
for her business if she is to demand and obtain skill
and training in those she directs. The recognition of
this need is the first great step toward reform.
490
DOMESTIC SERVICE 9
The second is the acknowledgment of the fact that
in general the housekeeping of to-day is run on an
antiquated plan, one not even fulfilling the needs of
an earlier generation and entirely inadequate to cope
w r ith the tendencies of to-day. The plan has to be
changed. No progress will be made if women spend
their time in bewailing the present condition only ; we
must put our wits to work to better it.
These, then, are suggestions : First, that there
should be more universal effort made, particularly
in communities where clubs discuss these things,
to secure certain just standards of work to be done
for a certain just wage. The work of each household
should not vary between unknown limits and the
wages still be the same in each.
Co-operation in establishing standards of work is
much needed. Why should the cook who prepares
three elaborate meals daily for a family of six adults,
who often entertain, be paid the same wages as the
cook next door, who prepares simple meals for three
people who live most quietly and rarely have a guest?
Workers in factories and stores at least are governed
by the same number of hours. Just as the life, num-
bers and demands of different families vary, so does
the work vary. A standard of wage cannot be estab-
lished without a corresponding standard of work.
Secondly, that housekeepers should bring themselves
to a willingness to adopt the hour plan, the worker
coming in, and work being done and paid for by the
Establish
Standards
Work by
the Hour
491
Expense
of the
Hour
Flan
An
Actual
Experience
90 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
hour according to kind or skill involved in accom-
plishing it.
The immediate objections to this plan are, first, its
expense, and then the seeming strain upon the house-
keeper, who must either piece out or piece together
this patchwork scheme. Then arises the question:
"Where shall we get the workers ?" for in many places
this is a problem.
As to expense, in only a few cases has it been com-
pared, hence there is a lack of sufficient data. In
general it may be computed in this way: Take first
into account the wages of the maid or maids, add
board and what may be called room rent, including
light, etc., used. One family living in the West has
carefully kept account of the expenses with and with-
out a maid and have concluded that in general a maid
of all work costs $5 a week above her wages. This is
higher than Mrs. Abel's estimates, which were based
on the actual experience of a family of seven.
The family lived in a small town in New York, and
consisted of five men and boys and two women. These
estimates are the comparison of two successive sum-
mers. In both cases the laundry was done outside,
hence has no place in the comparison.
First Summer.
Wages of maid per week $3oo
Board per week 2.50
Rent of bedroom 50
$6.00
492
DOMESTIC SERVICE gi
The exact amount of room rent could be known, as
the house was too small for the maid and a room was
rented outside for her.
Second Summer.
(Work done by the hour.)
Dishwashing, two and a half hours for six days
(fifteen hours) $1.50
Cleaning ( 15 hours) 1.50
Dinner service, three hours for six days (eigh-
teen hours) 1. 80
Sunday dinners at hotel, seven, at 25 cents (less
estimated cost of food material) 88
$5.68
From these and other data it might be determined
that in general a maid costs her wages ; that is, if paid
$5.00 a week, the conditions are such that the probable
cost for her board and lodging is $5.00 also ; if paid
$3.00, it cost another like amount for her "keep."
In Chicago so many of the very good apartment
houses are constructed without accommodation for
maids that the hour plan is popular. The general con-
census of opinion is that the hour plan is less, not
more, expensive, and has advantages not reckoned in
dollars and cents. By those who have tried it the
advantages of the hour system are stated to be that
the work is in general better and more rapidly done;
there is not such waste of material, and that the free-
dom from the responsibility and presence of an actual
493
Where to
Obtain
Workers
Natural
Progress
92 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
alien in the house, especially in an apartment, is incal-
culable.
The question of where to get these workers remains
to be solved. That is a very individual one, belonging
to the conditions of each city or town. As club women
take this up, bureaus such as the Household Aids
Company of Boston will be established, and even now
from guilds and industrial unions, often from bureaus
of charity, such workers are easily obtainable.
One young woman in Brooklyn, after desperate
times with incompetent help, advertised for a married
woman with children who could leave her home for a
certain number of hours a day. She obtained a refined
woman in reduced circumstances, untrained for any
definite work, whose experience made her of the great-
est assistance. She goes to the house for a stated
number of hours each day to care for the babies, while
the mother performs her social duties. This mother
does her own cooking, having the dishwashing done
by the hour. The expense is lessened, her home is
charming, she feels she is leaving the children in safe,
"grammatical," understanding hands, and she has
leisure for profit and pleasure, for the higher life,
which she says she never had in the old plan, even
with a smaller family.
We must realize that natural, industrial progress
has taken one by one from the home the occupations
formerly carried on there, until housekeeping no
longer means the making of many things, but the
proper expending of money for things already made.
494
DOMESTIC SERVICE 93
We should not resist this tendency, but recognize and
fit into it.
It must be remembered that the sanctity of the home
is not preserved by the industries carried on there. To
preserve one home at the expense of several others is
neither economic nor ethical. When clubwomen talk
about the sanctity of the home they should ask the
question, ''Whose home ?" B
Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel, who is a close student
and a wise observer of economic conditions as they
affect the home, says that the solution of present
troubles must come in part from reducing the kinds of
work done in the home. This is along the line of
industrial progress as well as that of the least resist-
ance in this case.
The laundry is disappearing from the house, follow-
ing soap and candle making. True, there are many
more poor laundries than good ones, but that there
are good ones, and that these have been run with a
profit, proves there can and should be more.
The establishment of laundries is one step, and a
perfectly possible one. A well-educated Southern
woman, after taking a course in household science at
a Northern institution, started a laundry in a Northern
city. The work was entirely done by hand and a fair
price charged for it. She supervised the work and
employed competent people to do it. It paid well in
every sense for both owner and patrons. When cir-
cumstances forced her to lay aside the work her
customers were as homeless people ; they had no other
Sanctity
of the
Home
Establishment
of Laundries
495
94
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Good
Employment
Agencies
The
Future
place to go. What one woman has done other women
can do, and it should be emphasized that this woman
was well born, delicately brought up, educated and a
Southerner, with the inevitable shrinking from labor
outside that such a bringing up entails. She says that
her patrons became her friends, that work she took
up with shrinking became really delightful, simply
because it was well done.
Another step is the establishment of more properly
run employment agencies. Too many cases are known
of employment agencies that encourage their maids to
change often, to the end that they may gain additional
fees. Employment agencies where references are
required and looked up, where the maid is actually
investigated and known as well as the housekeeper,
where honesty is considered not only the best but the
only policy are not castles in Spain. They can be
established, supported and run by women and women's
clubs.
Whatever solution the future may hold, employers
are beginning to realize that it is not through greater
individual indulgences, more equality or higher wages
that the problems are to be solved. Employees do
not ask to be admitted, to the family circle. Self-
respecting helpers would not feel comfortable were
this provision made, nor is it a practical way of
removing the difficulty. What they desire as a class
is, rather, the opportunity of independence which other
forms of employment afford and which is missed in
this a chance to perform their work and, apart from
496
DOMESTIC SERVICE 95
that, to live their own lives in their own way.
However desirable any opening or advantage, the
spirit of liberty demands that it be chosen rather than
forced upon one. What domestic service is really
claiming for itself is some adjustment whereby definite
hours shall be secured, and, outside that, free choice of
amusement, personal improvement, friendships life.
This, when secured, will prove one of the most
reasonable and satisfactory aids to the solution of
difficulties of both employers and employees. The
final adjustment to the same basis as all other indus-
trial and business activities will be a work of time, no
doubt, but it seems to be the inevitable goal.
As employers and the world at larg^e erain and keep
in mind a truer conception of the importance of house-
hold employment in the economic world there will
follow better practical results. As long as employers
express scorn of these duties little can be hoped for in
the way of "dignifying labor" in the home. The
efficiency of the housework cannot be expected to rise
above that of the mistress as manager. There is deep
significance in the words of one who wrote : "To know
the workman one must have been a workman himself,
and, above all, remember it." The housekeeper must
know the household affairs and respect them if she
would have others do the same.
There are some experiments being carried on at the
present time that all should follow with interest.
These go far to prove that the preceding statements
are not without foundation. Notable among these is
Definite
Hours
Industrial
Basis
Dignity
of Labor
497
96 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
the attempt which has been made in Boston to create
an attractive home center for helpers, from which they
go each day for a definite number of hours for employ-
ment in various homes which desire their services.
The helpers are classified and graded, as already sug-
gested, according to efficiency, the wages paid corre-
sponding to the degree of skill attained. There is
adequate stimulus to advancement, as instruction is
given at the home center. The home life is natural
and congenial, every attempt being made to enhance
the wholesome pleasure to be derived from such a
place. The rapidly increasing popularity of the experi-
ment shows that no mistake has been made in the
diagnosis of the employee's point of view. For the
employer there is the difficulty of arranging the work
to fit such a plan so that the desirable work shall be
secured at a price not exceeding the expense of resi-
dent help. This is a difficult thing to do, a thing not
yet accomplished, but which the ingenuity of woman
will yet solve. Without doubt it will mean the simpli-
fying of life in some homes, but if this is wisely
arranged it will be a gain rather *-han a loss.
498
BUYING SUPPLIES
Women, as a usual thing, spend such small sums of
money at a time in their purchases for the house, that
they are apt to lose sight of the size of the total amount
expended in a year. Not realizing the value of the ag-
gregate it follows that they hesitate and study returns
far more carefully and intelligently in investing one
hundred dollars in any other way than in placing the
same amount in household supplies. Those who real-
ize the importance of economic buying follow cur-
rent prices and buy when the market offers the best
inducements. The difference in time expended in ex-
ercising this care is not as great as is fancied. Watch-
fulness and interest count chiefly. There are times of
legitimate annual or clearance sales when real bar-
gains may be secured. These should be watched for
and taken advantage of in buying yearly supplies of
things which may be safely stored. If the articles to
be purchased are such as suffer from the competition
of "style" one is especially enabled, with a slight sac-
rifice of style to quality, to reap a rich harvest at the
expense of the foolish of the world who must have
the very latest fad at whatever cost. The extremes
of fashion are folly economically, in that they make it
impossible to realize nearly the value of money ex-
pended.
There is only a small range of supplies in which
there is a marked style. Individual preference controls
97
Relative
Importance
Legitimate
Bargains
Buying in
Quantity
Storage
98 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
in the selection of most, so that when one has de-
termined upon the most desirable brand, variety, etc.,
there are left but three things which must be weighed
in deciding the amount to be bought. These are ( I )
room for storage, (2) ready money for the purchase,
and (3) the perishable nature of the article. The
economy of buying in quantity must, necessarily, de-
pend to a large extent upon these points. When these
can be satisfactorily met there is great advantage in
buying in quantity. Thereby one has the advantage of
wholesale prices or great reduction over retail prices
on quantities not too large for a moderate-sized fam-
ily to dispose of within desirable limits of time.
The family that finds it necessary to buy its supply
of coal by the fraction of a ton and flour by the pound,
suffers great loss through the increased expense, pay-
ing often very nearly twice as much as the same grade
would cost in larger quantity, and with no gain since
these products gain in value rather than lose, by stor-
age. Buying in small quantities at retail means pay-
ing a generous profit for grocer or messenger boy's
wages in delivering the small amounts. Again, one
suffers from having to look her supplies over fre-
quently or has the annoyance of finding something
missing when wanted.
The changed conditions of modern life from those
of our grandmothers affect our habits in regard to
storing supplies. Now that a large number of homes
are rented, each room counting and swelling the
500
BUYING SUPPLIES 90
monthly bill, it has naturally led to economy of space.
The uncertainty of residence with some has its effect
also, as the expense of moving is increased by quantity,
and the danger of injury and breakage all have to be
reckoned with. One great misfortune which results
from these considerations is the inclination to turn to
cheap grades which are more readily disposed of at
such a time or cause less regret if injured. Thereby
we are losing some of the refining influences of acquir-
ing and possessing the best. This applies especially
to furniture and utensils, which ought to be bought
as though they were to last a lifetime.
There is a happy medium between the huge chests Medium
of linen in former time which held supplies not used
for years, yellowing with age, and the modern ten-
dency of hand-to-mouth provision, satisfying only the
weekly demand. There should be always a small
emergency store of linen. Additions can be too easily
made to require that it be very large. In fact, since
it may be added to, usually, any day, the principal
gain is realized by being able to buy better at certain
seasons, as in January, than others, and the same
i eduction in price by buying in quantity may be real-
ized in this as in groceries. Dish toweling by the roll
at 133/2 cents instead of 15 cents a yard, sheeting by
the web or piece at a similar reduction, etc., are illus-
trations of the benefits to be derived through such
methods of buying. An especial reason for buying
table linens in January, in addition to any attractive
ioo HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
prices which may be found at that time, is that the
fresh supply of goods is in then and one may so
secure a better selection. For storing linens a special
chest or linen closet is very desirable and should be
included in planning a house, but when not provided,
an ordinary closet may be used, drawers, a trunk or
a home-constructed box, any of which answers every
purpose if well cared for.
storage For storing groceries the requirements are a light,
dry, cool room, as near the kitchen and pantries as
possible. It should be supplied with lock and key,
which the housekeeper or a trusted helper controls.
Large quantities may so be put into it and smaller
portions given out as needed for use. This is both
an aid to economy (since the tendency is to use more
liberally if there is a large amount at hand) and
prevents such supplies as baking powder, tea, spices,
etc., from losing in value through standing open. A
year's supply is usually as large an amount as it is
well to buy at a time. This is especially true of
canned goods. These should be bought in the fall
after the fresh supply is in market. By the dozen, or
better yet, by the case of two dozen, canned goods
may be secured at a reduction of from ten to twenty-
five per cent. The same is true of the pack-
ages of cereals, although for small families cereals
cannot be used rapidly enough to buy in large quan-
tity. It will be found to be well worth while for those
of limited space to attempt to make space somewhere
for some storage room. With a large number of
502
BUYING SUPPLIED
101
families that are not cramped for room it should be a
matter of more consideration to utilize a portion for
this purpose.
It is only the very poor who have an excuse for
being too limited in ready money for such advance
purchasing. It is but thrifty to see to it that there
is at least a small capital which may be used for such
advantage. When once started it is a simple matter,
since after that the woman of forethought will look
ahead and plan so that the funds will be at hand as the
supply-time comes around. Of course there is no
economy in buying at a reduction a supply which is
so rapidly perishable in nature as to cause a loss of
enough to off-set, or more, the gain through getting
in large amount. This is but a waste of time and
energy as well as money. Vegetables are much
cheaper by the bushel or barrel, and fruit, as oranges,
by the box, but one must have a cold storage room to
insure the safe keeping of either for any length of
time. Even then there must be care in looking them
over frequently to remove any that are decayed. For
most families, therefore, it proves more satisfactory to
buy perishable articles as needed.
A great difficulty confronts the would-be-wise buyer
to-day in the fact that it is hard to establish standards
of quality without some sad experience. When the
housewife manufactured her own soap she knew be-
yond a question what constituted an excellent article.
Through handling different kinds of cloth, in weaving
Ready
Money
Perishable
Supplies
Quality
503
102
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
or sewing, standards were created in that direction.
Ignorance of real value makes the thriving "bargain
Remnants counters" possible with their "remnants" cut from the
webs on the shelves and offered at a price equal or
even in excess of that for which the same goods may
be bought by the yard elsewhere in the same store.
Shrewd, not over-scrupulous merchants are bound to
take advantage where it is possible, and the ignorant,
unsuspecting purchaser pays a dear price for his or
her ignorance.
utensils In buying utensils the maxim, "The best is the
cheapest," is an excellent one to bear in mind. One
who makes a trial of different grades has ample oppor-
tunity to prove its truth. Cheap goods often increases
the expense 100 per cent, while at no time does one
secure anything of the satisfaction in use that is
secured in the better class goods. Cheapness means,
perforce, haste or flaw in manufacture. This results,
naturally, in ill-shaped, defective ware. Durability
seems to be a thing no longer estimated, so little does
it enter into account in manufacture or purchase. No-
where is the difference more marked than in kitchen
utensils. Spoons with soldered or riveted handles,
ready to part company with the bowls on the first real
test of strength or heat, are poor economy. The same
is true of the enamel ware which crackles and chips
off with the first accidental heating or "sticking on"
of food, after which it is unfit for use. So one might
enumerate many illustrations of false economy of this
504
BUYING SUPPLIES
103
nature. It is the part of wisdom to pay a little more
at the time and thus secure better wearing qualities
and far greater satisfaction. The cheapest is rarely
wise.
On the other hand, a medium-priced article in many
things has real worth to recommend it to one prac-
tising close economy. In such purchases as bed or
table linen and toweling, for example, the difference
between a medium and high-priced grade may repre-
sent the difference between hand work and machine,
between embroidered or hemstitched articles and
plainer. Since this is not a question of durability, a
purchaser has a legitimate right to weigh the differ-
ences in the light of her allowance and decide in favor
of the plainer if it be wiser. It should, however,
always be a decision based on an intelligent considera-
tion of values. One should never be at a loss when
detecting coarse, loosely woven and shoddy fabrics
or other evidences of cheap work. Other differences
she may be justified in weighing, never that.
One may purchase most supplies either in a depart-
ment store or in one devoted to a single or limited
line of goods. There is, on the whole, a difference
to be found both in quality and price of the stock in
the two places. The grade of goods in the specialty
store is usually better and the price somewhat higher.
The department store has gained great popularity
because of the convenience of purchasing everything
in one place and because of competition in prices
Medium
Priced
Articles
Department
and Specialty
Stores
505
Classes of
Supplies
"Must Haves"
and "May Haves"
104 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
which seem at sight to favor trading there. The
careful buyer will frequently find the difference in
price more than equalized in the quality of the pur-
chase. This is especially noticeable in kitchen fur-
nishings. The sharpness of the competition has tend-
ed to lower prices in the specialty store as far as the
quality of the wares will allow.
Supplies may be classed as (i) furnishings or
utensils which are subjected to wear and consequently
must be replenished from time to time, as furniture,
bedding, carpets, kitchen, laundry and dining-room
furnishings; (2) such supplies as are consumed in
one way or another and so must be replenished, as
fuel, food, soap and the like, and (3) such miscel-
laneous supplies as daily newspapers, magazines,
plants, flowers, etc.
In buying these supplies one may divide them into
essentials or "must haves" and accessories or "may
haves." The first division one must secure at once.
It is well to leave the second list to be remodeled
after one has lived in a house for a while.
It is surprising to one who ha.s some experience
like camp life to find how few the absolute essentials
really are. Many accessories have. come to be looked
upon as "must haves" through long use. The evi-
dence of some utility in everything, together with
refinement of taste in every selection, are the great
essentials in giving a home the subtle charm and
comfort which we covet. Furnishings need not be
many in number nor elaborate in quality to satisfy
506
BUYING SUPPLIES
105
these requirements. The greater the simplicity the
more satisfactory, usually.
The following are lists of kitchen, laundry, dining-
room and bed-room furnishings, with average prices.
The amount of equipment required is determined by
the size of the family and its demands. For two peo-
pie of simple tastes the kitchen utensils may be quite
limited and the dining-room furnishings few. The
same things are required in bed-room fittings as for a
large family, but not in such numbers.
KITCHEN UTENSILS
Range $30 00 and up
Coal hod .75
Shovel, poker, lifter 50
Towel rack 25
Teakettle 1 .25 up
3 Stew pans, 1 quart to 8 quarts 75 to $3.50
Frying pan 60 \ip
Double boiler 1.50 '
Broilers, fish, meat and toaster 90
Frying basket. 20 to .35
Muffin pan 50 up
Colander 10 '
Coffeepot 1.25 "
Tea pot : 75 "
Chopping knife and bowl 75
Meat chopper 1 . 00 up
Strainers 10 '
Bread pans, 2 or more 50
Breadboard 50
Meat board 50
Rolling pin 25 to 1 .00
Flour sieve 10 ' .25
Scoops for flour, sugar, meal, etc 10 " .50
Pans or basins, 2 or more 30 up
Bowls, about five in assorted sizes 75 "
Dishpans 10 "
Drainer 10 '
Dishcloths 25
Floor and stove brushes
Broom 50
Dustpan 25
Meat and bread knives 75 up
Case knives and forks 90
Vegetable knives 20
Dripping pan 1 . 00
Egg beaters 2, Surprise and Dover 50
Lists
507
io6 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
KITCHEN UTENSILS (Continued)
Graters 35
Measuring cups 25
Lemon squeezer '.'..'.' ' 10
Plates, granite 40
Skewers 25
Spoons .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.....'.'.'.'.'.' 1 . 00 t o 3 . 00
Bread box , .... 75 up
Hand basin for sink '.30
Funnel '.'.'.'.'.'. JO
Vegetable or pudding dishes, 2 or more 50 up
Potato masher 25 "
Garbage pail 75 "
Refrigerator 15.00
Receptacles for flour, sugar, cereals, spices, condiments,
molasses, etc.
Chairs, stool, table.
Prices The utensils on above list may be considered "must
haves." The prices of the various things vary within
quite wide limits, as will be seen. The housekeeper
should know enough of the materials composing uten-
sils to guide her in the choice of material and price.
This she cannot know without some knowledge of
the action of the ordinary acids and alkalis used in
cooking and cleaning operations on tin, iron, porce-
lain, agate, etc. To the list first given may be added
many other things, many of which would be "must
haves" in some kitchens.
Estimate A fair estimate for fitting a kitchen with utensils
given is from $35.00 to $40.00, including refrigerator,
but not including range. $100.00 is not too large a
sum to apportion to proper kitchen fittings if the range
be included, and it is desired to begin with enough
good utensils to make the work easy.
508
BUYING SUPPLIES
Potato and Vegetable Press
Salt Box-
Meat Chopper
Soap Savers, to utilize scraps.
Slaw Cutter, knife adjustable to
cut fine or coarse.
Sink Strainer; keeps garbage
from clogging sink and pipes. Household Scales
SOME "MAY HAVES" IN KITCHEN UTENSILS.
509
io8 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT
Tubs, 1 or 2 $3.00
soapstone 7 00 or $8 00 each
Washboard 25 to 50
Wringer 2.75 " 4 50
Boiler 175" 300
Pails, 2 or more, " Fibrotta " 50
Baskets, lor 2 1. 25 to 250
Dipper , 15
Soap dishes 15
Clothes stick 10
Clothes line and reel for same 50 to 1 10
Clothes pins, 1 gross ... 25 up
Skirt board 1.25
Bosom " .25
Whisk 10
Sad-irons, 3 at least 60
Iron stand or asbestos mat . . . 15
Holders 20
Clothes horse 75
Small vegetable or nail brush 10
Scrubbing brush 15
Ironing sheet 30
Blanket or felt 1 .00 up
Watering pot 15 "
Average Estimate 18.00
ADDITIONAL UTENSILS FOR SEPARATE LAUNDRY
Stove . $8 00 to $25 00
Coal hod 25 " .75
Shovel, poker lifter 25
Basins, 2 50
Saucepan or kettle for starch 50
Strainer 10
Pans or tub for starch 30
Earthen bowls, 3 or more 30
Wooden or agate spoons, 2 30
Table or laundry settle 2.00 to 6.75
Case knife 15
Broom or floor brush 50 " 2.00
Small brush 50
Dustpan 25
Scrub brushes, 2 30
Chair 70
Total Estimate, liberal $40.00
" fair... 4. 00 to $5. 00
510
BUYING SUPPLIES
109
LAUNDRY SUPPLIES
I soft,
Soap, < hard, and
( sand.
Borax 07 per Ib.
Washing soda . . 03
Chloride of lime .10
Alum 07
Paraffin or Spermaceti 15
Beeswax (pure) 35
Gum Arabic 50
French ball blue or ultramarine 25
Ammonia (pure) 25 per qt.
Alcohol .40 "
Kerosine 09 to .15 per gal.
Hydrochloric acid 10 " oz.
Acetic acid 10 "
Oxalic acid (crystals) 05 "
Starch 10 " pkg.
Salt
Sandpaper
Bags for boards, line and pins
Bags for small articles in boiler
Bags for lace curtains
Cloths for covers
" " scrubbing
Clock
Sewing materials
Buttons
Pins and cushion
Scissors
Twine
Newspapers
Thin paper
Old sheets and flannel
DINING ROOM FURNISHING
Rug 9x12 ft
Shades ..
Table . . .
$10
Chairs, common 1
arm, high 3
Sideboard 15,
Serving table 4
Table linen, 3 cloths
4 doz. napkins
2 carving cloth s
Tableware (Dinner set, or its equivalent 12
stock pattern) , semi-porcelain China 25
Glassware 2
Cutlery, knives, 1 doz. steel blades 3
Carving set 3
Silver-plated, quadruple
knives per doz .. .. 3.
forks " " 4.
tablespoons " " 5
dessertspoons " " 4
teaspoons " " 3.
Silence cloth 4.6 x 8 1
Average Estimate for small family, $75.00 to $150.
00 to $100. 00 up
90 per window.
.00 to $50. 00 up.
75 " 10 00
00 " 15. CO
00 " :>U 00
00 " 30.00
9 00
10 00
2 00
.00 to 40.00
00 up
00 "
.50 to 8.00
00 " 10.00
50 " 6 00
50 ' 6.00
.00 up
50 "
00 "
.00
00
511
1 10
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
BED ROOM FURNISHING
Matting .. $10 00 up
Rugs 5.00
Shades and draperies (2 windows) 3 00
Enameled bed with spring 8 00
Mattress T^] sioo to $50.00
2 Pillows 5.00t p
5 Sheets 2 00
3 Pairs Pillow cases 50
4 Blankets 10.00
2 Counterpanes 3.00
Mattress cover 1 .00
Bureau 10 00 to 75.00
Washstand 400 2500
Table 1 . 75 loioo
Rocker 2 00 up
2 Chairs . . 3 00
Couch 8 . 00
Toilet set 3.00
1 doz. Towels .75
4 Bath Towels 50
Average Estimate ... .$60.00 to $90.00
Floor
Covering
Stove
Utensils
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS
In selecting kitchen furnishings it will be found
that a linoleum covering for the floor will give the
greatest satisfaction, preferably one which is entirely
plain or with a pattern which extends all the way
through. Next to linoleum, a hardwood floor. An
oilcloth is unsatisfactory, unless it be, perhaps, the
best quality, for a small family which will not give it
hard wear. A painted floor is hard to care for and is,
in many respects, least desirable.
In selecting a stove a steel range is by far the most
desirable, if possible. It is more expensive in first cost
than a cast-iron stove, but this difference is more
than offset by efficiency, economy of fuel and dura-
bility.
Galvanized iron is the most desirable material for
such utensils as coal hod, garbage and ash cans and
512
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS
in
the like, being superior because of its light weight,
durability and cleanliness.
A nickeled teakettle with copper bottom is very sat-
isfactory for general use, costing about $2.50. Alumi-
num ware is increasing in favor. Its price alone
limits its use. The price of a teakettle is from $2.25
up, but the aluminum teakettle wears a lifetime.
Stransky ware is, next to aluminum, the most durable
of any for cooking utensils. It is moderate in price,
the teakettles being $1.75 to $2.25. Tin is very unde-
sirable for almost all cooking utensils, as water and
acids act upon the tin, forming unhealthful chemical
compounds. For such uses as are allowable, one
should buy block tin with rolled edge. The grade is
readily seen by markings on the back. The cheapest
is marked X, medium XX, .best XXX or XXXX.
Those tins which have fewest crevices and seams are
best.
Sheet-iron bread tins with dull surface are excellent.
Woodenware should be used as little as possible,
as it is difficult to keep it sweet, dry and free from
odors and insect life. Bread and meat boards and
chopping trays are usually of wood. These should
never be cheap in quality, as the wood of such is
soft and not well seasoned, so that it cracks and peels
easily. Wooden spoons should be those designated as
the French holly.
Glass or porcelain jars are excellent for spices
and such articles as rice, tapioca, coffee, tea, etc.
Materials
Wooden
Ware
513
112
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
A MOVABLE KITCHEN CABINET, USEFUL WHEN THERE
IS NO BUILT-IN CABINET.
514
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 113
These should be neatly labeled and conveniently ar-
ranged in order on shelves in a cupboard near the
cooking table.
Iron for cooking utensils is almost a thing of the iron
past. Although most durable, the weight is sufficient utenSS
to banish it. Agate or Stransky have taken the place
to a great extent. Agate ware has depreciated greatly
in quality since first introduced. The best of it is
more durable and safer than enamel ware. Sheet
iron frying pans are best, as they endure the highest
heat. Steel is next. Agate may be used for certain
things.
Chairs should be tested for comfort. Wooden ones, chairs
if properly constructed, may be very comfortable.
The shape and length of back, seat and legs greatly
affect the comfort. A high stool is a strength saver
when working at the table.
Tables constructed for kitchen use are a great addi- Table*
tion in modern furnishings. They are supplied with
drawers for knives, spoons and such small utensils.
Those of white wood are cheapest, pine being about 50
per cent more. The drawer increases the expense
slightly, but this will not be grudgingly paid by one
who has once enjoyed the advantage secured. The
top should be unfinished, very smooth and even. It
should be made of one piece of wood to avoid cracks.
Oilcloth may be used as a covering, although less
convenient because of the care necessary to avoid
setting anything hot on it. Paisit is altogether unde-
sirable for the same reason.
515
TABLE AND BED LINEN, TOWELLING, ETC.
In buying cotton and linen material for the various
needs of the house, one must consider the use to be
made of it and select accordingly. Towelling suitable
for glass and silver is not suitable for cooking uten-
sils, and vice versa. If cast off garments, old bed
linen and the like are thriftily cherished and pre-
served, much exoense is saved and frequently better
cloths secured than in using new. For scrubbing
purposes a soft cloth that will not scratch is desirable,
at the same time it must have a certain firmness and
roughness for the friction necessary. One of the best
materials for general purposes of this kind is the
woven underwear. Outing flannel and "mill ends"
are also excellent.
For drying, cloth with good absorbing quality is
necessary. Cotton is undesirable, especially if new
and not worn until softened. Linen is best for the
purpose and is easiest to care for. It gives off less
lint than cotton. Cheap qualities are less well pre-
pared and scratch.
For dish towels, a medium light weight linen towel-
ling is best, a still heavier for the china dishes, while
a firm, heavy crash, like the Royal Russian, is service-
able for cooking utensils. The latter is also excel-
lent for kitchen hand towels.
For washing dishes the small mops are excellent
for glassware and are preferred by many for the
114
516
TABLE AND BED LINEN 115
entire dish washing. They are inexpensive and are
not difficult to keep sweet with proper care. Cheese-
cloth is very satisfactory for silver and glass.
Cheesecloth should be kept on hand for various
purposes, as wiping meat, drying lettuce when washed,
tying up fish to boil, straining soups and jellies, dust
cloths and many other uses. It is easily cleansed, is
soft and readily absorbent when old and is free from
lint. For drying windows and lamps cheesecloth is
excellent, or old napkins rough dried. Old cotton, as
sheets and pillow cases, is fairly good.
Hand towels may be of crash, damask or huckaback.
If the latter, the Scotch or Irish is the best. The
choice of material depends upon individual preference
of smooth or rough surface. The damask is soft, fine
and smooth, the huckaback rougher. The Irish hucka-
back is woven with smooth dots for overthreads and
is a fine grade. The Scotch is woven looser and is
more showy. It is cheaper, but is good when washed.
The damask toweling is a poor absorbent, because
of its smooth, satiny surface. It is cheapest to buy
huckaback by the yard and hemstitch it. Fringed
towels should be avoided, as they are difficult to iron
well and the fringe eventually wears off, leaving un-
sightly ends. If fringed at all it should be tied.
Turkish toweling of good quality is best for bath
towels. Although cotton, it is so woven as to be
readily absorbent
517
Sheetins
Bleach
Brands of
Cotton
Cloth
Size of
Sheets
BED LINEN
Sheeting was formerly woven in narrow widths
only one yard wide, necessitating laborious seaming in
the middle of a sheet. At the present time it is pos-
sible to secure sheeting woven for single, two-thirds
or double beds, so that hems at top and bottom are
the only needful sewing. Ready made sheets and
pillow cases may also be bought in most places, less
carefully made than home-made, but temptingly inex-
pensive, and conveniently ready for use. In provid-
ing in eithef way one should have the size of the bed
carefully in mind and secure sheets and pillow cases
ample in size.
Cotton suitable for this purpose comes bleached,
half-bleached or unbleached. The unbleached is two
or three cents per yard cheaper than the bleached,
and is more durable, this being due to the fact of
chemicals being used in the process of bleaching which
affect the fibre. This is, however, not often selected
on account of the color. The half -bleached is less
objectionable.
There is considerable choice in the different brands
of cotton. Among the best are the Wamsetta, Fruit
of the Loom and Pequot.
For a full sized double bed, one should buy the
10 quarters width of sheeting, for a two-thirds width
bed 8 quarters, and for a cot or single bed 6 quarters.
Pillow casing will vary to fit the size of the pillow, 5
116
518
TABLE AND BED LINEN 117
quarters or 45 ins. being a large size and 42 ins.
medium.
The price depends upon the brand and size. The Price
best Wamsetta in the 10 quarters width is 400 per
yard, 5 quarters width i8c, while cheaper grades may
be had at 28c for the 10 quarters width and 12 i-2c for
the 5 quarters.
Made sheets, entirely plain, in the best Wamsetta
brand are about as follows:
90 in. x 99 in 85c
72 in. x 99 in 75c
Cheaper :
90 in. x 99 in 750
72 in. x 99 in 55c
The tubing for pillow slips, woven without seams,
are about:
45 in 140
42 in ' I3C
36 in I2C
Made up I5c each, up
The unbleached may be secured of Pequot cotton in
the made sheets, largest size, 55 cents each.
TABLE LINEN
Most of the material sold as table linen is imported. Grades
Its manufacture has been attempted in this country,
but the temperature is unfavorable, so that the result
is an inferior quality.
There are three leading supplies the Irish, Scotch
and German, +l*e Belgian, Austrian and French being
519
Hints on
Selecting
ii8 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
included under the latter. The Irish is considered the
best "and is most expensive.
BieacMng The time of bleaching is a large factor in deter-
mining the value of the linen. Bleaching takes from
the weight. The natural and best method is the grass
bleaching in summer; next to that the snow. Arti-
ficial methods take from the strength of the fabric.
It is difficult even for experts to detect the method.
It is known by the times of coming into market. The
grass bleached comes into the retail market about the
middle of December, making this the desirable time
to purchase.
A fine thread damask may not be a superior wear-
ing fabric. The weight is the criterion. The best
fabrics are not too fine, firm but not stiff and heavy
with starch. Those with a more elastic, leathery ap-
pearance are better. Those patterns are less durable
which have long unbroken threads.
The German damask has a closer, harder twisted
thread than the others, making it a very durable
linen. The Germans cater less to variety of pattern
and therefore produce less showy cloths, but they are
very durable and are also less expensive.
Patterns In selecting a pattern a medium-sized pattern, as the
tulip is very satisfactory. It is a matter of taste to a
great extent. Large patterns are more effective than
small but the latter are good taste. Some patterns are
so generally liked as to become stock patterns, as the
snowdrop. These can be found in all stores. With
German
Damask
520
TABLE AND BED LINEN 121
other patterns only a few are woven and these are
distributed to a few stores or a few of each to each
store. The Scotch have excellent patterns, are finished
about as well as the Irish and cost less.
In buying one should, if possible, have the exact size
measurements of the table on which a cloth is to be
used. An average length is 2 1-2 yards, 1-4 to 1-3
yard should be allowed to drop at each end if the table
be square. Two dozen napkins should be allowed for
each cloth.
Material may be purchased by the yard or in pattern price
lengths. The latter are 50-75 cents per yard more.
The German linen runs from 50 cents to $1.50 per
yards. The Scotch in the bleached run from 50 cents
to $2.00 or over per yard. The Irish even in un-
bleached begins at 75 cents or $1.00 per yard and may
be $2.50 or $3.00. The latter are, of course, very
beautiful goods, but for common use and durability a
good quality may be secured for $i.oo-$2.oo per yard.
Napkins vary in size from 5-8, as they are termed at Napkins
the store (17-22 in.) known as breakfast size, to 3-4
(23-27 in.) and 7-8 (29-31 in.), the latter being
very large.
There is less difference in the price of napkins in
the different makes. In either the 20 in. napkins vary
in price from $1.75 per dozen up. Good ones are
$3.oo-$3.5o per dozen.
A heavy cloth, known as the silence cloth, is an es- silence
sential accompaniment to a well appointed table. This Cloth
521
122 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
may be of felt, or two faced cotton flannel or may be
a quilted or knitted cloth on purpose.
Canton flannel, 54 inches wide, 5<Dc yard ; quilted, 54
inches wide, 62 i-2c yard; knitted, 62 inches wide, ?5c
yard give relative prices.
CARPETS AND RUGS
A square of carpet with a border of hard wood
brought to a high polish, or even a painted border or
denim or some similar material is preferable to a carpet
covering the entire floor and tacked down. Besides
the greater attractiveness it is much more cleanly, as
this can be taken out of doors for frequent beating.
Grades Of the different grades Ingrain, is the cheapest. It
is loosely woven, and although its wearing qualities
are surprising considering the price, it is not the wisest
choice for those who may choose. The dirt goes
through it easily. Pleasing colors are difficult to se-
cure as these carpets are colored with chemical dyes
which are less soft and pleasing in effect than the
vegetable dyes, which are used in the best grades. In-
grain carpeting is more suitable and serviceable for
chambers than for living rooms. It is reversible.
Tapestry comes next in value, resembling Brussels
on the right side but having a canvas back with colors
on one side only. This wears fairly well.
Brussels carpeting is heavy, with colors on both
sides. It wears excellently well and generally proves
best for ordinary use. The Brussels carpeting has an
uncut pile Cut pile carpets are called velvet carpets, as
522
CARPETS AND RUGS
125
the Axminster and Wilton. The Wilton wear ad-
mirably well, and are very satisfactory in colors and
patterns.
In buying by the yard the Ingrains are usually a
yard wide, while Tapestry, Brussels and Velvets are
but 3-4 of a yard. In practicing strict economy much
may be saved by buying short lengths, small patterns
or old styles.
Small patterns, sober colors and indefinite designs
are more artistic, cheaper and more serviceable than
the opposite. One should endeavor to secure a gen-
erally pleasing effect in a carpet so that the room for
which it is designed will be made attractive without
one's being especially conscious through what means
the effect is produced. A carpet with striking pattern
and color which arrests and holds attention is not
pleasing.
Rugs or squares should not have borders seamed
at the corners. The joining should rather be directly
across, thus :
Suggestion
for Buying
Patterns
and
Color
Hugs
523
126
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Re-made
Carpets
Kensington
Squares
Smyrnas
Persians
A good old carpet can be utilized very satisfactorily
by being re-woven by some of the reliable firms which
have taken up the business. Even carpeting of dif-
ferent kinds may be used together in this way, if
they are all-wool. A difference in color does not
matter as the material is recolored as desired.
Ingrain or Kensington squares, as they are often
called, are more expensive when real and imported
than the American squares. The price is by the yard.
The usual size of 6 or 7 1-2x9 ^ eet (2 or 2 1-2x3
yards) costs $4.00 or $4.75 up. By the square yard
for carpeting a floor the Ingrain is 7O-75C per yard.
Smyrna rugs are alike on both sides and are very
serviceable. They cost $20 for a rug, 9x12 feet
(9 / xi2 / ), $8.oo-$9.oo for a rug, 2x3 feet (2'x3').
Wilton's are most nearly like the Oriental rugs,
and are better than some cheap Persian rugs.
Persians, 6^9' cost $30.00 up indefinitely; Wiltons,
6'x9' cost $22.00 up; 9'xi6' cost $36.00 up.
The prices given are not exact for all times and
places, of course, but may serve as an indication of
relative costs.
524
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
PART II
Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the
first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write
on one side of the sheet only. L/eave space between an-
swers. Read the lesson paper a number of times before
answering- the questions. Answer fully.
1. What is the value of system in house work?
2. Outline in detail a system for the household with
which you are most familiar.
3. Judging from your own experience, how long
should it take to perform the daily tasks of
house work, such as dusting the living room,
washing the dinner dishes, sweeping a bed
room, etc?
4. If you have employed servants, have you met
with satisfactory results?
5. If so, what do you regard as the causes of your
success ?
6. Have you made any observations in general, of
aid in the study of domestic service problems?
7. Do you know of any efforts among women to
correct the situation, either as steps toward
solution, or study of the situation?
8. What is your attitude toward non-resident labor
in the home?
525
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
9. Taking into account fuel, supplies, and your own
time and labor, what can you say of the rela-
tive cost and results of laundry work done in
and outside the house?
10. What constitutes a legitimate bargain ?
11. What elements aid the flourishing "bargain'*
counters of our stores?
12. What has been your experience in buying as to
"the best is the cheapest?"
13. Give a list of what you regard as ten real and
profitable conveniences in kitchen furnishing.
14. Give a similar list of uneconomical articles, be-
cause rarely used or not as useful as supposed
when purchased.
15. What kinds of linen are there?
16. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
rugs? Of carpets?
17. Add any suggestions arising from the study of
this section.
N''>te. After completing the test, sign your full name.
$26
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
PART III
MARKETING
A practical knowledge of marketing on the part
of the housewife affects to a marked degree both the
comfort and expense-book of the family. Intelligence
and skill in buying are only secured by careful prac-
tice. The purchaser must not fear to ask questions.
Most men with whom she will have to deal will be
found to be patient, helpful, painstaking and reliable,
yet she must make sure by sufficient trials that the
cuts of meat, etc., recommended are, all things con-
sidered, those that are best adapted to meet the needs
of her family.
It is usually greatly to one's advantage to select a
regular place for marketing. Greater consideration is
shown such customers and better satisfaction results.
Time is saved, and usually it proves to be quite a?
economical, often more so. Disappointments are les?
liable to occur than in buying more generally.
The fact of buying regularly at the same place
should not, however, lead to the erroneous idea that
a telephone may be substituted for frequent visits to
the market. This is a mistake which is increasing
rapidly in America. Orders given in this way, by note,
127
Buying
Regular
Customers
Use of
Telephone
527
128 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
or to the driver at the door are liable to be less
satisfactory than those which are given at the store
where selection can be made by the purchaser.
The telephone may be resorted to occasionally
in emergencies, but should not take the place of regu-
lar visits. The greater satisfaction to be secured
through personal selection, the greater variety secured
by seeing otherwise unthought-of articles and the
closer economy possible more than offset the additional
time consumed.
Reasonable More than a single day's order may be given at a
time. All orders needing prompt rilling, as meats and
vegetables, should be given in ample season, usually
the day before, so that there may be sufficient time to
1 fill the order without discomfort to those who serve.
This is only reasonable consideration for others, be-
sides securing for one's self the avoidance of disap-
pointments which are very apt to occur when too
limited time is allowed in rilling the order. It is evi-
dence of an inexcusable lack of foresight when a
housewife plans so little beyond the immediate need
as to leave the ordering of roast beef for a twelve-
o'clock dinner until 10 o'clock of the morning it is
desired.
supply Meats are, perhaps, the most difficult to understand
and to buy to advantage. A few years ago the sup-
ply of meats was practically all local, but at the present
time only veal and lamb are supplied locally in places
of any considerable size. The supply of beef and pork
528
BEEF 129
for the United States is almost wholly from the West,
Chicago being the chief center, especially for the
wholesale beef trade. Some of the objections raised
by those who oppose the consumption of meat because
of supposed unwholesome and unsanitary conditions
of killing, storing and transporting, are practically
without foundation at the present time. Conditions
have been greatly improved within the last few years
and great sanitary precautions are exercised. The
large houses of Chicago are rendered thoroughly sani-
tary and are carefully inspected by United States of-
ficers who also inspect every animal killed, and tag the
meat for shipping. Each quarter is numbered, the
car in which it is shipped is also numbered and a rec-
ord made of the meat sent. In this way any com-
plaints can be readily traced. The transportation is
now done by the use of refrigerator cars.
The quality of beef depends upon several conditions. Quality
The age of the animal when killed, the breed, the man-
ner of fattening, the amount of exercise and the length
of time the beef is allowed to cure before using, all ef-
fect the quality of the meat to a" marked degree. The
"prime" age of an animal for killing is 4 years, but
the beef of a creature from 4 to 8 years of age is
good. Beyond that age meat is apt to be tough and
unsatisfactory. Although grass-fed animals are
healthier than stall-fed, the latter is customary, or, at
529
130
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Texture
and
Position
of Bones
least, a combination of the two. Exercise toughens
the muscles but if moderate, is considered desirable in
rendering an animal healthier and the meat finer fla-
vored. Beef has the finest flavor and is most tender
when kept as long^ as possible before using. Three
weeks is usually the shortest time allowed for this
curing when conditions of storage are such as to per-
mit.
Meat should be selected which is firm and fine-
grained. The color should be bright red, the fat yel-
lowish white. The flesh and fat of old beef is darker,
dry and coarser. Beef becomes dark through stand-
ing exposed to the air. One should distinguish care-
fully between a mere surface discoloration which may
be trimmed off and the rest of the cut found to be en-
tirely fresh and suitable to use, and the decomposition
which gives a taint to the entire piece.
In buying, economy demands in general, that the
amount of bone in a cut should be small in proportion
to the amount of meat. In order to buy wisely and
successfully it is necessary to have in mind a clear
idea of the anatomy of the animal, also the muscle-
fibre arrangement. These are seen in the beef in
the illustrations. The vertebrae making up the back-
bone differ sufficiently so that with study one may
recognize the different ones in the cuts of meat. The
backbone is split in dividing the body into halves so
that but one-half will be found in a joint of meat
Study the illustrations carefully.
530
BEEF
SKELETON OF BEEF.
!, Neck; 2, Six Chuck Ribs; 3, Seven Prime Ribs and Loin; 4, Thick or
Hip Sirloin; 5a, Top of Rump; 6a, Aitch Bone or Rump Piece;
6, Cartilage; c, Shoulder Blade; d, Cross Ribs.
MUSCLE ARRANGEMENT OF BSEF.
1, Head; 2, Neck; 3, Chuck Ribs and Shoulder Blade; 4, Seven Prime
Ribs; 5, Loin; 6, Thick Sirloin, called Boneless Sirloin in Chicago,
Back of Rump in Boston ; 7-8, Rump Piece in New York ; 8, Aitch
Bone; 9, Round; 10, Leg; a, Top of Sirloin; b, Flank;
c, Plate ; d, Brisket. (Redrawn from Home
Economics by Miria Parloa.)
531
1 3 2
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Arrangement
of Muscles
Carving
A knowledge of the muscle fibres and their arrange-
ments is as important in buying, cooking and carving
meat as familiarity with the location of the bones.
The lean of meat is made up of muscular tissue. This
consists of prism-shaped bundles, divisible under the
microscope into minute tubes or muscle fibres. These
fibres are held together in bundles by connective tissue
which is readily distinguished by
holding up a loosely connected
piece of meat and noting the thin,
filmy membrane. When meat is
cut "across the grain" these bundles
of fibres are severed and the ends
appear. The membrane forming
the walls of these tubes is very deli-
cate and elastic.
Carving has a great effect upon
the apparent toughness of the cut
of meat. In the accompanying il-
lustration, a shows the muscular
bundle, a fibre partially separated into its minute tubes,
while b shows the fibre cut across the grain as it should
be in carving. In this way the fibres are broken into
smaller pieces as an aid to digestion and the contents
of the tubes are set free, thus being more accessible
for the digestive juices than when the meat is carved
lengthwise of the fibres.
Fibres of Meat.
532
BEEF
133
In cutting up a beef
the body is first cut
through the backbone
laying it open in "sides"
or halves. Each half is
then divided into quarters,
called the fore quarter
and the hind quarter, as
will be seen in the illus-
tration. The muscle fibres
run very irregularly in
the fore quarter. This, to-
gether with the fact that
they are coarser and have
on the whole more exer-
cise than those of the hind
quarter to toughen them,
renders the meat of the
fore quarter of a less de-
sirable, cheaper grade.
The finest cuts of an ani-
mal come from the middle
of .the creature, in the
most protected, least ex-
ercised parts, decreasing
in value as they lie to-
ward either extremity.
Cuts differ somewhat in different cities. According to
the Boston cut, for instance, three ribs are left on the
Cutting
SIDE OF BEEF.
aa, Suet; 6, Thin End of Tender-
loin; ad, Thick End of Tenderloin;
e, Inside or Top of Round ; /, Best
Part of Round; g, Sternum;
h, Thick Brisket; i, Thin
Brisket; j, Flank.
533
134
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
hind quarter, ten on the fore quarter. In New York
all the ribs are cut on the fore quarter. Beef is best
from a creature weighing 800 to 900 pounds.
CUTS OP BEEF ACCORDING TO THE U. S. DEPARTMENT
OF AGRICULTURE.
Fore Quarter
Weight An average fore quarter weighs about 200 pounds.
It is divided into :
1. Neck.
2. Chuck.
3. Ribs.
4. Sticking piece.
5. End of ribs. ) Sometimes called together
6. Brisket. \ Rattleran.
7. Shin or shank.
The fore quarter as a whole being coarser is used
chiefly for canned meat, stews, soup meat and corned
534
cond Cut
round
BEEF 135
beef. The neck is best used for mince meat. Prices
on all meats differ too widely to make it possible to
state with accuracy for all
places, but that we may be
guided somewhat by price
in estimating values, aver-
age prices will be given.
For this cut 8 cents a pound
is an average price.
The Chuck lies just be-
hind the neck, including the
first five ribs. This cut may
be used in a variety of
ways, as cheap steak, roast,
pot roast or stew. Several
of the cheaper cuts indi-
cated as possible roasts or
steak cuts were formerly
used much more commonly
than now for such pur-
poses. As our country has
grown more prosperous
there has been a great in-
crease in the demand for
the better cuts until many markets are forced to buy
extra loins, etc., to meet the demand. A very fair
small one rib roast may be cut from this portion. The
chuck sells for about 12 1-2 cents a pound.
The Ribs are used chiefly for roasts and constitute
the best of the fore quarter. The portion lying nearest
SIDE OF BEEF, U. S. DEPT
AGRICULTURE.
The Neck
The Chuck
The Ribs
535
136
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
First Cut
of the Ribs
Sticking
Piece
End of
the Ribs
the hind quarter is very nearly the same in quality.
There is a decided preference in the rib roasts. The
"first cut of the ribs," as it is called contains the first
two or three ribs from the hind quarter, differing ac-
cording- to the size of roast desired. Cut long, that is
with the thin end pieces left on, such a roast brings
as high as 17 to 23 cents a pound, while "cut short,"
that is with the thin rib ends removed, it sells in some
places as high as 20 to 30 cents a pound. Following
this cut are the second and third cuts, the third join-
ing the first cut of the chuck. These are not as high
in quality or price, 15 to 18 cents a pound. The sec-
ond cut is a very good roast.
The Sticking Piece is a cut between the neck and
brisket, so called from the custom of bleeding there
after killing. Although the fibre is coarse and tough
in this piece it is an excellent piece when properly
used. It is especially fine for beef tea, since for that,
one should select as juicy a piece as possible. From
the method of bleeding much blood collects in this
piece and it is particularly juicy. It may be used for
stews also where long, slow cooking renders the mus-
cle fibre tender and sets free a portion of the rich
juices.
The End of the Ribs is often called the plate piece
or rattleran. Although this portion has a liberal sup-
ply of bones they are thin, and generous allowance
is made for that fact in the price. It is an especially
desirable piece for corned beef if it is to be pressed
536
BEEF 137
and served cold, as it has a good supply of fat blended
with the lean and hardens to cut well.
The Brisket is much preferred for corned beef by The
some. It is a more solidly lean piece on the whole,
thus carving better when hot. It is to a large extent
a matter of choice as regards the amount of fat de-
sired. There is a difference recognized at markets be-
tween the thick end of the brisket, called "fancy
brisket," and the thinner end, the former being con-
sidered superior. The brisket corned brings as high
as 15 cents a pound where there is good demand, while
the rib piece is not over 8 cents, sometimes as low as
6 cents.
The Shin is used for soup meat. It is divided into The shin
three pieces, more meat being found on the upper
piece. Many make a great mistake in throwing away
the smallest, most bony part supposing it to be value-
less, which is far from true. It is rich in gelatin and
those properties which are desired in soup stock. The
shin usually sells for not over 5 cents a pound.
The Hind Quarter
While there is a great variety in the possible cuts of Cutg
the hind quarter they may be classed in general as
follows :
1. Loin. 4. Shin.
2. Rump. 5. Flank.
3. Round.
537
138
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Sirloin
Tenderloin
Fillet
The location of these sections will be seen by con-
sulting page 135. The entire loin is frequently called
the "sirloin." The choicest steaks and roasts are cut
from this part. The first two slices from the end
where the loin joins the ribs are called the first cuts of
the sirloin. These are not as tender or desirable as
those which follow. After these are removed, the
tenderloin begins to appear which lies on the under or
inside of the loin and being so protected is very tender.
The slices which include the largest portions of
tenderloin are considered the best and bring the high-
est price. Some of these slices when trimmed bring
as high as 35 or 40 cents a pound.
It would seem that the tenderloin is greatly over-
rated in some instances, since, except for the fact
of its being especially tender, it is not more desirable*.
It is not as rich in juices or flavor as the rest of the
loin. The entire tenderloin is used for what is known
as a "fillet." When removed and sold separately for
this purpose it costs as high as 60 cents to $1.00 a
pound since the remainder of the loin is rendered
thereby far less salable. On the other hand, for one
who wishes a delicious roast at moderate expense this
loin with the tenderloin removed is very desirable.
In buying for a fillet roast it is far the wisest plan to
buy the entire loin or section necessary to give the size
desired, at 35 cents a pound, have the tenderloin re-
moved for the fillet roast and the rest reserved for
other uses, as steaks or later roasts. The thinner end
538
BEEF 139
of the tenderloin which extends into the rump is %
cheaper, about 35 cents a pound. Some cheaper fillets
are sometimes to be found in the markets but are not
desirable, as they are from inferior beef.
The Rump lies back of the loin. As a whole it
weighs about 52 pounds. It is divided into three sec-
tions, known as back, middle cut and face. This por-
tion is sometimes called hip or thick sirloin. It may
be used for steaks or roasts, while some of the less de-
sirable parts are used for pot roasts, braising, etc.
The part nearest the loin is termed the back; it is
the best part for all uses except for steaks. Next to
that, the middle, the face having more muscle.
A cut from the rump which is excellent for a variety Aitch
of uses in the Aitch bone. It is satisfactory for a cheap
roast, braising and the like. It weighs about six
pounds usually and may be bought for 7 to 12 cents a
pound. There is not enough bone included to offset
the difference between this price and the 25 cents a
pound which portions of the rump may bring, as the
middle cut. The face makes a good piece for corning.
The Round is divided into top and bottom, so called The
Round
because of the way in which the leg is laid upon the
block to be cut up. The outside, being laid down, is
called the bottom round, while the inside, being on
the top as it is laid down is called the top round. The
difference in quality to be found between -the two
divisions is what would be expected from the rule
stated earlier concerning the greater toughness of the
539
140 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
"more exposed and exercised parts of the animal. The
bottom of the round being nearest the skin is the
tougher and cheaper meat. The top round is used for
a very fair quality of steak. The bottom round is
better for braising, stews, etc. A vein divides the two
sections so that it is easy to separate them. The top
may bring 22 to 25 cents a pound, while the poorest
parts may be secured for 12 1-2 cents.
Shin The Shank or Shin is used as that of the fore
Flank quarter, for soup. The Flank is usually corned, sell-
ing for 7 to 10 cents a pound. It is a thin piece and
has a good mixture of fat.
Summary of Cuts of Beef
Passing over the various cuts of beef in review, then,
we may consider the cuts most desirable for the dif-
ferent methods of cooking which we employ in the
order of their desirability, regardless of cost,
small The selection of a roast of meat for a small family
Roasts . f J
is the most difficult, since the larger the roast the bet-
ter. Nothing smaller than a two-rib roast is very sat-
isfactory to attempt to roast. Unless one is willing
to roast less thoroughly the first day and reroast the
second, or is willing to serve cold roast, the selection
is very much limited. For such a family a rump fillet
or Aitch bone is, perhaps, most satisfactory. The finest
larger roasts are to be obtained from the first three
cuts of the sirloin, and next to these the first cut of
the ribs. Following these are the second and third
540
BEEF
141
cuts of the ribs, the back of the rump and a chuck
roast. A rib-roll is a roast prepared by removing the
bones, rolling and tying. It is thus made easier to
carve. If one has a roast prepared in this way, she
should have the bones sent home to be used in the
soup kettle.
There is little to be said in addition concerning the
selection of cuts for steak, since in general meat that is
especially desirable for roasts is equally good for slic-
ing for steaks. The best is especially desirable here,
since there is less opportunity to practice skill in cook-
ing, which in other modes of preparing may avail
greatly to improve an otherwise undesirable piece. It
is not as pleasing to the majority of people to have
meat served as steak unless it be fairly tender and
juicy. In the main it is more satisfactory to those
who should, economize closely to rely upon other cuts,
buying an occasional good steak for variety and espe-
cial luxury.
While it is true that the better the piece of meat
the better the result as a general thing, it is possible
and desirable to save expense to some extent where
it may be done without serious loss. The meat to be
cut for Hamburg steak need not be of the best, since
it is rendered more digestable by the mincing. The
top of the round is quite good enough, while the bot-
tom round or even the shoulder and flank are used, al-
though less satisfactorily.
The top of the round, eighth to the thirteenth ribs,
first cut of chuck, the cheaper of the rump cuts, the
Selection
of Steaks
Cheaper
Cuts
541
142 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
flank and leg may all be used for braising or pot roasts.
By this method of cooking much is done to soften
tough pieces, rendering them more digestible and ac-
ceptable, so that the cheaper cuts are made very palata-
ble in the hands of a skillful cook.
Corned The order of preference for corned beef might be,
brisket, rump, piece from the chuck, plate, shoulder.
Others would select the shoulder or chuck first for the
reasons already mentioned. The flank is sometimes
corned, but it is not considered a wise choice since it
is not well protected by fat or bone as meat for corn-
ing should be to prevent the loss of the juices in the
process of corning. .
Cuts for For stews it is desirable to extract some or all the
juices from the meat/ The meat is finely divided be-
fore cooking and the methods applied are those of
slow, long cooking. The flank, leg and sticking piece
are found to be very good for these purposes. Thus
we find that all the animal may be used to good pur-
pose in one or another of the ways indicated. The
family that lives in the country and raises and provides
its own supply finds it necessary to utilize all the parts.
Those that depend on city markets are more ignorant
of the different cuts and are as a result inclined to be
much more extravagant, not having as wide experi-
ence in learning to prepare the cheaper cuts in an ac-
ceptable way.
Beef Beef Heart is an economical and palatable meat. It
is solid, and a good sized heart will serve fourteen
542
BEEF 145
people. There is nothing to be feared in having some
left, as it is even better to serve cold for- a breakfast or
supper dish than when hot. The most satisfactory way
of cooking is to boil it three or four hours, cool, clean
of coagulated blood, stuff and bake slowly for three
hours. It may be braised or stewed. It is one of the
most inexpensive meats, costing not over 5 cents a
pound usually.
One should be very careful in using liver to deter- Liver
mine that it is in a healthy condition, as it is an organ
which is not infrequently diseased. It should be clear,
smooth and without spots. Spots and streaks indicate
a dangerous condition. Calf's liver is usually preferred
as more tender and delicate, but the liver from good
beef is cheaper and satisfactory. There is a great dif-
ference in it, some being hard and tough. Pig's is
preferred by some. Calf's bring from 16 to 20 cents a
pound, while beef's may be procured at from 8 to 10
cents.
Kidneys are cooked by some, although not as x- Kidneys
tensively as the organs already mentioned. They may
be stewed or braised. Care should be used in select-
ing, as in liver. Calf's are preferred, next lamb's,
mutton and beef. Those weighing" from one to two
pounds may be bought for 8 cents each.
In selecting a tongue for cooking one should be Tongue
chosen which is firm and thick, with plenty of fat, as
the lean and flabby ones do not cook satisfactorily.
Those of all animals are used, the beef more often, be-
cause of its size. They may be bought fresh, smoked
543
J44
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Tripe
Sweetbreads
or corned. Tongues weighing from four to six
pounds may be bought at from 16 to 18 cents a pound.
Tripe is taken from the lining of the stomach of
the animal. It is sold either simply cleaned or pickled.
The honey-comb is the better. It is white and tender
when taken from a healthy animal. The honey-comb
costs about 10 cent a pound; the plain is a little
cheaper. The cost of many of these things depends al-
most wholly upon the demand for them.
Sweetbreads consist of the pancreas and thymus
glands of the young calf or lamb which later in its
life are absorbed or changed so as not to be edible.
Those from a milk-fed animal are far superior, being
white, firm and plump, while those from an improperly
fed animal are dark, flabby and tough. They are
generally sold in pairs. The pancreas is larger and
better. They range from 25 or 35 cents to 50 or 75
cents a pair. What are known as Chicago sweetbreads
may be bought in Eastern markets at times for $1.50
a dozen. These are packed on ice. Where the de-
mand for sweetbreads is great, pork sweetbreads are
often substituted. These are coarse and dark colored.
The buyer should learn to distinguish these from
calves' sweetbreads and refuse them.
544
BEEF 145
Table of Cuts and Uses of Fore and Hind Quarters of Beef
FORE QUARTERS.
4 Ribs Good roast.
6 Ch?ick Ribs Small steaks, pot roast, stews.
Neck Cheap Hamburg steak, mince meat.
Sticking-Piece Mince meat, beef tea, stews.
( Thick end \
Rattle Rand \ Second cut V Corned, especially cold sliced.
( Thin end '
i Navel end \
Brisket \ Butt end or v -Excellent for Corning. Perhaps best.
I Fancy Brisket '
Fore-shin Soup stock, stews.
HIND QUARTERS.
3 Ribs '. Excellent roast.
/ Tip Finest roast, steaks.
Loin ] Middle Sirloin and porter house steak.
( First cut Roast and steaks.
Tenderloin \\ .. Larded and roasted, or broiled,
I otiGctKS
fBack Best large roasts and cross-cut steaks.
Rumt) J Middle Roasts.
I Face Inferior roasts and stews.
L Aitch Bone Cheap roast, corned, braised
Round $ Top Steaks, excellent for beef tea.
I Bottom Hamburg steak, curry of beef.
Flank Stuffed, rolled and braised or corned,
Shin or Shank Cheap stews or soup stock.
545
VEAL
Season
of Veal
Bob Veal
While veal is in season all the year in many markets,
it is best in spring and summer, being at its prime in
May. The quality of the veal depends to a considera-
ble extent upon the age and manner of feeding. Six
CUTS OF VEAL ACCORDING TO THE U. S. DEPARTMENT
OF AGRICULTURE.
to ten weeks is the preferable age at the time of kill-
ing. When the calf is killed under four weeks of age
the meat is injurious, so that it is not allowed to be
sold, such being known as "bob veal." The flesh of
such immature calves is soft, flabby and gelatinous,
blue and watery in color instead of fine-grained, tender
and white with a tendency to pink, as in the healthy
meat. The meat is best of calves which have been fed
entirely upon milk. Grass-feeding is the poorest of all.
146
546
VEAL
147
ahonK
In France an especially fine quality is secured by care-
ful feeding, raw eggs being included in the feed.
The cuts of veal are similar to those of beef, except Cuts
simpler. The fore quarter includes only five ribs and to Beef
is so small that it is easily
boned and rolled for a good
sized roast. The entire fore
quarter weighs 6 to 12
pounds, and costs 8 to 10
cents entire or with neck
removed 10 to 14 cents.
The neck can be used for
stew. The head and brains
are esteemed by many, the
head being used for soup,
and the brains cooked in
various ways.
The loin includes all that
is divided into loin and
rump in the beef. This is
an excellent roast, the leg
alone being considered bet-
ter. The leg is the choicest
for roasts or for cutlets.
The shoulder when boned,
rolled and stuffed makes a
veal roast. The breast is
very acceptable cheap
good for stew. The
"knuckle" of veal corresponds to the shin in the beef
and is especially fine for soup, being highly gelatinous.
547
MUTTON AND LAMB
Mutton is, for most, a most nutritious and easily
digested meat when of good quality and properly pre-
pared, but it may. be very uninviting through careless-
ness in cooking and serving. For this reason, no
CUTS OF LAMB, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
doubt, it is less in favor in this ' country than beef.
Lamb is the name applied to the animal until one year
old, after that it is properly mutton. The age is told
by the bone of the fore leg, being smooth in the young
animal but showing ridges which grow deeper and
deeper with age. Mutton and lamb are in season the
year round. The best mutton is from an animal not
over 5 years old, plump with small bones. Like the
beef long curing before consumption is desirable.
148
548
MUTTON AND LAMB
149
The usual cuts of mutton are the leg, loin, shoulder,
neck, breast and flank. The leg is, all things consid-
ered, the best roast. The fore quarter, or the shoulder
boned and rolled as in veal, is an excellent cheap
roast, the choice depending on
the size of the family. The ribs
and loin may be used for roasts
for a small family, but are more
frequently cut into chops. The
rib chops are smallest and, there-
fore, more expensive. They
must, in fact, be regarded as a
great luxury, considering the
price and the proportion of
bone, but they are much in favor
for their delicious delicacy and
fine flavor. The shoulder, breast,
and best part of the neck are
excellent for stews, pot pies or
for boiling. The portion of the
neck nearest the head is tougher
and is best used for broth for
which it is especially desirable,
being rich in flavor and nutriment.
ho/lde-r
SIDE OF LAM Bo
549
Season
of Pork
PORK
Pork is good only in autumn and winter. A large
part of the animal is so fat that instead of being sold
fresh it is salted and sold as salt pork. The ribs and
loin are the most desirable fresh cuts, being used either
CUTS OF PORK, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Bacon
for roasts or chops. Care is needed to select a whole-
some piece, suitable fresh pork having firm, clear and
white fat and pink lean, while in the salted pork, one
should select either a pinkish piece or one without
color, a yellow appearance not being a good indica-
tion. A thick, mediumly fat piece of salt pork is bet-
ter to buy than the thin flank pieces.
Bacon is secured by smoking the fat pork in addi-
tion to the salting process. It is a most digestible form
of fat and is enjoyed by many who do not care for
150
550
POULTRY
other forms of salt pork ; It is somewhat more expen-
sive, salt pork selling for n to 15 cents, bacon for 15
to 1 8 cents per pound.
Sausages are made either of
pork alone, or beef and pork,
or of veal and pork together.
Those sold in the market are
usually put up in skins. In
buying sausage one should be
especially careful to buy a known
and approved brand. Otherwise
they are an untrustworthy form
of meat, as fragments of all
kinds are easily disposed of in
this way. The price of sausage
varies from 12 to 20 cents per
pound.
POULTRY
There is perhaps no other kind
of meat in which there is more
need of skill and care in select-
ing than poultry. Great care is
necessary in handling, as the flesh easily becomes
tainted or rendered unhealthful. Some states allow
fowl to be kept for sale undrawn. This is not only a
great menace to health, but a thing no thoughtful buyer
will desire. The excess price charged for what are
called Philadelphia Chickens comes from the method
of killing and preparing for market. An improperly
SIDE OP PORK.
Care in
Selecting
551
152
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Method of
Plucking
Tests
drawn chicken is nearly as bad as one sold undrawn,
in some cases may be even worse. The laws regulat-
ing the sale of poultry in New York state are such
that in the majority of cases chickens and turkeys are
most miserably prepared for market.
The flavor of the flesh is also affected by the method
of plucking, the dry picking being much to be pre-
ferred, although the appearance of the fowl may be
less attractive. While scalding aids in removing the
feathers it also affects the flavor, so that dry-picked
sell at a higher price.
In young fowl and turkey the breast bone is soft,
bending readily, and the flesh is smooth. Hairs over
the flesh are an indication of age, pin- feathers of a
young bird. The body should be plump and fat. A
poor bird is bluish white, thin and often too liberally
supplied with. pin-feathers. Scaly legs are a further
indication of age, the young having smooth legs.
While the preference is always for chickens, especially
for roasting, a good fowl may be thoroughly steamed
before roasting and so rendered tender and very ac-
ceptable. It is much greater economy to buy fowl
as one secures far more meat in proportion to bone,
and fowl is considerably cheaper. The West has be-
come a large source of our supply as in meat, espe-
cially in turkeys. Certain Eastern states like Ver-
mont and Connecticut have acquired in the past an en-
viable local reputation, but at the present time a large
part even of the Eastern trade is in Western turkeys,
552
FISH 153
shipped East in refrigerator cars. Methods of cold
storage have advanced so far that turkeys may be
kept a year or more, but not without losing in quality.
FISH
Fish deteriorates and becomes injurious sooner than selecting
any other animal food. Great care should be taken
to select that which is strictly fresh. It is impossible
to transport it a great distance and keep it as fresh
as is necessary for health. For this reason it is not
wise for those who live inland to rely upon this class
of food, except such as may be secured from bodies
of water near home. Fresh fish is firm, with no evi-
dence of discoloration. Scales and eyes should be
bright, gills red and fins firm. One should study the
comparative value of the different varieties, as there
is great difference in nutritive worth, largely due to
the greater amount of fat in some, such as salmon.
In general white fleshed fish has the oil confined in Kinds
the liver and is therefore apt to be a little more digesti-
ble than the dark fleshed fish where the oil is distribu-
ted throughout the body. Note: Whitefish, halibut,
etc. ; salmon, mackerel and bluefish. There is a decided
difference in texture, firmness and price.
Haddock is an excellent cheap fish for frying, be- Haddock
ing firmer than cod, It is usually from 8 to 10 cents a
pound. Halibut is the preference of the more expen-
sive, costing from 14 to 18 cents. There is less waste
in halibut, as the slices are from so large a fish that
553
154
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Faking
Boiling
Local
Varieties
the head and tail are not included as in smaller fish.
This should be taken into account in ordering.
Cod and bluefish are usually selected from the cheap
fish for baking. Haddock is also good. The bluefish
is preferred by most, being somewhat dry and of sweet
flavor. It is always to be distinguished by a dark
line running along each side from head to tail
While cod and haddock are in season throughout the
year, bluefish are in season only from May to October
except as they are frozen and kept in cold storage. A
frozen fish is not as desirable as fresh, so that the sea-
son will govern choice somewhat. Halibut and mack-
erel are good to bake.
In selecting fish for boiling it is desirable to secure
a firm fish and a solid piece which can be wrapped in
cheesecloth and cooked without breaking in pieces.
Halibut and salmon are especially good for this pur-
pose. Haddock is the best of the three cheaper fish
already mentioned.
The fish already mentioned are those which are best
as ordinarily found in the city markets. Many other
varieties which are very delicious when freshly caught
lose in flavor so much that it is not very satisfactory
to try to serve them except when one may secure them
strictly fresh. Trout, flounders and perch are ex-
amples. It is an excellent plan to have some system
of tables showing the season of such foods as have
a distinct season which can be hung on kitchen wall
or other available place o show at a glance the most
554
FISH
155
desirable times to buy the various foods. For ex-
ample, for fish :
The Season of Fish
Variety.
Price.
>-3
5
&
tl
I
<
|
i-s
j>>
3
1-5
9
<
a
0>
CQ
4-5
i
1
I
Bass Striped
or black
(To be
filled in
Blueflsh
from lo-
Butter
cal mar-
.
Cod
ket.)
Flounders
Haddock. . .
Halibut
Herring.
Lobster..
Mackerel .
Perch
Pickerel
Salmon
Shad
Smelts
Sword
Trout
Weak
White
The same general directions hold for buying shell
fish. Clams, oysters and lobster are not suitable to be
eaten unless strictly fresh and procured from sources
of which the healthfulness of the supply is assured.
Injurious preservatives are sometimes used in shipping
to the middle and Western states. Clams and lobster
may be purchased the year round. Oysters, scallops
and shrimps are in season from September to March.
Fish is not a substitute for meat in nutritive value, be-
cause it has less fat but makes a pleasant change for
those who are able to purchase under favorable con-
ditions.
Season
of Fish
Shell
Fish
555
VEGETABLES
Vegetables are classified according to their form as
follows :
Potatoes f Corn
Turnips Pumpkin
Parsnips -*,. | Peas
Roots and Tubers <! Beets Frult Vege t a bles
Radishes Tomato
L Carrots Cucumbers
I Lettuce t Egg Plant
i Ko'Se Blower Vegetables { S b ' a fl e wer
Season l n buying one should watch the market for the sea-
and
prices S on, as it will vary somewhat. Vegetables which were
formerly confined very exclusively to their season are
to be purchased now at almost any time in large city
markets which are supplied by hot houses and by ship-
ping from greater distances than was possible before
methods of shipping became so superior as at the
present time. Yet the higher prices which prevail for
fruit and vegetables which are out of season prevent
a great number from buying except when the prices
are normal. Nor is this a thing altogether to be de-
plored. It is a great mistake to rely to any large
extent upon such products since the quality is never
equal to that of products grown under natural condi-
tions, while the frequent use of a vegetable throughout
the year takes away the keen enjoyment to be realized
by those who "are content to take each as its season
brings it. Vegetables are a very important article
Literal of diet and should be liberally supplied at all times.
supply For thoge who haye i earne( j to eat all varieties there
156
556
VEGETABLES 157
is very fair variety of those which keep through the
winter. The different varities with season and aver-
age price will be found in the following table :
Season of Vegetables
Variety.
Price
63
>-a
1
w
a-
i
>>
oS
o>
t-3
j>.
3
*-5
to
E3
<
i
Si
+i
1
>
o
1
Artichokes .
5cqt
X
Asparagus
Beets .
15c pk.
5c b'nch
X.
X
Cabbage.
Cauliflower.
lOc head
lOc "
X
.X.
Carrots
Celery
3c b'nch
8c head
.X.
x
Chicory
ICc "
X
Corn.
8c doz.
X
Cucumbers
2c each
X
Egg Plant
lOc "
X
Greens
(Beet,...
1 Dandelion
Mushrooms.
15c peck
30c Ib.
.X.
....
.X
Okra
40c hun.
X
Onions .
15c peck
.X.
Oyster Planter
Salsify
Parsnips.
15c b'nch
3clb.
x
.X.
Peas (fresh)
lOc peck
.X.
. . .
Potatoes-
Sweet.
Irish
75cbu.
x
Pumpkins
2clb. '
Radishes..
Rhubarb
Romaine
3o b'nch
2clb.
lOc head
X
Spinach
15c peck
X.
Squash-
Summer
3c each
X
Winter
2c Ib.
x
String Beans..
lOc qt.
X
Tomatoes . .
5cqt.
X
Turnips
2clb.
X
X marks the height of the season, or when it is at its best.
The prices given are the lowest, or those at the height of the season.
557
158
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Quantity
for Serving
Selecting:
Vegetable*.
It is sometimes puzzling to determine the quantity
to order for the number of persons to be served. The
following estimates may be a guide :
Artichokes, 1 quart will serve ? people.
Asparagus, 1 bunch
Beets, 1 bunch (5)
Cabbage, 1 good, solid ..,
Cauliflower, 1 small
' good size
Carrots, 1 large one ,
" small bunch
Celery, 1 head (3 bunches)
Chicory, 1 head
Corn, 1 doz
Cucumber, 1 ... (in salad )
" (sliced).
Egg Plant, medium
Greens, 1 pk
Onions, 1 qt
Oyster Plant, 5 stalks
Parsnips, 2 (1 Ib.)
Peas, 1 pk
Radishes, 1 bunch
Rhubarb, 1 Ib (in sauce) .
Romaine, 1 head
String Beans, 1 qt
Tomatoes, 1 qt. (5)
Turnips, 1 (2J Ibs.)
4
6-8
4-0
4
8-13
4
11-12
4
2-3
6-8
6-8
4-6
4-6
4-6
4
4-8
All vegetables should be fresh, as it is very difficult
to cook those that are wilted and they lose much in
flavor. Greens and salad plants should *be crisp and
tender without evidences of lying until bruised and
partially decayed. Cabbage and cauliflower should
have solid heads and not be discolored. Medium-sized
vegetables are preferable to either extreme, usually.
If small there is large waste, while too large ones are
apt to be coarse and woody in texture. This applies
especially to beets, parsnips, peas, beans, rhubarb, etc.
The heavier potatoes are in proportion to their size
the better, but medium sized ones are less likely to
have hollow hearts. The varieties differ greatly as
558
VEGETABLES
159
to quality. One must, in general, learn by trial the
best to be obtained in the local market. The Early
Rose is an excellent variety.
In selecting pumpkins choose a heavy one with
hard shell and deep yellow color. Of winter squashes,
the dark green Hubbard is the best. It should be very
hard and good sized. The crooked neck is the best
variety of summer squash. The evergreen and coun-
try gentleman are excellent varieties of sweet corn.
Spanish onions are the best, being more delicate than
native but are somewhat higher in price.
ANIMAL PRODUCTS
Butter, milk and eggs are all of a nature to require
the utmost care in purchasing and in storing before
use. They are easily tainted so as to be spoiled for
one of sensitive taste, while milk, especially, is proba-
bly the most frequent transmiter of disease, with the
exception of water, of all our foods and drinks. Butter
should be of the best, but a high price is not always a
test of merit. While some creamery butters bring a
very high price and take high awards for flavor, so
that creamery butter as a whole commands a higher
price than dairy butter, it is not the most desirable. All
good creameries maintain a high sanitary standard
and conditions under which the butter is made are
doubtless superior to those in the majority of private
dairies, yet one must go back of the creameries to the
farms from which the creameries are supplied to de-
termine the final healthfulness of the product. It is
Scmashes
and
Pumpkins
Butter
Milk
Eggs
559
160 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
here that the difficulty lies with creamery butter, since
th farmers that keep the poorest cows and who do not
understand dairying under right conditions are those
that supply the creameries, so that one cannot be sure
that butter made from the cream produced under such
conditions is healthful. It is far better, so far as is
possible, to buy from an approved private dairy.
Source The same may be said of the milk supply. One
supply should follow to its source and know without a ques-
tion that there can be no pollution if any milk is con-
sumed in a raw state by the family. This becomes
doubly imperative where there are children in the
family. If necessary, a cent or two more in price per
bottle is little for the sake of safety.
Eggs are highest in price in winter. A housekeeper
may take advantage of low prices in the spring or
fall by buying a supply in advance, but she cannot do
this unless she can be sure of a cool place to store
them and is willing to take the trouble to coat each
egg over so that the air may not penetrate the shell.
Wrapping each in separate paper is a fairly good pro-
tection. Care must be used not to use anything that
will cause an unpleasant flavor, as the shells are very
porous and the contents readily acquire odors of any-
thing near. A 10 per cent solution of silicate of soda
is an excellent preservative.
Testing A salt solution is a good test of the freshness of an
Eggs egg. Two tablespoonfuls of salt for a quart of water
may be used. If fresh, the egg will sink in it ; if not
560
DRY GROCERIES
161
perfectly fresh, will show signs of rising, while a bad
egg will float at once.
DRY GROCERIES
While most of what has been discussed in the pre-
vious pages relates to food which must be purchased
as needed, because perishable, there is a class in buy-
ing which much time and thought may be saved by
supplying enough for at least a month in advance.
This is dry groceries such as sugar, flour, cereals,
flavorings, coffee (unroasted), tea, chocolate, spices,
soap, starch, and all like necessities.
A store-closet large enough to allow the purchase
of these things at a wholesale store, and so arranged
as to temperature, dryness, light and ventilation as to
keep them in perfect condition is a saving so great
as to astonish one who trys the method for the first
time. Often the difference amounts to twenty per cent.
Sugar should be bought by the hundred weight at
least, flour by the barrel, canned goods by the dozen
or better by the case, cereals by the dozen packages
after the fresh fall supply is in, vanilla by the quart
(at the drug store to secure better quality), baking
powder by the 5-pound box from which smaller quan-
tities are transferred as needed to the box in use, soap
by the box, that it may have a chance to dry out thor-
oughly and so waste less readily, and so on through
a long list. For a very small family the list would
naturally be shorter. Anything that does not deteri-
Storage
Quantities
561
162
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Brand
of Goods
Adulterations
Percentage
in Saving
Judgment
orate in storage can be bought to much greater advan-
tage in quantity.
In groceries it is not well to buy an inferior grade.
Here the best is the cheapest and wisest, especially in
these days of intense competition and fraud. It is well
to know a good brand and insist upon having it. For-
eign labels are not a surety of a good grade of goods,
in fact some of our best American firms put up their
best quality of spices, for instance, under their own
name and the poorer grades are labeled with French
labels and sold to firms that deal in a cheaper line of
goods.
Through the reports of the Government upon adul-
teration as given in the Bulletins and the report of
different state and city inspectors one may ascertain
to some extent which are reliable and which are not.
CONCLUSION
The household manager should learn to think in
percentages. One cent less on a ten cent article seems
a trivial saving, yet it is ten per cent ten dollars in
every hundred. It is fair to state that there will be a
difference in money paid of from ten to twenty per
cent between careless and careful purchases.
It should be remembered that the customer who
knows and is particular receives the best of goods and
services.
The successful business man is an expert in judging
the materials in which he deals ; he is perfectly familiar
with the range of prices and quick to take advantage
562
DRY GROCERIES 163
of all favorable conditions. The household managcr
needs to be just as familiar with all the goods which
relate to the home and with their prices.
One becomes an expert only through experience, but The Expert
. -i-ii i j Household
experience is not gained simply by ordering goods; Manager
appearance must be noted carefully and results com-
pared intelligently to acquire the trained eye and the
trained judgment necessary to the successful house-
hold manager.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Art of Right Living ($0.50), Ellen H. Richards.
Cost of Living ($1.00), Ellen H. Richards.
Cost of Food ($1.00), Ellen H. Richards.
Domestic Service ($2.00), Lucy M. Salmon.
Economic Function of Woman ($0.15), E. T. Divine.
Family Living on $500 a Year ($1.25), J. Corson.
Home Economics ($1.50), Maria Parloa.
Household Economics ($1.50), Helen Campbell.
The Woman Who Spends ($1.00), B. J. Richardson.
Toilers in the Home ($1.50), Lillian Pettengill.
Woman and Economics ($1.50), Charlotte Perkins Gilman.
Woman's Share in Primitive Culture ($1.75), Otis T. Mason.
IT. S. Government Bulletins
Farmer's Bulletin, No. '142, The Nutritive and Economic Value
of Food (Free).
Farmer's Bulletin, No. 183, Meat on the Farm.
Reprint Year Book 1902, The Cost of Food as Related to its
Nutritive Value (Free).
Office of Experiment Stations, No. 129, Dietary Studies in
Boston, Springfield, Philadelphia and Chicago (10 cents.
coin}.
Farmers' Bulletin, No. 391, Economical Use of Meats in the
Home (Free)
563
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
PART III
Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the
first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write
on one side of the sheet only. L/eave space between an-
swers. Read the lesson paper a number of times before
answering the questions. Answer fully.
1. What factors combine to make meat suitable for
the table?
2. (a) By what should one be governed in select-
ing a cut of beef? (b) What cuts have you
found especially satisfactory?
3. How is a side of beef cut up in your own mar-
ket ? What are the prices ?
4. Describe the "bottom round," stating its location
in the animal, quality, suitable uses, approxi-
mate value, etc.
5. Compare with "top round."
6. Compare a cut from the brisket with the flank
cut.
7. What cuts of beef have you never used ?
8. Have you any especially satisfactory methods of
preparing cheap cuts, other than noted in these
books ?
9. Describe a desirable piece of salt pork.
564
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
10. A satisfactory fowl to roast.
11. A satisfactory roast of pork.
12. The best cut of steak.
13. French lamb chops.
id. What objections are there to canned meats?
15. Compare fish with meat as a food.
1 6. Make a table giving the season and prices of
vegetables to be obtained in your local market
similar to that on page 137.
17. State objections for excessive use of vegetables
out of season.
1 8. What answer would you give a mother who
states that her children like no vegetables ex-
cept canned tomato, preferring it to the fresh
fruit even in season, and asks if there is any
harm in letting them have it exclusively, every
meal?
19. Have you tried buying any groceries in quantity?
If so, with what success in price, quality, and
keeping?
20. What purchases do you find hardest to make?
Why?
21. Can you add any suggestions or comments to
help others?
22. Are there any questions you would like to ask
relating to Household Management?
Note. After completing this test, sign your full name.
565
SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR
CLASS STUDY ON
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
i
BY BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. B.
MEETING I
Place of Home and Home-maker in the Economic World.
(Study pages 1-8.)
1. Economic Function of Woman, Divine. ($0.15, postage
2c.)
Cost of Living, Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage lOc.)
Standards of Living, Chapters I and II.
Household Expenditures, Chapter I.
3. The Standard of Life, Bosanquet. (1.50, out of print.)
Chapter I.
4. Household Economics, Helen Campbell. ($1.50, postage
16c.) Household Industries, Chapter VII.
. 5. See works on Political Economics on place of Consump-
tion in discussion of Wealth.
MEETING II
(Study pages 9-41.)
Division of Incomes.
1. The Woman Who Spends, Bertha J. Richardson. ($1.00,
postage lOc.)
Chapters on Needs, Choices, Imitation versus Inde-
pendence, Satisfaction, Responsibility.
2. Cost of Living, Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage 8c )
Housing, Chapter IV.
Operating Expenses, Chapter V.
Food, Chapter VI.
Clothing.
Higher Life.
3. Cost of Shelter, Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage lOc.)
4. Cost of Food, Ellen Richards. ($1.00, postage lOc.)
See articles on "Increase in Household Expenses.'' Har-
per's Bazar, Sept.-Dec., 1906.
566
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
MEETING III
(Study pages 42-68.)
(a) Household Accounts.
(a) Value Worth the time and effort?
(b) Different Methods.
(c) Discussion of Personal Choices.
Reference How to Keep Household Accounts, Haskell.
($1.00, postage lOc.)
(b) Banking.
(a) Use to housewife; opinion of members.
(b) Varieties of Banks. Local Banks.
(c) How made most useful?
Reference How to Keep Household Accounts, Haskell.
($1.00, postage lOc.)
See article on Finance, by Dr. Campbell, in Cosmopolitan
Magazine.
(Select answers to test questions on Part I.)
MEETING IV
(Study pages 71-96.)
(a) Organization in the Home.
1. Household Economics, Chapter XII. Campbell.
2. Cost of Living, Chapter IX. Richards. ($1.00, postage
lOc.)
3. Cosmopolitan Magazine April, May and June, 1899.
4. "The Eight Hour Day in Housekeeping." American
Kitchen Magazine, Article in January, February
and March, 1902.
See Supplement, pages 181-191.
(b) Domestic Service.
1. Domestic Service, Salmon. ($2.00, postage 18c.)
2. Household Economics, Chapter XI, Campbell. ($1.50,
postage 16c.)
PROGRAM
MEETING V
(Study pages 97-125.)
Buying Supplies.
(a) Bargains real and fictitious.
(b) Grades best, the cheapest?
(c) Comparison of Department and Specialty Stores.
(d) Seasons for buying supplies.
(e) Buying in quantity.
(f) Local stores.
(Select answers to test questions on Part II.)
MEETING VI
(Study pages 127-163.)
Marketing.
(a) Meats Local cuts.
(b) Vegetables.
(c) Groceries. Get estimates in quantity from whole-
sale store.
(d) Comparison of local markets in sanitary conditions
and practices, cold storage facilities, cuts of meat,
prices, etc.
Reference Home Economics. Chapter on Marketing. Maria
Parloa. ($1.50, postage 16c.)
(Select answers to test questions on Part III.)
568
SUPPLEMENT
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
BY BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. B.
A rare opportunity is afforded us, through these
orrespondence courses, of sharing the experiences of
\nany different housekeepers of widely differing loca-
ations and conditions. Through this supplement I
am glad to have the opportunity of passing on the
most valuable contributions, and I anticipate that they
will amplify helpfully the material of the text.
DIFFERING OPINIONS
In some points there has seemed to be universal
agreement. In others, there have been flatest contra-
dictions of opinions, amusingly so, sometimes, if one
could forget the trials and struggles involved. One,
for instance, affirms with much positiveness that help
by the hour, in place of resident labor, is entirely im-
possible. "How can shop and store hours be com-
pared with those in a house, or the work be re-
adjusted to conform to such a plan? Hasn't the prob-
lem two sides? Is it unreasonable of me to desire a
late dinner when we are hurried at breakfast, irregu-
lar for luncheon, and dinner at night is the only meal
the family may take together and enjoy leisurely?''
The next paper taken up assured me, no less posi-
tively, that the plan is admirable, the writer has tried
167
569
168 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
it and finds it a great relief and no more expensive, all
things considered.
LAUNDRY WORK
The question of laundry work, done in the house
or sent out, brought forth as contradictory views, al-
though such conclusions could easily be derived as
that all would find it a relief to send laundry work out
if it could be done as well, under as sanitary condi-
tions, and no more expensively. (Not many seemed
to have much idea of the actual difference in expense.)
It was easy to s^., also, that in practically no com-
munity thus far reported from, are there satisfactory
laundries, and prices are reported as too high to be
tolerated. Where are the clubs ready to devote some
of their time and attention to the solution of this
problem for their communities? One has done so,
very satisfactorily.
These differences of opinion spring largely from the
great differences in local conditions and in personal
experiences, yet they emphasize the fact that each
home has its own peculiar problems to be worked out,
and the most that can be hoped for from suggestion
from without is the laying of fundamental principles,
together with opportunity of studying the experience
of others as a guide in deciding our own course of
action.
DIVISION OF INCOME
There is less material contributed on Household
Accounts than I could wish, less, I hope, than may
570
DIVISION OF INCOME 169
be in a few years, if all the housekeepers who have
registered resolves to know more of this side of their
business in future, live up to their intention. Evi-
dently one in fifty would be a generous estimate of
those who keep anything bordering upon helpful ac-
counts at present, even among our students.
Fortunately some have been keeping careful rec-
ords and the papers of such have been full of in-
terest. They show that the budgets given in the text
are fair both the actual and the ideal, for some
rarely wise, able women are finding the ideal budget
possible today and are living close to its standard.
I wish it were possible to present every detail of
the management of such, that "he who runs may read"
their valuable lessons. There is no evidence of un-
worthy curtailment. One catches, on the contrary,
the spirit of highest, worthiest enjoyments and con-
tentment.
Here is one in a city of an Eastern state, where
husband and wife without children have an income of
$1,200 in yearly salary, paid monthly,
MONTHLY BUDGET, FAMILY OF TWO
OUTGO.
Rent $16.00
For 3 rooms and bath on 2nd floor, with
storage and cellar privileges. Low for
location.
Car fares $3.50
Food $22.50
Average per year not over $15.00.
Operating expenses $6.50
Gas, light and heat, average 3-5
571
i;o HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Laundry 1.50
Cleaning, 2 half days 1.50
Life Insurance 7.00
Investment 10.00
Personal allowances 30.00
Incidentals 4.50
Total .$100.00
Each is allowed $15.00 for clothing, gifts, charity,
higher life and personal saving.
A physician's family of four in Southern California
with income of $1,500, spend for rent 10 per cent,
operating expenses 33 per cent, food 25 per cent,
clothing 15 per cent, and higher life 17 per cent,
while a family of four in Montana with the same in-
come ($1,500) rent a good-sized house with yard
large enough for kitchen garden and small poultry
yard for $18 a month, or 14 2-5 per cent, and spend
for operating expenses 15 per cent, food 20 per cent,
clothing 18 per cent and higher life 30 per cent.
These three are interesting taken together, as show-
ing some conditions which lie practically beyond in-
dividual control, yet which may have decided effect
upon the result. The operating expenses in the physi-
cian's family, for instance, have to cover office rental,
care, lighting, heating, telephone, etc., which is
in reality not a part of the household expenses. Con-
trast also the accommodations possible in the East-
ern city at $16 rent per month, and that very low
for the place, and those available in Montana for a
similar price.
572
DIVISION OF INCOME 17;
It has long been observed that salaries and wages
do not vary in different localities in any way com-
mensurate with the great difference in living expenses.
In Washington, D. C, a family of husband, wife
and four children, aged 6 to 16 years, with income
of $1,500, spend for. rent $360, operating expenses
$80 to $90, food $400, clothing $350, with balance
of $300 for higher life.
MONTHLY DIVISION OF $125
Rent $25
Food 30
Fuel and Gas v 10
Clothing 10
Laundry 5
Furniture 10
Higher Life 10
Bank Account 25
"Three members of the family who are not at
home during midday take lunch consisting of buttered
toast or bread and preserves that I had put up dur-
ing the summer. We do not use cereal at every
breakfast nor do we have dessert after every dinner,
but about four times a week. I have used tomatoes
rather frequently, although they are high in price,
but we enjoy them and prefer them to something else
costing less. I 'can' my own fruit which can be used
in many ways as a dessert.
"Out of $30 I spend $10 for such provisions as
sugar, tea, coffee, butter, flour, meal, lard, yeast,
powder, salt, pepper, cereals, starch, blue, soap, etc.
573
172 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
This gives $20 for meats and vegetables and the
family is thus maintained on $5 a week.
"My son makes all fires and goes errands, cleans
front and back yard. My daughter arranges the
table, airs bed rooms and puts them in order before
going to school. Once a week my laundress scrubs
kitchen and cleans vestibule, front porch and bath
room. I superintend the cooking and house in gen-
eral. My husband frequently aids in marketing."
MENU FOR A WEEK
Sunday
(Breakfast)
Fruit Oranges (Two cut in half)
Sliced Ham (broiled) Scrambled Eggs (two)
Hot corn bread (two eggs)
Coffee (with cream )
(Dinner)
Roast of Beef
Mashed potatoes Cream of asparagus on toast.
Bread with butter. Lettuce Salad.
Rice pudding.
Monday
(Breakfast)
Cream of Wheat.
Scrapple (fried crisp)
Hot Biscuits. Sliced Tomatoes.
Coffee.
(Dinner)
Sliced Beef heated in meat sauce.
Boiled Onions Cream Sauce (a la cream)
Rice. Celery Salad (celery, eggs, spring onions and parsley)
Bread. Tea.
Tuesday
(Breakfast)
Oat Meal.
Bacon. Egg Omelet (with parsley)
Wheat Muffins. Coffee.
574
DIVISION OF INCOME 173
(Dinner)
Clear Soup.
Brown Hash. Beauregard Eggs on toast.
Sliced Oranges and bananas with cocoanut.
Wednesday
(Breakfast)
Sausage Corn Muffins, with butter.
Poached Eggs. Coffee.
(Dinner)
Ham (Boiled) Spinach with Egg (hard cooked).
Bread.
Sweet Potatoes Delmonico (potatoes and cheese)
Prunes. Tea or Cocoa.
Thursday
(Breakfast)
Cream of Wheat with bananas and milk.
Frizzled Beef. Toast (buttered)
Sliced Tomatoes.
(Dinner)
Soup. (Vegetable).
Ham Croquettes with Tomato Sauce.
Macaroni with Cheese.
Pickle. Bread. Celery Salad.
Canned Peaches (Home Made.)
Friday
(Breakfast)
Cream of Salmon. Potato Chips.
Hot Biscuits. Coffee.
(Dinner)
Baked Shad, or Trout. Mashed Potatoes.
Sliced Tomatoes with Salad Dressing.
Corn Bread. Tea.
Saturday
(Breakfast)
Mush with milk.
Bacon. Scrambled Eggs. Potato Chips.
Plain Bread or Toast. Coffee.
(Dinner)
Sliced Ham. Creamed Cabbage.
Boiled Potatoes. Bread.
Apple Sauce. Tea.
575
174 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
DIVISION OF $4,500
Family in Providence, R. I., physician, wife, two
children, two maids, laundress one and a half days a
week:
Rent, 10 per cent $4 5Q
Food, 14 per cent 6 30
Operating expenses, 20 per cent.... 900
Clothing, 9 per cent .$405
Incidentals, 2 per cent 90
Office Expense, 25 per cent 11 25
Higher Life, savings, etc., 20 per cent 900
Total $4500
DETAILS OF OPERATING EXPENSES.
Services (including wages of 2
maids, laundry, ashes removed,
snow shoveled, rugs beaten, win-
dows washed, etc ^ $5 50
Fuel i 30
Lighting 60
Telephone 64
Water tax 16
Ice ... 20
Household Supplies 60
Total $900
She says : "Nothing is more helpful to the practice
of economy than a record from year to year of all
expenditures. I have been a more successful house-
keeper since I began keeping careful accounts. I have
reduced my monthly food bill from $60 to $50 and less
since I offered my cook 10 per cent on what we
saved each month/'
576
DIVISION OF INCOME 175
FOOD ECONOMY
The practice of wise economies has been so success-
ful and gratifying in one family of my acquaintance
within the past few years that I must share some of
the details with those interested.
The mother has succeeded in saving enough in four
years to take herself and son on a European trip as a
supplement to his education. The family live in the
middle West and consist of three ladies and a boy of
eighteen.
The mother writes : "I am almost ashamed to
mention the small sum we live on. It is by saving all
left-overs, and by the exercise of quite a little fore-
thought and some self-denial that it is accomplished.
I do not mean to practice economy at the expense of
health, however." The daily average for each person
for the year for good material was 12 2-5 cents one
year, 86 4-5 cents a week, another, 85 1-6 cents.
A small garden, cared for on shares, aided some-
what, although not largely, it supplied apples and
pears in season and for preserving, and a part of the
summer vegetables and potatoes.
Sample menus with the hints accompanying them
will be as suggestive as anything could be, to show
the methods of economy.
On a basis of 85 to 90 cents per person a week :
Winter Breakfast, 6:30 a. m.
Oatmeal with cream and sugar.
Bread of Franklin mills and Pillsbury flours mixed.
577
176 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
Muffins or pancakes.
.Butter.
Postum with 1-3 hot skimmed milk.
Jelly or fruit syrup:
In summer various wheat cereals are used, as Ral-
ston's Breakfast Food, Cream of Wheat and the like.
In the spring toast and eggs occasionally.
Dinner 12 m.
1. Stuffed beefs heart.
Stewed onions. Mashed potatoes.
Spiced pears.
Entire wheat bread and butter.
Gelatine dessert with whipped cream.
2. Remains of beef's heart warmed.
Creamed turnips.
Fried mashed potatoes. Green tomato pickles.
Rice with butter and sugar.
Not more than two hearts are served in a year.
They are excellent for variety, but not desirable too
often. A variety of meats and vegetables is given. In
a three weeks' menu a chicken appears, serving two
meals, roast pork, mutton chops, oysters, Hamburg
steak, creamed dried beef, cod fish, salmon with
white sauce, beef steak and boiled ham. The meat
from soup bones is used in a pie or seasoned well and
served on toast. Two turkeys are served in a season.
A good roast once a month and steak or chops once
a week.
Occasionally a bisque or other soup is served when
578
FOOD ECONOMY 177
the materials are at hand, but, as a rule, the soup
course is omitted with meats, being reserved for days
when fish or lighter courses are served.
There is never a spoonful of anything wasted. A
cupful of corn left from one dinner is scalloped for
the next. A little tomato may be added to it for a
change. Spoonfuls of fruit left from suppers are
made into dumplings for dessert. Pies are seldom
served. Hickory nuts and dates are a favorite dessert
Tomatoes are home-canned. Lima beans are used oc-
casionally as one vegetable.
When spring comes and eggs are plentiful omelettes
are used, milk and egg puddings and custards.
Supper 5 p. m.
Bread and butter.
Buns, cinnamon rolls, etc., cookies, gingersnaps or
cake.
Fruit. Cheese.
Peanut butter or a little cold meat. Sometimes milk
toast, warmed potatoes or macaroni.
If for guests, pressed veal, scalloped oysters with
olives and jelly in addition.
A great variety of fruits is used. All varieties are
preserved. In summer and fall fruit is a frequent
dessert.
We are all more or less familiar with the enforced
economies of life, but this is an example of voluntary
curtailing for a larger good, without harm. Would that
more homes could catch the spirit of this housekeeper
579
i;8 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
who writes : "There are so many things I rather
spend money for than for food!"
In a study of present standards of life as interpreted
through facts in regard to food (Report of Lake
Placid Conference on Home Economics, 1902) some
things are emphasized which many housekeepers are
ignoring, wilfully or otherwise, and which affect the
cost of living seriously as well as the comfort and
health of the family.
The data was gathered from homes in which the
wage-earners were professional men. Wherever sev-
eral maids were employed the increase in expense of
food is disproportionately large. A family of three
is instanced.
With three employes, cook, waitress and companion,
with income of $3,400, 26.5 per cent is spent for food.
In contrast, a family of the same size with $100 less
income, that employs a nurse maid and one general
helper, spends only 13.9 per cent for food. In the
first case much of the ordering and preparation of the
food is left to employes ; in the latter the housekeeper
attends to the ordering and plans the meals herself.
The menus submitted at that time show a surprising
lack of variety and an ignorance of simple, inexpensive
foods that can be used interchangeably. "Soups were
very little used. Cheaper cuts of meat almost invari-
ably took the form of stews. In no case were lentils
or peas substituted for beans. Fish, which is one of
the less expensive and most digestible foods, was
580
FOOD ECONOMY 179
used sparingly. Macaroni, spaghetti, rice, hominy and
other cereals were almost never substituted for pota-
toes. The possibilities of cheese seemed quite unex-
plored. There was very little variety in vegetables in
spite of the fact that" in almo'st every case the families
lived in large cities where the markets were bewil-
deringly rich with a great variety."
These facts are but further evidence of the mis-
conception in these days on the part of many, of the
duties of the housekeeper. What greater duty can
she have than looking after her share of the business
engagement entered into when she assumed the re-
sponsibilities of a home and pledged herself to faith-
fulness in her part?
These duties are worthy of, yes, require, if properly
attended to, the mental ability and intelligent care and
interest of the trained, skillful women who assume
them, and it is a pity that so many homes are being
wrecked and others falling far short of their finest
possibilities because of such neglect. I sometimes try
to picture the outcry there would be if the wage-
earners in our homes were equally lax in their respon-
sibilities of providing! And yet, as I have tried to
point out in the text, care in the consumption is as
important in the home-finance as is providing, and
the difference in comfort is greater, proportionately.
What is to start a great wave of pride over our
land that shall stir every home-maker who is at pres-
ent indifferent to, or ignorant of these great facts,
581
i8o HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
with an ambition to prove her right to her position
and make her a worthy partner in her home-world,
not a mere enjoyer of another's strenuous labor!
I know protest will at once arise in the form of such
questions as "Where is the overworked home-maker
to find time to do any more?" "What if the hus-
bands prefer to hire help that their wives may have
freer, happier lives?" "What can women do who
haven't strength to assume such duties?"
If you ask, I must answer frankly, that the noble
home-makers whom I look upon with unbounded re-
spect, and whose homes and lives are a constant uplift
to all who know them, never seem to have difficulty in
adjusting these matters. Do we not all know, in
reality, that time is ours, after all, to spend as we
choose to spend it. We may have fallen into the poor
method, have followed the way of all about us until
it seems imperative to spend it all as we do, but if
we looked at these matters as really serious we should
find adjustment some way. Health and strength are
so largely in our keeping, also! Confusion of too
many outside interests, over excitement, lack of well-
ordered, systematic living are depriving many a woman
of the life rightfully hers. Lack of sufficient healthful
exercise does the same for others. How few seem to
understand it! At least the results would seem to
indicate it.
582
DOMESTIC SERVICE 181
DOMESTIC SERVICE
And now we come to the perplexing, annoying
problems of Domestic Service ! We wish we had some
effective solutions to offer ! Some women, in dis-
cussing the condition, have contributed valuable hints
regarding successful methods employed which, if not
wholly new, .might well be reconsidered by many an
employer.
Hugo Miinsterberg, contrasting conditions in Amer-
ica and Germany, writes : "The conviction of every
American girl that it is dignified to work in a mill,
but undignified to be a cook in any other family, would
never have reached its present intensity if an anti-
domestic feeling were not in the background. If we
seek for the most striking features of woman's work
here and abroad, it would seem that the aim of the
Gei man woman is to further the interests of the house-
hold and the American to escape from the household."
It is a striking fact that in almost every instance
the students who have written on the subject place the
lion's share of the fault with the employer. What
inference shall we draw? It reminds us of a School
of Housekeeping which was started to train employes,
but after a two years' study of conditions it was
changed to a course for employers in recognition of
the fact that they, first, needed training.
I quote below from a few of the papers :
"All who have help do not need it, many can ill
afford it. Some time ago I heard the eldest daughter
583
182 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
of a family of five girls urging her mother to get a
servant since they were now in a large house. The
mother asked what a servant would do in a family
of so many girls. In reply the girl said, 'we shan't
be considered anybody if we don't have a servant/
"It is in a spirit like this that much of the trouble
lies. When women are willing themselves to learn
the art of good housekeeping and are willing to do a
part of it, no matter how small the share, to show the
interest, and then by kindness, gentleness and thought-
fulness seek to help the servants along in the world,
the situation will be greatly improved."
It is the women with this spirit and attitude who
are having least trouble.
"I always employ intelligent help and do by them
as I wish to be done by. When a young girl is intel-
ligent one has splendid material to work with in train-
ing her to do as you would your own daughter.
"I have had help, who, after leaving my home when
I needed help no longer, would return at odd times
for a half day when they thought I stood in need
and offer to give me their time without pay, wishing
thus to show their appreciation of my kindness toward
them. I believe my success is due to consideration
and thoughtfulness of their little fancies.
"Thoughtfulness goes a great way in winning the
love of one's help. When I do my shopping I always
remember my help as any other member of my family,
not with the thought of being repaid in services, but
through kindness. I have no patience with the person
584
DOMESTIC SERVICE 183
who does another a kindness merely to gain some
selfish point."
One woman attributes her success to personal at-
tachment and a consequent desire to please. She
says:
"So few have any idea of how to buy clothes or get
any value for their money that I made it a point to
show them how they could have good clothes inside
and out instead of the showy things they were hav-
ing. They appreciated the interest I took in them.
I think that women who employ are themselves largely
responsible for the conditions of domestic affairs.
Reprimanding before others, constant nagging and
giving few liberties are the methods of many."
"Most women in service change in the hope of 'bet-
tering' themselves, which is laudable but often disap-
pointing. It would seem profitable for employers to
devise a scheme of increasing wages at stated inter-
vals until a certain point is reached, after that a sum
as yearly reward for continued service. I knew a
family where some such plan has been followed for
a number of years with great success. The lack of
promotion in household service must be deadening to
ambition."
An Iowa student writes :
"My observation has been that well ordered house-
holds and households where the servants know just
what they must do and be held responsible for, have
been more successful even though the work was more
585
184 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
arduous than homeG where there was no system, the
mistress capricious and all sorts of personal service
was required. I believe that when housekeeping be-
comes a business, women will have trusted and valued
employes as do their husbands."
HELP BY THE HOUR
Here is an interesting experience of help by the
hour contributed by the Director of the School. "After
our raw boned, unprepossessing, though faithful Irish
girl married a German with four children (to her
subsequent regret) we had the usual string of unsatis-
factory maids, so we decided to try help by the hour
as recommended in Household Management. The fol-
lowing 'ad' was put into an evening paper :
''WANTED A helper for light housework from 8
to 12 every morning. No washing. Pay $4.50 a week.
Extra pay for extra time.
"We expected to have only a few applicants, but
that same evening, which was cold and rainy, ten ap-
plied and during the next two days the number was
raised to over fifty. The first applicant was accepted
and while she proved fairly satisfactory, some of the
others who applied looked more promising. After
about two months we put in another advertisement
asking for service from 7:30 to 12:00; pay, $4.00 a
week. This time we had forty applicants. After
about six months we advertised again, making the
hours from 7:30 to 12:30, pay $3.50 per week. This
third time we had about thirty applicants. Under the
586
HELP BY THE HOUR 185
last conditions the rate of pay comes down to 10 cents
an hour.
"This experience would seem to prove conclusively
that, in Chicago at least, there is no lack of women
willing to do housework, while it is almost impossible
to obtain a satisfactory servant at $5.00 a week. Over
1 20 women in our locality were anxious for practically
the same employment under different conditions.
"The arrangement was not satisfactory as to hours,
so we made the arrangement with the present helper to
come at 8 o'clock and stay until n and come again
from 4 130 to 7 130 p. m. every week day, and on Sun-
day from 10 until 2 o'clock. This makes forty hours
per week regularly, the rate of pay being as before,
10 cents per hour. The worker lives within a ten-
minute walk.
"We have a laundress one day a week who does
the washing and makes a start on the ironing, which
the helper finishes during the week. She receives
$1.50 for nine hours' work.
"Breakfast is a simple meal with us. When we
have cooked cereal it is cooked the night before.
Fruit, eggs or bacon, coffee and toast complete the
meal, which is easily prepared in less than half an
hour.
"Breakfast is finished when the helper arrives in
the morning. She makes the beds, dusts the floors
and cleans the bath room. Then clears off the break-
fast dishes, washes them and straightens the kitchen
587
i86 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
and dining room and is ready for the ironing or for
any special cleaning. She leaves the table set for
lunch and goes home to her own lunch. In the after-
noon the helper washes up the luncheon dishes which
have been rinsed and left in the kitchen ; prepares
dinner and serves it at 6:15. She usually gets the
dinner dishes washed and leaves the table set for
breakfast by 7:30, but sometimes has to stay half an
hour extra if dinner is late.
"When we wish to go out in the evening we have
to leave someone with the children, so the helper is
kept until we return, or if especially late, she stays
all night for 25 cents extra. The extra time runs from
nothing to $1.00 a week, according to circumstances.
"Our experience has been that this is a much less
expensive arrangement than paying a maid, who sleeps
and eats in the house and does the laundry work, $5.00
a week. The helper has no meals in our house unless
she stays over time, in which case 10 cents is deducted
for the food and time spent.
"According to the prize schedules published in the
department of 'The Housekeeper and Her Helper' in
the Ladies' Home Journal for September, '06, in a
one-servant household the working time of the maid
was about 70 hours per week a fair average. This
allows for two afternoons a week off and the even-
ings after the evening meal is cleared away but does
not take into account the time spent by the maid in
eating her own meals. This might fairly be reckoned
588
HELP BY THE HOUR 187
at seven hours a week, leaving a balance of 63 hours
spent in actual work. In most households the food
which the maid consumes could not be reckoned at less
than 30 cents a day or say $2.00 a week. If the maid
receives $5.00 or even $4.50 a week in wages, it is ap-
parent that her services cost over 10 cents an hour
for the time actually spent in work, allowing nothing
for the rent of her room and extra supplies and waste.
"Our experience has been that food bills are a third
less ($10 to $12 per month) than when we had a resi-
dent maid. This is accounted for in part from the
bills have averaged $i a month less than before. Then
we have the use of the room which the maid would
occupy and do use it. The proportional rental for the
room might be reckoned at $4 or $5 per month.
"With our family of five two children and a baby
housekeeping is a much more difficult problem than
in the average household. We live in a heated seven-
room apartment, hot water and janitor service fur-
nished. In summer the washing is appalling and
sometimes the flat work is sent to the laundry. It
seems as if double the amount of cleaning were neces-
sary in a soft coal city like Chicago compared with that
in a suburb of Boston. Certainly a third more clean-
ing is required.
"Our experience has been that those who apply
for work are much more intelligent as a class than the
general run of servants and that they work very much
more rapidly and efficiently. More careful planning
589
1 88 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
and more forethought is necessary than with 'all the
time' help. The feeling of relief comes, however, be-
cause we know, and our helper knows, that plenty
others to fill her flace can be found if she is not satis-
fied with the work, or if she does not come up to our
requirements. So far as our family is concerned we
feel that the servant problem has been solved."
SYSTEMS OF WORK
Two systems of work for the week have seemed
especially suggestive. In the first the housekeeper
does her own work. I am particularly impressed with
the wisdom of the plan for Monday. It is always
harder to have washing come on Monday than on any
other day. It is simply a long-honored custom. We
need to break away from such if they are not sensible.
Extra cleaning is needed Monday when none is done
on Sunday.
SCHEDULE
Monday Pick-up day after Sunday. Brush Sunday clothes
and put away. Clean bath room and put clothes to soak
for washing.
Tuesday Washing and cleaning kitchen.
Wednesday Ironing, and arranging clothes to be mended.
Thursday Clean bed rooms and hall. Sew or mend.
Friday Clean sitting room, parlor and dining room. Bake
bread.
Saturday Clean kitchen, lamps. Cooking.
Most households consist of several departments. In
this there are two maids and a laundress once a week.
The duties of the housemaid are : Every day (if win-
ter), close ventilators, see that registers are open. Get
590
SYSTEMS OF WORK 189
dining room ready for breakfast, taking out to kitchen
dishes needing to be heated. If summer, open win-
dows, arrange living room. Serve breakfast. Clear
table, leaving dishes rinsed and prepared to be washed.
The bed rooms, which have been left ready, bed
clothes, airing and windows opened by occupants are
put in order. Breakfast dishes washed.
SCHEDULE
Monday Morning Two of the bedrooms are swept and
"thorough cleaned.''
Tuesday Morning This maid irons the table line, small pieces,
napkins, doileys from her own choice.
Wednesday Morning Bathroom and another bedroom
"thorough cleaned."
Thursday Silver cleaned.
Friday Drawing room.
Saturday Library and dining room and hall.
"Luncheon served at i, dinner at 6. Each girl has
every other evening. Each has an afternoon. We
have dinner on Sunday at i 130, after which both maids
have the rest of the day and evening, only on extraor-
dinary occasions being asked to return for any sup-
per. Then if possible, each is asked in turn. The
housemaid is responsible for keeping the china closets
in order and her kitchen (in other houses it would be
'butler's pantry.')
'The cook prepares three meals per day, breakfast
at 7:45, luncheon at i, dinner at 6. She is responsible
for the cleanliness and order of the kitchen, the ad-
joining pantry and ice closet, the back porch and
maid's water closet. She assists the laundress with
591
igo HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
the ironing. She arranges her own time for her clean-
ing, reserving Saturday for extra baking. The fur-
nace man cares for the furnaces, sifting also ashes
from range and cares for walks, shoveling snow in
winter, cutting grass in summer, also works by hour
at washing windows, beating rugs, etc."
VALUE OF THE INDIVIDUAL HOME
"The home is the center of all that is best in life.
It is the greatest moulder of character. All the quali-
ties of Christian manhood and womanhood, love, rev-
erence, unselfishness, forbearance, order, regard for
property and for the rights of others, should find their
beginnings here. The strength of civic and natural
life, respect for government, honest administration of
public trusts, depend in large degree upon the high
ideals of the home life. Family traditions are better
fostered. The home is the housewife's 'place of busi-
ness.'
"Whatever affects the home affects the state. The
moral standing of a nation depends upon the home life
of its individuals. We cannot get a true idea of the
sacredness of life without having some place, however
humble, where high standards of living govern the ac-
tions of its individuals. We have poems that stir the
emotions and quicken into activity the best interests
on the subject of 'Home,' but what poet ever attempted
to stir the hearts of a nation to heroic deeds by writ-
ing a poem on the 'Boarding House.' "
592
HOME CARE OF THE SICK.
TT IS the minority, not the majority of people, who
^ can afford the luxury of a trained nurse, especially
in cases of protracted and chronic illnesses.
These lessons are intended to help those who cannot
always command the services of a trained nurse, to
teach how to carry out the doctor's orders, what to
look for and observe in his absence, so that by giving
him a definite report of what the patient's condition
has been he may be able to work more understand-
ingly, be able to Diagnose the disease more quickly,
be surer of how the patient is progressing, and of the
influence the medicine ordered is having. And to
teach above all how to handle and move patients with-
out tiring them, how to render them comfortable, there-
by ensuring rest of nerve and body.
What to do in illness is purposely omitted in these
lessons, except in very simple troubles and in cases of
emergency. The "what to do" is for the doctor to de-
cide, the "how to do" for the mother to know. Incal-
culable harm is continually being done by the latter
encroaching on the doctor's, prerogative. Many a
mother has treated her child for supposed colic and
only called the doctor in after some days when the
pain has refused to yield to her treatment. In very
Aims of
the Lessons
The Doctor'
Province.
593
2 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
.many cases the treatment has been the worst thing
possible for, what has proved to be appendicitis, gastro-
enteritis, or other serious abdominal trouble.
what There are few who can afford to run up the doctor's
the Should bill by calling him in unnecessarily. To avoid this,
Know and yet not run the risk of endangering the lives of
those entrusted to her care, especially the little chil-
dren who cannot tell clearly where the pain is or how
badly they feel, it is imperative that every mother
should know how to count the pulse, take the tempera-
ture, and be cognizant of at least a few of the primary
symptoms of the most common diseases, especially the
contagious ones, where the lack of early recognition
and isolation may imperil the health or life of others.
The following table gives the primary symptoms,
period of incubation, and usual time required for iso-
lation of the most common contagious diseases. The
number of days between exposure to and the develop-
ment of a disease is called the period of incubation.
FIRST SYMPTOMS IN SOME OF THE MOST COMMON
DISEASES
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES
Mumps Days 14-21 Swelling of the From day when
average 18 glands between swelling first ap-
ear and jaw, on pears till 10 days
either side or after, usually 3
both. weeks.
594
FIRST SYMPTOMS OF DISEASES
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES (Continued)
DISEASE
Chicken-
pox
German
Measles
PERIOD OF
INCUBATION
Days 12-16
average 14
Days 6- 1 8
average 14
Measles
Days 9-16
average 12
Small-
pox
Days 9-16
average 16
SYMPTOMS
Slight fever, after
24 hours small
pimples appear
on back and
face.
Very slight fever,
rash (if any)
appears first on
face, may only
last a few hours.
There may be
headache and
nausea.
Sneezing, running
from eyes and
nose, face swol-
len, sore throat,
cough, f e V e r
gradually rising,
rash appears
first on face and
neck.
Chill, rapidly ris-
ing temperature,
intense head-
ache, pain in
back and legs,
rash, small, red,
hard pimples,
appearing first
on face and
wrists.
TIME OF
ISOLATION
From onset until
last crust has
fallen, usually 14
days.
From 2 days be-
fore rash till
symptoms are
gone. Some-
times 2 weeks.
From first ca-
tarrhal s y m p -
toms until des-
quamation ceas-
es, usually .24
days.
From onset until
last crust has
fallen, usually 6
weeks.
595
Children's
Diseases
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES (Continued)
DISEASE
PERIOD OF
INCUBATION
Scarlet- Days 1-7
fever average 7
TIME OF
ISOLATION
From appearance
of rash till des-
quamation has
entirely ceased ;
usually 6 weeks.
Diph-
theria
Days 1-6
average 6
From onset till
germs have en-
t i r e 1 y disap-
peared.
SYMPTOMS
Sudden vomiting,
sometimes phill
or convulsions,
high tempera-
ture, sore throat,
tongue coated on
edges, bright red
in center, gener-
al malaise, typ-
ical rash appear-
ing first on chest
and shoulders.
Especially in the
beginning of the
disease the tem-
perature is not
as high 'as in
tonsillitis ; head-
ache, nausea,
sore throat, with
white patches on
the tonsils.
As it is sometimes difficult even for the physician to dis-
tinguish between diphtheria and tonsillitis without taking a
culture for examination, when white patches appear on a
child's throat it should be isolated and a doctor called in
at once.
DISEASES NOT CONTAGIOUS
Colic. Give castor oil, then a few drops of pepper-
mint in hot water (never soothing syrup) ; keep the
baby warm and lying on his abdomen. Gentle rubbing
in a circular direction, and the application of hot flan-
nels will generally .relieve it. If not, a physician
596
FIRST SYMPTOMS OF DISEASES 5
should be notified as continued abdominal pain is a
symptom of many serious disorders.
Cholera Infantum.' Caused by over or improper
feeding, heat and impure air. Symptoms : Diarrhoea
and intestinal pain, excessive thirst, but no appetite.
Try no home remedies, seek medical aid at once.
Intestinal Obstruction. Symptoms : Obstinate con-
stipation, followed by vomiting and abdominal disten-
tion ; usually not much temperature. Get medical ad-
vice promptly, as immediate operation may be im-
perative.
Convulsions. Caused by indigestion, worms, difficult
dentition, or fright. Muscular twitchings coming on
suddenly, sometimes even during sleep. Send for the
doctor immediately, but do not await his arrival to put
the baby in a hot bath. Give castor oil and an enema,
according to directions given on page 55, using, if
the child is small, a rubber catheter for a rectal tube.
Pneumonia. Primary symptoms : Chill followed
by high temperature, cough, pain in chest, expectora-
tion which gradually becomes rust colored and bloody.
Put patient to bed and send for the doctor imme-
diately.
Typhoid Fever. Primary symptoms : Temperature
rising a little higher each day, nausea, headache, pain
in back and limbs, nose bleed, sometimes constipation,
sometimes diarrhoea, watery, yellow stools, abdominal
pain. Put patient to bed and only allow liquid diet
until the doctor comes.
597
6 HOME CARE OF THE' SICK
Meningitis. May develop suddenly with continuous
convulsions, or come on gradually with symptoms of
fretfulness, restlessness, headache, vomiting, and in-
tolerance of light and noise. Put patient to bed in a
quiet, dark, well-aired room and only allow liquid
diet till the doctor comes.
Croup. There are two forms of croup the true or
membranous and the false or spasmodic. The former
is always associated with diphtheria, but since the use
of antitoxine it has become a much rarer complication,
seldom occurring when antitoxine is used. It comes
on gradually.
False Croup False croup comes on suddenly, generally in the
middle of the night ; it is as a rule the result of ex-
posure to damp and cold, excitement, or indigestion.
The spasm is the result of the spasmodic closing of
the glottis. Though not dangerous, it is very distress-
ing and calls for immediate treatment. Relief usually
can be obtained best by applying hot fomentations to
the throat, inducing vomiting by giving a drink of
tepid water and salt a teaspoonful to the glass and
by steam inhalations.
The most effective way of giving inhalations is with
the croup kettle and canopy. The quickest way to im-
provise these is to tie an umbrella to the top of the
child's crib and over this drape two sheets, pinning
them to the sides of the bed. They must overlap
about one inch and hang down far enough, over the
sides and back of the bed to be tucked under the mat-
598
DISEASES 7
tress. The lower third of the front space is left open
for the admission of fresh air. Water is kept boiling
in a kettle at the back of the bed by a gas or oil stove
Canopy for Giving Steam Inhalations Made with a Sheet
and Umbrella
and a cone of cardboard or stiff paper is attached to
the spout and inserted between the overhanging sheets
to carry the steam over the child's head.
599
8
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Minor
Troubles
In nearly all cases of slight indisposition, even
diarrhoea, a cathartic such as castor oil or calomel, fol-
lowed by salts such as Rochelle salts, magnesium sul-
Rear View of Croup Canopy Showing Stove, Kettle, and Tube
for Steam
phate, or seidlitz powder, five or six hours later, to-
gether with rest and fluid or soft diet is indicated.
Give as little medicine as possible without a doctor's
order.
600
THE CHOICE, FURNISHING AND CARE OF THE SICK>
ROOM
Sunshine, pure fresh air, and freedom from noise
and odors are the principal things to be considered in
choosing the sick-room. When possible it is advisa-
ble to have a room with a southern exposure. If there
is a fireplace or grate in the room so much the better,
? 3 a chimney is an excellent medium for ventilation.
Despite the fact that the sick-room at the top .of
the house gives many stairs to climb, it is better to
have it there. It is further removed from the noises
of the street and house and the air is generally purer.
Only necessary articles of furniture should be re- Furnishings
tained ; all heavy hangings, draperies, and upholstered
furniture must be removed. Care must be taken, how-
ever, that the room is not made too bare and unat- ,
tractive. Short, washable curtains ; clean, white linen
covers for the tables ; a few f/esh flowers will help
to make the sick-room bright and cheerful. Flowers
should be removed at night, the water they are in
changed daily, and they should never be tolerated after
they begin to fade.
The ideal bed is iron or brass ; single or three- The Bed
quarter width. The double bed is unadvisable, for
owing to its width, the mattress is apt to sink in the
middle and it is then almost impossible to keep the
under sheets drawn tightly enough to prevent wrinkles.
The bed should be at least twenty-five inches in
601
10
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
The
Mattress
Lighting
height, but if it is not, can easily be made so by plac-
ing heavy blocks of wood under each leg. Hollows
about two inches in depth should be made in the
blocks to fit the ends of the legs. Especially if the
patient is liable to be ill long, the trouble of doing this
is well repaid by the added convenience in lifting and
working over the patient.
A hair mattress is by far the best kind to have ; the
feather one the worst. Not only is the latter too heat-
ing, but when occupied it is almost impossible to make
the bed properly.
The bed should be placed far enough from the walls
to give access on all sides, care being taken to avoid
having the light in the patient's eyes.
The best plan is to have the window behind the
bed ; then more sun and light can be admitted without
disturbing the patient. Except in certain cases, it is
a mistake to keep the s^ick-room darkened.
Besides the bed, there should be two or three chairs
in- the room ; one a comfortable arm chair with high
back. If upholstered, it should be encased in a pretty,
light, washable cover. Rocking chairs should never
be permitted in the sick-room ; when sitting in them
one is almost sure to rock, and the motion is very
apt to irritate the patient.
Two tables are necessary ; on one should be kept
writing material, where the doctor can write his orders
and the nurse keep the recorj of the patient's condi-
602
THE SICK ROOM n
tion. The second table can be near the bedside to hold
the patient's bell; also her food-tray; the latter must
always be removed as soon as the meal is finished.
Never leave empty or half empty glasses of milk, cups
of broth, etc., standing by the patient.
There is a bedside table made on purpose for use Bedside
in the sick-room which is very convenient. The top Table
extends over the bed in front of the patient; it is ad-
justable and has a foot piece which goes under the
bed and keeps the table from upsetting. (See page 30.)
Medicine bottles and all necessary utensils should
be kept in an adjoining room, if possible.
The floor should be swept with a soft broom cov-
ered with cheese cloth, or other soft material which
is free from lint. Carpets are very objectionable;
small rugs which can be removed and shaken daily,
being preferable. If the carpet must remain, see that
it is kept well dusted, and that no dust is raised while
doing so. The best way to do this to to sweep with
a damp broom, going over it afterwards with a damp
cloth pinned over the broom. Do not have this too wet
or it will injure the carpet.
When it is necessary for the nurse to sleep in the
room, the cot is the most convenient arrangement, as
it is comfortable, inexpensive and can be easily re-
moved in the day time.
Never use a feather duster but clean, soft dust cloths Dusting
which may be washed out every day. Except for the
603
12
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Ventilation
Airing
varnished furniture, it is better to have the duster
slightly damp, as this will prevent scattering of the
dust.
The air in the sick-room must be as pure as the air
outside. The value of fresh air as an aid to recovery
is sadly underrated. The open fireplace is one of the
best methods of ventilation. A current of air can be
created in summer by placing a lamp or a candle in
the chimney place, and in winter a wood or a coal fire.
Next to a fireplace, an open stove gives the best means
of ventilation.
Window ventilation is best obtained by double win-
dows with double sashes. -The lower sash of the outer
window is raised about two feet; the upper sash of
the inner window lowered about the same distance.
The passage of air being thus directed upward, a di-
rect draught upon the patient will not be produced, if
windows and doors on the opposite side of the room
are kept closed. Where there are single windows, the
same effect can be obtained by tacking the lower end
of a piece of cotton, about twelve inches in depth, to
the frame of the upper sash and to the top of the win-
dow frame; then lower the sash about ten inches.
When less air is desired the lower sash can be raised
and a board fitted to the opening; the air then passes
upward between the sashes.
In addition to this slight continuous ventilation, the
window must be opened and the entire air of the sick-
room changed at least twice a day. In doing this, be
604
CARE OF THE PATIENT 13
careful that there is no draught and that the patient
has extra blankets. If there is no screen at hand, a
large umbrella will prove quite effective in protecting
the patient's head from the direct current of air. If
it is necessary to warm the air before it enters the
patient's room, the window in an adjoining, well-heat-
ed room may be opened, the door between the rooms
being left slightly ajar. The corridor or bath room
(especially the bath room) should not be used for
this purpose.
Hard coal should be used if the room is heated by
a stove on account of its freedom from dust.
In removing the ashes, they should be sprinkled with
water first to prevent flying, then quietly shoveled up.
The coal can be added in paper bags filled outside,
thus avoiding all noise likely to disturb the patient.
The temperature of the sick-room should be 68 de-
grees F at night and 70 degrees F during the day.
CARE OF THE PATIENT
A few essential points to be remembered in caring
for the sick may be stated briefly.
To properly care for a patient those undertaking the
responsibility of the nursing must take proper care of
themselves. Rest, recreation, and out of door exer-
cise are positive necessities.
If the same member of the family has both day and
night nursing to do she should always dress herself
as comfortably as possible for the night. A cold bath
Fuel
and
Ashes
Care of
the Nurse
605
I 4 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
in the morning, with complete change of clothing, will
be found very refreshing.
Dresses of. light wash material should always be
worn when attending the sick, 'but dresses and skirts
must never be stiffly starched, as the rustling noise
they make is very annoying to patients. Squeaking
shoes are another abomination.
'Nevers" Never whisper in or near the sick-room.
Never discuss the patient's condition with her, or
with anyone else in her hearing.
Never tell the patient what her temperature, pulse,
etc., are, not even when they are normal.
Never tell the patient what medication you are giv-
ing her.
Never lean nor sit on the patient's bed, and be care-
ful not to knock against it in passing.
When speaking to a patient always stand in front
of her, where she can see you ; be particularly careful
not to speak to her suddenly from behind, for when
people are ill and nervous they are easily startled.
Keep door and window hinges well oiled ; nothing is
more aggravating than a squeaking door.
When windows rattle, wedge them apart between the
sashes with pieces of wood or newspaper.
At Night Especially at night, or, rather, when getting ready
for the night, attention must be paid to anything likely
to prove a disturbing element to the patient's rest.
Before the patient goes to sleep see that you have
everything at hand that you are likely to need for the
When
Speaking
606
CARE OF THE PATIENT 15
night : Extra blankets a shade for the light, if neces-
sary coal prepared in paper bags, as previously de-
scribed milk water all the medicines you will re-
onire ice, etc. Wrapping the ice in flannel or news-
paper will keep it from melting. A hat pin makes an
excellent and noiseless ice-pick. A large tin pan, en-
veloped in a blanket, will make a serviceable refriger-
ator in which to keep your ice, broth, milk and water.
A shade for the lamp or gas can be easily made out
of green or other dark colored cambric, but be sure
that the globe over which it is pinned is far enough
from the flame to avoid scorching the cambric.
An uncomfortable bed is a great addition to the mis- Bed
eries of an invalid, therefore, one of the first essentials Makm &
to be learned is how to make a bed.
The mattress is covered by a sheet, stretched tightly
and tucked firmly as far under it as possible-; folding
the corners like an envelope helps to keep it firm.
Another sheet called the "draw sheet" is also used The
under the patient ; this is put on with the length across Draw sheet
the bed, thus allowing a considerable fold under the
mattress, thereby securing a further means of keep-
ing the sheet tight. When putting the draw sheet on
care must be taken to have it perfectly straight; it is
first tucked in on one side, well under the mattress.
In tucking in the second side it is best to begin in the
middle, going first towards the bottom, then from
the middle to the top, pulling it very tightly. The top
sheet and blankets (single blankets are preferable to
607
16 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
double) should be put on separately, the corners being
folded in, in the same manner as the under sheet. If
it is not convenient to obtain a spread of dimity, or
other light material, it is better to use a sheet, as the
ordinary spread is heavy and gives comparatively lit-
tle warmth.
Protecting When it is necessary to protect the mattress a rub-
the Mattress
ber sheet is placed between the lower and draw sheets.
White double faced rubber is the nicest for home use.
The single faced rubber will answer the purpose and
is cheaper, but it is not so easily kept clean. Either
can be obtained at any rubber store.
When impossible to get the regular rubber sheet-
ing thin oil cloth, such as is used for covering tables,
will serve. In cases of emergency, several thicknesses
of newspapers may be used until something better can
be obtained.
CHANGING THE BED OF A HELPLESS PATIENT
Before starting to change the bedding be sure that
you have everything necessary near at hand, and that
the bed clothes are all well aired, perfectly dry and
warm.
First take off the spread, fold it neatly; next take
off the top blanket, and hang it out to air. Fold the
other blanket and upper sheet over the patient, leav-
ing the ends just long enough to cover her when you
turn her over. This method answers a threefold pur-
pose: (i) it has a neat appearance; (2) it replaces the
608
CHANGING THE DRAW SHEET
i8 ' HOME CARE OF THE SICK
discarded blanket, and (3) the clothes are not in the
way while you work. Loosen the lower sheets by rais-
ing the mattress with one hand while drawing out the
sheets with the other. Raising the mattress is impor-
tant, because the draw sheet has been tucked so far
under the mattress that otherwise you risk not only
jolting the patient but also tearing the sheets. Re-
move the pillows and if the patient does not object
to lying flat for a while leave them out; if she does,
one can be replaced. It is necessary to take them out
to turn them and to make sure that there are no crumbs
caught between them or in the pillow cases.
The night gown is the next thing changed. Have
the patient lie on her back and flex her knees ; if she
is well enough .she can easily raise herself while in this
position; if not, place one hand under the buttocks
and raise her, as you draw the gown up with the other
hand, then raise the shoulders in like manner, drawing
the gown up over them and -the head before taking
out the arms.
In putting on the clean gown roll the skirt up, and
put the patient's head through the hole. Putting your
hand through one sleeve grasp the patient's hand and
draw it through ; then do likewise with the other sleeve.
The gown is then pulled down in the same manner as
the soiled one was taken off.
The easiest way to change the under sheets is first
to turn the patient on her side.
To do this, stand on the side towards which you will
610
CHANGING THE BED ^ 19
turn her, slip one hand over and under her, with your
arm slightly crooked, so that the hand and forearm
will support and control one shoulder, the elbow sup-
port the back of the head, and the arm the other shoul-
der. Slip your other arm under the patient slantwise
across the buttocks, so that the hand is under the
small of the back. In this way the patient is well sup-
ported as you gently turn her towards you. If there
is an assistant, one can hold her thus while the other
manipulates the sheets; if not, and the patient needs
to be supported, a pillow placed well up against her
back will answer the purpose.
The sheets to be changed are folded close to the
back of .the patient, making the fold as flat as pos-
sible. The clean sheet is either folded fan shape or
rolled to its centre, the roll or fold, as the case may
be, is placed close to the sheet being removed, the
loose edge is tucked in, as far under the mattress
as possible, the patient is then rolled gently over on
to the clean sheet, the soiled one removed, and the clean
sheet well stretched, and tucked in according to the
directions given in the making of the bed.
The top sheet is next changed. Placing the clean
sheet over the sheet and blanket which are still over
the patient; on top of this put the blanket which has
been airing, draw the other blanket and sheet from
underneath, then tuck in the clean ones, put on the
second blanket, if one is necessary, then the spread,
and arrange the pillows.
Turning
the
Patient
611
20 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
The draw sheet, upper sheet, and night gown should
be changed twice a day when the patient is not too
ill ; if they are not soiled when removed, air them
well, after which' they may.be used again.
When the patient is not allowed to be bathed, her
back should be washed with soap and warm water,,
rubbed with alcohol and powdered with talcum pow-
der. This should be done while she is turned on her
side for the changing of the sheet. When the night
gown is closed in the back it is sometimes more con-
. venient not to put the clean gown on until the pa-
tient's back has been washed. In such circumstances
wrap a small shawl around the patient.
Special When for any reason it is inadvisable to move the
patient, and it is necessary for her to lie on her back,
it is convenient to have short gowns, open in the
back, buttoned at the back of the neck and shoulders.
The skirts can be drawn from under the patient, enab-
ling her to lie on the sheet, which it is comparatively
easy to keep free from wrinkles. Another important
advantage of the short gown is the ease with which it
can be changed. Large collars or ruffles at the neck
of the gown are very objectionable in illness.
When changing the gown of a patient whose arm is
disabled, the sleeve should be taken from the affected
arm last, and the sleeve of the fresh gown put on first.
LIFTING AND HANDLING THE PATIENT
When lifting a patient it is important to stand
firmly ; to do this the feet should be placed well apart.
612
LIFTING THE PATIENT 21
bracing one foot against the leg of the bed. Try to
bend the back as little as possible, make the knees
do the bending. In lifting, endeavor to have the
weight come on your shoulders, not on your back. For
example, when a patient is to be helped into a sitting
position, bend your knees till your shoulder is only
A BACK REST, CANVAS COVERED.
slightly higher than the patient's, then have her put her
arm across your shoulders, have your shoulder di-
rectly under her armpit, your elbow supporting her
head, your hand under her other armpit your other
hand is thus free to arrange the pillows. Now raise
the patient. By using this method your shoulder
bears the burden, whereas if you attempt to raise the
patient by bending your back, or if you have the pa-
tient's arm around your neck, the entire weight must
S13
22 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
be sustained by your back, which will soon become
strained.
A back rest should always be provided when the
patient sits up in bed for the first time. Many varieties
of these are to be had, and they are inexpensive ; some
are made entirely of wood, others have a wooden
framework with canvas stretched across it. A good
substitute for the back rest is a straight back chair
turned upside down. The pillows should be placed
across the rest in such a way that the head will not
be thrown forward and that the small of the back will
be well supported.
When the patient is obliged to sit up all, or nearly
all the time, something should be provided for her
to brace her feet against. A convenient arrangement
for this purpose is a board the same length as the
width of the bed and about twelve inches wide, placed
between double folds of strong muslin which must be
long enough to tie around the head of the bed when
the board is supporting the patient's feet. The board
may be padded on one side if desired.
When a patient has slipped down in bed and needs
to be drawn up, place one arm under the shoulders
in the usual crooked position so that your elbow may
support her head, and^ taking a firm grip under the up-
per part of her arm, put your other arm under the
thighs, and move the patient gently upwards. If well
enough the patient can flex her knees and help in the
movement.
614
HANDLING THE PATIENT 23
If a patient is so heavy that two persons are re-
quired to move her, they should stand on opposite sides
of the bed and reaching across the patient's back firmly
grasp her under the armpits, their crossed arms thus
forming a V-shaped rest for her head while they clasp
each other's hands under her thighs.
When the patient is well enough to help herself, put-
ting a stout, broad piece of muslin round the foot of
the bed with the ends long enough to be grasped, will
help her to assume a sitting position ; one round the top
of the bed will help her to pull herself up higher in
bed.
If necessary to change your charge from one bed
to another, place the beds about five feet apart, parallel
with each other, with the head of one on a line with
the foot of the other. Unless the patient is very light
there should be two to lift, both standing on the same
side (between the beds). One puts her arms under
the shoulders and buttocks, the other under the back
and thighs. If possible have the patient hold herself
stiff. Lift her gently in unison, turn round and place
her on the fresh bed.
If the patient is heavy three may be required to do
this well. Under these circumstances the first lifter
supports the head and small of the back, the second
the shoulders and thighs, the third the buttocks and
under the knees.
When the lighting of the room or other considera-
tions render it unadvisable to change the position of
Changing
the Patient
615
CHANGING THE MATTRESS 25
the head of the bed, they are placed near together with
the heads on a line. The patient is lifted from the far
side of the first bed, carried around between the two,
and laid , down in the second bed. This entails a
longer carry, but if all work in unison it is not dif-
ficult.
TO CHANGE THE MATTRESS WITH THE
PATIENT IN BED
To the uninitiated this seems an almost impossible
feat. In reality, if done according to rule, it is not
much harder than changing the under sheets. If the
patient is heavy four people will be required to ac-
complish this deftly, two on either side of the bed.
The sheets are loosened on all sides; the top sheets
and the blankets treated in the same manner as when
the bed clothes were changed ; the under sheets are
rolled tightly up to the patient's side (the roll being
undermost). Using these rolls for support, the patient
is moved to one side of the mattress ; this side is then
pulled to the centre of the bed, curving the mattress
upwards ; the fresh mattress is placed alongside, the
patient lifted by the bed-clothes on to it, the dis-
carded mattress removed, the fresh one drawn into
place, and the patient lifted to the centre; the sheets
are again unrolled and tucked in place.
THE PREVENTION AND CURE OF BED SORES
A bed sore is gangrene, or death of the tissue of
the affected parts. The bony prominences such as the
lower part of the spine, the shoulder blades, elbows,
617
BED SORES
27
and heels are the parts most likely to be affected.
Moisture, wrinkles, crumbs, and a too long continu-
ance in one position are the pre-disposing causes,
therefore these conditions must all be guarded against.
The presence o moisture is generally due to per-
spiration, or discharge from wound, bowels or blad-
der. When the two latter are the causes pads made
of oakum or jute placed in cheese-cloth or old muslin,
put on the patient like a child's diaper, will save the
bed linen. These must be changed as often as neces-
sary, and the patient well washed with warm water
and soap ; dusting with a little talcum, starch, or rice
powder will help to keep the skin dry and soft and it
will also prevent chapping. Crumbs and wrinkles
must also be guarded against. By keeping the draw
sheet tightly drawn and tucked far under the mattress
the latter will be overcome ; the former must be looked
for after every meal ; brushing them out with the hand
is the most efficient way, but a small whisk-broom may
be used.
At least twice a day all parts likely to be affected,
especially the back, should be washed with warm water
and soap, rubbed with 50 per cent alcohol, and dusted
with talcum. This not only helps to prevent bed-
sores but is unspeakably refreshing to the weary in-
valid. Avoid using too much powder or it will cake
and do more harm than good.
A preparation of equal parts collodion and castor
oil painted over the surface will often prevent a break-
down of the tissue, by forming an artificial skin.
Avoid
Moisture
Artificial
Skin
619
28
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Relieving
Pressure
Care of
a Sore
Frequent change of position is another important
means in the prevention of bed-sores. Prop the pa-
tient over on her side by putting a couple of pillows
lengthwise behind her, one under her shoulders, the
other under the lower part of her t>ack. Rings made
of batting or sheet wadding wound with bandages are
excellent mediums for relieving pressure. They should
be made with the hole just
large enough to permit of
the bony prominence fitting
into it. When the patient
has to lie for some time on
her back, often consider-
able relief is given by flex-
ing the knees. They can be
supported either by a pillow
doubled and tied to hold it
so (the pointed side placed
next the body), or a cylin-
drical pillow made like the old-fashio-ned bolster, only
smaller and stuffed with hair. Small pillows or hot
water bags rilled with cool water, placed under the
small of the back, will help to make a long continu-
ance of the dorsal position bearable.
All pillows should be shaken and turned frequently.
If the skin should become broken, the resulting sore
should be washed daily with bichloride of mercury
1-2000, and a dressing applied. Gauze soaked in
balsam of Peru or an ointment made of castor oil and
zinc oxide powder are generally found efficacious.
Wadding Ring,
to Relieve Pressure
620
CONVALESCENCE
The most anxious moments in nursing are certainly
when the disease is at its height, but by far the most
trying are, as a rule, during the time of convalescence.
It is then that the greatest exercise of tact, discern-
ment, self-control and patience on the part of the at-
tendant are necessary.
Relapse, except in the
germ diseases, is nearly al-
ways due to over- feeding,
over-exertion, or nervous
excitement.
The diet is a very impor-
tant factor in the treatment
of convalescents. Carry out
the doctor's orders minute-
ly regarding it. Have, so
far as you can, things that Rubber Alr CusWon
you know the patient likes. If she expresses a prefer-
ence for a certain dish have it if allowable, but as a
rule it is not wise to consult her on the subject.
Always serve your patient's meals as daintily as pos- serving
sible ; have the tray covered with a spotless table nap- of Meals
kin or tray cover; use the prettiest china available;
even one bright flower with a little green is a great
attraction. But above all see that the food is properly
cooked and properly served ; that all hot things are
very hot, and cold ones really cold. ' More salt and
less sugar will generally be wanted than when in
29
621
30 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
health. Highly seasoned food is not advisable or often
desired even by those who like it when well.
It is better to set before the invalid too little than
too much, for it is easy to get more, and the sight of
too much food on the tray is apt to imbue anyone
A Bedside Table Convenient for Serving Meals
whose appetite is poor with a dislike for it. Besides,
as the digestive functions are weakened during and
after illness, it is better for a time to serve food in
smaller quantities and oftener; for instance, give an
egg nog, milk punch, egg lemonade, egg albumen, or
other light, easily digested drink between breakfast
622
CONVALESCENCE 31
and the noonday meal, and again at three or four
o'clock in the afternoon. A glass of hot milk given at
bed-time will often induce sleep.
Keeping the patient amused is another important
item in the care of the convalescent. A few visitors
(provided they do not stay too long, talk too much,
or give any worrying or disagreeable news) will of-
ten help to brighten up the patient. Playing cards or
games, reading aloud to her, etc., will help to pass
away the time and tire her less than talking.
When people have been ill for some time the muscles
of the eyes are apt to be weak and will be easily
strained, so they ought not to be allowed to read much
themselves, especially while they are in the recum-
bent position.
Those who are strong and well little realize the ex-
ertion and excitement caused by the first sitting up,
after being confined to the bed for some time.
The period is usually limited to half an hour the
first day, gradually increasing the time as the patient
can stand it. Do not wait for her to complain of
fatigue; on showing the first signs of it she should
be put -to bed. Of course there are patients who think
themselves a great deal worse than they really are,
and who have to be encouraged to sit up' longer than
they think they can. At such times the pulse is a
good guide.
Do not really dress the patient until she is well
enough to walk around. Warm stockings, bed slip-
Amusing
the Patient
Sitting Up
for the
First Time
623
32 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
pers, a warm wrapper and blankets are all that are
necessary.
Lifting If the patient has been seriously ill she should not
a ciair be allowed to stand or exert herself in the least when
sitting up the first few times. If not too heavy she
can be lifted by one person. The arms of the patient
are locked about the neck of the attendant, who, plac-
ing one arm under the thigh, the other under the back,
lifts the patient into the chair, the back of which is
parallel w'ith the foot of the bed.
When two people are required to do the lifting they
should stand at the same side of the bed, placing the
hands, one under the shoulders and buttocks, the
other under the thighs and ankles, and lifting in uni-
son, turn and seat the patient gently in the chair. The
chair should be made comfortable with pillows, and
the patient kept warm with blankets. When possible
the chair, should be carried carefully into an adjoining,
well-aired room. The sick-room and bed should be
well aired and made ready immediately for the patient's
return, as it may be necessary for her to be put back
to bed sooner than expected.
CARE OF THE HAIR, MOUTH, TEETH
While caring for the hair protect the pillow-case
with a towel. When the hair is tangled always hold
it between the tangle and the head to avoid pulling it.
Rubbing a little vaseline into the scalp will help to
get the snarls out more easily. To avoid tangles the
624
CARE OF THE HAIR, MOUTH, TEETH
33
hair should be brushed twice daily and braided in two
plaits.
If the scalp is kept clean by rubbing it occasionally
with a little alcohol and water (equal parts) the hair
always well brushed, and rubbed once in a while be-
tween a damp wash-rag, it may not be necessary to
wash it for quite a while.
When it must be washed, protect the pillow and
upper part of the bed with a rubber sheet covered
with a bath towel. Pull the pillows down under the
back so that the head extends somewhat beyond them
and over a basin of water. Have a slop jar at hand
in which to empty the water, and plenty of warm
water to wash the soap out thoroughly. Support the
head with one hand while you wash it. Dry the hair
well after washing. A little alcohol or hair tonic con-
taining it, well rubbed into the scalp, will lessen the
chance of the patient taking cold.
When the patient is unable to brush her own teeth
it is often easier to do it for her with clean gauze
wrapped around the index finger or the end of a piece
of whalebone, than with a tooth-brush. In illness
sordes (tartar) is apt to collect between the teeth un-
less they are very frequently and carefully cleansed.
Clean not only the teeth but also the gums, the roof
of the mouth and the tongue. Whalebone and gauze
are far better for this purpose than the brush. When
a patient is on milk diet her tongue and mouth should
be cleansed after each feeding.
Washing
the Hair
Care
of the
Teeth
Care
of the
Mouth
625
34 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Some good mouth washes arc :
(1) Equal parts of listerine, boric acid 4 per cent,
lemon juice and water.
(2) Listerine, one ounce; peroxide of hydrogen,
three drachms ; alboline, one drachm.
(3) Tincture of myrrh, half a drachm; soda bi-
carbonate, grains twenty ; aboline, one drachm.
(4) Listerine and water, equal parts.
BATHS AND BATHING
Perhaps there is nothing that will give greater re-
freshment to the invalid, obliged to lie in bed day
'after day, than a bath. Unless contrary to the physi-
cian's orders, one should be given every day. If given
in a warm room, without exposure, there is absolutely
no danger of the patient taking cold. To make mat-
ters doubly sure, before taking out of the bath blank-
ets, rub the patient all over with 50 per cent alcohol.
The Never give a bath until an hour after a meal. Be-
f re beginning see that the room is not only warm but
free from draughts, also that you have everything
needed at hand. It is best to have the water in a foot
tub ; it will keep warm longer than in a shallow basin.
Have a pitcher of hot water to keep the bath the re-
quired temperature.
A large blanket, face and bath towels, wash cloths,
alcohol and powder are the other necessary articles.
Slip the blanket under the patient. If it is not wide
enough to come well round her and also for the ends
626
BATHS AND BATHING 35
to overlap, use two. The blanket may be covered by
a sheet if necessary but the wool next the body is de-
sirable.
Take off the night-gown and fold down the upper
bed clothes the face and neck are washed first and
well dried, then the arms and hands. Be particular
about drying between the fingers, also around and in-
side the ears. Especially while washing the face have
a firm touch. Expose only one portion of the body
at a time, and that not longer than necessary. Dry
each part well before going on to the next; in order
not to fatigue the patient, work as quickly as possible.
It should be necessary to turn her only once. The
towels should be warmed by wrapping them around a
hot water bottle. It is well to give hot broth or milk
soon after the bath.
To give a foot bath, loosen the bed clothes at the
bottom, protect the bed with a blanket, put the foot Foot Bath
tub, half full of water lengthwise on the bed, flex
the patient's knees, raise her feet with one hand while
you draw the tub under them with the other; wrap
a blanket round tub and knees.
When mustard is desired, make a paste of the
mustard about two tablespoonsful to a large foot
tub. The feet remain in about twenty minutes, the
bath being kept at the same temperature by the addi-
tion of hot water from time to time. Be careful in
adding the hot water not to pour it in near the feet.
627
"Brand"
Treatment
36 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
When the bath is over wrap the feet in the blanket for
a few minutes, then dry.
To give a bath for the reduction of temperature a
large rubber (covered with a sheet) is necessary to
protect the bed, as a considerable amount of water must
be used.
There are several different kinds of bed baths given
for this purpose. Sometimes the patient is simply
sponged off with cold water, at others a hot sponge
comes first, followed by the cold which often consists
of equal parts of alcohol and water, made colder at
times by the addition of ice. The doctor always orders
the temperature of the bath, and also the duration,
which is generally from ten to twenty minutes.
In giving these baths, use slow, long, curving, down-
ward strokes, and plenty of water. Where there is a
high temperature there is no danger of catching cold,
and as eradiation of heat is the effect sought, the pa-
tient should be exposed as much as possible. It is
often desirable, when the sponging is over, to rub the
patient with alcohol, and fan till dry.
When possible, the "Brand" treatment is used for
the reduction of temperature (especially in typhoid).
For this, a portable tub, which can be wheeled to the
bedside, is required. It would not be safe to give such
a bath without the assistance of a doctor or trained
nurse ; it is, therefore, not worth while going into de-
tails, and, except in cases of long continued fever,
the be4 bath is generally all that is necessary.
628
6 ATMS AND BATHING 37
When given a hot bath in a tub, fill the tub three-
fourths full of water; the exact temperature will be
ordered by the doctor, usually it is from 106 degrees
F to no degrees F. The doctor also states how long
he wishes the patient to remain in the bath. When
giving a hot bath of any kind, for any purpose, al-
ways apply cold cloths or an ice cap to the head. A
hot drink given either while the patient is in the tub
Hot Baths
to Induce
Perspiration,
or Quiet
the Nerves
BATH THERMOMETER
or after the return to bed will further induce perspira-
tion. Mustard is sometimes added to these baths, just
as it is to the foot bath.
While in the tub the patient's pulse must be noted
carefully, as such baths are sometimes very depressing
to the heart. After the bath the patient must go to
bed immediately, and remain there well covered, and
care must be taken to have warm clothing going from
the bath to the bed. These baths are also given to
children in convulsions.
The hot-pack, or sweat, is generally considered a bet-
ter medium for inducing perspiration. To give this
protect the bed with a rubber sheet or oil cloth, wring
out two old blankets in water 130 degrees F, put one
under the patient and around one arm and leg, the
Precautions
The Hot-pack
or Sweat
629
38 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
other over the patient, and around the other arm and
GIVING A HOT-PACK
leg; put an ice cap or cold compress on the head, a
hot water bag at the feet, another over the heart,
HOT-PACK COMPLETED
others along the side, over all wrap a couple of dry
blankets ; give a hot drink. The patient generally re-
630
BATHS AND BATHING
39
mains in the pack from twenty minutes to half an hour.
The pulse should be taken every -five minutes, and as
HOT WATER BOTTLES
the hands are under the blankets it must be taken at
the temporal artery.
HOT WATER BOTTLE FOR THE SPINE
After being taken out of the pack the patient should
be rolled in a dry blanket and remain so for an hour.
631
40 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Except where a light weight is desirable, as over
the heart and abdomen, a good substitute for the rub-
ber hot water bag is a stone bottle ; even a glass one can
be used, and if a wire a couple of inches longer than
the bottle is put into it
to act as a heat con-
ductor, it can be filled
with quite hot water
without breaking. When
using hot water bags or
bottles of any kind, pre-
cautions must be taken
Water Bottle for the Throat to avo id burning the
patient, which is very easily done, especially with old
people, or where from any cause, the circulation of the
blood is sluggish or the tissues in poor condition;
therefore, see that the bottles are tightly corked, that
they are well and securely covered (flannel bags slight-
ly larger than the bottles make the best covering) ;
never put them too near the patient, and remember that
when the patient is restless the bags are apt to slip
nearer than you intended them to be.
Salt baths are given for their tonic effects. A bath
sufficiently strong to redden the skin and have an ex-
hilarating effect will require ten pounds of ordinary
sea salt to a bath tub about half full of water.
The average standard temperature for baths is as
follows :
632
SICK ROOM METHODS 41
Cold 33-65 Fahr. Tepid.85- 92 Fahr.
Cool 67-75 Fahr. Warm92- 98 Fahr.
Temperate. 75-85 Fahr. Hot. .98-ii2 Fahr.
The regular bath thermometer is encased in wood
to protect it from hard usage, but the ordinary atmo-
spheric thermometer will answer the purpose just as
well. Mix the water well before taking the temper-
ature.
SICK BOOM METHODS
Taking and Recording Temperature, Pulse and Respiration
Observation and Recording of Symptoms
The heat of the blood is ascertained by means of the clinical
clinical thermometer. These thermometers are self Thermometer
registering and vary in delicacy, the finest ones regis-
tering in one minute, others in from three to five min-
utes. The more expensive ones magnify the scale,
and are therefore easier for the novice to read. Hick's
thermometer is probably the best.
The temperature is taken either in the mouth, rec-
tum or armpit. Before using the thermometer the
mercury must be shaken down to 95. Be careful not
to shake it into the bulb, or the thermometer will be
rendered useless and also be careful not to hit it
against anything, as it will break very easily. While
in constant use it is best kept in a glass containing a
little boric acid or listerine, with some soft cotton in
the bottom of the glass.
633
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Temperature
by Mouth
When taking the temperature by mouth be sure
that the patient has not had anything to eat or drink
recently. Place the end of the instrument
containing the mercury under the tongue,
on either side. See that the lips are tightly
closed all the time the thermometer is in the
mouth, and do not leave it in place longer
than necessary.
Never take the temperature of a de-
lirious patient nor a child by the mouth ;
they are likely to bite off the bulb and
swallow the mercury. If this accident
should occur give white of egg immediately
and notify the physician. In such cases it
is always safer to take the temperature by
rectum and it is also expedient to take a
rectal temperature when the patient is very
ill, for this is the most accurate method.
Before inserting the thermometer, the
bulb should be oiled and precautions taken
to have the rectum free from faeces. Five
minutes should be allowed for registration.
The temperature will be one degree higher
than when taken by mouth.
The axillary temperature will be from
three-tenths to half a degree lower than the mouth.
The armpit must be wiped thoroughly before taking ;
the thermometer is then placed in the hollow, and kept
in place by holding the arm close to the side and flex-
Clinical
Thermometer
634
SICK ROOM METHODS
43
ing the elbow so that the hand rests on the opposite
shoulder. It will take ten minutes for the thermometer
to register.
The normal temperature of the human body is from
98 F. to 99 F. The temperature is apt to be high-
est between 4 p. m. and 8 p. m. and it reaches the
lowest ebb about 3 a. m. This fact makes it essential
that special care be taken of the sick in the early hours
of the morning, the lowering temperature indicating
a lower vitality.
Though a rise of temperature is always to be re-
garded with suspicion it must be remembered that
many causes (especially with children) may create a
slight deviation from the normal, without anything
serious being the matter. Constipation will often cause
a rise of temperature, sometimes even a slight cold,
attack of indigestion, or undue excitement will do the
same, while profuse perspiration or diarrhoea is apt
to cause a sub-normal temperature.
A sub-normal temperature is far more dangerous
than the same number of degrees above normal. If a
patient's temperature drops to 97.5 or 97 she should
be rolled in blankets, a hot water bag put at the feet,
another over the heart, and a cup of hot coffee or milk
given. If the temperature does not soon respond to
this treatment the doctor should be notified.
The following table gives the different variations
pf temperature ;
Normal
Temperature
High
Temperature
Sub-Normal
Temperature
635
44
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
The Pulse
98
97
Hyperpyrexia . . . .105 and over, extremely dangerous
High Fever 103 105
Moderate Fever 101 103
Sub- febrile 99^ 101
Normal 98
Subnormal 97
Collapse 95
Algid Collapse Below 95, extremely dangerous
A record of the temperature is of great value, not
only in diagnosis, but also in watching the course of
the disease ; it should therefore be charted every time
it is taken. This can be done in figures, but the reg-
ular clinical temperature chart conveys a clearer idea
of how the temperature is running. The temperature
should be taken at the same time each day ; when it
does not deviate much from the normal twice a day,
morning and evening, is sufficient ; otherwise it should
be taken every three or four hours, according to the
nature of the case.
A thorough knowledge of the pulse can only be
gained by constant study and practice. It takes many
months of careful observation of the numerous cases
in the hospital ward, before the medical student or
nurse can readily discern between the various charac-
teristics of the different pulses. It is, therefore, im-
possible to go very deeply into the subject here.
The three principal things to be learned are: (i)
How to count it; (2)' to discern if it is regular or ir-
regular; (3) if strong or weak.
636
SICK ROOM METHODS
45
To count the pulse place the index and middle fin-
gers on^he wrist, on the thumb side, where the radial
artery can easily be felt. Count it for a full minute, di-
viding the minute into quarters, as you can then tell
if the frequency of the pulse is regular or irregular.
For instance, if you count fifteen beats in one quarter
and twenty in another, you will know that the fre-
quency of the pulse is irregular.
If some beats are strong and others weak the qual-
ity of the pulse is irregular. By careful considera-
tion of the pulse every time you take it, it soon becomes
possible to realize where there is a difference in the
quality of the pulse ; that is, when it is stronger or
weaker.
The pulse can be taken at the temporal artery when
for any reason it is impossible to take it at the wrist,
it also can be felt in the groin.
The average normal pulse is :
In men from 60 to 70 beats per minute
In women from 65 to 80 beats per minute
In children from 90 to 100 beats per minute
Just as the temperature, even in health, is affected
by certain conditions, so is the pulse ; food, exercise,
excitement, will all cause an increase in the pulse rate.
The pulse .should always be taken and recorded at
the same time as the temperature. The pulse is gen-
erally written in figures. When there is any differ-
ence in the quality, or if it is irregular this also should
be recorded.
To Count
the Pulse
Pulse by
Temporal
Artery
637
4 6
HOME CARE OF .THE SICK
A record of the respiration is also often required.
The respiration being more or less under the control
of the patient it is never wise to let her know that you
are taking it; therefore, keep hold of her wrist, as
though you were still counting her pulse, and watch
the rise and fall of the chest. If you find it hard to
Keeping
Records
******* l
TEMPERATURE, PULSE, AND RESPIRATION CHART
count by simply looking, hold the patient's hand on
her chest, then you can feel the motion as well. This
is generally the easier method for the beginner. Count
it as you do the pulse, for a full minute in quarters.
The inspiration and expiration count as one breath.
Besides the temperature, pulse and respiration, a
record must be kept of all medication given, and also
of all changes in the patient's condition. If the pa-
tient has pain note it, stating where the pain is and
638
SICK ROOM METHODS 47
if it be continuous or only in paroxysms. When medi-
cine is given to relieve the pain state with what re-
sult. When the patient is on liquid diet, the amount
of fluids taken during the twenty-four hours should
be charted every morning.
Mark every movement of the bowels; observe the
Wtow CJU..S
v *
BEDSIDE NOTES AS MADE IN A HOSPITAL,
movements carefully to see if there is anything abnor-
mal in their appearance. If so, not only describe it in
your record, but save the movement for the doctor's
inspection. The same thing should be done if the
patient vomits.
When there is not sufficient urine voided, report it ;
also if there is anything untoward in its appearance.
639
48 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Forty ounces is the amount that should normally be
voided in twenty-four hours. In fevers there is apt
to be less, and what is passed will be highly colored.
In nervous diseases, on the contrary, there is likely
im ortant to ^ e a ^ ar " er amount of a pale color. Perspiration, a
items chill or chilly feeling, coughing, expectoration, restless-
ness, the amount of discharge from wounds, are all
items of import of which the doctor must know the
details to treat the patient understandingly. He never
will fully know them unless they are clearly and con-
cisely written down at the time they happen.
The accompanying temperature chart and record is
an example of hospital practice.
THE GIVING OF MEDICINE
A few rules to be remembered in giving medicines
are:
Rules : * Always give exactly what the doctor orders,
neither more nor less.
2. Always give medicine on time if a dose is due
at twelve, give it at twelve and not at half past.
3. Medicines intended to be taken before meals
should be given twenty minutes before meal-time,
those to be taken after eating, twenty minutes after
the meal is finished.
4. Never give medicine without reading the label
on the bottle twice; before and again after pouring
it out.
640
GIVING OF MEDICINE
49
5. When pouring medicine always hold the label
on the upper side, to avoid defacing it.
6. Do not use spoons for measuring for they are
never accurate; small graduated glasses, which are
infinitely better, can be bought at any drug store for
about ten cents.
7. When pouring hold the mark of the quantity you
require on a level with your eye.
8. Always shake the bottle before pouring out the
medicine.
9. The bottle should always be recorked immedi-
ately after use, for many medicines contain volatile
substances and are apt to become either stronger or
weaker than intended, if left uncorked.
10. Medicines containing iron shoulo be taken
through a glass tube or straw, as they discolor the
teeth.
11. Some medicines, notably several that are given
for coughs, should be given undiluted, while others
on account of their irritating properties should be
very well diluted. Never dilute more than necessary,
for the addition of a large quantity of water often
renders a disagreeable dose still more unpleasant to
take.
12. Holding a piece of ice in the mouth for a short
time before taking medicine will often render a dis-
agreeable flavor less noticeable ; a drink of seltzer aft-
erward will help to "take away the taste." Castor oil
given with lemon juice, a piece of ice small enough to
Measuring
To take
away
the Taste
641
Powders
and Pills
Injections
So HOME CARE OF THE SICK
swallow, seltzer added just before taking, and a drink
of seltzer after, is not at all unpalatable. Holding
the nose while taking medicine will also diminish the
taste.
13. Insoluble powders such as calomel, bismuth and
acetanilid should be placed far back on the tongue
and washed down with a swallow of water. Those
with a disagreeable taste can be given in jam or bread
or encased in wafers or capsules which can be bought
for the purpose.
14. Pills also can be made easier to swallow by
giving in bread or jelly. Unless pills are freshly made,
they should be pulverized, as they soon become so dry
and hard that they will not readily dissolve in the
stomach.
15. Never buy a large quantity of medicine at a
time, there are very few kinds that will not deteriorate
by keeping; and because a medicine is beneficial in
one case, do not imagine that you can give it to every-
one whom you may think has the same ailment.
1 6. Medicines should be kept in a cool, dry place
and properly labeled. All poisons should be marked as
such and kept under lock and key.
Medicine is occasionally given by rectum, either
when a local effect is desired or when the stomach is
unable to retain it.
When medicine is given by rectum it is generally or-
dered well diluted. The water, added for this purpose,
should be warm enough to make the injection about
642
GIVING OF MEDICINE 51
1 00 F. A rubber rectal tube, or a large size rubber
catheter, connected by a glass connecting tube with a
piece of rubber tubing about eighteen inches long,
into the further end of which has been fitted a small
glass funnel, are the best in giving medicinal enemata.
Let warm water run
through the tube to be sure
that it is in working order ;
this will also heat it and
thus avoid cooling the med-
Porceiain Feeding cup Ration. Grease the tube
well, with oil or vaseline, and before inserting it fill
the funnel with the solution, allow half of it to run
GLASS DRINKING CUP
through, back into the pitcher, pinch the rubber to pre-
vent the rest running through. This is done to avoid
getting air into the intestine.
For sedative enemata (these generally consist of
bromide or chloral) the tube is only inserted about six
643
Nutritive
Enemata
Suppositories
52 HOME CAKE OF THE SICK
inches, but for stimulating enemata (brandy or whisky
and salt solution) and nutritive enemata, the tube is in-
serted about fourteen inches, and a small pillow placed
beneath the hips to help the upward flow. When giv-
ing these enemas have the patient lie on her back.
Holding a folded towel to the anus, after the removal
of the tube, will help the patient to retain the in-
jection.
Nutritive enemata generally consist of peptonized
milk, white of egg, salt and one of the beef prepara-
tions made especially for that purpose; but every
doctor has his own formula and will specify how he
wishes it prepared. When patients are having nutri-
tive enemata constantly they must have a cleansing
enema daily, and this must be given at least an hour
before the next nutritive one is due, and not till two
or three hours after the last one has been given.
Starch and other emollient enemata are sometimes
given in diarrhoeas and dysentery. To prepare the
starch mix a teaspoonful of laundry starch in cold
water, add a teacupful of hot water, let it come to the
boil. A few drops of laudanum are sometimes added
to this; when it is ordered, be very accurate in count-
ing the drops.
The suppository is another method of giving rectal
medication. This is a conical shaped preparation of
cocoa butter in which the required drug is incorpo-
rated. It is oiled and gently inserted, pointed end fore-
most, the patient lying on the left side.
644
GIVING OF MEDICINE
53
Medication for the throat is often given by means
of the atomizer. When using this see that the pa-
tient's tongue is held down sufficiently to allow the
spray to reach the affected parts, and be careful not
to let the end of the atomizer touch the back of the
patient's throat, as this tends to induce vomiting.
The -inhalation of vapor is another method of con-
veying medication to the throat and also to the bron-
chial tubes and lungs. Mix the medicine with boiling
HYPODERMIC SYRINGE
water and put in a small kettle over an alcohol lamp.
With stiff brown paper, make a cone, one end to fit
over the mouth and nose, the other over the spout of
the kettle.
When rapid absorption is necessary medicine is
sometimes given hypodermically. The hypodermic is
a graduated syringe to which a hollow needle is at-
tached. As hypodermic injections are attended with
great danger unless properly given, no one should at-
tempt to administer medicine this way without being
personally instructed by a physician or nurse. In
giving medication hypodermically, the greatest clean-
liness should be observed; the flesh, where the injec-
Inhalations
Hypodermic
Injections
045
54 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
tion is to be made, must be well washed with alcohol,
the needles should be attached to the syringe and alco-
hol drawn into the syringe and expelled several times
before the medicine is drawn in. When the syringe is
filled with the required amount, expel the air by point-
ing the needle upward and gently pressing the piston
till a drop appears at the point of the needle. Be care-
ful not to let the needle touch anything after it has
been cleaned if it should, hold it in the alcohol again
for a minute before inserting. The injection may be
given in the outer side of the arms, thighs or abdomen.
Hold the flesh between the thumb and first finger of
the left hand, plunge the needle in with one quick
downward movement, inject the fluid slowly by gently
pressing the piston. Draw the needle out quickly. Rub
the spot where the injection was made for a few sec-
onds to hasten absorption.
Clean the instrument with alcohol before putting
it away.
PURGATIVE, ENEMATA, DOUCHES AND CATHETER-
IZATION
Cleansing The purgative, or as it is also called, cleansing en-
ma ema, is given as its name indicates for the purpose of
washing out the intestines. It is generally resorted to
when cathartic medicine fails to act, when immediate
catharsis is necessary, or when for any reason the pa-
tient is unable to take a cathartic by mouth.
The long rubber rectal tube is the best appliance for
646
ENEMAS
55
the giving of such enemata ; the water is injected
higher into the bowel and there is a steadier flow than
when any of the bulb syringes are used. This can be
attached by means of a connecting tube to the tube of
the ordinary fountain syringe bag. See that the stop
cock is on the tube.
The cleansing enema generally consists of a soap
GLASS DOUCHE NOZZLES
suds made with "ivory" or castile soap ; the froth of?
which should be removed as it contains too much air ;
the temperature should be about 98 F. Make the soap
suds in a pitcher, pour it into the bag, let some run
through the tube to warm it and expel the air, shut
the stop cock, grease the rectal tube. Hang or hold
the bag not more than three feet higher than the
patient.
The bed should always be protected with a rubber
sheet and large towel, the patient lies on her left side\
with the knees well flexed. The tube should be in-
Soap Enema
647
56 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
serted very gently, never use force, let the water run
in slowly. If much pain is given shut the water off
occasionally, for a minute or two. When a sufficient
quantity has been given (two to three pints for an
adult, one for a child) remove the tube quickly, but
^gently, and press a folded towel to the anus. The
fluid to do much good should be retained from fifteen
to twenty minutes.
After use the tube must be carefully cleansed, wash
it in warm soap suds and water, afterward let a quan-
tity of hot water run through it, hang it up lengthwise
to drip till perfectly dry.
When used for more than one person the tube
should always be boiled for five minutes after use.
vaginal Douches are given, as a rule, either for cleanliness
Douches or to re ii eve inflammation. When used for the former
purpose the solution should be of a temperature rang-
ing from 100 F. to 110 F. When given to relieve in-
flammation it is generally required very hot even 118
or 120 F., and great care must then be taken not to
burn the patient by having it any hotter; mix the
water well before you test it. Some disinfectant is
often added, carbolic or bichloride being the ones most
frequently used; they should, however, never be used
without a doctor's order. In giving, the patient lies
on her back, have the douche pan placed under her
properly so that the return flow of the water will run
into it. Put a pillow under the small of the back.
Before inserting the nozzle let the water flow through
648
DOUCHES 57
the tube, to expel the air. Insert gently and move
it around while in.
The douche nozzle should always be boiled or
washed in boric acid, or other disinfectant, after use.
Glass douche nozzles are preferable to any other. They
can be attached to the ordinary fountain syringe.
Catheterization improperly performed is fraught catheterizatioi
with so much danger to the patient that it must not be
GLASS CATHETER
attempted till further instruction than can be given in
writing is obtained.
Catheterization is necessary when the patient is un-
able to void urine naturally, but there are many simple
devices which should all be tried before this is resorted
to ; for instance, put hot water in the bed pan, allow % :
water to run from a faucet within hearing (if this is
impossible pour water from one vessel to another),
squeeze a sponge dipped in warm water over the lower
part of the abdomen, or hot stupes can be applied, and,
this failing, the stupes can be alternated with ice.
649
58 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
In preparing to catheterize it is necessary to exer-
cise not only the greatest cleanliness but asepsis. The
catheter (glass ones are preferable for women) should
be boiled for five minutes. Have at hand some small
sterile swabs (see chapter on asepsis) in a solution of
boric acid. Put the patient on the bed pan (leaving it
further in front than for ordinary use), have the pa-
tient's knees flexed and separated, drape a sheet
around her legs, leaving the vulva exposed. Then
wash the hands well with soap and hot water, soaking
Care to them afterwards in a solution of bichloride of mer-
be Taken cur ^ !_ IO oo. With the left hand separate the labia,
and carefully wash all around the meatus (the open-
ing to the urethra, the tube leading to the bladder) ;
into this opening the catheter is then carefully intro-
duced, it must not be forced forward if any obstruc-
tion is met with, but withdrawn slightly and the course
changed.
When the bladder is very much distended it should
not be emptied entirely at one time ; when a pint or
a pint and a half has been withdrawn remove the
catheter and insert it again four or five hours later.
Before removing the catheter, the index finger is
placed over the end ; this prevents drops of urine
falling upon the bed.
650
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
POULTICES AND FOMENTATIONS
59
Poultices and fomentations are applied for the relief
of localized pain, when caused by inflammation. The")
heat, by dilating the superficial blood vessels, draws*
the blood from the congested area.
The linseed poultice is the one most generally used.
To make it, stir the meal slowly and evenly into water
while it is boiling. When it is thick enough not to
run, boil it a minute more ; remove from the fire and
beat it briskly. When properly made it is perfectly
smooth, and just stiff enough to drop away from the
spoon. Spread it on a piece of muslin the required
size and shape, leaving an inch margin all round to
turn over. The side which is to go next to the patient
is best covered with cheesecloth or gauze. This is cut
slightly larger than the muslin, so as to turn back
over it to keep the contents of the poultice in place.
Few poultices should be more than half an inch ;
thick. They should always be applied as hot as the
patient can possibly stand them. To keep the poultice
warm while taking it to the bedside it can be placed
between two hot plates or rolled in a piece of hot
flannel. The flannel can be left over it when applied
if there is no oil muslin or oil paper to be obtained;
these latter are preferable, however, as they are very
light and keep in the heat and moisture better.
The poultice is kept in place by a bandage. A muslin
binder is the best means for keeping a chest poultice
in place. Poultices should always be shaped to fit the
Linseed
Poultice
Applying
651
Starch
Poultice
Sinapisms
6o HOME CARE OF THE SICK
affected part. They should be changed at least every
two hours.
Starch poultices are used in certain skin diseases.
The starch is mixed with a little cold water, then
enough boiling water added to make a thick paste.
It is boiled, spread and applied in the same manner as
the flaxseed.
The cotton jacket or ''dry poultice" is made by
tacking a layer of non-absorbent cotton or wadding
between two pieces of cheesecloth, shaped for the
chest, and is excellent to keep on for a few days after
other poultices have been discontinued.
Sinapisms relieve pain through the agency of the
mustard which, by irritating" the sensory nerves, causes
the dilatation of the superficial blood vessels under
the point of application and the consequent lessening
of the congestion in the inflamed tissue. Sinapisms
are made of flour, mustard, and tepid water, in vary-
ing proportions. Those for a man are generally made
one part mustard to four of flour; for a woman one
part mustard to six of flour; for a child one part
mustard to ten of flour. The water used should always
be tepid; cold water feels uncomfortable to the pa-
tient, while hot destroys the virtue of the mustard.
The flour and mustard are first mixed well together,
care being taken to crush all lumps of mustard ; enough
water is then slowly added to make a thick paste,
which is spread on muslin and covered with gauze.
The sinapism is generally left on from fifteen to
652
FOMENTATIONS
61
twenty minutes, but it must be watched carefully, and
removed as soon as the surface of the skin is well
reddened, as otherwise it will blister. After the re- (
moval of the sinapism the skin must be washed, and\
if a little vaseline be rubbed on, this will allay the
irritation.
The usual method of applying fomentations is to Fomentations
have two pieces of flannel in use, applying them alter-
nately and changing every three minutes for twenty
minutes. The easiest way is to have the water boiling
over an alcohol or gas lamp near the bedside.
Put two layers of coarse, soft flannel (an old blanket
is good) in the center of a towel ; dip this into BOILING
water, wring it out by twisting the ends of the towel,
give the flannel a quick shake, and apply the flannel ;
cover with oiled muslin or oiled paper.
As hot applications promote suppuration there are
conditions when their use is contra-indicated and cold
applications are ordered.
The most effectual way of applying continuous cold
is by means of the ice cap. The pieces of ice put into
the cap should be about the size of a walnut ; it should
never be more than half filled, and the air should be
expelled before putting on the cover. Salt is some-
times mixed with the ice to intensify the cold. The
cap should be tied in an old handkerchief or piece of
gauze to prevent the rubber from coming next the skin,
as the extreme cold is very irritating, and may even
produce frost bites.
Cold
Applications
653
62 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
ice Caps When ice caps are being- used all the ice must not
be allowed to melt before the cap is refilled, as the
reaction caused by the resulting change of temperature
"is very injurious, especially if there is any inflamma-
tion.
ICE CAPS
compresses For the application of cold to the head, old hand-
kerchiefs or pieces of soft gauze can be used, folded
so that they will come down well over the temples, but
not touch the pillow. They must not be wide enough
to wet the hair, or come far down over the eyes. Com-
presses should not be made too wet. The best scheme
is to have a piece of ice in a basin, and two compresses,
then while one is on the forehead the other can remain
rolled round the ice.
Compresses for .the eye should be small and very
light. If both eyes need the compresses two separate
ones should be used. If only one eye is affected be
careful that the compress on it does not touch the
other, lest it should become infected. If gauze is used
for compresses always turn the ends in, that the
ravellings may not annoy the patient.
654
HOME CARE OF THE SICK.
PART -I.
Read Carefully, Place your name and address on the
first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write
on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from
the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that your in-
structor may know that you understand the subject. Carry
out the directions given in the text, if possible,, before answer-
ing the questions.
1. What is expected of the nurse?
2. Give the period of incubation, first symptoms,
and time required for isolation for: (a)
Mumps, (b) Measles, (c) Smallpox, (d)
Scarlet fever, (e) Diphtheria.
3. What are the causes of cholera infantttm?
Symptoms? What are the symptoms of in-
testinal obstruction ?
4. What are the most common causes of convul-
sions in children ? What should be done ?
5. What are the primary symptoms of typhoid
fever? Of pneumonia? Of meningitis?
6. What is the difference between false croup and
true croup in symptoms, danger, and treat-
ment ?
7. Describe the ideal sick room.
8. How should the sweeping and dusting be done?
How prepare for the night?
9. Why is ventilation in the sick room important?
Describe different methods.
10. Make the bed as explained in the lesson and then
describe the process.
655
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
11. Endeavor to change the bedclothes with a per-
son in bed and report your success.
12. The points suggested in the section on the "Care
of the Patient" are all essential. What ones
might you neglect if you had no experience ?
13. What must be guarded against in lifting and
moving a helpless patient ?
14. How would you change a patient from one bed
to another?
15. What are bed sores and how can they be guarded
against ?
16. How would you wash the hair?
17. Describe the process of giving a bath in bed.
1 8. How can the heat of the blood be found? Why
is it important?
19. How would you count the pulse?
20. Mention some of the points in a patient's condi-
tion that should be noted and recorded?
21. What rules should be observed in giving medi-
cines ?
22. What are the different kinds of enemata? How
given ?
23. What devices can be tried before catheterization
is attempted?
24. How is a linseed poultice made and applied ?
25. What is a sinapism? A fomentation?
26. How is cold applied to relieve pain?
27. Do you understand everything in this lesson ?
What questions occur to you?
NOTE. After completing the test sign your full name.
656
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
PART II
CONTAGION; DISINFECTION NUESING IN CONTA-
GIOUS DISEASES
We have learned in our study of Household Bac-
teriology that nearly all diseases, especially those com-
ing under the head of infectious and contagious, are
caused by certain species of bacteria.
If we would be immune from these diseases, then
we must do everything in our power to exclude these
germs. Cleanliness, plenty of sunlight and fresh air,
are the first requisites for their exclusion ; and, when
disease has entered, proper isolation and disinfection to
prevent their spread.
By disinfection we mean destruction of the bacteria
by use of certain chemicals or heat. Heat, when it
can be used, is always the surest and quickest method.
The rules for disinfection, or sterilizing by heat, will
be given under the head of "Surgical Operations at
Home."
The disinfectants most commonly used in illness
are bichloride of mercury, i-iooo, for the hands and
utensils, and carbolic acid, 1-20, for the clothes, instru-
ments, etc. Bichloride is the stronger disinfectant,
but as it discolors clothes and instruments it should
not be used for them.
657
Bichloride
of Mercury
Carbolic
Acid
Infection
and
Contagion
64 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
MAKING DISINFECTANT SOLUTIONS
A bottle of blue bichloride tablets can be bought at
any chemist's; this is the safest form to use it in the
home, as the tablets make a blue solution. The bi-
chloride is perfectly odorless, and if the clear, uncol-
ored solution were used it might be mistaken for
water. As this is a very strong poison the tablets
should be kept always under lock and key, and out of
the reach of children. It is well to have a bottle
of tablets in the house at all times, to use in case of
cuts, etc. They contain salt, which is always required
in making bichloride solution.
To make bichloride solution dissolve one tablet in
a quart of hot water.
When a large quantity of carbolic acid solution
will be required continually, it is cheaper to buy the
95 per cent solution, which can be reduced as needed
to the required strength. To make five pints of 1-20,
mix four ounces of the 95 per cent carbolic with five
pints of boiling water and shake the bottle well.
As 95 per cent carbolic is not only a strong poison,
but also very corrosive to the skin, so be careful not to
spill even a drop on your hands, but if you should,
wash the spot immediately with alcohol or warm water
and soap.
An infectious disease is not always a contagious
one; that is, it cannot be contracted by being in the
same room with the patient, but it is transmittable
by some intermediate means of communication.
658
CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION
65
Tuberculosis is not contracted by coming in contact
with a patient suffering from that disease, but by
inhaling dust containing the germs derived from the
dried sputa of some consumptive person.
The germs of typhoid fever are disseminated when
the stools and other excreta of the patient are not
properly disinfected by those in charge.
It is not necessary to isolate patients suffering from
diseases of this kind, but it is necessary to disinfect,
according to the nature of the infection ; thus, know-
ing that the germ of typhoid fever is in the stools,
and to some extent in the urine, the stools and urine
must always be disinfected by covering with bichloride,
i-iooo, and letting stand half an hour before empty-
ing. The bed pan must be well washed and disin-
fected afterward. It is also a wise precaution to
disinfect the bed-clothes by soaking in carbolic, 1-20,
for twelve hours, and then boiling; also to keep uten-
sils and dishes used for the patient separate, boiling
them before they are again mixed with the household
supply.
Consumption, or tuberculosis of the lungs, is per-
haps the most dreaded disease of the present day.
There are more deaths from it than from any other,
except in times of epidemic. The sputum of patients
suffering from this disease contains many millions of
the bacilli. If this is deposited in places where it is
allowed to dry and become pulverized, it is a source of
danger to others, The sputum must, therefore 3 b
disinfected,
Disinfection
Without
Isolation
Consumption
66
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Patients suffering from this disease should be pro-
vided with sanitary cups. The best for this purpose
are made of prepared paper and are
very cheap. These should be burnt
after being in use for twelve hours
at most. If these cannot be obtained,
porcelain ones with covers may be
used, but bichloride or carbolic must
Sanitary Cup. alwayg rema j n in the cupj and it
should be emptied and scalded frequently. The patient
should not use ordinary handkerchiefs, but gauze or
Japanese paper, which should be burnt. All clothing
Paper Sanitary Cup.
and bedding soiled by the sputa should be disinfected
in the usual manner, and the sufferer should wash
and disinfect the hands frequently.
Perfect cleanliness, plenty of sunlight and fresh
66Q
CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 6?
air, and nourishing food are the most important points
in the modern treatment of consumption. Special care
should be taken by consumptives to smother every
cough when close to other people.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES
Measles, scarlet fever, smallpox and diphtheria are
not only infectious but also contagious, and can be
taken by touching the person or anything that has
come in contact with the patient.
Anyone who has been in the room with a patient
suffering from any one of these diseases can scatter
the germs far and wide; this must be remembered,
especially by those who do the nursing. It is an abso-
lute necessity for them to go out every day, but before
doing so they should change all their clothes, and wash
face and hands with bichloride, i-iooo. As it would
be impossible to wash the hair every time, it should
be covered by a cap, while on duty. Even when all
these precautions have been taken, shops, theaters, and
street cars should be avoided.
The rules of isolation are these:
(1) The patient should be removed to a room as
remote as possible from the rest of the house.
(2) No one should be allowed to enter the room
except the physicians and attendants.
(3) Long-sleeved aprons and caps which will cover
the hair should be worn by physicians and attendants
while in the- room. (These can be made of cheap
muslin.)
Rules of
Isolation
661
68
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Disinfection
of Clothes
Dishes
and
Utensils
(4) A solution of bichloride, i-iooo, should be
kept by the wash basin for the disinfection of hands,
and they should be disinfected every time after touch-
ing or doing anything for the patient. For proper
isolation there should be two rooms, the wash stand,
gowns, disinfectants, etc., being kept in the outer
room.
(5) A foot tub or other receptacle containing car-
bolic, i -20, should be placed near the bedside when
the clothes are about to be changed, and they should
be put immediately into this, remaining there well
covered for twenty-four hours. They should, even
then, be boiled before being washed.
(6) The advice given earlier as to the furnishing
and care of the sick-room is especially applicable in
cases of contagious diseases. When dusting, the
duster should be dampened in 1-40 carbolic. As bare
floors are apt to be noisy, a small rug or two may be
retained, but they should be old ones, as they ought
to be burned at the termination of the disease. They
must not be shaken, as at other times, but kept well
dusted with the damp duster.
(7) It is well to keep sheets, wrung out in car-
bolic, i -20, both between the two rooms set apart for
the nursing and at the entrance of the outer room.
The door of the latter must be kept closed.
(8) The dishes and utensils used by the patient
and attendants must not be removed from the room;
they must be washed there, the patient's always being
fifi?
CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 69
washed and kept separate. When food is brought it
should be left at the door of the outer room. The
attendant, first taking off her cap and apron and disin-
fecting her hands, should remove the food from those
dishes to the ones she has in the room ; the others
should be removed immediately.
(9) Whenever it can be managed the isolated
rooms should be in close connection with a bath-room,
which should be set apart for the use of the inmates
of the sick-room. When this is impossible the attend-
ant must, when it is necessary to go there, first remove
her cap and apron and disinfect her hands. When her
object is to empty the slop jar or bed pan they should
be completely covered with a large towel wrung out in
carbolic.
(10) The bed pan should always have bichloride,
i-iooo, in the bottom, and after use more of the same
solution should be added. It should stand thus for
half an hour before being emptied. When there is no
separate bath-room a tightly covered box nailed on the
outside window sill of the outer room will be found
convenient to hold the bed pan, while its contents are
being disinfected.
Besides the general rules for disinfection there are
in some contagious diseases special rules, incidental to
the nature of the disease.
In scarlet fever the greatest danger of infection lies
in the dissemination of the skin, while it is peeling.
To prevent this the patient should be rubbed all over,
Separate
Bath Roona
Special
Rules
663
70 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
night and morning, with carbolized vaseline or boric
ointment.
In diphtheria the most virulent contagion is in the
expectoration, especially when the membrane loosens.
Soft gauze should be used instead of handkerchiefs,
and if there is no grate in the room a pan must be at
hand, in which these can be burnt immediately after
use.
Time of
Quarantine
DISINFECTION AT THE TERMINATION OF THE DISEASE
Even after the fever has abated it is necessary to
keep the patient isolated, or "in quarantine," as it is
called, for some days. A rough estimate of the time
required for quarantine in the different diseases is
given in the table in the first section, but the doctor
should always be the one to decide when it may be
raised, as circumstances or complications may arise
which might make it allowable to shorten or neces-
sary to lengthen the time.
When the doctor does allow the patient to be moved,
a warm cleansing bath (including the washing of the
hair) must be given. This is followed by a bichloride
bath, i-iooo, and an alcohol rub. The patient is then
wrapped in a clean sheet and taken to a different
room, where fresh clothes which have not been in the
sick-room are put on. Those who have done the nurs-
ing must go through the same procedure.
664
CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION J\
THE DISINFECTION OF THE ROOM AND ITS CONTENTS
The use of sulphur fumes as a disinfectant has been
proved to be practically useless, and formaldehyde has
almost entirely replaced it. The easiest form of using
this is the "Pure Formaldehyde Gas" put up by Sea-
bury & Johnson. It can be procured at most drug-
gists. In appearance it looks like a stone, cone shaped.
There are two sizes ; the smaller, 2 inches square, will
disinfect a room 500 cubic feet, and the larger one,
1000 to 1500 cubic feet. Close the windows, pasting
paper over all the cracks ; pull down the blinds ; open
cupboards, drawers, bundles, etc., that everything may
be exposed to the fumes of the gas; place the fumi-
gator on the top of an inverted pail it must not be too
near the floor, or it may scorch it set fire to the top
of it, and leave the room ; lock the door and paste up
the cracks and key hole.
Leave the room thus for five or six hours, then
open all the windows, if possible allowing them to
remain open for twelve hours.
Books and toys used in the sick-room should be
burned, as they are hard to disinfect.
Unless the mattress can be baked it should be
opened, so that the formaldehyde can penetrate
through to its center. In all large cities there are bake
houses where such things may be sent for disinfection
at comparatively small cost. They should be carefully
wrapped up.
Disinfecting
with Formalde-
hyde
The
Mattress
665
72 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
PERSONAL PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN BY THOSE NURSING
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES
(1) Take sufficient sleep and rest; never in the
patient's room. It is when the muscles are relaxed,
as they are when resting, that the greatest danger of
infection comes.
(2) A daily walk in the fresh air is necessary.
(3) A daily bath; change of all clothing at least
three times a week. The clothing must be disinfected.
(4) When working over the patient never stoop
so that you inhale her breath. Never kiss your pa-
tient.
Personal (5) Never put your hands to your face, especially
Disinfection vour mO uth or eyes, without first disinfecting them.
(6) Disinfect your hands frequently in bichloride
of mercury, i-iooo. Keep the nails short and scrupu-
lously clean. When washing the hands wash the
soap off before putting them into bichloride, or they
will soon become sore.
(7) Before meals wash and disinfect your hands
well, rinse your mouth with boric acid solution or
listerine. Never eat in the patient's room.
(8) When irrigating a diphtheria patient's throat
tie a handkerchief over your mouth, and wear glasses
to protect the eyes.
The nursing in infectious and contagious diseases
is the same as in all other cases of fever. While the
temperature is high the patient should be kept in the
recumbent position to avoid strain upon the heart.
666
SURGICA1 OPERATIONS 73
In typhoid this position is particularly necessary, as
hemorrhage from the intestines is liable to occur if it
is not strictly adhered to.
Nourishment and medication must be given exactly Nourishment
as ordered. When the doctor orders fluids give noth-
ing solid; many a life, especially after typhoid, has
been lost by so doing.
Except when the patient is nauseated, unless con-
trary to orders, give plenty of water, every two hours
at least. See that the patient drinks it slowly.
Remember the rules already given about the care of
the mouth, especially with typhoid patients. Vaseline
applied to parched lips gives relief.
In measles and scarlet fever the eyes are apt to be care of
affected, so the room should be kept darker than in
other cases, and the eyes should be washed with boric
acid, always bathing from the inner angle outward.
In all diseases where the skin is not working prop-
erly, as in measles, scarlet and other eruptive fevers,
be especially observant of the urine as various kidney
complications are liable to ensue.
There is little danger of the patient catching cold
while the temperature is high, but when it begins to
lower be doubly careful.
SURGICAL OPERATIONS AT HOME *
For twenty-four hours previous to operation the
patient should be given broths every two hours, but
neither milk nor solid food. A cathartic is given, if
possible, thirty hours prior to operation, and repeated
*This section is optional.
667
74 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
in six hours ; a soap suds enema is given three hours
after the first cathartic, and repeated twelve hours
before operation. A bath is also given the afternoon
before, and after the bath the field of operation is
Pre aration ' snave d, then thoroughly cleansed with green soap,
o elation anc * a com p ress wet wn " n S TQQn soa P solution, 25 per
cent to 50 per cent, applied (the liquid green soap
which is used for this purpose can be obtained at any
druggist's) ; this is covered with a protector oil mus-
lin or oil paper and left on from three to six hours, as
the skin will bear. When removed, the surface is
washed in the following order, with green soap, ether,
alcohol, and solution bichloride of mercury, i-iooo; a
compress wet in the latter is applied covered with a
protector, and left on till an hour before operation,
when the process is repeated and the fresh bichloride
compress is left on till the doctor removes it on the
operating table, after the patient is under the influ-
ence of the anaesthetic; then he re-scrubs it, and the
ether, alcohol, and bichloride must be ready for him
to use. All these precautions are taken to kill or re-
move every bacterium or spore.
For a vaginal operation the rules for diet, catharsis,
enemata and bathing are the same as for any other.
In addition a green soap douche is given on the pre-
ceding day, followed by one of bichloride of mercury,
1-5000. The vulva is then covered with a pad wet in
solution of bichloride of mercury, i-iooo, until two
hours before operation, when another bichloride douche
668
SURGICAL OPERATIONS 75
is given, the parts cleansed and a fresh bichloride pad
applied.
Just before the anaesthetic is given, the patient
should void urine. If she has false teeth they should
be removed.
The Room. In the choice of the room the light is The Room
one of the first considerations, a good light being a
positive necessity. If possible the operation should
take place in a different room from the one the patient
is occupying beforehand. Remove rugs, carpets, all
unnecessary furniture, curtains and draperies. A piece
of cheesecloth tacked across the lower sash of the
windows will keep the light from being too glaring
and obstruct the view from outside.
The. day before the operation the walls should be
dusted, especially the cornices and mouldings ; the
floor should be scrubbed if possible, or at least wiped
with a damp cloth and it should be washed over again
the morning of operation after the furniture is in
place.
If the patient is to remain in the room after the
operation, have the bed as nearly in the position it is to
occupy later as possible, but out of the way.
Protect the floor under and around the operating
table with several thicknesses of paper, covered with a
sheet tacked down at the corners.
A kitchen table covered with a couple of old blankets
protected by a rubber pinned or tacked under the Table
table will answer for the operating table. Three small
669
76 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
tables should be at hand, protected with papers, cov-
ered with large sterile towels. On one table, con-
venient to his right hand, the surgeon will need his
instruments. On the second table have three bowls
which have been well washed first with soap and hot
water, then bichloride, i-iooo. The inside of the
bowls should not be dried. One bowl is intended to
hold the solution for the disinfection of the surgeon's
and his assistant's hands, the other two for washing
the sponges. The third table is required for the
dressings and sterile towels. The former, the doctor
will provide or tell you where to get them. Very
sterile ren ' a ble sterile dressings are now put up by Ellwood
Dressings Lee, and can be procured at any drug store. They
are really better than anything that can be prepared
without a sterilizer. If it is impossible to obtain these,
the dressings should be prepared in the same manner
as the towels, namely, rolled in bundles not more than
9 inches square (or the heat will not penetrate) and
steamed in the clothes boiler for at least one hour.
If there is no tray to keep them out of the water a
hammock of gauze will answer the purpose. They are
then dried in the oven, which must not be hot enough
to scorch them.
At least a dozen and a half towels will be required.
The surgeon will bring the instruments and anaesthetic.
If chloroform is administered, some vaseline will be
required to grease the patient's face.
SURGICAL OPERATIONS
77
An ether cone can be made out of paper, covered
with a towel.
An irrigator or douche bag must be at hand for the
irrigation. This should be sterilized by boiling for five
minutes, as are also the surgical instruments.
There must be plenty of sterilized water prepared,
six gallons at least, two gallons
of which must be boiled long
enough beforehand to be cold.
This must be kept tightly cov-
ered after it is boiled, or it will
not remain sterile. Water must
boil at least thirty minutes to be
properly sterilized.
Bichloride, carbolic and salt
solutions may be needed and
,1 , t j 11 Ether Cone, made from stiff
lllUSt DC at hand, as well, as tWO paper, covered with
sterile pitchers, a pus basin, a
chair, a blanket or two to cover the patient, two rub-
bers to protect the blanket, a slop jar, hypodermic
syringe, and stimulants the doctor will give definite
instructions regarding the last.
The bed is made according to the directions already
given for bedmaking, with the exception that no pillow
will be required as the patient's head' must be kept low.
Instead, a small rubber covered by a towel is desirable
to protect the bed if the patient is nauseated. A
blanket is put over the patient, before the upper sheet ;
hot water bottles should be in the bed all the time she
Sterilized
"Water
The Bed
671
After the
Operation
78 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
is on the table; a couple of towels and pus basin
should be on a table near the bed in case of nausea,
also small pieces of gauze to wipe the mucus out of
the mouth, and a wedge-shaped piece of wood to put
between the teeth if they become clenched.
If necessary to assist the surgeon during the opera-
tion, scrub the hands for ten minutes with hot water
and soap, using a new stiff nail brush which has been
PORCELAIN BED PAN
soaked in carbolic, 1-20. Be particularly careful of the
finger nails, which should be cut very short. After
scrubbing, the hands should be soaked in bichloride,
I-IOOO.
Nobody, whose hands have not been so treated,
must touch the dressings or instruments, and after
washing nothing but the sterile things must be touched.
When the operation is over, if the patient's night-
gown is wet it must be changed. She is then covered
with a warmed blanket, and put into bed. She should
lie on her back without pillows and be kept very quiet.
672
SURGICAL OPERATIONS
79
If she vomits, hold her head on one side to prevent
strangulation.
Washing the mouth out, as previously directed, will
help to relieve the thirst which is generally intense
after an anaesthetic.
After a few hours either crushed ice or very hot
water, in teaspoon doses, may be given.
Bed Pan, "Eureka" Pattern
The pulse must be watched carefully, and if its rate
increases should be reported to the doctor, as this,
together with pallor, restlessness, longing for fresh air,
sighing respiration, and fall of temperature is a sign
of hemorrhage. As the hemorrhage does not always
show through the dressing these signs must be watched
for.
For treatment of hemorrhage see the section on
"Emergencies." As the after treatment depends alto-
gether on the nature of the operation, and subsequent
condition of the patient, no rules for it can be given
here further than to emphasize the fact that the first
requisite for success in surgical work is perfect clean-
liness. The gauze used for dressing the wound after
the operation, the instruments and the hands of those
The Pulse
Perfect
Cleanliness
673
8o HOME CARE OF THE SICK
touching these things, must always be as carefully
sterilized for the dressing as for the operation.
The diet, like the treatment, will depend upon cir-
cumstances. For the first day or two the patient is
generally on fluid diet, and care must be taken that it
is given slowly and in small quantities, but as soon as
possible plenty of nourishing food should be given to
build up the system.
OBSTETRICS
The average duration of pregnancy is 28! days.
The most accurate way of calculating the probable date
of confinement is by counting back three months from
the date of the cessation of the last menses and adding
seven days.
Preliminary The expectant mother should place herself under
the doctor's care in the early stages of pregnancy, as
not only her own but the infant's after health depends
largely on the care the mother takes of herself at this
time. The principal rules of hygiene to be followed
are:
1. Daily exercise in the open air.
2. At least eight hours' sleep out of twenty-four.
3. A daily bath, a sponge bath if the tub bath is
too exhausting. A brisk rub after the bath will cause
a good reaction.
4. The bowels should be moved daily, with mild
cathartics if necessary.
674
OBSTETRICS 81
5. The urine must be carefully watched and any
abnormality reported to the doctor. Frequent speci-
mens should also be sent him, as there may be danger
of serious kidney troubles.
6. Freedom from excitement, worry, hurry, and
too heavy manual labor.
7. The clothing should be worn loose enough to
allow of free circulation.
8. A nourishing, but not too stimulating diet
should be adhered to.
9. The nipples require attention, especially during
the last two months, and should be washed twice daily
with boric acid solution and treated with fresh cocoa
butter or albolene.
What to provide : For tho
1. Two large rubber sheets. Mother
2. If possible, a Kelly Pad, if not, make an obstet-
rical pad, consisting of four thicknesses of cotton wad-
ding, covered with a layer of absorbent cotton, the
whole encased in absorbent gauze and tacked to keep
the cotton in place. This pad should be three-quarters
of a yard square.
3. Two dozen pads for dressings, half a yard long,
ten inches wide and two inches thick, made of the
same materials.
4. Two dozen smaller pads.
5. Five boxes of sterile gauze (each containing one
yard of gauze), to be used both for the mother's
dressing and to cover the baby's cord.
675
82 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
6. One roll of adhesive plaster.
7- Six abdominal binders of unbleached muslin.
8. Six breast binders of unbleached muslin.
9- One pair long stockings made of flannel or an
old blanket.
10. Two dozen paper bags in which soiled dress-
ings can be put and burnt.
11. At least two hot water bottles.
KELLEY PAD.
12. Bed pan "Perfection" is the best.
13. Douche pan.
14. Douche can or new fountain syringe bag.
15. Two glass douche nozzles.
1 6. Two glass catheters.
17. One agate basin to boil nozzles and catheters in.
1 8. Two large agate pitchers in which water can
be sterilized, solutions made, etc.
19. Clinical, room, and bath thermometers.
20. One bottle carbolic, 4 per cent.
21. One bottle Lvsol.
676
OBSTETRICS 83
22. One bottle bichloride tablets.
23. New nail brush and fresh cake of soap for the
doctor's use.
For the baby: For the
1. A tube of sterile tape. Baby
2. A rubber sheet, or, preferably, a nursery cloth
to protect the crib mattress.
3. Talcum powder.
4. Sweet oil or sterile vaseline.
5. Pure castile soap (never use perfumed soap of
any kind).
6. Bath tub good rubber ones are the best.
7. Old table linen makes excellent towels and wash
cloths for the baby.
8. A large square of soft, thick flannel to roll baby
in after it is greased.
9. Basket containing sewing materials and safety
pins.
10. Crib and bedding.
11. Scales to weigh the baby in are very desirable.
12. A rubber or padded lap protector for the at-
tendant to use while bathing the baby.
13. A large flannel apron for the same purpose.
The latter is especially desirable as the baby can be
rolled in it, when taken from the bath.
14. Baby's clothing.: Six flannel bands, not Clothin
hemmed, 6 inches wide, three-quarters of a yard long, 'or Baby
Four knitted or woven shirts. Six flannel petticoats.
Six white petticoats ; these should all be made without
677
84 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
bands, and the fastening on the shoulders, running- a
draw tape through the hem of the flannel petticoat,
will keep the baby's feet warm without confining them.
Six slips for night wear. Six dresses. Diapers, two
sizes, eighteen and twenty-two inches square.
As in other cases of sickness, the room should be as
large, light, and airy as possible, scrupulously clean,
and have no superfluous furniture.
The Bed ^ n ^ s mst ance the foot of the bed should be to-
wards the light. It should be made as shown in the
section on bed-making, with the addition of a second
rubber covered with a clean sheet, and either a rubber
Kelly pad or an obstetrical pad (made as already
described).
The furniture and floor should be protected in the
same manner as they are for operations.
Besides the bed a table for the doctor, wash stand,
nurse's table, extra table or bureau and chair will be
required. See that there is a hook on which to hang
the douche bag.
On the wash stand have hot and cold water, soap,
nail brush, scissors, and nail cleaner, towels, and bowl
of bichloride, i-iooo.
Doctor's ^ n ^ e doctor's table, bowl of bichloride, 1-3000,
Table w jth towels and sponges in it; bowl of lysol, sterile
towels, sterile douche tip, also rubber and glass
catheter.
Nurse's n tne nurse's table have (for baby) sterile scis-
Tabie sors an( j t ape wipes in boric acid (these consist of
678
OBSTETRICS 85
small squares of gauze), two large squares of gauze
to put over the baby's mouth if necessary to blow into
it, soft flannel square to wrap baby in, dressing for
cord as ordered by the doctor.
For the mother chloroform, mask, pus basin, ster-
ile dressing and pads. Under the table the douche pan
(which has been washed in bichloride and kept cov-
ered with towel, wrung out in same), slop pail and
basin, paper bags for soiled dressings and placenta,
foot tub, hot and cold water.
On the bureau room, bath and clinical thermom-
eters; salt, vinegar, alcohol, whisky, hypodermic
syringe, binders, pins, hot water bag, tray and alcohol
lamp.
The signs of beginning labor are pains in the lower First
part of the abdomen and back, occurring at regular
intervals, about once every half hour, and a discharge
of mucus tinged with blood from the vagina.
True pains can be distinguished from false by plac-
ing the hand over the lower part of the abdomen ; in
true pains the contractions of the uterus are to be
readily felt through the abdominal wall. As the labor
advances the pains grow more severe and the intervals
shorter. The first stage of labor consists in the dila-
tion of the uterus, and ends when the membranes have
ruptured and the uterus is completely dilated.
The second stage or stage of expulsion ends when
the child is born.
679
86 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
The third stage ends when the placenta is expressed
and the uterus contracted to the size of a closed hand.
At the beginning of the first stage, the patient
should have a bath, and her hair braided in two
braids. Her bowels are emptied by the giving of a
soap suds enema. After this the external parts are
washed with bichloride solution, 1-5000, and a pad
wet .with bichloride solution, i-ioooo, or boric acid
applied. She is as a rule allowed to walk around
the room during the first stage, which may last from
ten to twelve hours, and even longer.
She is best clad at this time in a night gown, warm
wrapper, and long stockings made of flannel or an old
blanket, coming well up over the thigh.
Milk and broths should be given every two hours ;
alcohol and other stimulants must be withheld.
The patient must be instructed not to bear down
during the pains of this stage, and to sit or lie down
when a pain occurs.
The During the second stage the patient must be kept
S sta"e str i c tb r in bed. The wrapper is removed and a short
dressing sack put on in its place, the night gown is
tied up under the arms, and with it a sheet, the end
of which comes down over the legs covering the
blanket stockings, which are left on ; it can be folded
up in the center when necessary.
The patient usually lies on her back. A strong band
of muslin around the foot of the bed, with the ends so
that she can hold them to pull on, will help the patient
during pains.
680
OBSTETRICS 87
The attendant's hands must be well scrubbed and
disinfected with bichloride, i-iooo, that she may be
ready to help the doctor.
If the doctor does not arrive in time, the attendant,
taking all antiseptic precautions, must place her hand
against the head as soon as it appears and hold it
back during the pains, thus preventing too rapid
descent. When the head is delivered insert the finger
into the passage to see if the cord be around the neck,
if so, pull it carefully over the head. The right hand
supports the child as it comes, and the other is placed
on the abdomen and pressed firmly but gently down-
ward till the child is expelled. One hand must be held
over the uterus from this time until at least half an
hour after the placenta is expelled.
Place the child on its right side between the mother's Care of
thighs, wipe out its eyes and mouth with swabs wet the Chii<:
in boric acid ; place gauze over the mouth and blow
into it ; if it does not cry, slap it on the back and chest ;
if the color does not improve the cord will have to be
tied and cut immediately (it is generally better to wait
five minutes before doing this) and the child plunged
into a hot bath. It is rarely necessary to do this, how-
ever. The cord should be tied tightly with the sterile
tape about an inch and a half from the navel, and
again an inch further on; it is then cut (with sterile
scissors) between the two knots. The baby is rubbed
with vaseline or olive oil, rolled in the flannel square,
and a warmed blanket, then put in its crib with at least
681
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
The
Third
Stage
The
Binder
one hot water bottle until the mother is attended to.
The placenta is generally expressed about fifteen or
twenty minutes after the birth of the child ; but even
if it take longer, the cord should not be pulled upon
it is better to gently manipulate the abdomen above
the uterus, and continue doing this very gently with
one hand as the placenta comes out, while with the
other hand twist slowly to aid its coming. Even after
ENDS OP THE Y BREAST BINDER
the placenta is expressed, the hand must remain
pressed downward over the uterus until it feels hard
and firm. An assistant can in the meantime be wash-
ing the patient with bichloride, 1-2000, and removing
the soiled linen. When the uterus is firm and hard a
binder should be applied, a dressing of sterile gauze
and a pad being first placed over the vulva; this is
afterward pinned on to the binder to keep it in place.
The binder is best made of unbleached muslin. One
for a medium size woman should be a yard and a
682
OBSTETRICS 89
quarter long and half a yard wide. It should, when
pinned in place, extend from the border of the ribs
to below the prominence of the hips, and should be
made to fit the contour of the body by taking in darts
over the hips on the upper and lower edges.
A binder is also used to make compression upon Y Breast
the breasts. There are a variety of these, but the Y Binder
Y BREAST BINDER (a) AND ABDOMINAL
BINDER (b) IN PLACE
breast binder originally used in the Boston Lying-in
Hospital is perhaps the easiest one to manage, and
has the advantage of leaving the nipples exposed. A
bandage shaped like a T is made by folding muslin
lengthwise and pinning it at right angles to another
strip folded in the same way. The T is then made into
a Y by making a diagonal fold in the middle of the
cross piece and fastening the middle of the plait with
safety pins.
To apply, dust the surface of breasts with powder,
draw base of Y beneath the patient's back until apex
683
90 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
of the fork is external to the outer edge of breast.
Lift breasts upward and toward each other. Draw
lower arm of fork snugly across chest beneath breasts,
the inferior border of this arm extending at least one
inch below margin of breasts; the end of arm is
pinned to end of strap, which has been passed beneath
back; the lower border is pinned in the center to
abdominal binder. The upper arm of fork is then
drawn across chest above the breasts and pinned like
the lower to the main strap.
Hemorrhage Watch for the signs of hemorrhage already de-
scribed. Should hemorrhage occur send for the doctor
immediately; induce contractions of the uterus by
grasping the fundus and employing a firm but gentle
kneading (no doctor would leave the case in your
charge without showing you exactly how to do this).
Elevate the foot of the bed, and give a hot douche of
sterile water, 120 F. Sometimes astringents such as
vinegar are added to the douche, but unless the case
is very urgent it is best not to use it without the
doctor's order.
The patient must be kept quiet and on her back for
the first six or seven hours, afterward she can turn on
her side but should not sit up for at least five days.
She is generally allowed to sit up on fourteenth day,
if all discharge has ceased. In no case should the
usual routine of life be resumed under four weeks.
The diet is usually liquid for the first twenty-four
hours, after which all symptoms being normal, the
patient is allowed almost any easily digested food.
684
CARE OF THE CHILD 91
The dressing and pad should be changed every two
hours until the discharge diminishes, later every three
to five, as the case demands. After the third day it is
usually necessary to change it only after it has been
removed for the requirements of the patient. These
dressings must all be sterile and the hands disinfected
before applying them. If douches are ordered, boil
the douche nozzle for five minutes before and after use.
The breasts must be washed with boric acid solution
before and after nursing.
THE CARE OF THE CHILD
After its birth the child's eyes and mouth are
cleansed with 2 per cent boric acid solution and its
whole body greased with sweet oil or sterilized vase-
line. It is then wrapped in warm flannel, put in a crib
or basket, heated with hot water bags if necessary, and
covered with a warmed blanket. It can then be left
until the mother is cared for. Watch the cord care-
fully as there is danger of hemorrhage.
The first bath is often given at once, although some
"doctors prefer to have the baby rubbed with oil only Bath
for the first few days. Before beginning have every-
thing necessary together a foot tub containing water,
100 F., bath thermometer, warm, soft towels, wash
cloth, castile soap, dusting powder, a dressing for the
cord, boric acid solution, small squares of gauze, a
rubber lap protector, two diapers, flannel band, shirt,
flannel petticoat, and a simple, soft white dress.
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92 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
The head is first washed, using very little soap,
rinsed and thoroughly dried ; then wash behind the
ears, the crevices of the neck, axilla, joints, and be-
tween the buttocks and thighs carefully. Only the
part being bathed should be exposed. The baby is
now put down into the tub and rinsed, supporting the
head and back firmly with the left hand and arm.
Cover the lap protector with flannel apron or warm
towel and when you lift the baby out, roll this around
it. Dry by patting; use very little powder and only
when it is necessary to prevent chafing. Some doctors
consider it better not to put the baby in the tub until
after the cord is off.
Navel The navel is now dressed by cutting a hole with
Dressing sterile scissors in a piece of sterile gauze, which is
slipped over the cord and folded about it. The cord is
laid toward the left side and a pad of sterile absorbent
cotton put over it. A soft flannel binder holds the pad
in place and must be put on firmly and smoothly, but
not too tightly. It is best sewn on with a few large
stitches. After the bath the baby should be rolled in
warm flannel and laid on its right side in its crib.
Nursing The Feeding. The first six weeks the baby should
nurse every two hours during the day and every three
hours at night ; afterward this may be changed to every
three hours during the day and twice at night. These
hours should be rigidly adhered to. If the baby seems
thirsty between meals a little plain water may be given.
The baby's mouth should be washed with 2 per cent
boric acid solution before and after feeding and also
the mother's nipples.
686
FOOD FOR THE SICK 93
When for any reason it is impossible for the mother
to nurse the child, great care must be exercised in the
preparation of its food. First the bottle and nipples
must be thoroughly cleansed immediately after each
feeding by rinsing in cold water, then washing in hot
water and soap suds and rinsing in hot water. The
bottle is kept turned upside down and the nipples in
a 2 per cent solution of boric acid. Both bottle and
nipples should be boiled for five minutes twice a day.
Every doctor has his own formula for prepared
milk, but whatever the preparation used it is best
pasteurized if not above suspicion.
FOOD FOB THE SICK
In many diseases, especially those accompanied by
fever, the powers of digestion are much impaired. For
this, as well as other reasons, it is necessary that all
food given should be in a liquid form. Milk, except
under certain conditions, is at such times considered
the best food, as it contains in a dilute form all the
constituents of the solids, namely : albumen, fat, sugar,
the inorganic salts of lime and potash, and water.
If curds appear in the stools, or vomiting ensues,
it shows that the milk is not being properly digested.
This difficulty may often be overcome by diluting it
with seltzer or other effervescent water, by the addi-
tion of lime water or bicarbonate of soda (ten grains
to a pint), or by peptonizing the milk. (The recipe
for the latter will be found at the end of the section.)
687
Amount
and
Frequency
Feeding
Cups
94 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
A good substitute for milk is white of egg, beaten
to a froth, diluted with an equal quantity of water,
and flavored with lemon juice.
Beef tea and broths contain very little nourishment,
and should, therefore, be given only occasionally, for
a change.
Patients on fluid diet should, as a rule, be given six
ounces every two hours, or half the quantity every
hour. Of course there are times as after operation,
or when the patient is nauseated when less must be
given.
When a patient is on liquid diet it is especially im-
perative to give her nourishment at stated times and
regular intervals. In giving see that it is taken very
slowly.
As a rule, when a patient is sick enough to be on
fluid diet it is necessary for her to maintain the re-
cumbent position, even while drinking, and there are
several devices to facilitate this. There is the old-
fashioned feeder with the spout, but the drinking tube
or "ideal glass" are preferable. When raising the
head slip the arm under the pillow; take care not to
throw the head forward, and by so doing make it
difficult to swallow. Never bring a glass to the patient
in your hand, but on a small tray or plate, and with
it a napkin to fold under the patient's chin and pre-
vent drops soiling the sheet.
When a patient is on milk diet her mouth should be
washed out after every feeding, with listerine or boric
688
FOOD FOR THE SICK 95
acid, otherwise it will soon become coated and sore.
Directions for doing this were given in the section
on the care of the teeth.
A convalescent patient should be given solid food Solid
only by degrees, beginning with the so-called soft diet,
which includes broths, strained vegetable soups, soft
cooked eggs, milk toast, junkets, custard, jellies, and
raw beef sandwiches. Then comes "light diet," which
means the addition to the "soft diet" of underdone
steak, chops, chicken, baked potatoes, and farinaceous
puddings.
Pastry and all rich or highly seasoned food should
be avoided until the patient has, in every respect, re-
sumed her usual routine of life.
In diseases such as rheumatism, Bright's disease, g ecial
diabetes, dyspepsia, etc., where fever is not the most Diet
important symptom, but where the effect of certain
foods must be taken into account, a special diet is
prescribed. As the patient's general condition must
be considered in the prescribing of such, I think
it wise to make only a few general remarks on the
subject, as a great deal of harm is frequently done by
following set rules for medication and food, by those
who are unable to recognize symptoms contra-indi-
cating their use.
In many forms of febrile disease, as for instance
tuberculosis, light diet can be given even while there
is fever, nourishing food being a most important item
in the treatment.
689
Dainty
Serving
96 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
In diabetes, sugar and starchy foods, most fruits,
and alcoholic drinks must be avoided. Gluten bread
should be used, and that not too fresh; saccharine
should be used instead of sugar for sweetening not
only tea and coffee, etc., but also in cooking. Fresh
milk should not be taken, but buttermilk and koumyss
are allowed.
In rheumatism and gout, as in diabetes, all sweeten-
ing should be done with saccharine, and sweets of all
kinds are prohibited, also pastry, puddings, jellies,
pork, veal, and all fried meats. Fruit except straw-
berries and bananas, is allowed.
TRAY WITH FEET
Too great stress cannot be laid on the necessity for
x a dainty serving of the patient's meals. They should
be either very hot or perfectly cold, as the case re-
quires. Have clean napkins, spotless china, and shin-
ing silver and glass. Be careful in carrying the tray
not to spill any of the fluids, and, as has been said
before, do not have too much on the tray at a time.
Furthermore, that the patient may thoroughly enjoy
the meal, it is necessary that she should be perfectly
690
FOOD FOR THE SICK 97
comfortable. Therefore, before bringing in the tray,
wash her face and hands, shake up the pillows, and
decide where it is best to set the tray. If there is no
bedside table or tray with feet, it "is a good plan to
have two blocks of wood to put on each side of the
patient. They should be about the width of the tray,
and high enough to hold it off the patient's chest.
Magazines will answer the purpose if the blocks can-
not be obtained. Always protect the night-gown and
bed clothes with a towel or table napkin.
RECIPES
Milk
In warming milk for drinking never allow it to Ne y 6 r
boil, and always keep it covered. It is the coagula-
tion of the casein by boiling, and the evaporation of
certain gases, that renders it indigestible.
Brandy Milk with Egg
Beat one egg with one tablespoonful of sugar; add
two tablespoonfuls of brandy and a cup of cold milk.
Koumyss
I qt. perfectly fresh milk.
i -5th of a 2-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast.
i tablespoonful of sugar.
Dissolve the yeast in a little water ; mix it with the Five
sugar and milk. Put the mixture into strong bottles ; ^qui
cork them with tightly fitting stoppers; tie down se-
curely with stout twine. Shake the bottles for a full
691
98 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
minute; place them on end in a refrigerator; at the
end of three days lay them on their sides ; turn them
occasionally. Five days will be required to perfect
fermentation. Kept in the refrigerator and well corked
koumyss will keep indefinitely.
Milk Lemonade
I tablespoonful sugar.
I cup boiling water.
34 cup lemon juice.
54 cup sherry.
I ;4 cups cold milk.
Pour the boiling 1 water over the sugar; add the
lemon juice and sherry. Stir it until the sugar dis-
solves; add the cold milk; stir again until the milk
curdles ; strain through muslin.
Milk Punch
Sweeten i cup of milk with I teaspoonful of sugar ;
stir in 2 tablespoon fuls of brandy; beat with egg-
beater ; pour into glass and grate nutmeg over the top.
Milk Rennet
Uge Stir I teaspoonful of rennet and 2 teaspoonfuls of
D ciina snerrv together with I teaspoonful of sugar. Heat I
pint of milk until it is exactly 100 F. ; pour into bowl
containing rennet and wine; stir quickly and only
enough to mix ingredients ; grate nutmeg over the top,
and set on ice till solid.
FOOD FOR THE SICK 99
Peptonized Milk
Mix 5 grains of pancreatic extract and 15 of soda
bicarbonate with cold milk; warm a pint of milk and
add ; stir well and put on ice to cool.
Barley Gruel
Mix I tablespoonful of Robinson's barley-flour with GrueU
half a teaspoonful of sugar; pour over this a cup of
boiling water ; boil ten minutes ; add a cup of milk ;
bring to boiling point ; serve very hot.
Arrowroot Gruel
Mix half a tablespoonful of arrowroot with I salt-
cpoonful of salt, half a teaspoonful of sugar, wet with
2 tablespoonfuls of cold water ; pour on a cup of boil-
ing water, stirring constantly. Boil for twenty min-
utes ; add the milk, and bring to boiling point ; strain ;
serve immediately. A little port wine -is often added.
Oatmeal Gruel
Mix 2 tablespoonfuls of oatmeal, half a teaspoonful
of sugar and a saltspoonful of salt. Pour this slowly
into boiling water; cook in a saucepan for thirty
minutes, or, preferably, in a double boiler for two
hours; strain; add the milk, and bring to boiling
point.
Cracker Gruel
Mix 2 tablespoonfuls of cracker crumbs with half a
saltspoonful of salt and half a teaspoonful of sugar.
Pour over this a cup of boiling water, add one cup of
milk and simmer for two minutes.
693
ioo HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Beef Tea
Cut two pounds of round steak into half-inch
squares ; put into double boiler and add one quart of
water ; let stand one hour, then place over fire and let
simmer two hours ; flavor to taste.
Chicken Broth
Broths Cut up a fowl (which has been properly cleaned)
into small pieces ; add a quart or a quart and a half of
cold water, according to size of fowl. Let stand for
one hour and simmer for two hours, then boil slightly
for one. Strain it, remove fat, and flavor to taste.
Mutton Broth
Cut one pound of loin or neck of mutton into small
pieces; put with one teaspoonful of chopped onion
into one quart of water. Let stand one hour, and
simmer three ; . strain ; let cool ; then remove the fat
whith rises to the top. Heat when ready to serve ;
season with salt and white pepper.
Flaxseed Tea
Drinks Boil one tablespoonful of flaxseed in a pint of water
for one hour ; strain ; add one tablespoonful of lemon
juice and one tablespoonful of sugar; serve either hot
or cold. The loss by evaporation should be made good
from time to time, so that at the end of the cooking
there shall be one pint of tea.
Coffee
For every cup of water use a heaped tablespoonful
of coffee. Soak the coffee for several hours in cold
694
FOOD FOR THE SICK 101
water; bring to boiling point and let simmer for a
few minutes ; let stand on the back of the stove for a
minute to settle before serving.
Caudle
To a cupful of thin oatmeal gruel add a tablespoonful
of sherry, one egg well beaten, sugar to taste ; it can
be served either hot or cold.
Toast Water
Toast till dry three slices of bread an inch thick;
break into small pieces ; add a pint of cold water ; soak
for an hour; strain, and squeeze the water out of the
toast with the back of a spoon. Serve cold ; if desired
a little cream and sugar may be added.
Barley Water
Boil one tablespoonful of barley flour, a teaspoonful
of sugar, a saltspoonful of salt and a quart of water
together for fifteen minutes ; strain ; it can be flavored
either with lemon juice or port or sherry wine.
Rice Water
This is made in the same manner as barley water,
except that two tablespoonfuls of rice will be required
to a quart of water.
Oyster Soup
Heat a cup of milk; add two tablespoonfuls of
cracker crumbs, a saltspoonful of salt, a sprinkle of
pepper, a fourth of a teaspoonful of butter ; when this
is warm through add a cup of fresh oysters and juice;
695
102 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
allow to simmer for about two minutes, or till the gills
of the oysters curl.
Milk Toast
Toast three slices of bread a delicate brown ; butter
them and put them into a covered dish. Cover them
with milk which has been brought almost to boiling
point.
Soft Custard
Beat together the yolks of two eggs, a saltspoonful
of salt, and two tablespoonfuls of sugar; add this
slowly to a pint of milk which has been brought to
boiling point ; boil three minutes. Flavor with vanilla
or sherry wine; serve cold.
Egg-nogr
Egg Break one egg into a bowl ; add one saltspoon-
ful of salt and two teaspoonfuls of sugar ; beat
until light ; add one cup of milk, one or two tablespoon-
fuls of good brandy or whisky ; serve immediately.
Sherry and Egg
Break an egg into a bowl ; add a teaspoonful of
sugar; beat the two together until well mixed; add
two tablespoonfuls of sherry wine and a fourth of a
cup of cold water ; mix thoroughly ; strain, and serve
immediately.
Scrambled Eggs
Beat two eggs, a saltspoonful of salt, a sprinkle of
white pepper, with a Dover egg-beater, until quite
light ; add four tablespoonfuls of sweet cream or milk ;
696
FOOD FOR THE SICK 103
turn the mixture into a double boiler; cook, stirring
constantly until the albumen is coagulated.
Foamy Omelet
Separate the yolks from the whites of two eggs. To
the yolks add a saltspoonful of salt and one-fourth of
a saltspoonful of pepper. Beat with a Dover egg-
beater until light; add two tablespoonfuls of milk.
Beat the whites until fairly stiff, and fold them into
the yolk ; pour the mixture into a hot buttered omelet
pan ; cook for about two minutes ; put into the oven for
one minute to cook the upper surface.
Egg Cream
Separate the yolks of two eggs from the whites ;
add two tablespoonfuls of sugar to the yolks; beat
until well mixed ; add the juice and grated rind of half
a lemon ; place the bowl in a dish of boiling water on
the fire ; stir slowly until the mixture begins to thicken ;
add the beaten whites of eggs, and stir for two minutes.
Serve cold.
Poached Eggs
Pour some boiling water into a small saucepan ; salt
it and add half a teaspoonful of vinegar ; break a fresh
egg gently into this. As soon as the white is firm lift
out the egg with a skimmer, and put on crustless but-
tered toast.
Soft Cooked Eggs
Never boil eggs for the sick. Boil enough water to
cover the eggs ; put them in ; remove the saucepan to
697
io 4 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
the back of the stove where the water will not lose its
warmth too soon, and let them stand ten minutes.
Jellies
Jellies The or der for making nearly all jellies is as follows:
The gelatine is hydrated, or softened, by soaking in the
cold water for half an hour. The boiling water, sugar
and flavoring are then added, in the given order.
Strain and cool.
Lemon Jelly
Y^ box of gelatine.
y\ cup of cold water.
1^4 cups of boiling water.
^2 cup of sugar.
l /4 cup of lemon juice.
I tablespoon ful of brandy.
Orange Jelly
*4 box of gelatine.
% CU P f c ld water.
l /2 cup of boiling water.
y 2 cup of sugar.
i cup of orange juice.
Juice of half a lemon.
As soon as the latter begins to stiffen it can be
whipped till stiff, making orange sponge, which,
served with custard, makes a very dainty dish.
Velvet Cream
Soak y^ box of gelatine in J4 CU P of c ld water for
half an hour ; then pour in % cup of sherry wine ; set
698
FOOD FOR THE SICK 105
the bowl in a dish of boiling water over the fire. When
the gelatine is dissolved add a teaspoonful of lemon
juice and y 2 a cup of sugar; strain; set the bowl in a
dish of ice and water to cool. As soon as it begins to
thicken turn in the cream. Stir this until it also thick-
ens; mould and put on ice. Serve with cream.
Wine Jelly
y\. box of gelatine. , .
J4 cup of cold water.
1*4 cups of boiling water.
y 2 cup of sugar.
y> a square inch cinnamon.
i clove.
y 2 cup of sherry wine.
Coffee Jelly
l /4 box gelatine.
y\ cup of cold water,
i cup of boiling water.
y 2 cup of strong coffee.
y 2 a teaspoonful of vanilla.
y 2 a cup of sugar.
EMERGENCIES. FIRST AID TO THE INJURED
In all emergencies one of the chief requisites is
coolness. Do not get excited, or you will be perfectly
useless. When the doctor's services are necessary send
him a written statement of the case, that he may come
prepared with the proper appliances. Severe injury
699
io6 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
of any kind is apt to be followed by that complete
prostration of the vital powers known as "shock."
Therefore, after such, the patient should be put into a
warm bed, and hot water bags applied to the feet and
over the heart.
Exclude Scalds and Burns. In the treatment of scalds and
burns the first object is to allay the pain by excluding
the air. This is done best by the application of clean,
soft, white linen or cotton cloths wrung out in a solu-
tion made by dissolving a tablespooriful of bicarbonate
of soda (baking soda) in a pint of boiled water. This
treatment can be continued for the first few days;
afterwards boric acid ointment spread on lint or soft
sterile cotton will be found healing. Do not try to
treat a burn of any extent without a doctor's advice,
as many complications are likely to ensue. In fact, in
such cases, it is always best to send for the doctor
immediately, as many people have died from shock
after comparatively small burns.
Frost Bites. Rub with snow, or cloths wrung out in
ice-water. The rubbing must be very light at first, and
the patient kept away from the heat.
Syncope or Fainting. Place the head lower than the
feet if possible; give plenty of fresh air. Ammonia
may be given by inhalation, but it should not be very
strong, as it is irritating to the bronchial tubes. If
these measures are not successful treat as in case of
shock.
700
EMERGENCIES 107
Shock. Put the patient into a warm bed; undress
and roll in blankets ; apply heat to the extremities and
over the heart; raise the foot of the bed, so that the
patient's head will be considerably lower than the feet.
If possible avoid giving stimulation till the doctor
arrives ; if, however, he cannot be found, and the case
is urgent, give a rectal injection of whisky I oz.,
water 5 ozs. (105 R), salt 5 grains. Coffee may be
used instead of water and salt.
Epilepsy. Loosen all clothing; put something be-
tween the teeth to prevent the tongue being bitten;
have the head on a level with the feet ; give plenty
of fresh air but no stimulants.
Drowning. In cases of drowning where a person is
apparently lifeless, efforts to restore life should be
commenced at once by loosening all tight clothing
around neck, chest, and waist. Turn the patient over
quickly on his face, raising the body slightly at the
waist to allow any water in the throat or air passages
to run out. Wrap a handkerchief or a towel around
the forefinger and gently cleanse the mouth. All this
should take only a minute or two. Place the person
upon his back with a folded coat or a firm pad of any
kind under his shoulders to raise them a little. Be
careful that the tongue does not slip back and shut
off the air from the trachea. If it shows any tendency
to do so, have some one hold it out, or tie a hand-
kerchief around it and then around the neck.
701
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HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Artificial
Respiration
Now artificial respiration should be produced until
the natural breathing is restored. To do this kneel
ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION (First Movement)
behind the patient and grasping his arms just below
the elbows, draw them slowly upward above his head
until they nearly touch. Give a firm pull for a mo-
ment. This movement tends to fill the lungs with air
by raising the ribs and increasing the chest cavity.
ARTIFICIAL, RESPIRATION (Second Movement)
Then carry the arms slowly back to the sides of the
body and press them against the ribs. This movement
forces out the air which was drawn into the lungs and
makes artificially a complete respiration. These two
702
EMERGENCIES.
109
movements should be repeated slowly and steadily
about sixteen times in a minute, until respiration takes
place naturally. This may require an hour or more.
Asphyxiation, Caused by Gas, Smoke, etc. Remove
the patient into the fresh air, loosen the clothing,
throw cold water in the face, neck, and chest; apply
heat to the feet and over the heart. If respiration is
EXPELLING THE AIR (Third Movement)
shallow, artificial respiration should be performed, and,
if necessary, treat as for shock.
Contusions, or Bruises, are best treated by rest and
cold applications.
Wounds. When there is a cut, the first procedure,
provided there is no hemorrhage, is to wash out the
wound well with bichloride, 1-5000, and bind it up
with sterile gauze. A wound will heal without the
formation of pus if all bacteria are killed or kept out.
When the cut is long, or the ends of the wound do not
come together well, the doctor should be summoned,
as putting in a few stitches may prevent an unsightly
Guarding
Against
Blood
Poisoning
703
i io HOME CARE OF THE SICK
' scar. (Having bichloride and sterile gauze always in
the house would save many a case of blood poison,
Toumi uet infected fingers, etc.) Collodion is useful in keeping
bacteria out of small cuts and in applying absorbent
cotton over wounds in places where bandages cannot
be used.
Hemorrhage. Elevate the affected part ; make com-
pression over the wound by applying clean compresses
and bandaging tightly. If this does not check it, and
you do not know the course of the arteries well enough
Manner of compressing ail artery with a handkerchief and stick.
to make compression upon the required one, tie on a
bandage very tightly above the wound. A pencil or a
piece of wood stuck under this, and turned around,
will act as a tourniquet. When possible, in addition
to this it is always better to place a hard pad over the
course of the artery. A doctor's aid must be sought
immediately, for if the blood is shut off in this manner
longer than an hour gangrene is likely to set in.
704
EMERGENCIES
in
Epistaxis (bleeding from the nose). Make the pa-
tient stand or sit erect; throw the head back and
elevate the arms, while you apply ice or ice-cold com-
presses to the forehead and back of neck. If the
bleeding still continues the nostrils should be syringed
with salt and water, ice cold. Avoid blowing the nose,
and so disturbing the formation of clots.
Hemorrhage from the Lungs. Keep the patient
quiet, give crushed ice, and put ice-cap on chest. Salt
solution made by dissolving a teaspoonful of salt in a
small cup of water may also be given.
Sprains occur most frequently at the wrist and ankle
joint. Soak the affected part in hot water, or apply
hot compresses. The joint should then be supported
by strapping, and given moderate use. A surgeon
should do the strapping, for if it is not properly done
serious trouble may result.
Fractures. It is a mistaken impression that a frac-
ture must be set immediately. It will do less harm
for it to be left a day or two without splints than for
them to be applied awkwardly. Handle the injured
limb as little as possible, and keep the patient quiet
until a competent surgeon can be obtained. Temporary
splints made of pasteboard, shingles, etc., may be
bound on to prevent the spasmodic twitching of the
muscles; cold or hot compresses applied will keep
down the swelling and relieve the pain.
Dislocations should be reduced as soon as possible,
but only a surgeon can do this properly.
Cold
Applications
Strapping
Fractures
Need
Not Be Set
At Once
705
1 12 HUME LAKE <Jb '1 M h SI L A
FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EYE, EAR, NOSE, THROAT
The Eye. If anything gets under the lower lid, draw
the lid down by the lashes, direct the patient to turn
the eyeball toward the nose, and the offending body
can then be wiped out with a soft handkerchief. If it
is under the upper lid, this can be turned up over a
thin pencil or knitting needle, and treated in the same
way, except that the patient is directed to look down.
Always wipe the eye towards the nose. If the particle
is imbedded in the surface of the eyeball a surgeon
must be notified immediately ; do not make any effort
to get it out.
Use Nothing Foreign Body in the Ear. Unless the object is
something that will swell with moisture, syringe gently
with warm water, taking care not to close the opening
with the nozzle of the syringe. If this method fails go
to a doctor ; any unskilled effort to poke or probe the
object out is likely to result in permanent injury to
the ear.
The Nose. When a foreign body is in the nostril
make the patient take a full breath, then close the
mouth and the other nostril firmly the air will prob-
ably expel the obstruction. If this fails, and the object
is in sight, compress the nostrils above and hook it
out with a hairpin or piece of bent wire.
A Foreign Body in the Throat may be hooked out
in the same way; if not, a piece of bread should be
swallowed ; this may carry down the obstruction. Do
not give purgative medicine, as is often done, but
706
POISONS AND ANTIDOTES 113
rather plenty of solid food, especially potatoes and
bread.
A Foreign Body in the Windpipe will usually be
dislodged by the coughing which its presence excites ;
if not, a blow on the back, or, in the case of a child,
holding it up by the feet and administering a succes-
sion of blows between the shoulders will generally
produce the desired effect.
POISONS AND ANTIDOTES
The treatment has three objects in view: to re- Give an
move the poisonous substance, neutralize its further ^t^onc
action, and remedy the ill effects already produced. ,
An emetic is the first consideration. A tablespoonful
of salt or mustard stirred into a glass of lukewarm
water will usually prove effective. This dose should be
repeated three or four times. An enema should also
be given, the patient kept warm, and, as soon as vomit-
ing ceases, the chemical antidote given.
The following table of the chemical antidotes and
further treatment of the most common poisons should
be learned and remembered.
Carbolic Acid. Lime water and milk, equal parts,
a pint to a pint and a half. Atropine and heart stimu-
lants, such as whisky and strychnine, may be required,
given hypodermically.
Nitric or Oxalic Acid. Chalk or whiting, the plaster
from walls, milk and lime water. Give whichever can
be obtained quickest.
707
H4 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Ammonia. Vinegar or lemon juice, followed by
castor or olive oil.
Arsenic. The best antidote is tincture of iron, di-
luted with v/ater, and either baking or washing soda.
Lacking this, or till it can be obtained, give milk and
white of egg, or flour and water.
Aconite or Belladonna. Strong, hot coffee. Give
artificial respiration if necessary.
Bichloride of Mercury (corrosive sublimate). White
f e SS white of two eggs to a pint of water.
Calomel. The same as bichloride of mercury.
Opium. Strong, hot coffee. Keep the patient
awake, using artificial respiration when necessary ;
permanganate of potash and tannic acid are the best
chemical antidotes, but they can rarely be obtained
in a hurry.
BANDAGES AND BANDAGING.
Materials The materials most commonly used for making
bandages are either unbleached muslin or gauze. Mus-
lin bandages are best when necessary to keep a splint
in place, or make firm pressure. Gauzes are infinitely
preferable when the object is only to keep a surgical
dressing in position; they adapt themselves more
neatly to the part, and are much cooler.
Bandages should be six to eight yards long; they
vary in width from one inch to four ; one inch for
finger bandages, two for hands and feet, two and a
708
BANDAGING n$
half to three for head and arms, three to four for legs,
spicas, etc.
The three fundamental forms of bandaging are : the
spiral, reverse, and figure eight.
The figure eight principle is the one most used, and Figure
is the easiest method to learn. It is made by turning Bandage
the bandage round the limb in the form of the figure
8, each figure being higher than the preceding one,
but overlapping it one-third of its width. A bandage
must lie smoothly without wrinkles, making an even
but not too severe pressure. It must not be loose
enough to slip, yet not tight enough to be painful or
impede the circulation.
When finishing a bandage always put the pin on the Finishing
outer side of a limb, and in all cases where it will
least interfere with the patient's comfort. Safety pins
should always be used.
In bandaging a limb begin at the extremity, and
work upwards from left to right. Hold the bandage
with the roll side upward.
To bandage a foot start the free end of the bandage Foot
at the instep, make a turn around the base of the toes, Bandage
carry the bandage diagonally over the foot, across the
point of the heel, and back from the other side till it
coincides with the first turn. Cover this, and carry a
second turn around the heel, half an inch higher th'an
the first. Continue making alternate turns under the
sole and behind the heel, crossing over the instep, until
the foot is covered. Finish with a couple of circular
709
Leg
Bandage
ii6 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
turns around the ankle, or, if desired, continue up the
leg.
The beginning of the leg bandage is placed obliquely
across the leg above the ankle ; a circular turn keeps
it in place; then the bandage is inclined up the leg,
and a turn taken around it. It is then brought down-
ward, and another turn taken around the ankle. Sue-
si a
FIGURE 8 OF THE FOOT.
cessive turns are to be made, each one higher than
the preceding, till the entire limb is covered.
To bandage a hand begin at the top of the first
finger and cover it by a succession of oblique circular
turns, or figures of eight, to its base. Then make a
turn around the wrist to keep these from slipping, and
return to the root of the second finger. Lead the
710
BANDAGING
117
bandage by one or two spirals to the top of this, then
proceed down it, as upon the first finger, concluding
with another turn upon the wrist. Cover each finger
successively in the same way ; then take a wider
bandage, start at the back of the
hand and wind it around the base
of the fingers, carry it obliquely
across the back of the hand around
the wrist, back to the further side,
and again around the palm. Con-
tinue these turns alternately till the
hand is covered. The arm is ban-
daged in the same manner as the
leg.
When it is only necessary to cover
the forehead or back of the head the
figure-of-eight is all that is required. Figure 8 of the Leg
Start the bandage over the ear, carry it across the
eyebrows and around the back of the head as high as
possible. Continue to wind it round thus, making
FIGURE 8 OF THE ARM.
each turn a little higher in the front, and lower in the
back, until you have covered as much surface as
required. When the whole head needs covering
the capeline is better. This is put on by a
The
Capeline
711
ii8 HOME CARE OF THE SICK
double roller (join two bandages by rolling). Stand
behind the patient, and, taking one roll in each hand,
begin low on the forehead and carry them round the
head, far down on the nape of the neck ; then transfer
the bandage in the left hand to the one in the right,
and continue it round, while the other is folded over
at right angles with it, and brought across the top of
the head to the front. Here it meets the other and
crosses it again, running backward and overlapping
the former folds. These turns are continued until the
Bandage of the Hand
whole head is covered, one bandage going round and
round it, and the other going back and forth across
it ; all the folds leading from the front of the head to
the back should be on the left of the middle, while
those leading toward the front should be on the right.
Finish with a circular turn around the head; fasten
with a safety pin in front.
The tailed bandages are often found very convenient,
especially for keeping poultices and the like in posi-
tion.
The four tailed bandage of the head is made from
a piece of muslin eight inches wide and long enough
712
BANDAGING 119
to go over the scalp and tie under the chin. It is torn
from each extremity to within three or four inches
of the middle. The body of the bandage is placed on
FIGURE 8 OF THE HEAD
the top of the head, the two posterior tails tied under
the chin, and the two anterior ones around the back of
THE CAPELINE
the neck. If it is desired to cover the front of the
head the body of the bandage is placed at this point,
the two anterior tails are fastened at the back of the
head, and the two posterior ones down under the jaw
713.
120
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
A four tailed bandage for the knee is made by
splitting a strip of muslin at each end, to within two
or three inches of the center. Place the body of the
FOUR-TAILED BANDAGE OF THE HEAD
bandage over the knee, carry the tails under the knee,
cross them so that the lower ^ones will come above the
joint, and the upper ones below; bring
them around, and tie in front,
unitetm A scultetus, or many tailed, is used
on the abdomen, to obtain pressure, to
keep a surgical dressing or poultice in
place, etc. To make it take four or five
strips three inches wide and a yard and
a quarter to a yard and a half long, sew
them together in the center for a quar-
ter of a yard, each one overlapping the
other by two-thirds of its width. To
apply, pass the bandage under the pa-
tient, so that the sewed part is under
her back; fold the strips alternately
: Four Tailed Band
over the abdomen/ from below upward, age of the Knee
714
BANDAGING
121
To make a sling take a square yard of muslin and
cut it across diagonally ; this makes two slings. When
the fore-arm is injured its whole extent should be
supported equally. Put it in the center of the sling;
carry its outer end around the neck on the side of the
injured arm, and the end between the arm and the
Slings
SLINGS FOR LOWER AND UPPER ARMS
chest around the other side, tying them at the back.
The third end is brought around the elbow and fas-
tened in front.
If the injury is of the upper arm the sling should
support the wrist only, making no pressure on the
elbow. Turn the hand palm inward, fold the apex
of the bandage in place, the arm just above the wrist
in the center of the sling, cross the ends and tie them
around the neck.
The student should practice the various bandages
and slings described on some member of the family
or a friend. Some little experience is required before
they can be applied securely and neatly. The illustra-
tions will help to make the matter clear.
715
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
PART II
Read Carefully* Place your name and address on the
first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write
on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from
the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that your in-
structor may know that you understand the subject. Carry
out the directions given in the text, if possible, before
answering the questions.
1. How are infectious and contagious diseases alike?
How do they differ? Name some of each.
2. What precautionary measures should be taken
with typhoid fever? With consumption?
3. What are the rules when isolation is necessary?
4. What precautionary measures should be taken
by the attendant. while nursing in a contagious
disease?
5. How disinfect (a) the patient, (b) the room,
(c) the furnishings at the termination of a
contagious disease?
6. Why are the many precautions taken in surgical
operations and in childbirth?
7. What can you say of diet for the sick? Why
should special care be taken in serving?
8. What should the medicine closet contain in prepa-
ration for emergencies and accidents?
9. How would you treat a scald or burn? Frost
bite? A wound?
10. What is shock arid how should this condition be
treated?
716
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
11. Why should written directions be sent to the
doctor in accidents?
12. What would you do for a sprain? Fractures?
In case of hemorrhage from an arm or leg?
13. What should be done at once for one who has
fainted? One apparently drowned? Asphyxi-
ated?
14. Give the rules of hygiene in pregnancy.
15. Name some of the things to be provided for child-
birth. How should the room be prepared?
1 6. Describe the stages of labor.
17. What should be done if the doctor does not ar-
rive in time?
1 8. How should the child be cared for directly after
birth?
19. How would you remove a foreign body from the
eye? Ear? Nose? Throat?
20. In case of poisoning, what objects has the treat-
ment in view ?
21. What would you do for carbolic acid poisoning?
Bichloride of mercury? Arsenic? Opium?
22. Of what material are bandages made? How
should they be applied and fastened?
23. Bandage a foot as shown in the illustration and
then describe the process.
24. Try some of the other bandages described and
report.
25. Make and adjust a sling for the forearm. When
should it be used ?
26. What questions would you like to ask in connec-
tion with these lessons ? Tell of any experience
that you may have had in nursing and of meth-
ods that were helpful.
NOTE. After completing the test sign your full name.
717
SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR CLASS
STUDY ON
HOME CARE FOR THE SICK
MEETING I
(Study pages 1-13)
Symptoms of Disease
See Care of Children, pages 153-159, for children's dis-
eases. (Vol. XI of the Library of Home Economics.)
The Sick-Room.
See Household Hygiene, Ventilation and Heating,
Home Nursing, Harrison, pages 1-13. ($1.00, post-
age IOC.)
MEETING II
(Study pages 13-34)
Care of the Patient
Make bed with draw-sheet, as described in the text.
Change the bed as described.
Lift patient to sitting position.
Make back rest and foot brace.
Change patient from one bed to another, tv/o methods.
Change mattress with patient in bed.
Make a wadding ring to relieve pressure.
If possible, get a trained nurse to show how these things
are done.
Convalescence
Lift patient into a chair.
Topic Amusing the convalescent and sick children.
MEETING III
(Study pages 34-62.)
Baths and Bathing
Make up pitcher of water, cool, tepid, warm, etc., of
the various degrees of temperature given on page 41.
183
718
HOME CARE OF THE SICK
Test with a bath or other thermometer and with the
hand. Note how unreliable the hand may be; after
the hand has been in the cold water, the tepid water
feels warm, and after having been in the hot water,
the tepid water feels cold.
Home Nursing, Harrison, pages 63-73. ($*-, post-
age IOC,
Practical Points in Nursing, Emily Stoney, pages 83-93
($1.75, postage 2oc.)
Temperature, Pulse, Giving Medicine, etc.
Obtain a clinical thermometer and take temperature a
number of times, having all read the thermometer
to i- 1 oof a degree, and write the reading on slips of
paper. Compare results. If there is any difficulty
in shaking down the mercury, get a physician or
nurse to show how it is done. A clinical thermometer
may be purchased through the School for $1.25,
or will be loaned for ice.
Count the pulse in quarters for a second, as described,
and compare results as in the taking of temperature.
Count the respiration, as directed.
Have an exhibit of medicine glasses, feeding cups,
syringes, ice-caps.
Make poultices, sinapisms, flannel for fomentations,
compresses.
(Select answers to the Test Questions on Part I and send
to the School. Report on Meetings I, II, and III.)
MEETING IV
(Study pages 63-73)
Contagious Diseases: Disinfection
See article in the supplement, also send for and read
some of the following Bulletins issued by State
Boards of Health:
719
PROGRAM 185
Lansing, Michigan, "Dangerous Communicable Dis-
eases. "
Concord, New Hampshire, "Consumption.''
Springfield, Illinois, "Consumption'' also "Practical
Disinfection.' '
Augusta, Maine, "Contagious Diseases/'
Trenton, New Jersey, "Restriction of the Spread of
Infectious Diseases."
These Bulletins are sent free, or for a 2C stamp. Send
to your own State Board of Health, if not included
in the above; to your capital city, for any Bulletins.
MEETING V
(Study pages 73-105)
Surgical Work: Obstetrics
Practical Points in Nursing, Stoney, ($1.75, postage 2oc.)
Food for the Sick
Food and Cookery for the Sick and Convalescent.
($1.50, postage i8c.)
Food for the Sick, French, ($1.00, postage roc.)
Hand Book of Invalid Cookery, Boland, ($2.00, post-
age i6c.
Collect appropriate recipes in addition to those given
in the text.
Show dainty and suitable serving for the sick.
MEETING VI
(Study pages 105-121)
Emergencies
Practice artificial respiration, as described.
Make a tourniquet.
Bandaging and Bandages
Practice all the bandages described. If possible, get
a trained nurse to show methods.
(Select answers to the Test Questions on Part II and
report on Meetings IV, V, and VI.)
720
HOME CARE OF THE SlCK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Food and Cookery for the Sick and Convalescent ($1.50).
Fannie M. Farmer.
Food for the Sick ($1.00). Edward C. French.
Home Nursing ($1.00). Eveleen Harrison.
Nursing ($2.00). Isabel A. Hampton.
Practical Normal Histology ($1.25). T. Mitchell Prudden.
Practical Points in Nursing ($1.75). Emily A. N. Stoney.
Text Book of Nursing ($1.75). Clara Week Shaw.
MAGAZINES
The American Journal of Nursing.
The Trained Nurse.
Note. For the convenience of students the School will purchase and
forward any of the above books on receipt of the price given.
72 r
INDEX TO
THE PROFESSION OF HOME MAKING
HOME-STUDY COURSE
As this Course or book is made up of four different
books, the pages are re-numbered at the foot of the page's
to provide a complete index. In using this index refer
only to the numbers at the bottom of the pages.
Emergencies, accidents, poisons and antidotes, etc., are
printed in black-faced type as an aid to "quick reference."
Absorbents of grease, 88
Accidents, 699
Account, bank, 460
overdrawing, 464
Accounts, 442-571
balancing, 450
card systems, 446
credit, 448
envelope method, 444
itemized, 447
systems, 444
table of, 450
weekly, 450
Acetylene gas. 115
generators, 116
Acid definition of, 68
test for, 68, 132
Aconite, poisoning, 708
Adaptability, 447
Adaptation to conditions, 411
Adulterations, 562
Advance purchasing. 503
Advantages of domestic service, 481
of owning home, 422
Air, 22. 167
as food. 38
composition of, 24, 30
pressure, 23
properties of, 22
Air cushion rubber, 621
Airing the sick room. 604
Aitch bone, use of, 539
Albumin, 54
Alcohol as fuel, 328
Alkali, 68, 83, 133
Alkali, effect on paint, 98
Alkali metals, 70
Alladin oven, 188
Allowance for higher life, 437
personal, 468
Alum. 136
Ammonia, 70, 136
poisoning, 708
use of, 83, 126
Amusing patient, 623
Aniline, 114
Animal food, comparative composi-
tion of, 248
Animal productions, 557
Anthracite coal. 25
Antidote for poisons, 707
Apartment life, 493
Argon, 20
Arsenic poisoning, 708
Artificial breathing, 702
skin, 619
Ashes removing, 605
Asphyxiation, 703
Atmosphere, 20-22
Atmospheric pressure, 23, 154
Note. For page numbers, see foot of pages.
723
INDEX
Atoms, 128
Au gratia, 308
Baby, care of. 685
Back rests, 614
Bacon, 550
Baked beans. 397
Baking bread, 290
powder mixing, 294
powder strength of, 290
Baking, definition of. 368
Baking powder. 65. 123, 156, 175
chemistry of, 105
Balance sheet, 451
Bananas, 369
Bandages, 708-715
Capeline, 711
foot, 709
forehead, 711
fore tailed, 712
leg, 712
materials for, 708
of the hand. 712
Bandaging, 708
kinds of, 709
Bank account, 460
account-bookkeeping, 467
aid to house wife. 465
Bargains legitimate, 499
Basting, 191
Baths. 626
cleansing, 626
foot, 627
hot, 629
salt, 632
temperature for, 633
to reduce temperature, 628
Bath thermometer, 629
Batteries, 123
Bavarian cream, 380
Beans, 269, 369
Beating eggs, 246
Bed linen, 518
room furnishings cost of, 51'
Bed sores, 617
care of, 620
Bed. the, 601
changing, 608
height of, 601
making, 607
size of, 601
Beef, 369
Beef, corned, 542
fore quarter, 534
heart, 542
hind quarter, 537
quality of. 529
ribs of, 535
steak cuts of, 538
table of cuts of. 543
Beef braising. 394
Belladonna poisoning, 708
Bibliography, 1Q3, 322, 563
For page Cumbers, tee foot of pages
Bichloride of mercury disinfectant,
658
poisoning, 708
Biscuits, 288. 387
Bituminous coal. 33
Blanc Mange, 379
Bleaching, 94
powder, 94
Bleeding or hemorrhage, 704
Blood poisoning, 703
Blue flame oil stove, 35
Blueing, 145
clothes, 81
Blueing stains, 86
Bob veal, 546
Boiler, double. 201
Boiling, 190. 202, 368
Boiling clothes. 81
point. 19. 166
Bone black, 32
Bones nutriment in, 254
Books, for reference on Home Mak-
ing, 163. 322. 563
Borax, 75, 83, 133
use of, 83
Boston baked beans, 397
Boston brown bread 388
Bouillon, 377
Braising. 200. 368
Bran treatment, 628
Bread, 283, 391
Boston brown, 388
baking of, 290
digestibility of, 50
double process, 286
fancy, 289
flavoring of, 49
ideal, 47
kinds of, 46
left overs. 310
making, 48. 155
mixing. 281
short process, 28G
Breakfast. 320
foods, 277, 396
Breathing, artificial, 702
Brisket, use of, 537
Broiling, 190
Broiling, definition, 368
Broken bones, 705
Broth, 58
Brown sauce, 227
Brushing woolens, S3
Brussels carpet, 522
Budgets ideal, 419
typical, 417
Building, cost of. 455
Bulletins, by U. S. Government, free,
164. 322. 563
Burns, 700
Business, principles in home making,
408
side of home making, 504
INDEX
Butter, 224, 369, 559
composition of, 226
for flavoring, 225
precautions in use, 228
rancid, 229
Buying, 295
quantities, 499, 561
supplies, 499, 524
C
Caffeiu, 55
Cake. 297, 345
coffee, 391
flavoring of, 299
ingredients of, 299
making, 345
proportions in, 300
sponge, 242, 385
sweetening of, 300
Calomel poisoning, 708
Candle flame, chemistry of, 108
Cane sugar, 40
Canned foods, 21 1
Canning foods, 217
Caramel, 398
Carbohydrates, 38, 217
Carbolic acid disinfectant, 658
Carbolic acid poisoning, 707
Carbon. 25
dioxide of, 26, 168
monoxide of, 29
Carbonates, test for, 135
Card index system. -452
Cure of bed sores. 617
Care ot nurse, 6<i5
of patient, 605
of sick room. 601
Carpets, brussels, 522
grades of, 522
ingfain, 522
re-made. 524
tapestry. 522
Carrots, composition of, 369
Carving. 532
Casein, 54, 57
Catheterization, 649
Caustic potash. 70
Caustic soda. 70
Cell, dry, 124
leclanche. 122
voltaic, 121
Cells in series. 123
Cellulose, 39. 42, 263
where found, 369
Cement. 120
hydraulic, 120
Portland. 120
Cereals, cooking. 276, 396
Chafing dish. 1SS
Changing mattress, patient in bed,
617
patient, one bed to another, 615
position of patient, 614
Charcoal, 31, ISO
Charcoaly^naking of, 31
use yf\ 32
Chair* kitchen. 515
Chart, composition of food, 435
division of income, 420
economy of food, 435
Cheap cuts of beef, 541
Checks, 462
Cheese, 220, 229, 369
composition of. 229
nutritive value of. 229
Chemicals, care of, 132
closet for, 134
household, 131
signs, 128
terms, 127
Chemistry of a match. 29
of baking powder, 105
of bread making, 48
laundry, 78
of candle. 108
of cooking, 370
Chicken, roasting, 262
Chickenpox, 595
Chill, cause of. 27
Chloride of lime, 95
test for, 136
Chloride, action of, 95
Chlorophyl, 125
Choice of sick room. 601
Cholera infantum, 697
Chops. 393
Chowders, 307
Chuck, use <>f, 535
Classification of expenses, 458
value of. 413
Cleaning. 67, 102, 111
metal. 99
porcelain. lOn
with gasoline, 146
woodwork, 98
Clothing, cost of, 430
Coal. 32. 327
anthracite, 33
nituminous, 33
distillation of. 113
fuel value of 36, 325
gas, 113. 130
tar products, 114
Coffee, making, 202, 376
Coke. 33
Coking coal, 33
Cold storage, 204
Colic, treatment for, 596
Collagen, 55
Collodion, 619
Color of beef. 530
(Ombustion, 28, 37
in body. 38
spontaneous. 160
Comparison, testing by, 131
Composition of air, 24, 30, 176
of butter, 226
of cheese, 229
Note. For page numbers, sec foot of pages.
725
INDEX
Composition of fats, 52
of foods, table, 369
of gas, 158
of grains, 274
of milk, 219
of soap, 71
of sugar, 40
of water, 16
Compounds, 14
chemical, 69
washing, 73, 137, 173
Compresses, 654
Condiments, 313
Conservation of energy, 126 160
of matter, 31
principle of, 126
Constants in food, 317
Consumption, 659
definition of, 401
Contagion, 657
Contagious diseases, 594 661
Convalescence, 621
diet in, 621
Convulsions, 597
Cook books, use of. 340
Cookery, art of, 215'. 315, 343
fancy. 304
Cookies, 301, 389
Cooking, cereals. 45, 276
co-operative. 330
effects of, 59, 189
fats, 51
in milk, 222
in water, methods of, 196
object of, 59
soda, 105
temperature in, 199, 370 372
vegetables, 27O
with water, 199
Cooking, free-hand. 367
Co operative cooking. 336
Corned beef. 542
Corn cake, 388
Corn meal. 369, 396
of building. 425
of food, 241. 318, 431, 577
of living, 417. 571
Cottage pudding. 301
Cotton cloth, brands of, 518
cloth, price of. 519
nbres. structure of 78
2s; ** 37
Cream of tartar. 107
Cream puffs. 245, 385
Croquettes. 308
Croup, 598
false, 598
membraneous, 598
Croutons, 392
Crystals, shape of, 14
water in, 165
Crumbs, 392
Custards, 380
Cuts, of beef, 533
of beef steak, 538
of mutton. 549
of pork, 550
of roast beef 5^7
of veal, 547
Cutting up beef, 533
Daily outline, 488
Damask, 520
Decay, 62
cause of, 62
Department stores, 505
Diet in convalescence 621
special, 691
Differing opinions, 569
of proteids, 59
of starch, 43, 170
of vegetables. 268
Note.~For page numbers, see foot of pages.
15
288
11 ^ 5n
Diphtheria, 596
cause of, 596
Disadvantages of buying home 4*2
of domestic service 4S2
Diseases, children's 596
contagious, 594 '
not contagious, 596
Dishes, names of, 307
Dishwashing. 76, 149 194
machines, 77
Disinfectants, 657. 661
Disinfection, 63. 65. 07 657 659
of' SSS^'fe" "' **
of dishes. 662
of patient. 664
of room. 665
personal. 666
special rules for, 663
Dislocations, 705
Distillation. 10. 113
destructive, 33, 157
factional. 157
Distilled water. 10
Division of income, 415 517
of labor. 477
Doctor, province of. 593
Domestic service, 479 498
advantages of, 481
cost of. 428
disadvantages of 482
notes on. 582
objections to, 484
726
INDEX
Domestic problem, solution of, 496
Double process bread, 286
Douches, 648
Doughnuts, 301, 390
Doughs, 281, 386.
manner of mixing, 1^9, ^si
quick, 386
yeast. 390
Draw sheets, 607
changing, 608, 611
Dress. 437
Dressing, mayonnaise, 400
Dried , foods, 209
Drip coffee, 202. 376
Drop cakes, 387
Dropped egg, 238
Drowning, 701
Dry steaming, 368
Dumplings. 387
Dusting, 603
Ear, foreign bodies in, 706
Economic position of women, 403
Economics, divisions in, 401
Economy, aims of. 40^
of food, 435, 577
true, 409, 57i
" >
<00,1S, 240
effect of heat on, 236
in doughs. 243
poached, 238
preserving, 239, 560
temperature for cooking, 237
testing, 560
timbals, 381
value of. 239
with cheese, 241
with starch, 238
with white sauce, . 241
Electric batteries, 123, 176
Electricity, 121
Elements, chemical, 30
table of. 128
Emergencies, 699
Employment agencies, 4V
Emulsions, 71
Enema, cleansing, b4b
soap, 647
Enemata. nutritive, 644
En c e onseVvatIon of, 126, 160
source of. 53
EnvSpe Method of accounts, 444
IpfstS 7 (ie bleed), 705
EstlbJished fandards of work 491
Estimate of kitchen utensils, 508
Estimation of values, 40b
Evaporation, 198
Expenditure for clothing, 430
classification of, 414
division of household, 421
home, 409
legitimate, 423
record of, 414
Expense of help by hour, 492
operating, 426
Experience of students with servant
problem. 584
Experiments with acids, 172
alkalis, 172
alum, 13
baking powder, 291
bluing, 174
bones. 61
breakfast food. 364
butter, 226
dishwashing, 77
eggs. 237
flame, 109
gluten, 57
hard water, 173
iron rust. 175
jelly, 196
manufacturing water, 167
meat, 58
potato, 264
pressure of air, 168
salts, 172
soap, 173
soda. 107. 290
starch, 170
taking temperature, 719
water, 1O. 197. 198, 718
Experiments, value of, 129
Explosions, cause of, 110
Explosive mixtures, 110
Extractives, 55
Extravagance, 418
Eves, care of, 667
Eyes, foreign bodies in, 706
Fainting, 700
Fancy cooking. 304
Fats, 51, 69, 217, 253, 369
composition of, 52
cooking of, 51
digestion of, 51
heat from, 53
to clarify, 393
use of, 356
Ferments, 44
Fertilizers, 125
Fever, scarlet, 596
typhoid, 597
Fibres, 78
chemical action on, 7w
cotton, 78
linen, 78
silk, 79
structure of, 77
wool, 78
Note. For page numbers, see -foot of pages.
727
INDEX
Fillet of beef, 538
Filling. 392
Filtering. 15
famil;r - 46S
Freezing, 21
latent heat of. 21
French dressing, 400
Fire tests for kerosene, 36
Fireless cookers. .330
home made. 336
First aid to injured, 699
Fish balls, 395
baking, 554
boiling. 554
kinds of. 553
local varieties of, 554
loaf, 395
methods of cooking, 257
proper appearance of, 257
sauces with. 258
scalloped, 395
season of, 553
selecting. 553
shell, 555
Flank, use of, 540
Flash point, 36
Flavor, 61, 312, 375
blended, 314
Flavoring material. 313. 314
Floor of sick room. 603
Flour, kinds of. 284
Flowers in sick room, 601
Fomentation. G53
Fondant. 399
Food. 430-37
aesthetic demands for 433
air as, 38
canned, 211
choice of, 215
classification of, 216
cost per person, 316, 431
dried. 209
economy, 577
for the sick. 687
highly seasoned, 622
nitrogenous. 53
preserving. 208
proper, 430
starchy. 369
time of cooking, 372
uncooked. 208
use of, 37
varied with seasons 353
variety of. 304
waste of money in, 431
Foot brace. 614
Forequarter of beef. 534
Foreign bodies, in ear, 706
m eye, 706
in nose, 706
in throat, 706
m windpipe, 707
259,
Fractures, 705
Free hand cooking, 367
Note.-For page numbers, sec foot of pages.
Frost ings. 39$)
Fruits, 208-39
conciliations, 309
dried, how to cook, 377
food value of, 39
stains, 89
Frying, 254, 368
Fuel, 179
comparative value of, 325
comparison of. 36
cost of, 36. 326
for sick room, 605
value, 36
Furnishings, kitchen, 337
sick room, 601
Garnish, 310
Gas, 113, 184, 327
asphyxiation, 703
acetylene, 115
burners, 184
coal, 113
composition of. 158
from candle. 108
gasoline, 117
meter. 1S6
natural, 115
stoves, 1S5
water, 114
Gasoline, cleaning with, 35, 146
stoves, 1S7
Gelatine, 310, 380
jellv. 196
Gelatinoids, 54
Gems, 388
German measles. 595
Get-rich-quick schemes, 441
Ginger bread, 389
Glucose, 40
Gluten. 54. 57, 170
Government Bulletins, free. 164, 322,
o63
Gowns, short, 612
Grains, composition of, 274
Grape, sugar, 41
Graphite, 32
Grease spots, 87
Griddle cakes. 388
Groceries, brand of, 562
dry, 561
Haddock. 553
Hair, care of. 624
washing. 625
Hard coal. 18<)
water, 15, 74, 142, 173
INDEX
Hard water, cooking with, 75
water, with soap, 75
Hash. 307, 398
Hay box, 330
use of, 333
Health, value of, 474
Heat, 20
Heat, effect on foods. 360
effect of, on albumin. 360
effect of, on baking powder, 370
effect of, on celluloso. 360
effect of, on fats, 370
effect of, on food materials, 360
effect of, on gelatine. 370
effect of, on sugar, 370
effect of, on starch. 360
latent. 20, 152. 166
transmission of, 190
Help, by the hour. 490. 586
Hemorrhage (bleeding), 704
in child birth, 684
from lungs, 704
signs of, 673
High cost of food, 432
High temperature, 635
Higher life, 437
allowance for, 437
Hindquarter of beef. 537
Home, advantages of owning, 422
expenditures, 40!), 441
sanctity of. 495
soap making. 147
Home maker, education of, 406
Home making, business side of, 404
right spirit in, 408
Hot pack. 629
Hour work, 49O, 586
Household accounts, 432, 571
chemicals. 131
aid society, 498
Household expenses, classification of,
458
manager, expert. 563
Housekeeper's laboratory. 129
library, 162
Housekeeping, a profession. 405
on business-like basis. 407
Housewife, tests of good. 426
Housework helper, wages of, 428
Hydro-carbons, 33, 144
Hydrogen, 17
peroxide. 98
Hydraulic cement. 12O
Hypodermic injections, 645
Ice, 204
caps, 653
cream, 382
cream freezer, 2O7
Ideals, realizing. 438
Ignorance of servants. 485
Immigrants' help. 480
Impurities in water, 141
Income, divisions of. 415, 511
regular. 415
Incubation, period of. 594
Indorsement of checks, 462
Industrial changes, 480
Infectious diseases, 658
Ingrain carpet, grades of, 522
Inhalations, 645
steam, 598
Initiative in the home, 405
Injections, 642
hypodermic, 645
Injuries, 699
Ink. 91
colored. 92
indelible, 90
on carpets, 92
removal of, 91
Insurance, lif*-, 440
Intentions, good. 412
Intestinal obstructions. 597
Investments, divisions for wise, 439
Iron cooking utensils, 513
Iron rust, removing, 92, 174
Isolation. 661
time of, 595
.Tavelle water. 96
Jellies, 211, 383
Judging meat, 249
poultry. 259
Junket, 220, 382
Keeping fire, 183
Kensington squares, cost of, 524
Kerosene, 34, 329
flash point of. 36, 169
lamps, 112. 329
stoves, 187
use in cleaning. 99, 134
washing with. 145
Kidneys, beef, 543
Kindling fires, 183
point, 28
Kisses, 395
Kitchen cabinet, 514
chairs, 515
floor covering. 512
furnishings, 337, 512
scales, 311
stove, 512
tables. 515
utensils, 507
Kneading. 288
Kromeskies, 308
Labor, cost of. 318
division of. 473
organization of. 473
Laboratory, acids for, 132
housekeeper's, 129
Note. For page numbers, sec foot of pages.
720
INDEX
Lactose, 40
Lamb. 250, 548
chops, 549
Lamps, 112
kerosene, 112
safety. 112
Lard, 369
Latent heat, 20. 152, 166
Laundry, 78, 141
chemistry of, 78
equipment cost of, 510
establishment of, 495
work, 141, 174, 570
Laws of expenditure, Dr. Engel's,
419
Lead pipes, 15
Leaven, 47
Leaving materials, 373, 374
Leclance cell, 122
Ledger, use of, 448
Left-overs, use of, 318, 351
Legitimate bargains, 499
Legumes, 267
Legumin, 54
Lemon Ice, 382
Levulose, 41
Life insurance, 440
Life, standards of, 410
Lifting patient, 612, 615, 624
Lighting. 108
methods of, 282
of sick-room, 602
Lightning cake, 389
Lime, 118
quick. 119
slaked, 119
soap, 75
test. 136
water, 119
Linen, bed, 518
fibres, structure of, 78
table, 516
Litmus for testing, 68
Liver, beef, 542
Living, style of. 413
Location of cuts of beef, 533
Maltose, 41
Marketing, 527
Match, chemistry of, 29
Materials of kitchen utensils, 512
Matter, conservation of, 31
Mattresses, 601
changing, 617
protecting, 608
Mayonnaise dressing, 400
Meals, serving, 621
Measles, 595
German, 595
Measures, 367
Measuring glasses, 641
Meats, 57. 247, 256, 394
boiled, 393
Meats, braised, 252
choice of, 247
cost of, 248
effect of temperature on, 57, 369
judging, 249
left-overs, 309
loaf, 395
preparation of, 251
stew. 394
supply of, 528
timbals, 395
toughness of, 249
Medicines, giving of, 640
Meningitis, 598
Menu making, 346, 358, 575
Menus for special occasions, 358
planning. 321
Mercerization, 80
Meringues. 385
Mildew. 89
Milk. 218, 559
composition of, 219
concentrated, 223
cooking in, 222
skimmed, 224
sour, 220
sugar, 41
supply, source of, 560
use of, 218
Mineral matter, 60
water, 193
Molasses, 40
with soda, 292
Molecules, 127, 129
Money, use of, 404
Monthly budgets, 572
Mortar, 120
Mother, province of, 593
Mousse, or Par fa it. 382
Mouth, care of, 625
washes, 626
Muffins, 387
Mumps, 594
Muscle arrangement of beef, 531
Mushes, 275
corn meal, 396
Mustard plasters, 652
Mutton, 250. 548
cuts of, 549
Napkins, 521
Natural gas, 115
Neck, use of, 535
Needs vs. wants, 411
Neutralizing acidity of milk, 221
Night gown, changing, 610
Night nursing, 606
Nitric acid poisoning, 707
Nitrogen, 24
for plants, 126
properties of, 24
use of, 53
Note. For page numbers, see foot of pages.
INDEX
Nitrogenous foods, 53
foods, cooking of, 54
Noodles, 244
Norwegian cooking box, 189, 330
Nose bleed, 705
foreign bodies in. 706
Nurse, care of, 606
clothing of, 606
duties of, 593
night, .606
Nursing the baby, 686
Nuts, 369
as food, 210
Objections to domestic service, 484
Obstetrics, 674
Oil stoves, 35, 329
Oils, 69
Olive oil, 369
Omelets, 384
Operating room, 669
expenses, 426
table, 669
Operations at home, 667
precautions when over. 672
preparation for, 668
Opium poisoning, 708
Ordering by telephone, 351
time for, 351. 528
Order in housework, 473
Organizations of household labor,
473
Oriental rugs, 524
Oven, temperature of, 303, 372
thermometer, 302
Ovens, first, 178
Oxalic acid poisoning. 707
Oxide of calcium, 118
Oxides, 19
Oxygen in air, 18, 167
Paint, removal of, 90
Paraffin, 34
in washing, 144
Parfait, 382
Parsnips, 369
Pasteurization of milk, 221
Pastry, 297, 390
Patient, amusing, 623
care of, 605
lifting, 612, 624
Peas, 268, 369
Peat, 23
Peptones, 59
Perishable supplies, 503
Peroxide of hydrogen, 98
Personal expenses, classification, 458
freedom of maid, 489
Petroleum, 34
Phosphates, 36
Pies, 297
Pillows, 620
Pills, 642
Plain cakes, 299, 389
Planning meals, 319
menus, 331
work, 476
Plant fertilizers, 125
foods, 124
Plants, 124
house, 124
Plaster, 120
Pneumonia, 597
symptoms of, 597
Poached eggs, 338
Poisoning, blood, 703, 704
Poisons, 707
Popovers, 245
Pork, 550
Potash, 70
caustic, 70
Potatoes, 269, 369, 398
baked, 397
boiled. 269, 397
croquettes, 398
loss in preparing, 397
mashed, 397
riced. 397
stuffed, on half shell, 398
with meat, 270
Poultices, 651
applying, 651
linseed, 651
mustard, 652
starch, 652
Poultry, 259
care in selecting. 551
methods of plucking, 552
tests for, 552
Powders, giving, 642
Prepared food, 318
Preserve jars, 213
Preserving eggs, 239
food, 208
in sugar, 212
Pressure of air. 23, 168
relieving, 620
Prevention of bed sores, 617
Principle of contrast, 306
Production, definition of. 401
Profession of house keeping. 405
Program for class study, 16r>, 350,
360, 566
Promotion for helper. 483
Proportions, table of, 386, 390
Proteids. 54
digestion of, 59
Proteins, 216, 369
Ptyalin, 44
Pudding, cottage, 301
fruit, 380
snow, 380
Puffs, pastry, 296, 385
Pulse, 636
counting .the, 637
Note. For page numbers, see foot of pages.
731
10
INDEX
Pulses or legumes, 267
Pump, 23
force, 24
suction, 25
Q
Quarantine, 664
Quick lime, 119
Questions (see "test")
Ragouts or stews, 307
Railroad securities, 440
Rain water. 121
Rancid butter, 229
Ranges, 181
Rarebit, Welsh, 378
Ration. 317
Raw foods, composition of, 369
Real estate loans, 441
Receipts, 376
Recipes, 691
Records, keeping. 638
Refrigerator. 205
care of. 206
Refuse, 317
Regular income, 415
Relapse, cause of, 621
Remnants, value of, 504
Rent, 421
Rental. 425
Reorganization of the home. 490
Respiration, or breathing, 638
artificial, 702
chart, 638
Rib roasts, 536
Ribs of beef, 535
use of, 535
Rice, 276, 396
croquettes, 396
Rinsing clothes, 81
Rissoles, 308
Roasts, small, 394, 540
Roasting, 190, 251, 368
Rochelle salt. 107
Rolls, 289, 391
Rosin soap, 147
Round, use of, 539
Routine, 476
Rubber air cushion, 621
sheet. 608
Rugs, 523
kinds of, 518
Pump, use of. 539
Rust, iron, 92, 174
Safe interest, 441
Safety lamps, 112
Salads. 274. 308
French dressing for, 400
Saleratus, 105
Salmis or stews, 307
Salt, 69, 172
common, 60
Rochelle, 107
Salt meats, 252
to develop flavor, 312
Saturated solution, 13
Sauce, brown, 227, 378
white, 226, 377
white fish. 215
Sausages, 551
Sauteing, 368
Saving, percentage in, 562
ways of. 439
Scalds, 700
Scales, kitchen, 311
Scallops, 308
Scarlet fever, 596
Schedule of work, 591
Scultelus bandages, 714
Seasons, food varied with, 353
Securities, railroad, 440
Selecting beef, 530
Self control, necessity for, 475
Servant problem. 584
Servant, ignorance of. 485
irresponsibility of. 485
Service, domestic, 479, 583
Serving. 357
dainty, 621. 690
Shank, use of, 540
Shaping dough, 2S9
Sheet, changing, 610
draw, 607
rubber. 608
size of, 518
Sheeting, kinds of, 518
Sherbet, 382
Shin. the. 537
Shock, 701
Shortcake, 387
Shortening, 296, 374
Short process bread, 286
Sick room, 601
airing. 604
care of, 601
choice of. 601
don'ts, 606
dusting, 603
floor of, 603
furnishing of, 601
lighting of. 602
methods, 633
sweeping. 603
temperature of, 605
ventilation of. 699
Silence cloth, 521
Silver polish. 101, 137
sulphide, 100
Sinapisms, mustard plaster, 652
Sirloin, location of, 538
Skin, artificial, 619
care of. 619
Slings, 705
Note. For page numbers, see foot of pages.
732
INDEX
11
Smallpox, 595
Small wastes, 429
Smoke. 34
asphyxiation, 703
nature of, 110
Smyrna rugs. 524
Soaking clothes, 80
Soap. 69, 172
action of, 71
composition of, 71
kinds of, 72
lime, 75
making. 146
rosin. 147
solution. 83
with hard water, 75
Soda. 105
ash. 73
caustic. 70
cooking. 1<5
washing. 73
with acids. 290
with cream o' tartar, 291
with molasses. 292
with sour milk, 292
Soft coal, 181
Softening water. 74, 143
Solubility of water, 13
Solution saturated, 13
Solvents, 134
Souffles, 308, 385
rfoup, 58, 307
names of. 250
stock. 256. 376
vegetable. 272
Sour milk with soda, 292
Specialty stores. 505
Spices. 313
Snonge cake. 242. 299, 385
Spongy mixtures, 240
Spontaneous combustion, 160
Sprains, 705
Stains. 82
bluing, 88
coffee, 89
fruit, 89
removal of. 87
vaseline, 89
Stale bread, use of, 391
Standards, differing, 412
of life. 41O
of quality of goods. 403
of work, established, 487, 491
Starch. 41, 137
changed to sugar, 43
conversion of. 43
cooking of. 45. 309
digestion of. 43, 45
tests for. 137
source of, 42
uncooked, 80
arching clothes, 86
eaks, selection of, 898, 541
earn cooker, 188, 203
Steaming, 368
Sterilized water, 071
Sterilising dressings, 670
the hands, 672
Stewing. 200, 368
Stews, 307, 394
cut for, 542
Sticking piece, location of, 536
Still, 12
Storage, 500, 561
cold. 204
requirements. 502
Stoves, ancient, 177
gas. 185
gasoline, 187
kerosene, 187
modern, 181
Stubs of check book, 464
Stuffing. 262
Style of living, 413
Sucrose, 40
Sugar. 40
as flavoring, 303
brown, 40
cane. 40
digestion of, 43
fruit, 41
grape, 41
maple, 40
milk. 41
starch, 41
Sulphur candle, 97
dioxide. 96
Sulphurous acid gas, 133
Supper. 321
Supplies, buying, 499
lists of. 506
perishable. 503
Suppositories, 644
Surgical operations. 667
Sweeping. 603
Sweetbreads, 544
Symptoms of diseases. 594
Syncope or fainting, 700
Syrup. 399
caramel. 398
System of accounts, 444
of work, 590
value of, 319
Table, bedside, 603
Table linen, 516
examples of, 521
grades of. 519
kinds of, 520
price of, 521
size of. 521
Table of common substances, 130
of contagious diseases, 594
of elements. 128
of cuts of beef, 545
of proportions, doughs, 3,8Q, 3QO
of temperatures, 3J8
For page numbers, see foot of
733
12
INDEX
Table service, 357
time of cooking, 372
Tables, kitchen, 515
Tannic acid, 55
Tapestry carpets, 522
Tarnish, 100
Tea, making, 202. 376
Teeth, care for, 625
Telephone, use for buying, 527
Temperature, 635
for cooking eggs, 237
high, 635
in cooking. 199, 370, 371, 372
normal. 635
of boiling point, 20
of oven, 303
' of sick room, 605
records. 636
sub-normal, 635
taking, the. 634
testing fat, 254
vital. 38
Tenderloin, 538
Test questions. 64. 103. 231. 278. 323
469. 525. 564, 655, 716
Tests, 135
for poultry. 552
sample. 138
Testing by comparison. 131
colors. 129
Theoretical division of income, 415
Thermometer, 20
bath, 629
clinical, 633
oven, 302
use of. 154
Thickening, methods of, 377
materials. 373
Timbales. 244
Time of cooking, 370
Time table for cooking, 372
Tongue, beef, 543
Tough meat. 251
Tourniquet (to stop bleeding), 704
Transmission of heat. 190
Tuberculosis, 659
Turning patient. 611
Turnips, composition of, 369
Typhoid fever, 597
Use of money, 404
Utensils, adaptability of, 311
aluminum. 513
buying, 504
choice of, 198
estimate of kitchen, 506
for canning, 213
Iron. 515
kitchen, 507
materials for kitchen, 512
Note. For page numbers, see foot of pages.
Value of classification, 413
of individual home, 592
Values, estimate of, 406
real, 416
Vapor, water, 25
Variety in foods, 305
Varnish stains, 90
Vaselene, 34
Vaseline, 34
Stains. 89
Veal bob, 546
cuts of, 547
season of, 546
Vegetable left-overs, 309
soups, 272
Vegetables, 263. 396
classification of. 265
combinations of, 270
composition of, 263
cooking. 270
creamed. 273
digestibility of, 268, 272
dried, 265
how to cook, 377
mashed, 273
preparation of, 271
prices of. 557
quantity for serving, 558
season of, 556
selecting, 558
strongly flavored, 265
wilted, 267
young. 267
Ventilation, 23, 604
of sleeping rooms, 26
window, 604
Vital temperature, 38
Voltaic cell. 121
Vouchers, 466
W
Wadding ring, 620
Waffles, 388
Wage of helper, 428
Wages of domestic helper. 483
Washing colored goods, 82
powders. 137, 173
soda, 73
soda, use of, 149
woolens, 82
Waste, 317
of money in food, 431
sources of, 432
Wastes, small, 429
Water. 8. 22. 141. 165
as temperature regulator, 21
boiling point of, 19
bread. 49
composition of, 16
distilled. 10
effect of freezing, 21
effect of heating, 19
714
INDEX
13
Water, effect on lead, 16
effect on metaTS, 14
filtered, 15
flavor of, 194
a as 114, 159
hard, 15, 74, .142, 173
heat, absorption of, 21
impurities in, 141
impurities in, 142
lime, 119
manufacturing, 167
mineral, 193
natural, 10
of crystallization, 10. 16o
permanent hardness, 74
softening, 36, 73, 143
solubility of, 13
Wealth expander, office of. <
Weights and measures, 367
Weight of beef, 534
Welsh rarebit, 378
Wheat flour, composition or, .<:-*, .
White sauce, 226, 228, 373, 377
Whitewash, 121
Whiting, 101 _ A .
Windpipe, foreign bodies in, 706
Wood as fuel, 179, 326
Wooden ware, 513
Wool fibres, structures of, 78
Work by hour, 429, 491, 586
schedule of, 491
standards of, 427
Worry, harm of, 427
Wounds, 703
Yeast, 47, 282
amount of, 286
cakes, 283
doughs, table of, 390
Note. For page numbers, see foot of pages.
735
COMPLETE COURSE IN HOME ECONOMICS
This course covers, systematically, in an interesting and practical way, the new
"Profession of Home- making" and "Art of Right Living." It is divided into forty
lesson pamphlets of fifty to one hundred pages each.
REGULAR ORDER IN WHICH THE LESSONS ARE TAKEN
FOOD SUBJECTS
(1) Chemistry of the Household
Parts I, II, III.
(3) Principles of Cookery
Parts I, II, III, IV.
(5) Food and Dietetics
Parts I, II, III, IV.
(7) Household Management
Parts I, II, III, IV.
HOUSEHOLD ART
(9) The House Its Plan, Deco-
ration and Care, I, II, III.
(1O) Textiles and Clothing
Parts I, II, III.
PARTIAL LIST
ISABEL BEVIER, Ph. M.
Professor of Household Science,
University of Illinois
S. MARIA ELLIOTT
Instructor in Home Economics,
Simmons College, Boston
BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. M.
Professor of Home Economics,
University of Vermont
KATE HEINZ WATSON
Formerly Instructor Lewis Insti-
tute, Chicago
MARGARET E. DODD, S. B.
Graduate Mass. Inst. of Technology
ANNA BARROWS
Teacher of Cookery, Columbia
University; Director Chautauqua
School of Cookery
HEALTH SUBJECTS
(2) Household Bacteriology
Parts I, II, III.
(4) Household Hygiene
Parts I, II, III.
(6) Personal Hygiene
Parts I, II, III, IV.
(8) Home Care of the Sick
Parts I, II, III.
CHILDREN
(11) Care of Children
Parts I. II, III.
(12) Study of Child Life
Parts I, II, III.
OF INSTRUCTORS
ALFRED C. COTTON, A. M., M
Professor Diseases of Childiv
Rush Medical College, Univer~ ;
of Chicago
ALICE PELOUBET NORTON,*
Assistant Professor of Homr
nomics, University of Chica-
MARION FOSTER WASHBUK
Editor of "The Mothers' Magaz
AMY ELIZABETH POPE
Instructor in Nursing, Pre
terian Hospital, N. Y. City
CHARLOTTE M. GIBBS, A. B.
Director of Household Art, T
versity of Illinois
MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B
Director American School of H
Economics, Chicago
BOARD OF
MRS. A. COURTENAY NEVILLE
President of the Board; First Chair-
man Home Economics Committee,
G. F. W. C.
MRS. ELLEN M. HENROTIN
Organizer and Honorary President
General Federation Women's Clubs
MRS. FREDERIC W. SCHOFF
President National Congress of
Mothers
MRS. LINDA HULL LARNED
Past President National Household
Economics Association
Miss ALICE RAVENHILL
Commissioner of the British Gov-
ernment on Domestic Science in
the United States
TRUSTEES
MRS. MARY HINMAN ABEL
Editor "Journal of Home F'
nomics" ; Author U.S. Governn:
Bulletins
Miss MARIA PARLOA
Founder of the Original Cook.
School in Boston; Author, etc.
MRS. J. A. KIMBERLY
Vice-President of National H-
hold Economics Association
MRS. JOHN HOODLESS
Government Supt. of Dom*
Science of the Province of On'
MRS. WALTER McNAB MF-LE
Chairman of the Food-Saniti
Committee, G. F. W. C.
736
i
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS
WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.
^1
(WAR
1
OCT Id J332
COT 29 1934
1938
MAR 29 1941 M
JAN 6 1943
1 Hov'49CS
TlUG 1 6
LD 21-20m-6,
/
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
*