, I : * *-' 4- THE PROFESSION OF HOME MAKING A CONDENSED HOME-STUDY COURSE ON DOMESTIC SCIENCE; THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE MOST RECENT ADVANCES IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES TO THE HOME INDUSTRIES PEEPAEED BY TEACHEBS OF EECOGNIZED AUTHOEITY FOR HOME-MAKEKS, MOTHERS, TEACHERS, PHYSICIANS, NURSES, DIETITIANS, PROFESSIONAL HOME MANAGERS, AND ALL INTERESTED IN HOME, HEALTH AND ECONOMY CHICAGO AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS 1911 CONTENTS * CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD BY MARGARET E. DODD, S. 1'.. Graduate of Massachusetts Institute of Technology Pago WATER THE ATMOSPHERE . . . . . . . . 22 COMBUSTION . . . . . . ' . . .28 FUELS . . . . . ... . 31 FOOD AS FUEL ... . . . . . .37 SUGARS AND STARCHES . . . . . . . 40 DIGESTION OF SUGAR AND STARCH . . . . . . 43 CHEMISTRY OF COOKING . . . . . . * 4"> FATS AS FOOD , . - . fil NITROGENOUS FOODS . . . . . . . . ; .">:; EFFECTS OF COOKING . . '"." . . .50 MINERAL MATTER IN FOOD <;i DECAY <;_' TEST QUESTIONS 64 CLEANING <:7 CHEMISTRY OF THE LAUNDRY . . . . , 7s REMOVAL OF STAINS 87 BLEACHING 94 CLEANING WOODWORK '> HOME MADE BAKING POWDKR i.v; COMPOSITION OF GAS ir.x SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION ...... ifio BIBLIOGRAPHY l<>:; PROGRAM OF CLASS STUDY ];;, * Note : For payc number sec foot of pages, 4 PRINCIPLES OF COOKEBY B* AXXA BARROWS Teacher of Cookery, Teachers' College, Columbia University Page FIEE IN COOKING 177 WATER IN COOKING 102 I*}- AND ICE CHESTS 204 PBEPABATIOX AXD PRESERVING OF FOODS .... 208 riioio; OK FOOD L'l." MILK AXD ITS PBODI:CTS . 218 COOKING OF UUTTER . . . . . ' . . . 224 TOOK i NO OF CHKESE . , . ... . . . 229 QUESTIONS . 231 TOOK I NO OF F.GGS ........ 235 COOKING OF MEAT, FISH, AND POII.TRY .... 247 COOKING OF VEGETABLES ....... 263 rooKiNG OF CHAINS 274 TEST QUESTIONS ........ 278 UREAD AXD OTHEK I>oi <;jis . 281 PASTRY AND CAKE .' 2^0 BOOKING OF l)->\ GHS ... . , . . . . 301 FORM OF SCKVIXG 304 FLAVOR 312 FOOD FOB A DAY 315 P>IBLIOGBAPHY 322 TEST QUESTIONS ........ 323 fo.Mj-ABATiVE VALFF or Fi i.i.s 325 FIREI.ESS COOKERS 330 CO-OPERATIVE COOKING 330 KlTfHEN Al'I'LIANf'ES 337 THE IIoi:sEKEEi'ER's LIBRARY 340 CABD CATALOG OF FOODS 342 COOKERY A FINE ART 343 CAKE MAKING 345 MENU MAKING , 346 ECONOMY ix THE USE OF FATS 356 MEXUS For: SPECIAL OCCASIONS 358 PROGRAM FOR CLASS STUDY .... 359 * Note : For paye number gee foot of pages. FREE HAND COOKING Page WEIGHTS AND MEASURES . 367 EFFECT OF HEAT ox FOOD MATERIALS . .. . . 309 TEMPERATURE AND TIME OF COOKING . . . . 370 THICKENING AND LEAVENING AGENTS . ... . 373 SHORTENING ... . 374 FLAVORING " . ' . . . ... . , 375 FUNDAMENTAL RECIPES 376-400 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT BY BERTHA M. TERR ILL, M. A. Professor of Home Economics, University of Vermont J HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION . .'.- . V . 405 DIVISION OF HOME EXPENDITURES . . . . . 400 RENT . . . . . . . . . . . 421 OPERATING EXPENSES . . . ... . 426 FOOD EXPENSES . -V .. . . ,' . . . 430 CLOTHING EXPENSES . . . . . . 436 HIGHER LIFE . . . 437 HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS . . . . . . . 442 BANK ACCOUNT AND BANKING . . . . . . 400 TEST QUESTIONS . . . . . . . , 449 /THE ORGANIZATION AND DIVISION OF LABOR . / . . . 473 DOMESTIC SERVICE ... . . . . . 4*7T) BUYING SUPPLIES . . . 499 KITCHEN AND LAUNDRY FURNISHINGS . . . . 504 TABLE AND BEJ> LINEN . ... . . .. .516 CARPETS AND RUGS . ... . . . . 522 TEST QUESTIONS . . . , . . .... . . 525 MARKETING CUTS OF MEAT . 527 POULTRY . . . . '. . . . .- . 5.>1 FIS'H . . . ... . . . ' "' . , . 5")3 VEGETABLES . . .: " . . . , . . . 556 BUTTER, MILK AND EGGS . . ^ . . . . . 559 DRY GROCERIES . . ". . ,. . ' \ . . . 561 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . *^ . 56^ TEST QUESTIONS . . " . . . . . . 564 PROGRAMS FOR CLASS STUDY . . . . . . 5J6 COST OF HOME AND STEAM LAUNDRY WORK .... 570 EXPERIENCE IN DIVISION OF INCOME .... 571 FOOD ECONOMY 577 THE DOMESTIC SERVICE PROBLEM ..... 583 HELP BY THE HOUR 586 SYSTEMS OF HOUSE WORK . . . . . . 5!H) VALUE OF THE INDIVIDUAL HOME ..... . 592 * Note : For page number see foot of pages. 6 HOME CARE FOR THE SICK BY AMY E. POPE Teacher of Nursing, Presbyterian Hospital New York City Pa96 FOREIGN BODIES IN EYE, EAR, NOSE, THROAT . . . 706 POISONS AND ANTIDOTES . . . . . . ' . 707 BANDAGES AND BANDAGING ....... 708 TEST QUESTIONS 716 PROGRAM FOR CLASS STUDY . 718~ INDEX . . 721-736 Note : For patje number see foot of pages. right living should be the fourth "R ft in edu- caton. AT home - making should be regarded as a pro- fession. 'TPHAT health is the duty and business of the individual; * illness of the physician. 'T^HAT most illness results from carelessness, ignorance, or intemperance of some kind. ' I A HAT as many lives are cut short by unhealthful food and * diet as through strong drink. HpHAT on the home foundation is built all that is good in state or individual. npHAT the upbringing of children demands more study * than the raising of chickens. HpHAT the spending of money is as important as the ** earning of the money. economy does not mean spending a small amount, but in getting the largest returns for the money expended. HPHAT the home-maker should be as alert to make pro- gress in her life-work as the business or professional man. HpHAT the most profitable, the most interesting study for * women is the home, for in it center all the issues of life. *1pHAT the study of home problems may be made of no * less cultural value than the study of art for literature and *}f much more immediate value. American School of Home Economics CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD A Day's Chemistry BEING an outline of llie simplest and most evi- dent chemical changes suggested by a day's work at home and a description of the various chemical substances of interest to the housewife. WATER The morning bath will introduce us agreeably to the wonderful chemical substance, water, and with this substance we will begin our study of a day's chemistry. The water for the house may come from the town sup- ply, from wells, cisterns, or springs. It may be "surface water," from pond, lake, or stream, or it may be "ground water," from wells or deep springs. Cis- tern water is, of course, rain water. Water is present in many substances where we might not suspect it All living things contain a large percentage of water. Of an athlete weighing 150 pounds, all but about 42 pounds is water. Wood, meat, vegetables, fruit, when dried, weigh from 50 to 98 per cent less. Many natural and artificial substances owe their crystalline form to Copyright, 1904, 1905, 1907, 1910, by Home Economic Association. 2 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. water and when heated, give off this "water of crystal- lization" and crumble to powder. Common washing soda shows this effect, when exposed to the air, and soon gives off so much water that its crystalline char- acter is lost. Natural All water found in nature is more or less impure, Water that is, it contains substances in solution. It dissolves air and takes substances from the soil and rocks over which it runs. Often it comes in contact with animal and vegetable substances and dissolves something from them. Near dwellings the water in streams, ponds, and wells is very likely to become contaminated. De- caying substances give rise to materials easily dissolved in water, which may travel for a considerable distance under ground, so that the drainage from the house or barn is frequently carried to near-by streams or wells, making their waters quite unfit to drink. Fig. I. The following experiment will illustrate that air is dissolved in water. Experiment. Place a tumbler of fresh well-water or tap-water in a warm place. After a time, bubbles will be seen collecting on the sides of the glass. This is air which was dissolved in the water. As the water grows warm, it cannot hold so much air in solution and some of it separates. Distilled Most of the impurities in water are less easily con- verted into vapor than the water itself; hence, when the water is boiled, they stay behind while the water "boils away". Water from almost any source can be made pure and clear by distillation. Distilled water is 10 WATER. 3 prepared in an apparatus known as a still. See Fig. 2. A still consists of a boiler, A, and a condenser. In the condenser, a coil of tube, D, usually made of pure FIG. 1. WELL, CONTAMINATED BY HOUSE DRA1NAGP.. tin, is surrounded by cold water which continually runs through the apparatus. The steam, admitted at the upper end of the coil, is condensed by the low tem- perature and distilled water is collected at the lower 11 Rain Water 4 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. end. In the laboratory, distilled water is often made in the glass apparatus shown in Fig. 3. Distilled water has a flat taste, because air and other dissolved substances which give water its taste have been removed. It will again dissolve the air on being poured several times from one vessel into another. Rain is water which has been evaporated from the surfaces of natural bodies of water, oceans, lakes, and from the land, and is practically free from mineral matter, but contains dissolved gases. The vapor, cooled at the low temperatures of the upper levels of air, falls as rain. The first fall of any FIG. 2. A STILL. A, Gooseneck; B, Boiler; D, Condensing Coil. shower is mixed with impurities which have been washed from the air. Among these may be carbon dioxide, ammonia, and carbon in the form of soot and creosote. It is these last impurities which cause the 12 WATER. 5 almost indelible stain left when ram water stands upon window-sills or other finished woods. Fig. 3. Making Distilled Water In the Laboratory. Water is a nearly universal solvent. It dissolves more substances and these in larger quantities than any other liquid. At a given temperature, water will dis- solve only a certain proportion of the various salts and other soluble substances. When the water will take up no more, the solution is said to be saturated. Increasing the temperature generally increases the dis- solving power of water for solids and liquids. The reverse is usually true for gases. When a saturated solution of a solid is cooled, crys- tals are frequently formed, many having beautiful shapes. Examples are shown in Fig. 4. Experiment. In an earthen- ware or enameled dish dissolve as much alum as possible in a little boiling water. Pour the solution into a shallow dish or sau- Solubility 13 6 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. cer, and set it away for a day or more where it will be undisturbed. Beautiful, clear, six-sided crystals wil) form in the dish. If strings are hung in the solution, the crystals will form upon them. Rock candy crystals are made from cane sugar syrup in this way. The experiment may be repeated, using washing soda instead of alum. Effect of Water on Metals FIG. 4. SHAPES OF CRYSTALS. Silver, copper, and tin are not perceptibly dissolved in pure water, but when combined with acid substances, the compounds formed are soluble. These compounds of a metal with an acid are called salts. The salts of copper, zinc, and lead are poisonous. Copper, brass, (an alloy of copper with zinc) tin, solder, and iron are metals easily affected by acids, so that cooking utensils made of these materials should not be used with acid substances like lemon and vinegar. 14 WATER. Lead pipes are much used in plumbing, and as a rule no evil results follow, since ordinary drinking water acts under most circumstances only very slight- ly upon lead. The pipes are soon coated with a layer of carbonate and sulphate of lead, which is insoluble and prevents any further action. Water from new lead pipes, or pipes not kept constantly full, or from a hot-water system in which lead is used, should never be used for drinking or cooking because of danger from poisoning. Pure distilled water, or rain water, affects lead more than ordinary ground water. Rain water absorbs more or less carbon dioxide gas from the air and soaking into the soil often comes in contact with magnesia in the rocks and with limestone. Water containing this gas will dissolve these mineral substances mak- ing what is known as "hard" water, a very dif- ferent substance from the original rain water which is "soft." This subject will be dis- cussed when the chem- istry of the laundry is explained. Ordinary water for drinking purposes is often filtered. Filtration will remove small particles suspended in the water, but has no effect on substances dissolved in it. The small charcoal or sand filters will not remove Effect of Water on Lead Hard Water Water Layer of gravel Layer al or coke. The oxygen of the water unites with the carbon of the coal, forming carbon monoxide a com- pound of one part oxygen and one part carbon and the hydrogen of the water is set free. Both the gases 114 LIGHTING. 99 thus formed will burn, but in burning they produce a colorless flame. It is therefore necessary to mix with them some gases containing much more carbon which will give light when burning. The mixture is stored and distributed like coal gas. This gas is cheaper to manufacture in most locali- ties, but it contains much more carbon monoxide which is a very poisonous gas. Much discussion has arisen as to the safety of using water gas and in some places its manufacture is forbidden by law. The destructive distillation of vegetable and animal Natural life in the depths of the earth, caused by the great Gas heat within the earth, has in some places given rise to petroleum and natural gas. The gas gave a cheap and convenient fuel, but unfortunately the supply is becoming rapidly exhausted. An illuminating gas of growing importance today Acetylene is acetylene. This is a compound of carbon and hydro- gen and is prepared by the action of water upon cal- cium carbide, which is a compound of carbon and the element calcium. Calcium carbide is manufactured in large quantities at Niagara Falls where pure lime mixed with powdered charcoal is fused at an intense heat. A dark gray crystalline solid results which, when mixed with water, produces acetylene gas and slaked lime. Acetylene is a colorless gas of characteristic odor, soluble in \vater, and explosive if mixed with air. With an ordinary burner it makes a yellowish smoky 115 ioo CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. flame, but with a properly constructed burner, it gives a brilliantly white light, very like sunlight. Colors appear at their true values seen in this light. The flame is an intensely hot one. In acetylene burners the gas escapes through two very minute holes directed obliquely towards each other, as shown in Fig. 24. FIG. 24. ACETYLENE GAS BURNERS. Acetylene The gas has been somewhat in disrepute because of Generators / -11 r lack of a suitable arrangement for making and storing it. Many generators are upon the market, it is true, but very few of these are really safe. As soon as a reliable one is obtainable, the gas will be widely used for lighting. It may also be used for cooking, but at present is rather expensive. One form of generator is illustrated in Fig. 25. The calcium carbide in lumps is fed automatically into water as long as the gas is used. When the storage tank is nearly full the supply of carbide is automatically shut off. In an- other style, which is also automatic, water is fed on to the lumps of carbide. Both styles have their advo- cates, but the lump feed generator is most generally recommended. The apparatus costs from about $65.00 for a 10 light plant to $300.00 for a ioo light plant. 116 LIGHTING. 101 A cheaper gas than acetylene is gasoline gas, some- times called carburetted air gas because it is com- mon air impregnated with the vapors of gasoline. It burns with a rich, bright flame similar to coal gas and Fig. 25. Acetylene Gas Generator and Storage Tank. is conducted through pipes and fixtures in the same manner. It may be used in an ordinary gas stove. The gas machine consists of a generator containing evaporating pans, an automatic air pump operated by Gasoline Gas 117 102 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. Oxide of Calcium a heavy weight or by a water motor, together with a regulator or mixer. The general arrangement is shown in Fig. 26, the generator being entirely outside the building in which the gas is used. All such ma- chines require intelligent care, for several disastrous FIG. 26. GASOLINE GAS PLANT. explosions have taken place when such care has not been given to the apparatus. LIME. One of the common chemical substances found about the country house at least is quick lime, used for whitewash and as a deodorizer. The term lime usually means the oxide of the element calcium. Its commonest compound is calcium carbon- ate which is found in nature as limestone, chalk, mar- ble, coral, shells, and several other familiar substances. Calcium is also found combined with sulphur and 118 LIME. 103 oxygen in the compound calcium sulphate, which is the mineral gypsum from which plaster of Paris is made. Bones contain a considerable amount of cal- cium phosphate and egg shells, calcium carbonate. Lime, the oxide of calcium, is made by heating Quick broken pieces of limestone in furnaces called lime kilns. The calcium carbonate as a compound is broken up, carbon dioxide gas being given off and calcium oxide left. This freshly formed oxide is called "quick lime," and when it is exposed to moist air, it attracts water and changes to a form called chemically, calcium hydroxide and, commonly, ''slaked lime." Quick lime may be used to dry the air of damp cellars, etc., because of this property. The process of slaking the lime is also accomplished by treating quick lime with water. When this is done, much heat is evolved and the hard lumps crumble to a soft powder and increase consider- ably in bulk. The rise in temperature shows that chemical change is taking place. Slaked lime will dissolve slightly in water, yield- Lime ing lime-water. This is a mild alkali and has several household uses. It may be prepared by pouring two quarts of boiling v/ater over about a cubic inch of unslaked lime. Stir it thoroughly and let it stand over night ; in the morning pour off the liquid and treat the sediment with hot water a second time. When the sediment has again settled, pour off the clear liquid and bottle this. It is mixed with milk and fed to young children and invalids to prevent acidity of the 119 104 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. Mortar and Plaster Hydraulic Cement stomach and make the milk more easily digested. Lime-water and oil form one of the best remedies for burns. The alkali of the lime neutralizes the acid nature of the burn. Mortar is made of slaked lime and sand. When this is spread upon the walls, the lime slowly absorbs carbon dioxide, always present in the air, and changes to carbonate of lime. The water is given off into the air (evaporates) and the mass becomes hard. Of course the surface becomes carbonate sooner than the deeper parts because this has closer contact with the air, and it therefore takes considerable time for all the plaster to harden. The water contained in the mortar soon dries, but while the mortar is becoming hard, more water is continually formed in the chemical pro- cess, so that it requires a long time for the new plaster to become quite dry. It is considered unhealthy to live in rooms with newly plastered walls. This may be because such walls are damp, thus producing damp air, or it may be because the moisture in the walls interferes with the passage of air and other gases through the walls a process little considered as a rule, but of great importance. Certain varieties of limestone contain other salts, such as magnesium carbonate. Lime made from these does not soften from exposure to the air. It will, however, harden after long contact with water, and such substances are known as cements. Portland cement will harden under water. 120 LIME. 10$ Quick-lime is a strong alkali and does the work of such substances. It is used in tanneries in taking hair from hides and also in decomposing fats for mak- ing candles. When dead animal substance is buried in lime, the process of decomposition is greatly hast- ened, probably because the lime unites with all water present while the strong alkali acts upon the fats re- ducing them to soaps of different kinds. Whitewash is simple slaked lime mixed with water. It is very cleansing in its effects and also gives the ap- pearance of freshness and cleanness. When newly ap- plied, it is nearly colorless, for the calcium hydrate is colorless ; this in the air soon changes to calcium car- bonate which is white and opaque. CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRICITY. In most houses electricity is used for operating the door bell, table bell and perhaps the electric gas light- ers. We have learned how stored up chemical energy is changed into heat and force in the stove and in the human body ; but in the electric cell, chemical energy is changed into electrical energy. If a strip of pure zinc be placed in a weak solution of acid, no chemical action takes place. Place in the same solution a strip of sheet copper and again no action takes place ; but let the copper and the zinc be brought in contact, or connected by a copper wire, and immediately vigorous chemical action will begin at the surface of the copper plate ; bubbles of hydrogen col- lecting there. This action is as follows : the zinc dis- A Voltaic Cell 121 io6 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. solves in the acid and hydrogen is set free. This hydrogen travels with an electric current set up in the liquid, passing from particle to particle through the liquid until it reaches the copper. Here the hydrogen stops, but the electric current passes up the copr-er plate and over the wire to the zinc and down that ^.o Fig. 27. A Simple Fig. 28. A Leclanche Voltaic Cell. Cell. the liquid and so on. This arrangement of acid an-1 metals is called a simple voltaic cell. Fig. 27. Other cells are arranged with different liquids and Cel1 solids to gain various ends, and several cells may be united by wires between the plates to gain additional strength of current. The form of cell often employed to work electric bells is the Leclanche cell. Fig. 28. This consists of a. plate of carbon (or a porous cell containing carbon), in place of, the copper, a strip or rod of zinc, and a solution of ammonium chloride 122 ELECTRICITY. 107 which takes the place of the acid. The zinc is not affected by the ammonium chloride unless it is con- nected with the carbon, but when there is a circuit for the electricity, a current is generated. The com- mon conductors of the electric current are the metals and carbons. Fig. 29. A Battery of Cells Connected In Series. The zinc is gradually changed to zinc chloride, at the expense of the ammonium chloride, and after a time both the zinc and the ammonium chloride must be renewed. In renewing the battery, the jars should be cleaned out carefully and the zincs renewed if they are completely eaten through. A quarter of a pound of pure ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac) is dis- solved in enough water to about half fill a jar. When the carbon and the zinc are replaced, this will bring the liquid up to two inches from the top. The jar should not be filled too full. The wires which have been disconnected should be reconnected as before. For bell work the cells are usually connected up "in series," that is, the zinc of one cell is connected to Renewing Batteries Cells in Seriea 123 lo8 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. the carbon of the next, the outside circuit being estab- lished between the end carbon and end zinc. Fig. 29. If there is a short circuit anywhere in the line, that is, if the current has a chance in any way to flow from one wire to the other without going through the bell or other apparatus, the batteries are very quickly ex- hausted. A modification of this cell has been made in which the spaces inside it are filled with some spongy mass in the pores of which the ammonium chlor- Fig. so. A Dry Ceil. ^ e ' ls held. These may easily be car- ried about without danger of spilling solutions. They are called dry cells and when exhausted cannot read- ily be renewed. PLANTS. Most housekeepers have at least a few house plants and many have gardens which occupy part of the time each day. All foods are directly or indirectly produced by plants and it is well to consider also what food these living things require in their turn. plan Fods Plants are able to take from the materials forming the crust of the earth and from the air surrounding them all that they need for their life. The leaves of the plants, because of the green substance called 124 PLANTS. log Upper Surface A B-reatHinq Pores Fig. 31. Section Through a Leaf. chlorophyl, have the power of decomposing carbon dioxide gas in a such a way that plants make use of the carbon arid breathe out oxygen. Fig. 31. This separation is very difficult to make in the laboratory. The en- ergy of sunlight is utilized by the plant for this work, for the action does not take place in darkness. In this way plants return to the air the oxygen so necessary for animal life and are themselves fed in part by the useless and even harmful gas exhaled by ani- mals. The soil on which the plant grows furnishes the mineral matter needed. When plant tissues are burned, these mineral substances remain as ashes. When the ashes of plants are analyzed, they are found to consist of potash, soda, iron, and lime in the form of phosphates, sulphates, and silicates. Some of these substances are present in the soil in inexhaustible quantities, but others are less abundant and unless the soil be fertilized from time to time, the plant soon uses them up. These less abundant substances are phosphates, potash, and nitrogen. The lover of house plants has long resorted to various expedients for feeding them, and many plant foods are now sold and in common use. In using these for manuring potted plants, care must be taken not to 125 no CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. Nitrogen and Plant Life Conservation use too much, since strong solutions of them are likely to corrode the roots and kill the plants. Although nitrogen is a very abundant element, form- ing as has been said, four-fifths of the air, yet it is com- paratively rare in forms which are of use to plants. As a rule plants cannot take it from the air and there- fore require soluble compounds of nitrogen for food. One of the most important of these is ammonia. This is formed when organic substances decay, its odor being very noticeable about stables. Its action with acids was described in the pages about cleaning and it was explained how it unites with acids to form salts, usually soluble. Sulphate of ammonia is the form used in agriculture. A very little ammonia in the water used on house plants is a good thing for them. It has been seen that plants by aid of sunlight breathe in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen gas. In addition to this, they also breathe as animals do, to a slight extent, taking in oxygen and breathing out car- bon dioxide. This action is more pronounced in dark- ness. The wonderful principle called conservation is il- lustrated by what we know of plant life. Plants in growing store up energy derived from the heat and light of the sun. When they decay, or are burned, or are eaten by animals, exactly the same amount of energy is set free and changed into a new form, and just as much carbon dioxide as the plant breathed in, is given back to the air. A plant which was many 126 PLANTS. ill years in growing may be consumed in an hour or may decay slowly for years. In either case the same total amount of energy is set free, fast or slowly. This energy is most apparent as heat. In the growth and destruction of the plant both energy and matter have been transformed, but neither energy nor matter has been made or lost it has merely taken on a new appear- ance. When animals feed on plants they transform the energy of sunlight which is stored up in the plant into energy of vitality. In this sense man and all animals are "children of the sun." CHEMICAL TERMS. To explain various chemical and physical phenomena the scientists consider that matter consists of certain small molecules and atoms. If a drop of water be divided and sub-divided in- definitely, it is conceivable that a point would come when it could not be divided further by physical means. This final bit of water is called a molecule. It would be far from visible by the most powerful microscope. From calculation which we will not go into, we learn that a few hundred million ordinary sized molecules would cover the space of a pin head. If the water is broken up by some powerful force as by the electric current, we have seen that two dif- ferent substances are obtained oxygen and hydrogen. Consequently the molecules of water must have been made up of other still smaller particles and these are called atoms. The atoms of a chemical element, then, Molecules 127 112 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. Atoms Chemical Signs are of the same kind, for from an elemental substance like oxygen, only oxygen can be obtained by any means now known. The atoms may be likened to the letters of our alpha- bet and the molecules to the words. From a few dif- ferent kinds of atoms (letters) can be made a great variety of molecules (words). TABLE OF COMMON ELEMENTS. Aluminum Al Iodine I Oxygen o Arsenic As Iron Fe Phosphorus P Barium Ba (Perrum) Silicon Si Boron B Lead Pb Silver Ag Calcium Carbon Ca C (Plumbum) Magnesium Kg (Argentum) Sodium Na ' Chlorine Cl Manganese Mn (Natrium) Copper Gold Cu Au Mercury Hg (Hydrargyrum) Sulphur Tin S Sn (Aurum) Nickel Ni (Stannum) Hydrogen H Nitrogen N Zinc Zn The atoms of an element are all exactly alike. They weigh the same and act the same whatever their source. Two or more atoms of an element may com- bine to make a molecule of that element. The mole- cules of a chemical substance are always composed of the same number and kind of atoms. To express the composition of substances chemists have made use of certain abbreviations and signs. To indicate an atom of hydrogen the letter H is used and for oxygen, the letter O, for nitrogen, N, and so on as shown in the table. When expressing a compound the number of atoms is indicated by sub-script ; for example, H 2 means two 128 CHEMICAL TERMS. 113 atoms of hydrogen; H 2 O expresses two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, and as we have found, this is the composition of water ; so H 2 O is the chemist's short way of indicating water. These are called chemical formulas. The formula for sulphuric acid is H 2 SO 4 . This indicates that it is made up of two atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulphur, and four atoms of oxygen. The following table gives the chemi- cal formulas of many of the chemical substances found in the household. THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. All modern science is based upon experiment. Chemistry was hardly a science until experimental re- search began. It must be confessed that the average housewife seldom thinks of making experiments. She is apt to remain helpless before any new problem of the home without printed directions or advice from friends. Very often the easiest and surest way to find out a thing is to try it. Use your kitchen as a labora- tory. It would, of course, be most unwise to make ex- periments on expensive materials. For example, if a stain was to be removed from colored goods, it would be best to find the effect of the chemicals to be used on some small piece of the fabric. To test the color of a sample of gingham for fastness in washing, try a part of the sample" in soap and hot water and see if the color "runs" or stains the water. Dry and iron the piece treated and compare with the portion of the original sample kept. A sample can be Expressing Molecules Experiment* Testini Colors 129 114 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. TABLE OF COMMON SUBSTANCES AND THEIR FORMULAS. SUBSTANCE FORMULA SUBSTANCE FORMULA Water H 2 O Calcium Oxide Peroxide of Hydro- (Lime) CaO gen ..... H 2 O 2 Lime Water .... C a oH Sulphuric Acid . . H 2 SO* Calcium Carbonate CaCO 3 Sulphur Dioxide . S0 a Calcium Hypo- Hydrochloric Acid HC1 chlorite (Chloride of Lime) .... Ca(ClO), \cetic Acid .... C Z H 4 2 Sodium Thiosul- Tartaric Acid . . . CH 8 phite ("Hypo") . Na 2 S 2 O 3 Cream of Tartar Cane Sugar .... Ci 2 H 22 On (Acid potassium KC H Milk Sugar .... Ci,H 32 0,,-fH 2 Carbon Dioxide . . CO, Grape Sugar . . . C,H 12 Starch . (C 6 H 10 O 6 )x Carbon Monoxide . CO Cellulose ... (C 6 Hi O 8 )y Caustic Soda . . . NaOH Stearine (in fat) . C H (O OH) Caustic Potash . . KOH 38 2 18 3SJ3 Sodium Carbonate Palmitin (in fat) . C 3 H 6 (0 2 C 19 H 31 ) 3 (Anhydrous) . . Na 2 C0 3 3 Na0 2 C 18 H 38 , Soap < NaC^CiftHaii Sodium Carbonate | etc. (Crystalline') (Washing Soda) . Na 2 C0 3 +12H 2 Albumen . . . . \ (Not definitely known.) Sodium Bicarbon- Alcohol CuHgOH ate ....... NaHCO 3 Wood Alcohol . . CH 3 OH Ammonia (gas) . . NH 3 Glycerine C 3 H 8 (OH) 3 Ammonium Hy- drate (Ammonia G'soline, N'phtha ) Water) NH 4 OH B f CsH etc. 130 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. 115 tested for fastness to light by exposing to dfrect sun- light for a day or two, saving a portion of the cloth as before for comparison. If the dye will stand direct sunlight without appreciable change for this length of time, it will not give much trouble by fading. Wall paper may be tested for fading in a similar way. The industrial chemist always endeavors to test materials in a manner as nearly like the way they are to be used as possible. For example, if he were testing two samples of flour to be used for making bread, he might make up two small loaves, using carefully weighed quantities of each sample of flour and other materials and baking the loaves at one time, compare the result. In such cases it is usual to have a "stand- ard" flour or other material to use for comparison. This method of testing by comparison could often be used by housekeepers provided reasonable care were taken as to weights and conditions. Working thus, flour, baking powder, soap, spices, flavoring ex- tracts, in fact almost all the raw materials of the kitchen and laundry could be tested. The chemicals for househald use are chiefly acids, alkalies, and solvents for grease. Acids and alkalies are opposed to each other in their properties and if too much of either has been used, it may be rendered in- nocent or neutralized by the other ; as when soda has turned black silk brown, acetic acid or vinegar will bring the color back. 131 Acids for the Laboratory Care of Chemicals ii6 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. The acids which should be on the chemical shelf for the household are acetic, hydrochloric (muriatic), oxalic. Vinegar may be used in many cases instead of acetic acid, but vinegar contains coloring matter which stains delicate fabrics and it is better to use the puri- fied acid. Hydrochloric and oxalic acids are strong acids and will harm most household materials if al- lowed to act for long time. Acetic acid is a weak acid and as it is volatile, evaporates without becoming con- centrated as do the others. Some bright blue flannels and other fabrics, when washed with soap or ammonia become changed or faded in color. If acetic acid or vinegar be added to the last rinsing water, the original appearance may be restored. Not all shades of blue are made by the same compounds, hence not all faded blues can be thus re- stored. The use of these acids has been indicated in the previous pages, and there remains to be considered, only certain cautions. Hydrochloric acid is somewhat volatile. It will escape even around a glass stopper and will eat a cork stopper ; therefore, either the glass stopper should be tied in with an impervious cover rubber or parchment or a rubber stopper used, for the escaping fumes will rust metals and eat fabrics. Oxalic acid should be labeled POISON. The bleaching agents, "chloride of lime" and Javelle water owe their beneficent effect to substances of an acid nature which are liberated from them. They 132 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. 117 should all be used in solution only, and should be kept in bottles with rubber stoppers. Sulphurous acid gas, obtained by burning sulphur, will often remove spots which nothing else will touch. The amount given off from a burning sulphur match will often be sufficient to remove from the finger fruit stains or those made by black kid gloves. The alkalies which are indispensable are: Alkalies ist. Ammonia better that of the druggist than the often impure and always weak "household ammonia." The strong ammonia is best diluted about one-half, since it is very volatile, and much escapes into the air. 2nd. Potash and Caustic Soda, which are to be had at the grocers in small cans. The lye obtained from wood ashes owes its caustic and soap-making properties to potash. The caustics are corrosive in their action, and must be used with discretion. Crystallized sodium carbonate, the sal-soda of the grocer, is chemically speaking a salt and not an alkali, but it gives all the effect of one, since the carbonic acid is so weak that it readily gives place to other sub- stances. Sal-soda is a very cheap chemical, since it is readily manufactured in large quantities, and forms the basis of most of the washing powders on the market. With grease, it forms a soap which is dissolved and carried away. 3rd. Borax is a compound of sodium with boric acid, rnd acts as a mild alkali. It is the safest of all the 133 n8 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. alkalies, and affects colored fabrics less than does ammonia. Solvents Solvents for grease are alcohol, chloroform, ether, benzine, naphtha, gasolene all volatile kerosene and turpentine. Of these chloroform is the most costly, and is used chiefly for taking spots from delicate silks. Fabrics and colors not injured by water may be treated by alcohol or ether. Benzine, naphtha or gasolene are often sold, each under the name of the other. If care is taken to prevent the spreading of the ring, they can be safely used on any fabric. They do not mix with water, and are very inflammable. The less volatile solvents are kerosene and turpen- tine. Kerosene is a valuable agent in the household, and since some of the dealers have provided a deodor- ized quality, it should find an even wider use. The lighter variety is better than the I5o-degree fire test, which is the safe oil for lamps. As has been indicated in the preceding pages, the housewife will find many uses for this common substance. On account of the purity and cheapness of kerosene, turpentine is less used than formerly, although it has its advantages. closet for These household chemicals should have their own closet or chest, as separate from other bottles as is the medicine chest, and especially should they be separated from it. Many distressing accidents have occurred from swallowing ammonia by mistake. In addition to these substances, certain others may be kept on hand, if the housewife has sufficient chemical 134 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. 119 knowledge to enable her to detect adulteration in the groceries and other materials which she buys. A few of these simple tests are given with the Testg chemicals needed. Directions for Using the Housekeeper's Laboratory. When directed to make a solution acid or alkaline, always test it by means of the litmus paper: Blue turned to red means acid. Red turned to blue means alkaline. Only by following the directions can the test be relied upon. Under other circumstances than those given, the results may mean something else. Use the acids in glass or china vessels only. Metals vessels may be attacked. Do not touch brass with ammonia or marble with acid. Aluminum is quickly corroded by the alkalies. Heating or burning a substance often gives evidence of its character. Organic solids will char, leaving charcoal (carbon) when heated and will disappear completely when burned. Some salts melt; others do not. All the carbonates that the housewife is likely to carbonates meet will give an effervescence of carbon dioxide with muriatic acid and most of them with acetic acid. Substances of an acid nature will effervesce with a solution of cooking soda. The test will be more deli- cate if the solutions are warm. To test for sulphuric acid or soluble sulphate in soda, cream of tartar, baking powder, vinegar, sugar or 135 120 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. syrup: Add muriatic acid to the solution (if the in- soluble part is sulphate of lime, it will dissolve in the acid on heating), then add barium chloride. A heavy white precipitate proves the presence of sulphuric acid, either free or combined. If the solution is not distinct- ly acid at first, it is not free. Lime Test To test for lime in cream of tartar, baking powder, sugar or syrup : Make the solution alkaline with am- monia and ammonium oxalate. A fine white precipi- tate proves the presence of lime. Good cream of tartar will dissolve in boiling water, and will show only slight cloudiness when the test for lime is applied. Phosphates To test for phosphates in cream of tartar or baking powder : Make acid by nitric acid, and add ammonium molybdate. A fine yellow precipitate or yellow color proves the presence of phosphates. chlorides To test for chlorides in soda, baking powder, sugar, syrup or water: Make the solution (a fresh portion) acid with nitric acid, and add silver nitrate. A white curdy precipitate or a cloudiness indicates chlorides. Ammonia To test for ammonia in baking powder : Add a small lump of caustic soda to a strong water solution. Red litmus will turn blue in the steam, on heating. Alum To test for alum in cream of tartar, baking powder or bread : Prepare a fresh decoction of logwood ; add a few drops of this to the solution or substance, aiH render acid by means of acetic acid. A yellow color in the acid solution proves absence of alum. A bluish 136 TESTS. 121 or purplish red, more or less decided, means more or less alum. To test for starch in any mixture which has been starch cooked, simply moisten with dilute tincture of iodine such as is kept by the druggists. An intense blue color will show the presence of even a minute quantity of starch. If the substance has not been heated, boil a portion and let cool and then test with a few drops of iodine solution. Heat destroys the blue color of iodine with starch and therefore the test must be made in cold solutions. If the label of a washing powder claims it to be something new, and requires that it be used without soda, as soda injures clothes, it can be tested as fol- lows : Put half a teaspoonful of the powder into a tumbler, add a little water, then a few drops of muriatic acid. A brisk effervescence will prove it to be a car- bonate, and if the edge of the tumbler is held near the colorless flame of an alcohol lamp, the characteristic yellow color of sodium will appear and complete the proof. If the acid is added drop by drop, until no more effervescence occurs, and there remains a greasy scum on the surface of the liquid in the tumbler, the com- pound contains soap as well as sal-soda, for the acid unites with the alkali of the soap and sets free the grease. Acetic acid or a solution of oxalic acid may be used in place of the muriatic acid. If some very costly silver polishing powder is offered silver as superior to all other powders, a drop or two of 137 122 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. muriatic acid or of warm vinegar will decide whether or not it is chalk or whiting by the effervescence or liberation of the carbonic acid gas. sample i n making all the foregoing tests, it is well to ob- serve the effect of the chemicals used on the substance to be tested for, and so become familiar with the char- acteristic color or appearance of the test. For example, before testing a washing powder, add a little acid to a soap solution and observe the greasy film produced, and in testing for alum add a very little alum solution to some flour and test with the logwood solution, not- ing the color given. This procedure will lead to more reliable results. Caution! Use a new solution of a fresh portion of the first one for each new test and follow directions ex- actly. This is essential to remember. 138 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. PART 1 1 1, Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that your instructor may know that you understand the subject. Read the lesson paper a num- ber of times before attempting to answer the questions. I. 2. 3- 5- 6. 7- 8. 9- What properties of ''cream of tartar" make i. suitable for baking powder? Explain how a candle is a gas factory. What conditions must be present for an explosion to take place? What is "cooking soda ?" How does it differ from washing soda ? What is the principle of the Davy safety lamp? Describe the manufacture of coal gas. How is water gas made? What objectionable features has it? What is "quick lime" and what are its uses ? How is electricity produced in a voltaic cell ? What does the chemical formula H 2 SO 4 indicate? 139 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 11. How is "conservation" illustrated in the life and decay of a tree? 12. What can you say about the advisability of the housekeeper making experiments? 13. How would you test for a carbonate? How foi an acid without using litmus paper? 14. How are tests made by comparison? 15., Are there any questions you would like to ask re- lating to "A Day's Chemistry" ? 16. Have you any personal experience, original method, or new fact to offer, relating to the sub- jects taken up in the lesson on the "Chemistry of the Household" that would be of interest to your fellow students? Note After completing the test, sign your full name. 140 SUPPLEMENT CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD BY MARGARET E. DODD, S. B. In reading many hundreds of test papers Wiitteu by our students I have found that additional com ments suggest themselves frequently, and it may be i of interest to bring them together here. IMPURITIES IN WATER By the term impurities, we mean substances out of (place. Pure water is oxide of hydrogen, H a O. If (water has salt dissolved in it, for instance, the salt is in impurity for the water, though we do not think >f salt as being an impure substance in itself. The lineral impurities in drinking water are seldom a source of danger, although if the amount is large, ich water may not "agree" with persons not used it. Mineral impurities will usually make the water tard, and therefore troublesome for laundry work ind to some extent in cooking. LAUNDRY WORK Satisfactory water for laundry work must not only clear and soft but it must be free from iron, from le discoloration due to decaying vegetable matter, flayey soil, and so on. It should also be free from any >r when hot. Muddy w^ter may be cleared more 127 141 128 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD or less satisfactorily by filtering it through sand or "by precipitation." In the latter method, dissolve a scant tablespoonful each of alum and borax in a little hot water, and add this amount to each gallon of water used, stirring it in, and allowing it to settle. The alum and borax react to form a cloudy substance which settles to the bottom, carrying the mud with it. The clear water must then be carefully poured or dipped off from the sediment. A siphon is an excel- lent contrivance for such a use. If a piece of garden hose is used, tie on a piece of wood so that it extends one or two inches beyond the end, to keep it z bove the sediment. Weight it with a piece of lead. When water made hard by carbonate of lime is to be softened, addition of any of the alkalis will soften it, for this reason. These carbonates will not dis- solve in water unless it contains carbon dioxide gas in solution. The alkalis added, unite with the gas, and the lime is thereby made insoluble and separated from the water. We do not see it as a rule, for there is in reality, very little of it, and this little separates in very tiny particles. Water which is hard in the clothes boiler frequently causes trouble because of tiny bits of lime which separate from it and make spots upon the clothes. A spring situated in sandstone rock generally yields soft water because the sandstone is so slightly soluble, but one situated in limestone rock always gives hard water. Limestone is a very common rock, 142 LAUNDRY WORK 129 so many springs are of hard water. A shallow well is more apt to yield soft water than a deep one is, and a river has clearer and softer water near its source, where it runs over rocks, and through uncultivated land. Occasionally where free alkali is added to hard water, it unites with greasy or oily matter in the gar- ments being washed, and forms dark spots of soap insoluble in water. This is prevented to some extent by addition of a very little turpentine, and boiling such spotted garments in clean suds may dissolve out the stains if they have formed. This happens so sel- dom that the use of soda in laundry work (with cau- tion) for softening water is still to be recommended Washing powders are usually composed for the most part of washing soda, and as they cost more than soda, it is rather better to buy the latter. Moreover, the strength of the alkali may be more accurately judged. Water varies greatly in hardness, so it is difficult to give exact rules for softening it, though I am often asked for them. In general, for moderately hard water use: i level tablespoonful of sal soda to i gallon water. % level tablespoonful of powdered lye to i gallon water. i level tablespoonful of borax to i gallon water. 143 130 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD Do not use ammonia with very hot water, for heat liberates the ammonia gas, which is thus lost. Some students have thus described the use of ashes from hard wood : Add a quart or more of water to a quart of ashes. Boil it a few minutes, adding more water if necessary. Then add sufficient water to make a gallon. Let it settle, then pour off the water and strain it. Put enough of it in the wash water to secure a good suds with soap. The water dissolves the potash (potas- sium carbonate) from the ashes. So this is an eco- nomical method of getting this alkali. I have had many interesting letters on the subject of laundry work. Some of the processes described may be new to many of our students. One writer describes a method of using paraffine in washing. She dissolves a bar of soap in boiling water and adds to it a piece of paraffine almost as large as a walnut. She uses this in making a suds with boiling water in which the clothes are thoroughly boiled for twenty minutes or more, punching them ocassionally. They must be rinsed in several hot waters to ensure the removal of the paraffine, but she claims the clothes will be beautifully white. A number have advocated the use of kerosene in laundry work, especially with very much soiled articles. Both this and paraffins certainly act upon the oily film which entangles the dirt and thus make the wash- ing easier. Ths objection to their use is that more 144 BLUING 131 soap and more hot water and therefore more fuel must be used. Two tablespoonfuls of kerosene in a boiler of soapy water is about the right quantity. In this connection it should be said that when clothes are taken from the boiler, they should be put into tepid water, and pushed well into it, for lying in the air seems to set the dirt, probably because the fibres contract as they cool, so that foreign particles are enclosed in the cloth and cannot fall out into the rinse water. Kerosene is excellent to use in washing dish towels. Make a strong soap suds, putting in a tablespoonful of oil to a gallon of water. Soap the towels well, and boil them in this suds for half an hour or so. ' Then wash, rinse and dry them, in the fresh air. Kerosene is somewhat volatile, and its odor will escape in time. When kerosene has been used, the wringer, tubs, etc., will need very careful cleaning to remove any film of oil before it has time to catch dust. BLUING There are three kinds of bluing now on the market. The action and disadvantages of Prussian Blue have been described. It gives a better color, however, than either of the other two . A second kind is Ultra- marine blue. This, also, is an iron compound, but it does not decompose with alkali. It is what we often buy as the "ball bluing," and is insoluble in water. Water, however, causes it to break up into very 145 132 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD minute particles which spread through the liquid and give it a blue color. The water must be kept stirred, and one must be careful in using it that the clothes do not get streaked. The balls of bluing should be tied up in a cloth and washed from this into the water. It is well to prepare it in a separate dish and then add it to the water. Indigo blue is easier to use, but does not give so good a color. Preparations of indigo for laundry work may still be obtained. Here is a method of cleansing knitted worsted goods which was strongly recommended. Wash the gar- ment in gasoline, and allow it to dry. Then shake it well in a tight box with flour or fuller's earth, allow- ing it to remain there an hour or more. The powder will absorb any. greasy or oily substance, and later may be shaken out. In using gasoline for cleaning in this way, have a generous amount, and allow for rinsing the articles well. The gasoline may be used more than once, for the dirt which it contains will settle to the bottom of the vessel in which it stands and the clear liquid may be poured off. Use it out of doors, or in a strong outward draft, that the in- flammable vapors it produces may blow harmlessly away. To many people, the word "chemical" always means an acid. Now, acids and alkalis differ so much in their properties, that it ic wise to be able to distin- guish between them. Injuries due to the use of one may frequently be remedied by prompt use of the 146 SOAP MAKING 133 other. Alkalis are especially useful in laundry work because of their action upon grease of most kinds. Some of the salts formed with the alkali metals are alkaline in reaction. Among these are washing and cooking soda. HOME SOAP MAKING All fats and oils are compounds of certain fatty acids combined with glycerine. Glycerine is easily separated from this combination by strong alkalis, and thus soaps are made. The glycerine is a by-pro- duct in many soap factories, but it is not evident in home-made soap, being thrown away with any waste water, or, perhaps, left in the soft soap. The various fats are composed of different kinds of fatty acids, so we have varieties of soap made from them. Rosin acts like fatty acids, for it is able to combine with alkali to make rosin soap. This is good for rough work, but it is apt to separate in hot water, setting free the rosin acids, which may settle upon the fabric being washed, giving it the odor of rosin or causing it to become yellow. It is very objectionable when the clothes come to be ironed. This rosin also makes fabrics likely to take up dust. If the clothes are well rinsed, the amount of rosin soap in ordinary yellow soap gives no trouble. I have often been asked for a recipe for home-made soap, and, too, I have had many students write me of their success in this process. Many housekeepers 147 134 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD keep and clarify the fats from food. Soap may easily be made from this, as follows: Take a pound can of lye (Babbitt's potash is good) and dissolve it in three pints of cold water. It will become quite hot as it dissolves, and care must be taken in adding the lye to the water, as it is apt to spatter, and is likely to irritate the hands. Have ready five pounds of clean fat, which has been melted and strained through cheese-cloth to remove all specks of brown. When the lye is cool, pour it slowly on the grease, stirring it with a stick until the two mix, and the liquid becomes about as thick as honey. Too long stirring may cause the ingredients to separate. Mould the soap in agate or wooden trays. If a wooden box is used, it should be lined with several thicknesses of wrapping paper. The layer next the soap should be oiled. The soap should harden in a moderately warm place, and then may be cut into cakes. This is the so-called "cold process" soap. It will not be suitable for fine work but improves with age. Several students have described to me how they remembered seeing soap made at home from alkali obtained by leaching wood ashes. The ashes were put into a large box pierced with holes, the box placed over the soap kettle, and hot water was poured upon the top. This alkali would make soft soap, which would be stored in barrels. If hard soap were desired, salt was added to some of the soft soap. 148 DISH WASHING 135 A reaction takes place by which some of the sodium in the salt is combined with the fatty acids, sufficient hard soap being formed to harden the mass. Nowa- days, even when we buy "potash" we are quite sure to find that we can make hard soap, for it almost always is chiefly soda (caustic soap). Washing "soda has a great many uses, and I am frequently reminded of new ones by our students-. I am told how excellent it is to put a little in water and boil this in the cooking dishes on which food has hardened or burned. Another describes how she cleans silver by boiling it with a little soda, then rins- ing it in very hot water and drying quickly and thoroughly. The wife of a dairy farmer assures me that she could never get her creamery cans suitably clean without plenty of sal soda, which quickly removes the butter fat. When we use it in laundry work, however, we must remember that, like other solids, when it dissolves, a saturated solution forms around each piece, and this strong solution may in- jure anything on which the pieces rest. Therefore the crystals should always be dissolved, and the solu- tion diluted as much as may seem necessary. DISH WASHING The washing of dishes takes so much time in every house that it is evidently a subject calling for close attention. Nothing is more desirable than that this work be done thoroughly and well; still, it is doubtless 149 136 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD possible to plan for it in such a way that time may be saved for other matters. In the first place, systematic work is sure to go more rapidly than haphazard fashions. The dishes should be prepared for washing by scraping them as clean as possible, and some housekeepers advocate rinsing off many of them under the hot or cold water faucets before putting them in the dish- pan. Hard water is very unsatisfactory for dish washing, and the use of soda or borax is a great help when soft water is not available. Borax is not so hard on the hands as soda. Dishes which have contained milk or eggs are better rinsed well in cool water, for heat hardens the albumins so that they are removed with difficulty. Plenty of hot, soapy water is necessary to do tjiis work easily, and a second dishpan of clear, hot water in which to rinse the dishes is a great help. Use very little soap on gilt china, however. There seems to be a great variety of opinion on the subject of washing glass. Many housekeepers have expressed a preference for washing it in cold water rather than in hot. Where the glass is not at all greasy, this is very well. Ammonia or soda in the water helps to clean the glass and makes it lustrous. Glass washed in cold water should be allowed to drain almost dry before it is polished. One housekeeper has described to me a wire basket which she has had made to hold dishes when they 150 DISH WASHING 137 drain, and which is made to fit into her dishpan. Fitting the dishes into this, she is able to immerse them in hot rinsing water, and then lift them out to dry. She finds the plan an excellent one. Another student writes that she has found sifted coal ashes a most useful article to use in cleaning knives. Another prefers sifted wood ashes. These most be very carefully sifted, so that no hard bits be left in, which might scratch the articles polished. The kitchen dishes are usually the most difficult to wash, and one student describes a home-made "scrubber" which she declares is very useful. "Take a broom apart, a good one, by removing the wire and letting the straw loose," she says. "The upper part of the straw is then put into boiling water and left long enough to soften it. Then the straws are tied together in bundles about two inches across, using a strong twine. The twine is pulled tight, and sinks into the softened straw, and when dry, it does not slip. A loop is left for hanging the bundle, and the straw is left its whole length. These are so long and slender they will reach into anything. They are a great saving on the hands, and allow the use of much hotter water." Many of our students recommend the use of soft paper in cleaning greasy dishes, kettles, and pans, The papers may be burned, thus disposing of much grease which would otherwise find its way into the kitchen sink drain. 151 138 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD LATENT HEAT The subject of latent heat, described on page 12, has proved very puzzling to many. It is certainly a strange idea at first, that heat does anything more than make things warm. Still, a moment's considera- tion recalls to mind that heat can do many other things. Heat causes chemical change, for substances are often changed by strong heat. Heat causes most substances to expand. If a sealed can of any sub- stance is strongly heated, it will probably explode. Heat causes liquids to evaporate, and solids to melt. If a liquid is placed in an open dish on a source of heat, its temperature will rise until it begins to boil. After this, it gets no hotter, no matter how much heat is applied, unless the liquid is becoming more dense as it boils, as would be the case with a syrup, for example. The heat it receives is all expended in changing the liquid into vapor, or, as we say, changing the "state of matter." The particles (molecules) are driven farther apart by the heat. A cubic inch of water makes a cubic foot of steam. The amount of heat necessary to produce the change from liquid to gas varies with different substances. Water requires a very large amount. Four times as much heat is required to change an ounce of water into steam as to vaporize the same amount of alcohol. If heat is applied rapidly, the liquid will boil rapidly, but it does not affect the temperature. The heat 152 LATENT HEAT 139 used in this way is not lost, but is stored up in the vapor as latent heat. The steam is no hotter than the boiling water, and heat added keeps it from becoming liquid. When vapor condenses and changes back to liquid, the latent heat is given out, and warms surrounding things. In fact, the vapor can- not condense unless the latent heat it contains is removed, except under pressure. This latent heat makes steam an excellent medium for heating build- ings, as it contains so much heat and passes through pipes rapidly. Not only is the steam itself hot, but it carries a vast amount of heat stored up, to be liberated in the cooler regions. Latent heat is stored up in water, also, and is liber- ated when the water becomes ice. This is seldom apparent, for far less heat is thus stored in water than in steam, and, too, the temperature of freezing water is low. The heat given out when water freezes is at 32 F, while that given out when steam condenses is at 212 F. Still, a cellar may be several degrees warmer if it contains a tank of water which freezes than if the water were not there. The temperature may keep about 32 F. where otherwise it might go to 26 or less. A room is cooled in warm weather by sprinkling water upon the floor. The evaporation of the water takes much heat from the air, storing it in the 153 140 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD vapor produced. Britannia and some other metals of which pitchers, teapots, etc., are made will melt if placed on a hot stove. If, however, they contain water, this is not likely to occur, for the water can- not be heated above its boiling point, and this is iar below the melting point of the metal, and keeps the temperature of the metal low enough for safety. This reminds me of an experiment I once saw where candy was actually made in a pasteboard box. The syrup never became hot enough to scorch the paper, and thus the paper itself was kept fairly cool. USE OF THE THERMOMETER A kitchen thermometer may be bought of any dealer in the better class of kitchen goods. The floating dairy thermometers are convenient. One to register 212 F, may be obtained from the School for 50 cents. A thermometer made to register oven temperatures is more expensive, one registering to 600 F. costing $1.50. Various uses of the ther- mometer are described in Principles of Cookery and Home Care of ike Sick, but there are many times in the kitchen when it is of assistance, as in getting the right density for syrups in candy making, for syrups in preserving, and the right temperatures for raising bread, making soups, custards, etc. Some uses of the thermometer in the kitchen are the following, described in Miss Parloa's "Home Economics": 154 BREAD MAKING 141 Olive oil is liquid above 75. If above this tem- perature it shows solid specks, making it look cloudy, you may be sure it is adulterated with some fat having a higher melting point. Butter should melt at 94. If it does not, you may know it is adulterated with suet or some other fat having a higher melting point. v BREAD MAKING The composition and manufacture of bread are subjects which have been given much study. The carbon dioxide which serves to lighten the dough raised with }^east is produced at the expense of some of the starch of the flour. This starch is completely driven from the loaf as carbon dioxide gas and alcohol during the baking. The loss is esti- mated at about 2 per cent. Attempts have been made in large bakeries to save the alcohol, but no economical method has been devised. About fifty years ago, German chemists- in studying the question estimated that the food materials lost in twenty- four hours, when bread is raised with yeast, was sufficient to supply bread to 400,000 people! These figures were certainly startling to the thrifty Germans, and the possibility of producing the carbon dioxide gas in some less extravagant manner was studied with considerable care in German laboratories, and also at Harvard University in America. Baking 155 H2 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD powders are the result of these investigations. Gluten is not changed chemically by the action of the yeast or of the carbon dioxide, but it is physically changed the escape of the gases stretching it out into fibres. Gluten, like other proteids, hardens when heated. Baking thus makes the porous condition of the dough permanent. MAKING BAKING POWDER Several students have sent me recipes they like to use for making baking powder. The claim is made that these cost rather less than the kinds that can be bought, and also that they are much more effective. Here is one: y 2 Ib. cream of tartar. y Ib. cooking soda (bicarbonate of soda). yi Ib. corn starch. The best quality of each must be bought. Sift them together at least a dozen times, the last time into baking powder boxes. Be careful to seal up all cracks by pasting over them paper strips. About one half as much of this is required as for the average powder sold. These proportions would probably give a slight excess of acid. We might combine 2^ parts of the acid salt with one part of soda if our salts are chemi- cally pure. The corn starch is added to keep the soda and acid salt from forming quite such an intimate 156 DISTILLATION 143 mixture. The two salts in contact would very slowly combine, and the baking powder thus lose its strength. DISTILLATION A few more words might be said on the subject of distillation. I am sometimes asked to explain more fully the term "destructive distillation." When a complex substance like wood or coal is heated some of its ingredients are made volatile at the high tem- perature, -and so escape 'as gases. The wood itself is broken up into simpler substances. It is plain that in this process the original substance is lost as such, new substances taking its place, and we there- fore speak of the process as destructive distillation. When water containing various salts or gases in solution is heated, the gases will be given off as the temperature rises. At the boiling point, the water itself will begin to pass off as vapor. The salts will not vaporize unless much more strongly heated. If the steam be collected and cooled, it will condense to form pure water. This in an illustration of simple distillation. If a mixture of alcohol and water be heated some of the alcohol will vaporize before the water. It may in this way be separated from the water, and this process is called fractional distilla- tion. This is the principle employed in the manu- facture of whiskey, etc. 157 .K44 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION OF GAS The complex nature of cbal gas is shown by the following table, which represents an average sample: Hydro-carbon vapors 0.6 Heavy hydro-carbons 4.4 Carbon dioxide 3.4 Carbon monoxide 10.0 Methane (CH 4 ) 30.6 Oxygen 0.3 Hydrogen 45-9 Nitrogen 4.8 100% Of these, the hydro-carbons, carbon monoxide, CH^ and hydrogen are combustible. Coals always contain more or less sulphur, \. hich is a great trouble to the gas manufacturer. It fre- quently happens that some of it gets into the gas. If such gas escapes, the sulphur compounds unite with the silverware, giving is a coating of dark sulphide of silver. If silver tarnishes quickly, it is an indication of a leak of gas or sewer gas. It is estimated that, a ton of coal should yield 10,000 feet of gas, 1,400 Ibs. of coke (35 bushels), 12 gallons of tar, 4 Ibs. of ammonia. More than six hundred products are obtained from the coal tar. The nature and uses of these products would form an interesting topic for futher study. 158 COMPOSITION OF GAS 145 The composition of water gas is somewhat as follows : Hydro-carbon vapors 1.2 Heavy hydro-carbons 12.0 Carbon dioxide 3.0 Carbon monoxide 28.0 Oxygen 0.4 Hydrogen 31.4 CH 4 (Methane) , 20.8 Nitrogen 3.2 100% Notice that this gas contains less methane and hydrogen (which are combustible), and their place is taken by carbon monoxide, which, although com- bustible, is very poisonous. There is some carbon monoxide in ordinary illuminating gas but not nearly so much. The water gas has a strong odor ffom the hydro-carbons (crude gasoline) added to make it luminous, but comparatively little of it in the air is likely to produce very injurious effects upon living things, plants and animals alike. It is the most poison- ous substance that comes into the house. It is estimat- ed that about fourteen per cent of the gas manu- factured escapes into the earth through leaky gas mains. In passing through the soil the odorous part of water gas may be strained out, so that it becomes odorless. Whole families have been poisoned from deodorized water gas leaking into the house by way of 159 146 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD the cellar. This emphasizes the importance of having a perfectly tight cellar, with cemented walls and floor, and the importance of ventilating the cellar, for the cellar air finds its way to the rooms above. Natural gas contains practically no carbon monoxide. SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION We often hear of fires apparently "starting them- selves." Such cases are due to accumulation of heat produced by slow oxidation. If a pile of oily rags, cotton waste, etc., be allowed to stand for a time, the oily matter will begin to combine slowly with oxygen. This may occur in the inner part of the heap, and the outer layers retain the heat until, perhaps, the kindling point of some of the inflammable oils is reach- ed, when the whole mass will burst into flame. This is much more likely to happen with linseed oil and certain* other vegetable "drying oils, " as they unite readily with oxygen, and so become hard and varnish- like. The mineral oils (paraffine oil) do not combine with oxygen at ordinary temperatures, and probably will not cause spontaneous combustion. Still, all oily cloths should be burned or disposed of in some safe fashion. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY An interesting and important principle, ex- plained on page 23 of Part I, and again on page no of Part III, is Conservatism. This principle has been established by countless experiments, but it is not 160 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 147 one that the housekeeper can well investigate. It is, however, one she must continually bear in mind. Matter and energy can never be created or destroyed ; both may be transformed, and may therefore appear in many different ways. The voltaic cell is a simple device for transforming chemical energy into elec- trical force. The chemical affinity of two substances causes them to unite under the right conditions. This union results in the liberation of energy, -which may appear as heat, light, or electricity. When coal and oxygen unite, we get both heat and light as a result. Chemical union usually produces heat. The energy of our bodies we get solely from the food we absorb. We should eat such foods as best give us the needed energy, and we should learn to expend this energy wisely, as we have but a limited amount of it. One student wisely comments upon this, as follows: "In the economic plan of housekeeping, it would be well if each one would endeavor to realize that she is a part of the machinery of the household, and that to be continually on the move is as disastrous to the equilibrium of the home as it is to rust, as it were, for want of use. A given amount of rest each day is a true part of economy. ^ Then, too, in the daily regime, there are ways and ways of doing things. Always choose the easiest, if it conflicts not with the quality of the work done. For example, do not stand while paring potatoes, apples, etc. It is just 161 148 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD as easy to do this work sitting, and you can then get some rest at the same time. Don't worry to worry is a very extravagant thing, for it uses up valuable force, and does no good at all." 162 BIBLIOGRAPHY 149 BIBLIOGRAPHY Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, Richards and Elliott, ($1.00, postage 8c.) Chemistry of Daily Life, Lassar-Cohn. ($1.50, postage IOC.) Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life, Snyder. ($1.25, postage roc.) Chemistry of Cooking, Williams. ($1.50, postage 120.) Chemistry of Common Life, Johnston. ($2.00, postage i6c.) Chemistry of Life and Health. C. W. Kimmins. ($1.00, postage ice.) First Lessons in Food and Diet, Ellen H. Richards. (300., postage 4C.) Laboratory Notes in Household Chemistry, H. T. Vulte and G. A. Goodell. Laundry Work, Juniata L. Sheppard. (5oc., postage 6c.) Story of a Lump of Coal, Martin. (350., postage 40.) Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Bailey. ($1.40, postage I2C.) Elements of Chemistry, R. P. Williams. ($1.10, postage IOC.) An Introduction to General Chemistry, Smith. ($1.25, postage i2C.) Essentials of Chemical Physiology, Halliburton. ($1.50, postage i4C.) First Course in Physics, Millikan and Gale. ($1.25, post- age I 4 C.) Introduction to Organic Chemistry, Ira Remsen. ($1.20, postage i2c.) Organic Industrial Chemistry, S. P. Sadtler. ($5.00 postage 28c.) 163 I5o CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD U. S. GOVERNMENT BULLETINS Industrial Alcohol: Sources and Manufacture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 268 (free). . Industrial Alcohol : Uses and Statistics. Farmers' Bulletin No. 269 (free). Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home. Farmers' Bul- letin No. 270 (free). Composition of American Food Material. Bulletin No. 28. Office of Experiment Station. (Price 5C.) Some Forms of Food Adulteration and Simple Methods for their Detection. Bulletin No. 100, Bureau of Chemistry. (Price ice.) Arsenic in Wall Paper and Fabrics Bulletin No. 86, Bureau of Chemistry. (Price 5c ) Chemical Composition of Apples and Cider. Bulletin No. 88, Bureau of Chemistry. (Price 5C.) Note. For the free bulletins, send to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ; to obtain the for sale bulletins, send coin or money order to the Superintendent of Documents Washington, D. C. 164 SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM - ARRANGED FOR CLASS STUDY ON CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD BY MAURICE LEBOSQUET, S. B. Director, American School of Home Economics As in the study of chemistry and physics so much emphasis is placed on laboratory work, the following supplementary program is made up chiefly of simple experiments, such as may be performed with little or no apparatus. When heat is required, it may be supplied by a small gas stove, a one burner oil stove, or an alcohol lamp. The lamp of a chafing dish might be used. A thermometer will be loaned by the School for 6 cents postage, or one may be purchased for 50 cents. MEETING I (Study pages 1-29) Water To show that ordinary water has gases dissolved in it. See experiment on page 2. The gas dissolved in water is not exactly of the same composition as air. It usually con- tains more oxygen and more carbon dioxide than ordinary atmospheric air, varying somewhat with the sources of the water. This dissolved gas enables fish and other marine animals to live. A fish cannot live in water that has lost its dissolved air by being boiled. It is drowned just as human beings are, because of lack of oxygen. Water of Crystallization Make crystals as described on page 5. A certain definite amount of water is present in the crystals which varies with each substance. Clear crystals are pure or nearly so. The "mother liquor" remaining after the crystals are formed 165 152 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD contains most of the impurities; thus crystallization is a method of purification. The water in the crystals of washing soda may be shown by heating some in a tin dish. The crystals will melt and on continued heating, steam will be given off. Not all crys- tals contain water of crystallization, for example, common salt, cane sugar. Boiling Point It is almost impossible to convince any "domestic" that water boiling furiously is no hotter than when it is just barely boiling. It is instructive to prove this with a thermometer. Also observe that the "simmering" temperature is very nearly the same as the water when boiling, so that cooking may be done nearly as rapidly by simmering and with far less fuel. Latent Heat This is a somewhat perplexing phenomenon. We all recog- nize that steam is hot, but that it contains a much greater supply of heat than hot water is not so easy to realize. The following may make this a little clearer: In a small sauce pan or dish put about two tablespoonfuls of water. Heat it to the boiling point and then continue the boiling until it has all boiled away. Note ( i ) how long it takes to raise the water to the boiling point, and (2) how much time is required to convert it all into steam. To start the boiling, the water is raised from about 6oF. to 212 F., or through 152. In converting the water into steam, there is no rise in temperature, but the heat has to be applied for a much longer period. On page 12 is the statement that "966 times as much heat is required to change a given quantity of water into steam as to raise it one degree F. " but the water in this experiment was raised 150. As 966 divided by 152 equals 6 (plus), we might expect that it would take six times as long to boil the water away as to 166 PROGRAM 153 raise it to the boiling point. Of course no exact results can be expected in this experiment, as not all the heat ap- plied is absorbed by the water and used in boiling it, but the experiment will show that the steam must contain a great deal of heat. A similar experiment will show the latent heat contained in water in reference to ice. If a teaspoonful of ice cold water and an amount of snow or ice which when melted would make a teaspoonful, each be added to a glass of water of the same temperature, it will be found that the pulverized ice or snow lowers the temperature much more than the tea- spoonful of ice-cold water. That is to say, a great deal more heat would have to be added to the "ice and water mixture, " to bring it back to the original temperature, than to the "ice cold water and water mixture. " Oxygen in the Air To show that tfce atmosphere contains a gas which is used up in combustion, attach a candle an inch and a half long to the bottom of a saucer with some of the melted wax. Pour about one-fourth of a glass of water into the dish, light the candle and invert the glass (one with straight sides) over the lighted candle. The flame will grow dim and soon be extinguished and the water will rise about one-fifth way up the glass. This shows a number of things. In burning, the carbon of the hydrocarbons of which the candle is made unites with the oxygen, making the gas carbon dioxide. This takes up the same volume as the oxygen out of which it was formed, but the water quickly dissolves the carbon dioxide and the pressure of the atmosphere on the water outside the glass forces it up into the partial vacuum formed. The nitrogen of the air remains, but this will not "support combustion," and so the candle is extinguished. Manufacturing Water That the burning of a candle produce 61 water as well as 167 154 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD carbon dioxide may be shown by placing the flame against a window pane. A film of moisture may be seen, also, when a lamp having a cold chimney is first lighted. The burning of a match will show water when it is placed against a cold surface, but this experiment is not so conclusive, for the wood may contain moisture. The candle contains no moist- ure, so the water must have been manufactured by the burning. Atmospheric Pressure We have had one example of the result of atmospheric pressure in the candle experiment. The working of a siphon i an interesting example. Take a small rubber tube, fill it with water, pinch both ends, put one end in a glass of water, and lower the other end into an empty glass at a foot lower level; release the pressure of the fingers, and the water will run from the tube, apparently going "up hill" over the edge of the glass. The explanation may be found in any text book on physics. This is a good way to empty wash tubs, etc., using a piece of rubber hose. Carbon Dioxide Light a splinter of wood and let it burn in a wide-mouthed bottle until it is extinguished. Add a tablespoonful of clear lime water (obtained at any drug store, or add a small lump of lime to warm water in a fruit jar, stir well, cover and let settle over night) , close the bottle, and shake the lime water around. It will grow milky from the formation of carbonate of lime (calcium), with which we are more familiar in the forms of chalk, marble, and clam shells. Again with any sort of a tube (a straw), blow into a little clear lime water. It will grow milky, showing that the breath contains carbon dioxide. If you will continue to blow into the lime water for a long time, the milkiness will be seen to disappear. This is because the carbonate of lime is dissolved by the excess of carbon dioxide in the water, 168 PROGRAM 155 after the lime water (hydrate of lime) is all changed into carbonate of lime. This point comes up in connection with hard water and laundry work. Flash Point of Kerosene The flash point of a sample of kerosene may be determined approximately by placing about two teaspoonfuls in a cup, then adding hot water to a bowl of water in which the cup containing the oil is placed. Stir the kerosene with a ther- mometer, and apply a lighted taper to the surface of the oil from time to time as the temperature of the oil rises. A quick flash over the surface of the kerosene will show the flash point. Read the temperature indicated by the ther- mometer. References: Chemistry of Daily Life, by Lassar-Conn. Chapter I, Atmosphere, Combustion. ($1.50, postage I2C.) 'Story of a Lump of Coal, by Martin. (35C., postage 6c.) Air and Water as Food, in Plain Words about Food, by Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage IOC.) Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, by Bailey, Chapter on The Atmosphere, Fuels. ($1.40 postage i2c.) Topics: The Formation of Coal See any good encyclo- pedia and geologies. Fire Worship See "Popular Science Monthly," Volume X, page 17, also "Public Opinion/ 8 Volume XIV, page 251. 169 l$6 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD MEETING II (Study pages 29-55) If the Food Course is being taken, some of the experiments here suggested might better be postponed until the lessons on Principles of Cookery or Food and Dietetics. Starch The blue color produced by a tincture of iodine (obtained at the drug store) on the faintest trace of starch is a very delicate test for starch. Cooked starch shows the test much better than uncooked. Note that the blue color is destroyed by heat, but appears again when the test is cool. Test various foods grains, vegetables, fruits, and nuts for starch. The conversion of starch into dextrin may be shown by heating a little flour or corn starch in a hot oven for half an hour or so, or until it becomes a deep yellow color. Dis- solve in a little cold water, filter out the unchanged starch by pouring through absorbent cotton in a funnel; test the filtered liquid to see if there is still any unchanged starch in it. Add double the quantity of alcohol to a part of the liquid. The dextrin will be precipitated, i. e., thrown out of solution and will settle as a fine powder,because dextrin is not soluble in alcohol. The water solution should be concentrated by boiling if much is used. That the starch is changed by heating with butter or other fat may be shown by adding two teaspoonfuls of flour to one teaspoonful of very hot butter, stirring for some time. Remove a drop on a piece of white paper and test it with tincture of iodine. Make starch paste by mixing a quarter of a teaspoonful of laundry or corn starch with a spoonful of water and adding it to a cup of boiling water and boil. To about half a glass of this when it has cooled to body temperature (100 F) add a half teaspoonful of saliva. Keep the mixture warm (not 170 PROGRAM 157 hot) for some time by placing it in warm water. From time to time test small portions with iodine solution as it grows clearer. Add saliva to a portion of hot starch; to a cold portion testing as before. Gluten May be the gluten separates from flomr as described on page 49, or better as described in "Food and Dietetics" page 41. Bake part of it in an oven. Experiments with other proteids also described on pages 41 and 43 of "Food and Dietetics." Experiments with yeast described on page 45 of "House- hold Bacteriology, " Part I. "Digestion is Synonymous with Solution" This statement is made on page 35. To show the relation of the length of time required to make a solution, take two equal portions of any crystals, such as washing soda or alum, and pulverize one portion. Stir each in a glass of water and observe the tim3 for each in dissolving. Note that the time required for complete solution is determined by the largest crystal. This experiment shows how important a part of digestion chewing is and that the teeth are primarily digestive organs. Cooking Meat See experiment on pages 50 and 51. Mineral Matter Gelatin See experiments on page 53. References: Chemistry of Cookery, by Mattieu Williams Pages 19-31. Albumen. ($1.50, postage i6c.) Chemistry of Daily Life, by Lassar-Conn. Pages 56-66. Digestion of Food. ($i. 50, postage loc.) (Select and send to the School a composite set of answers to Test Questions on Part I, and report on rupplemental work and experiments.) 171 158 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD MEETING III (Study pages 55-65) Cleaning: Acids, Alkalies, and Salts Strips of litmus paper may be obtained at a drug store or will be sent from the School on request. Moisten the blue paper in vinegar, le*mon juice, tomato, solution of cream of tartar, etc., and then in ammonia (even the vapor will change it), in solution of washing soda, baking soda, borax, soap, and various washing powders. If the paper is washed in running water after being turned blue with ammonia, a test for acid may usually be found in milk, molasses, and sometimes butter. One piece of paper will be found to turn from blue to red and back again to blue an indefinite number of times when wet with solutions of acids and alkalies alter- nately. Buy five cents' worth of hydrochloric acid and a little caustic soda at the druggist's. As caustic soda is unpleasant to handle, it is best to have the druggist dissolve it in water. Now pour a part of the acid into a saucer or glass, with a little water, and add the solution of caustic soda until the mixture begins to turn the litmus faintly blue. In an agate- ware dish, free from worn places, evaporate the solution to dryness. A whitish substance will be found, which by test- .ing will be recognized as common salt. From two very active chemical substances has been formed a neutral substance salt. Not all salts, however, are neutral. Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is chem- ically a salt, but it is made up of a very strong alkali forming element sodium and a very weak acid carbonic acid and the alkali properties predominate. Cream of tartar is an example of an acid salt. It is acid potassium tartrate, which is a double salt, that is, tartaric* acid is added to neutral potassium tartrate, the result being a substance which has acid properties. Common alum is slightly acid to litmus paper. 172 PROGRAM 159 Soap Soap chemically considered is a salt, made up of a fat acid and the metallic substance sodium. The fatty acid can be separated by adding any acid like vinegar to a solu- tion of soap. If the solution is warm, it rises as a scum to the top. It can be dissolved in ammonia, forming an ammonia soap. The sodium part of the soap unites with the acid and forms a salt. If hydrochloric acid is added to a soap solution (a sufficient quantity to make the solution very slightly acid), the fatty acid removed, and the residue evaporated to dryness, common salt will be found. If lime water be added to a solution of soap, white clots of "lime soap" will be formed which are insoluble in water, but on collecting and drying will be found to dissolve in gasoline, naphtha, cr kerosene. This is why naphtha or gasoline is useful in cleaning bath tubs, bowls, etc. Quite a good varnish can be made of aluminum soap, made from alum and white soap, dried and dissolved in gasoline. Washing Powders It is not difficult to get some idea of the composition of the various washing powders on the market. When acid is added to a solution, if there is effervescence, washing soda is probably present. A skum would indicate that soap formed a part of the mixture. Hard Water In the experiment with cabon dioxide it was shown how carbonate of lime might be dissolved by an excess of carbon dioxide gas, the bicarbonate of lime being formed, which is soluble in water. This is an example of an "unstable" chemical compound. Simply boiling drives off the excess of carbon dioxide gas, leaving the ordinary carbonate of lime which is insoluble and is deposited on the sides of the tea kettle or other vessel. This may be shown by blowing into lime water until the cloudiness which at first appears begins 173 160 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD to dissolve. As it is difficult to dissolve it completely, the solution may be filtered. On boiling the clear solution, the milkiness will appear again. Hardness that is brought about by the sulphate of lime "permanent hardness " is difficult to remedy by any house- hold means. Washing soda helps a little, but not very much. The so-called alkali waters of the west, in addition to sulphate of lime contain sulphate of soda and other salts, so that they are beyond remedy. Reference: Chemistry of Daily Life The Manufacture of Soda. Page 194. MEETING IV (Study pages 66-88) Laundry Work Bluing May Yellow Clothes: On page 70 is the statement that the repeated use of ordinary bluing may stain the clothes yellow. To prove this, dip a piece of white muslin into a strong bluing solution about a teaspoonful of liquid blu- ing to a cup of water dry the cloth with a hot iron and boil it in a little strong soap solution. The color will be seen to fade. Rinse and dry with the iron. On comparing the cloth with part of the original piece, a slight yellow stain will be seen. This is oxide of iron (iron rust) and can be proved to be such by adding a drop of pure dilute hydro- chloric acid and then a drop of yellow prussiate of potash (potassium f erro-cyanide) , the intense blue color produced being a test for iron. The conditions in this experiment are, of course, much more severe than obtained in ordinary washing, as most of the bluing is washed out before the clothes are boiled again, but the experiment proves the pos- sibility. As indigo costs about a dollar a pound and Prus- sian blue only a few cents, practically all the bluings on the market are Prussian blue. 174 PROGRAM 161 Iron Rust Stains Make "rusty water" by letting a few nails stand in a can of water over night or longer. Boil some white cotton cloth in a little of the water. Try the same with wool. Strain some of the water through white muslin and boil the muslin in soapy water. Stains One of the classes gave a demonstration before a large audience on the removal of stains as outlined in this lesson. As the only way to learn how to remove stains is to remove stains, it would be advisable to make a few, if none are at hand, and then try the experiments on them. References: Chemistry of Daily Life Inks. Page 178. Laundry Work, by Juniata L. Sheppard. (SQC., postage 6c.) (Send answers to Test Questions on Part II, and report on supplemental work.) MEETING V (Study pages 89-111) Baking Powder Perform experiments suggested on pages 90 and 91. Reference: Baking Powders. Bulletin No. 119, Maine Agri- cultural Experiment Station. (Loaned for 2C.) Lighting (1) See Experiment page 93. (2) Insert the small end of a clay pipe stem in the inner part of a candle flame and touch a lighted match to the other and so prove that the candle is a "gas factory. " 3) With a piece of wire gauze make the experiments illustrated on page 95. (4) Visit the local gas plant if there is one or the electric light station obtaining permission first from the office. 175 162 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD Electric Batteries (1) Detach one of the batteries that furnish the current for the electric bell, attach a wire to each pole and place the other ends on the tongue and note that the electric current gives a slight "taste" i. e., stimulates some of the nerves of taste. (2) Get some one to explain the action in an electric bell or send 2C. stamp to the School for circular giving descrip- tive diagram, diagrams for bell wiring, etc. Plants Examine with a microscope the "breathing pores" on the under surface of leaves. MEETING VI (Study pages 111-122) Chemical Formulas Reference: "Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, " by Rich- ards and Elliott. Pages 9-30. ($ i. oo, postage IOC.) ' ' Elementary Chemistry. " Text book of Ameri- can School of Correspondence. (Postage 4C.) Housekeepers' Laboratory Make some of the tests described. Reference: "Some Forms of Food Adulteration and Simple Methods for their Detection. " Bulletin No. 100, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Send roc. (coin) to the Supt of Documents, Washington, D. C. (Send answers to Test Questions on Part III and report on supplemental work.) 176 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY A NATURAL starting point in the art of cookery is the fire, since cookery without heat is an im- possibility. Human beings everywhere use fire to pre- pare their foods and by such applications of heat man first showed his superiority to the beasts. FIRE Among the ancients fire was regarded as a gift from the gods, to be protected in every way, and all civiliza- tion, forms of religion, civil ordinances, and family life have been traced to the care primitive man bestowed upon his fire. Among the early tribes, the chieftain was often the only one to have a fire in his home. The hearthstone thus became the center of the home life, the abode of the household gods, and even at the present time it is impossible for some persons to sep- arate the spirit of the home from the kitchen fire. In different sections of the country may still be seen all the types of fire and stove that have been Ancient Stoves developed through centuries, and every housekeeper should be familiar with the principles underlying the care of each. Among these are- the camp fire where food is broiled over coals or buried in hot ashes, the charcoal brazier of the fruit vender, essentially the same as the portable stoves found in Pompeii, the open fireplace, the brick oven, the Franklin stove, (an in- 177 2 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. vention of Benjamin Franklin), cookstoves adapted to wood, to hard and soft coal, to kerosene, to gas, and the electrical appliances which as yet are little more than toys for the rich. A century and more ago chimneys and fireplaces were often troublesome by smoking and Count Rumford and Benjamin Franklin each in different ways brought their inventive faculties to the solution of this serious problem of daily life. When the fireplace was the dependence of the home for warmth and cooking, the charred, half-burned brands of wood were carefully covered A Roman stove with ashes at night to start the fire the or Brazier. nex f- m orning. If the wind had blown off the ashes and the coals were gone out, it was easier to borrow more coals from a neighbor than to use the flint to produce a spark. All this was changed when matches were invented. First ^ was kut a ste P for primitive man from baking in Ovens i lo j- ashes or in a covered kettle set on the coals to a simple form of oven. Often one oven served a com- munity. Brick ovens were built at one side of the chimney. Sometimes the heat was turned through a flue to heat these ovens, sometimes a fire was built directly in the oven, and when it was burned down the oven was swept out and the food put in to be cooked 178 FIRE. 3 by the heated bricks. The later brick ovens, still used in some old houses, often had space underneath for a separate fire. An Oven, Showing Direction of the Hot Gases. For the open fire, wood is the most satisfactory fuel but it is not desirable for continuous use in cooking or heating. Wood is sold by measure, which is an in- accurate method at best. The drier the wood the better it burns, and a hard wood which produces coals is most useful. When wood is heated and the volatile portions ex- pelled, charcoal is produced. This is usually sold by measure. Its weight is about one-fifth that of the wood from which it is made. It is a primitive form of fuel and generally used in warm countries. A succession of small fires which can be quickly lighted and as 179 4 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. quickly extinguished are more suitable to such condi- tions than the one large stove or range. . The small stoves used today by the Latin races and their colonies do not differ materially from those of the early Romans. charcoal The charcoal broiler is used by many hotels because of the flavor it appears to develop in meats. Peat is an important fuel in some sections of the world. It must be thoroughly drained or dried, and at best contains a large percentage of ash. Both anthracite and bituminous coal have been in common use for less than a hundred years. Hard coai A dense solid, like hard coal, kindles slowly but requires far less care to maintain a fire than wood. Coal is a better fuel for winter than summer! If the lumps of coal are too large they will not kindle readily ; if too small, they choke the flame. The large nut and egg grades are best suited to cooking purposes. The draft and size of the fire box determine the size and grade to be used for good results. The free burning "Franklin" coal should be used with poor draft, while with a good draft and large fire box all grades and the larger sizes may be used. A dark brilliant coal will have fewest clinkers. The intense heat resulting from open drafts fuses in large masses the foreign matter which is mixed with the carbon. By burning oyster shells in such cases, new compounds are formed which prevent the clinkers, but the clinkers seldom form with a moderate supply of air. 180 FIRE. 5 Soft coal needs very different treatment from hard. Little draft underneath is required, but some draft is necessary over the top to burn the gases given off, and the funnel draft must be open to allow the smoke to escape. If the coal has "coked" over on top it must be broken up when good fire is required. If the fire is to be kept, it is allowed to coke over. Briquettes are made from coal dust and other sub- stances and are used extensively in places where coal is high priced. The wood and coal stoves and ranges are today the most common means of cooking foods. Housekeepers often become familiar with one stove and one kind of fuel and are unsuccessful with another because they are unwilling to study the laws of nature, or lack the patience to experiment with a new adaptation of them. Much besides personal preference must be con- sidered in the proper valuation of fuels ; not only the percentage of carbon, moisture, and volatile matter in each, but the necessary waste, the by-products, and the time required for caring for each and keeping the surroundings clean. The best stoves and ranges are those plain in finish and simple in construction, with parts well fitted to- gether so that they can be taken apart if necessary and easily cleaned. A portable range is one that may be moved if neces- sary, while the "set" range is built into the chimney. The fire box is lined on the sides with a kind of brick 181 6 PRINCIPLES OF COOKER*. above which the fire should never come. The revolv- ing grate is the most common in recent styles of stoves. There is a grate underneath, and below is a place for ashes or a pan which may be taken out to empty. The oven is surrounded by spaces through which hot gases circulate. The housekeeper should investigate her stove thor- oughly when the fire is out, take off all covers, open doors, remove the "clean out" plate for the space under the oven ; then see Low the dampers work and explore all passages with a lighted match or candle if need be. The draft given by the chimney depends upon the difference in temperature between the air of the room and the gases of combustion. The hot gases are more expanded and therefore lighter and tend to rise. The hotter the fire the greater the draft will be. The supply of air is as essential as fuel for a good fire ; combustion depends upon both. Smoke and an accumulation of soot are indications of incomplete combustion. Several drafts and dampers are common to all wood and coal stoves and ranges. They should be open to start the fire, but closed to keep it. The slide under the fire box supplies the fresh air necessary for perfect combustion. A check in the pipe or at the back of the stove under the pipe, or in both places, is usually known as the chimney damper. A slide in the stove pipe or connected with the chimney damper admits cold air into the stove pipe when opened and thus les- sens the draft. 182 FIRE. 7 The oven damper turns the heated air away from the pipe so that it goes over the top, down the side, under the bottom, and up the back flue in most stoves and heats the oven before it makes its escape. These differ slightly in different ranges but the purpose of each is the same. Experiment with your own stove until you can control it. Many ranges have a slide or door above the fire box which may be used for broiling. Hoods are some- times placed over large ranges to gather odors and excessive heat and convey them to the chimney. Whether the fuel be coal or wood, the starting of a fire and its care afterwards are much the same pro- cess. First remove ashes, brushing off the top of the oven under the covers. When the fire box is clear, put in crumpled paper, bits of wood, and then larger wood and a sprinkle of fine coal. . See that all drafts are open. Replace the covers and then blacken the stove, if necessary, but polish after the fire is started. Light the paper and as the wood settles down, add coal, little by little, till it is even with the lining of the fire box. When the blue flame of coal disappears, close the oven damper, and a little later shut the slide under the fire box and the chimney damper. Open the damper when more coal is added. When coal is red it is nearly burned out. To keep a fire several hours shake out the ashes, fill with coal, close the dampers, and partially open the slide above the fire. 183 8 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY, Gas Burners For continual use it is better to add a little fuel at a time, but not in the midst of baking anythingo With wood and soft coal the chimney damper cannot be closed as much as with hard coal, because there is more soot and smoke which must be allowed to escape. Gas is an invisible fuel obtained from several sources. Pure coal gas is more satisfac- tory than natural gas, or than the so-called "water gas." The es- cape of the latter is less easily de- tected and it is much more poi- sonous, hence there is more dan- ger in using it. For institutions at a distance from large towns a private sup- ply of gas which is fairly satis- factory is made from gasoline, and acetylene gas is now often made even for the single house. For fuel purposes, the burners are so constructed as to admit sufficient air with the gas for complete com- bustion. A bluish flame is produced, which is much hotter than the yellow blaze used for light. It is possible to admit too much air, which causes a loss of heat. If the air supply is adjustable, close the opening for the air until a yellow flame is produced, and then open it until the flame just comes blue again. If a burner in a gas stove "burns back" and shows a Bunsen Burner. 184 FIRE. 9 yellowish flame, leaving a deposit of soot on the bottom of kettles, turn it out and light it again, being careful that the gas does not ignite back in the pipe before it mixes with the air. Gas stoves should be connected with the main sup- ply by a pipe large enough to insure sufficient supply of Gas Stove with Oven. Broiler, and Hot Wa- ter Heater Attachment. fuel under all conditions. The amount used can then be regulated by the cook for each burner. Care must be taken to keep the burners and all parts of the stove perfectly clean. The gas stove is especially adapted to the conditions of the present age ; it is far less care than either wood or coal ranges, and at ordinary rates for gas, kss ex- pensive when properly operated. Even at high prices Gas Stoves 185 10 PRINCIPLES OF COOKER*. Gas Meter for gas it is a cheap fuel if .human energy and time are considered. The application of a match makes the full power of the stove available at once and as soon as work is done, the flame may be shut off. Any desired degree of heat may be obtained at short notice with no waste of fuel and no debris to be cared for. The stoves occupy small space and each part may be used independently. (a) (b) Dial of a Gas Meter, (a) At the Beginning of a Month, (b) After Registering the Amount of Gas Used for the Month. The housekeeper should learn to read a gas meter. Each space on the right hand circle passed by the hand indicates the consumption of 100 cubic feet of gas, on the middle circle 1,000 feet, and on the one on the left hand 10,000 feet. Read from left to right, taking the figure just passed by each hand and add two ciphers for the hundreds. A previous reading deducted from the present one shows the amount of gas consumed in a given time. Example. In the illustration, the hand on dial A has just passed the figure 7, indicating 700 cubic feet; on dial B the hand has passed figure 8 (note that this 186 FIRE. ii hand moves in the opposite direction to the first), and on dial C the hand has last passed the figure 4. The reading is then, 700+8,000+40,00) 48,700 cubic feet. If in a month the hands are in the position indicated in the second figure, the reading is 64,900 cubic feet. The dif- ference between the two read- ings is 64,900 48,700=16,- 200 cubic feet. Sixteen thou- sand two hundred cubic feet is the amount consumed for the month. The small dial at the top of the illustration indicates cubic feet and is used only for test- ing the system for leakage. Kerosene and gasoline are useful fuels for summer and emergency use. These are sold by the gallon and only the best qualities should be us^d. The blue flame kerosene probably are the best of this class of stoves. The small lamp stoves also have merit. They are similar in construction to read- ding lamps and should receive equal care. Two small stoves often are more useful than one large one, be- cause more readily moved where needed. It is essen- tial that such stoves should stand out of a draft. Steam Cooker, Circular Form. Kerosene and Gasoline 187 12 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Steam Cooker Chafing Dish A steam cooker is an invaluable adjunct to the small stoves whether gas or kerosene is burned. Several articles may thus be cooked over one burner and both time and fuel are saved. The Aladdin oven is an arrangement for saving I heat. It may be used with an ordinary large lamp or with gas. The iron oven is placed inside a jacket of non-conducting sub- stance, hence little heat is lost. It is especially useful for slow cooking. The Norwegian cooking box is another plan for saving heat. A kettle of food is raised to the boiling point and then packed in a box lined with non-conducting materials. The modern chafing dish is but slightly different in effect from the primitive char- coal stove or brazier. The use of alcohol for fuel makes it simple and clean. Wood alcohol a by- product from distillation of wood is often used for fuel, but its disagreeable odor makes it less desirable. Anything that may be cooked over any other stove in a frypan, saucepan, or double boiler may be pre- pared in the chafing dish. Aladdin Oven Heated by Lamp. 188 FIRE. 13 Heat brings out the flavors in food and develops new ones and makes soluble, substances which the human stomach could not otherwise digest. In most cases moderate heat long continued produces better results than intense heat applied for a short period. A MODIFIED NORWEGIAN COOKING BOX. Graniteware Palls with tight covers are packed with asbestos and covered with a pad, the lid of the box is then closed and the whole wrapped in an old blanket. The degree of heat best adapted to make food digesti- ible is not always that which produces the most ac- ceptable flavor, hence cooking must be more or less of a compromise. As yet we know little about the de- gree of heat best suited to the perfect cooking of each food and the temperature at which it should be served. Nothing will cook until it is warmed, and warming and drying are usually the first steps in the cooking process. 189 Boiling Roasting 14 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. The transmission of heat from a fire to our foods may be by conduction, as when heat travels along a bar of metal, by convection, when heat is transferred by the motion of heated liquid or gas, and by radiation through the air. The effect of heat on the food is fur- ther modified by the way the metal or other substance containing the food is affected by heat. The use of asbestos in the form of mats and linings for ovens and jackets for kettles to modify the heat transferred to food is likely to increase in the future. Broiling probably was the first attempt at cooking since it required little beside the fire and the heat. Roasting is a similar process applied to larger sections of meat and therefore requiring a longer time. The relationship of roasting and broiling is most apparent with a gas range for there is no line of separation be- tween the cooking of thick steaks and thin roasts. Much so-called roasting is really baking. In broiling and roasting, tender portions of fish, flesh or fowls are exposed to intense heat at first to sear the outside and close the open tubes or pores which con- tain the juices. The fire should be free from smoke and may be charcoal or half-burned wood or coal or gas. After the surface is browned the section of meat should be drawn away from the intense heat and kept at a more moderate temperature until cooked thor- oughly. More depends upon the shape of the article to be broiled or roasted than upon the weight. When a thick mass is to be cooked in this fashion it 190 FIRE. 15 becomes necessary to modify the heat on the outside and Basting to aid in driving it in by the process known as basting ; that is, dipping up the hot fat which has dripped into a pan beneath the meat and hence is known as drip- ping, and pouring it over the outside of the mass. The glossy brown secured by basting may have suggested to some early cook the advantage of deep frying. Chafing-Dish the Modern Brazier. The difference between broiling over coals and in a hot pan is but slight and dry frying or sautering is a similar process. Toasting is a similar application of heat to foods already cooked once. The earliest forms of baking were in the hot dishes and then in covered kettles set in coals or hung over the fire. Our ovens are an outgrowth from those primitive methods, and now much so-called roasting is really baking. A point to study in this connection is the fact that food is fuel for the human body. The amount and 191 16 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. quality of fuel is varied according to the work to be done, so should the food be chosen according to the work of the individual and the climate or season of the year. WATER Water is not always considered to be strictly a food in itself, but by its aid many foods and flavors are put in forms more acceptable to the palate and more readily absorbed by the body than they could be in any other way. importance Immense quantities of water are necessary for incooking the preparation of food and the cleansing of dishes in addition to what is needed for laundry and bathing purposes. Cities make provision from some source safe from contamination for the water needed by their inhabitants. In small communities the individual fam- ily must each be responsible for its water supply. This is not the place to discuss the medical aspect of the water question, but all agree that water should be above the suspicion of danger of transmitting disease. Moreover, for household purposes water should be clean and soft, since hard water containing mineral salts hinders processes of cooking and cleaning. A limited water supply or inconvenient arrangements for its use and disposal afterward, tend to reduce the consumption to such an extent as to interfere with the proper cooking and service of food, if not below the actual standards for health. 192 WATER. 17 Nearly three-fourths of the human body is water and a similar proportion will hold in most foods served at our tables. The total amount of water taken by a human being daily averages two or three quarts, or from four to six pounds. The portion of this which is taken as a beverage depends upon the solidity of the food. The benefit gained from mineral waters often is quite Minera as much due to an increased consumption of water as Water to the mineral constituents they contain. The tendency of civilized man in feeding himself is toward too con- centrated foods, too little water as a beverage and too little watery food. Water not only brings solids into the stomach in an acceptable form, but it is essential in building new tissues and removing wastes. ' The in- side of the body, as well as the outside, sometimes re- quires washing. The temperature at which water is taken into the stomach is an important point. A glass of cool water sipped slowly may have as stimulating an effect as one of wine. Often more ice than water is found in the glasses on American tables, and the ice water is taken hurriedly and interferes with digestion. Hot water taken slowly will often revive tired peo- ple as effectually as tea or coffee. The merit of soup as a first course at dinner probably is due to the fact that it contains ninety to ninety-five per cent hot water and that the solids are largely in solution and absorb- able. 193 i8 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Flavor of Water Dishwashing If clear hot water is an unpalatable beverage, salt or lemon juice may be added to give a distinct flavor. There is a marked difference in flavor between water freshly boiled and that which has been kept hot for a long time. The latter has lost the gases which give life to fresh water. For any purpose in cooking stale water will injure the flavor of foods whether it be taken from a hot water faucet or from a teakettle where it has stood for hours. Other ill flavors come into our foods because of im- perfect utensils, badly washed. A rough surface or seam will retain something from previous cooking to add to the next substance cooked therein, or greasy dishwater or soap may be left in sufficient quantity to give an appreciable change of flavor. Another important use of water essential in good cooking is for the cleaning of utensils. Dishwashing is not a popular occupation probably because repairing or setting to rights is never quite as interesting as the construction of something definite. Insufficient appliances and inconvenient conditions for the work are other causes for its unpopularity. With a convenient sink of the right height, ample table room for soiled and clean dishes, abundance of towels and hot water, dishwashing loses its terrors. A knowledge of the composition of each food and the way it is affected by different degrees of heat is as de- sirable in dishwashing as in cooking. For example, where gelatine has dried on a strainer it should be 194 WATER. 19 softened in cold water, but that treatment would not be helpful if the strainer had been used for fry fat, while an egg beater plunged in boiling water would be all the harder to wash because the egg would be cooked. Time is saved by careful sorting and scraping of dishes before washing. Detergents are helpful but less im- portant than abundance of water. Strong soda water boiled in a utensil will remove soaking food that has burned on. Soaking is as helpful in Dishes dishwashing as in the laundry and dishes that cannot be washed as soon as used should be covered with water. After washing, any dishes are improved by rinsing in scalding water. The usual plan is to wash dishes in this order, glass, silver, crockery, cooking pans, or kettles. Often it is more desirable to get the large pieces out of the way first. It is half a century since the first dishwashing ma- chine was invented and though they are in general use for hotels, hand work seems better adapted to most households. To illustrate the effect of the range of temperature from the block of ice at 32 F to the steaming kettle at 212 F let us follow the process of making a simple gelatine jelly. The gelatine has been extracted for us in factories from bones of animals and needs no cook- ing, but must be dissolved and combined with liquid and flavoring. It is first softened in cold water, the time required varying according to the size of the parti- 195 20 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. cles of gelatine. Then it must be dissolved with boil- ing liquid. Use only as much boiling liquid as is neces- Geiatme sary to dissolve the gelatine. The sugar, if that is to be used, added next, because it will dissolve more rapidly in a warm medium, and then is put in the fruit juice or whatever is to flavor the jelly. The compound is to be strained and cooled. The larger the mass the slower the cooling. Experiment. To illustrate this put half the jelly in one mould and the other half in several cups. The cup will be firm before the large mould at any tempera- ture. To illustrate another point put one cup in a pan of snow or cracked ice mixed with coarse salt. When some of the jelly is half thickened combine with it whipped cream or white of egg. If possible take temperature of each with a ther- mometer. The key to all gelatine desserts, is to have proper proportions of gelatine and liquid and to have the right temperature for the different stages. The proportions are given by each manufacturer on the package. METHODS OF COOKING IN WATER. Water is as essential as fire in all processes of cook- ery. No food can be cooked without water and un- less it naturally contains a large proportion of the fluid, more must be added during the cooking process. Boiling Cooking food in water indicates further progress in 196 WATER. 21 this art than either broiling or roasting. It implies the invention of a kettle to contain the water, though the earliest cooking of this sort may have been done by dropping heated stones into a hollow one containing the water and meat or into a water tight basket. Homer and other ancient writers have nothing to say about boiled meats, though they mention those which were broiled or roasted. Boiling, stewing, and steaming are slight variations of the same process. Under ordinary conditions, with- out pressure, no food thus cooked can be raised to a higher temperature than 212 F at sea level, and at high altitudes few foods can be cooked in' this way, since water boils at a lower temperature. Experiment. Much may be learned by heating a given measure of water and watching it until it reaches the boiling point. Tiny bubbles hardly larger than the point of a pin soon form and rise to the top, but this is not boiling. The same thing may happen in a glass of water stand- ing for an hour on the table. How will you explain this? When the water is actually boiling large bubbles rise rapidly and break on the surface. Keep up this process until nothing appears to be left in the pan. Where has the water gone? Has anything been left behind ? There will usually be a trace of coloring mat- ter to indicate that solids do not evaporate. This point may be made more apparent by putting a 197 22 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Evaporation Choice of Utensils tablespoon ful of salt in the water that is to be evapo- rated. What is left behind in a teakettle which is never cleaned inside though the water is allowed to boil day after day? Experiment. Other simple experiments may be made with two dishes of uniform size containing the same amount of water exposed to the same heat, one covered, the other uncovered. Which reaches the boiling point first ? From which does the water first evaporate ? The evaporation of water is an important factor in cooking. The rate of evaporation is proportionate to the surface exposed to the air and not to the amount of water in the kettle. Thus the same quantity of syrup or sauce made in a shallow pam will naturally become thicker than when cooked for the same time in a deep pan having only one-fourth the surface. The art of the cook is displayed by the proper choice of utensils, or, if utensils are limited, by varying the time of the process or by the addition of more water for different purposes. Where long cooking is neces- sary choose deep utensils, reserving the shallow ones for the occasions when haste is essential. The use of a cover serves several purposes; it pro- tects the food in the kettle from foreign matter from outside, it aids in retaining the heat, and prevents the loss of water to some extent, as much of the steam condenses and runs back. 198 COOKING IN WATER. 23 Even without a thermometer it is evident that water cannot be made as hot as fat, for a potato, a bit of meat, or a lump of dough might be cooked in water indefinite- ly without assuming the brown color which would come to any one of these articles in hot fat. By observation also, we might discover that, however rapidly the water in a kettle boils, potatoes or other foods do not cook more quickly. In the same way we should find that absolute boiling or bubbling of the water was not necessary in order to cook some foods. Through such observation and experience certain common laws of cooking have been established and these have been verified and explained by the experi- ments of modern scientists. The temperature of the water should be adapted to the type of food material to be cooked in it. Vegetables containing woody fibre to be softened require the boiling-point, while meats and eggs, of different composition, will cook more per- fectly at a lower temperature. To extract juices and flavors of meats and vegetables to the fullest degree divide the substance finely to expose as much surface as possible to the action of the water and let that be cold. Soak first, then heat the whole slowly and hold below the boiling point till the end is gained. When water is used only for the purpose of convey- ing heat let it be boiling hot when the food is put into it. Even then some of the solids in the food will be dis- solved in the water and lost unless it be used. In some cases, as in strong flavored vegetables, this may be a 199 24 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. desirable loss. Mediums like hot fat, a thick syrup, or a' gravy in which water is thickened with flour, by their density prevent loss of shape and flavor in the articles cooked in them. Rapid boiling in water tends to disintegrate foods. Meats are cooked to rags, potatoes become a soggy paste, and no intensity of heat is gained. A Double-Boiler an Invention of Count Eumford. stewing Stewing implies moist heat, a sort of sweating process. Boiling requires much water, at its highest temperature ; stewing is done with little water at a heat sufficient to soften the substance, but considerably be- low the boiling point. Hence boiling is more applica- ble to vegetables and stewing to animal foods. Braising Braising and fricasseeing and pot roasting are com- binations of broiling or frying and stewing. Sections of meat are first browned to secure a good flavor and then stewed until tender in broth or gravy. 200 COOKING IN WATER. 25 Water is a restless substance and is constantly escap- ing from the surface of our foods while they are being cooked. Keep the water in the right place, is a watch- word against many of the difficulties that arise in cookery. When a sauce or soup is too thick water may be added. On the other hand, when such foods are too watery the surplus often may be evaporated by cook- ing rapidly, uncovered, for a short time. Besides kettles of various shapes, the double boiler The and the steam cooker are important utensils dependent ^li for use upon water. The double boiler we owe to the inventive genius of Count Rumford. Here is one ket- tle set in another containing water, and so long as there is water between a food and the fire no browning can take place in the food. This utensil is especially associated with compounds of milk and with the cook- ing of cereals. Though the food in the upper part does not quite reach the boiling point, this disadvantage is more than balanced by the long time which may be allowed for cooking with no danger of burning. The steam cooker is found in many patterns, all on the same general plan. It differs from the double boiler in having several parts above the kettle contain- ing the water, each with perforated bottom, so that the steam and vapor have direct access to the food. The"bain marie" is a French device to serve the same end. One large kettle of water contains a number of 201 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Making Tea Coffee Coffee Pot for Making Drip Coffee. deep sauce pans. This is especially useful for food already cooked which is to be kept hot for intermittent serving in restaurants. The prevalent idea that all food must be served the moment it is cooked is due in many cases to imperfect methods for keeping it warm. For tea and coffee a moder- ately soft water is generally con- sidered best. The different kinds of tea re- ceive their name from the local- ity where they grow and from the size of the leaf, the younger leaves furnishing the choicer varieties. (See the illustration and descrip- tion given on page 139 of Food and Dietetics.) To make tea, use an earthen pot, fresh boiling water, and from one-half to one teaspoonful of tea for each half pint of water. Leave covered in a warm place to steep for three to five minutes and serve. For cold tea drain from the grounds at once. Names mean little in brands of coffee further than to indicate the original home of a special variety of the plant. The berry improves in quality for several years but loses flavor after roasting and more after grinding. One pound of good coffee measures about one quart and will make at least thirty full cups of strong coffee. Thus one pound should supply one person for a month 202 COOKING IN WATER. 27 or four persons for a week. It is better to buy coffee in small lots often, unless it is ground as used. Coffee may be steeped like tea or boiled. All things STEAM COOKER WITH DOORS. considered, the drip coffee pots are most satisfactory and the beverage thus made is more economical and uniform and probably less injurious than when it is boiled. 203 28 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. ICE Ice is becoming more and more essential to civilize man, not only for summer use but for the year arounc The future promises many improvements along thi line, in more rigid inspection of the sources of th natural ice supply, in improved facilities for the mant facture of artificial ice, perhaps even in the individu; home, by the transmission of cold brine as gas an water are now supplied from house to house from cen tral plants, making it possible to dispense with th iceman's daily round. Patents have been issued fo methods of cooling houses in summer similar to thos used in cold storage plants. Food is now sent long dis tances in refrigerator cars and the whole subject c refrigeration has received much study. It has bee found that different foods require various degrees o temperature. cold The preservation of food by cold storage is of gres Storage b ene fit to armies and navies, but is not an unmixe blessing to the housekeeper for it has upset the season of foods, and when we can obtain a food at any tim of the year it loses the charm it possessed when th season was a short one. Moreover, though food i: cold storage does not spoil, it parts with something an< undergoes certain changes which are not fully ex plained as yet. The housekeeper is usually safer in th use of canned foods than of those subjected to a lonj period of cold storage. ICE. 29 The household refrigerator is frequently expected to do impossibilities in, caring for foods. It is a great labor saver when properly used and may be depended upon the year around and not merely in summer. It should be placed in a cool, light, airy place, con- venient to kitchen and dining room unless a second A Refrigerator showing Direction of Air Currents. refrigerator be placed there. If possible place it near the door so that the ice man need not track all over the kitchen floor. The cellar is no place for a re- frigerator. A good cellar is a safe place for most foods, and a poor one will injure the refrigerator. In many households the cost of ice is more than saved by the preservation of food that would other- wise be' lost. The average family will use from one to two dollars' worth of ice a month at city prices. In modern houses the water pipe from the ice com- The Refrigerator 205 30 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. partment of the refrigerator is often connected with the sewer pipe. This should never be direct. Let the pipe drip into a spout. A refrigerator should have several compartments, that foods like milk and butter may be kept apart from others. The coolest place is usually under the ice. A tile or enamel lined refrigerator has many advantages, but any that are properly made if kept clean will do good work. Any break should be repaired at once, for an overflow of water or a crack in the lin- ing may cause an odor which will flavor all food. Care of The ice should be washed clean before putting in Refrigerator place and no food should ever be placed upon it. The jars of water chilling for table use are the only things to be allowed beside the ice in its compartment. No food should be put away while warm. How often a refrigerator should be cleaned depends upon the way it is used. If nothing is allowed to spill or rub against the sides or shelves, or, when this hap- pens, if it is cleaned away at once, and if nothing stays there until unfit for food, frequent scalding is un- necessary. Every week or fortnight when the ice is nearly out remove shelves and scald them thoroughly and wash throughout. Glass and stone jars, deep earthen and agate plates are the best utensils in which to put foods away in the refrigerator. The principle of the refrigerator is exactly that of 206 ICE. 31 the Aladdin oven a closet with shelves is put inside a case of non-conducting substance. On the same plan, our ice cream freezers are built. i ce cream The outer tub is a non-conducting substance to pre- vent the entrance of heat. There are jugs for hot water and coolers for ice water constructed according to the same idea. Salt is mixed with ice because its affinity for water will cause the ice to melt, and when a solid changes to liquid form, heat is absorbed from the surrounding objects. Cracked ice about the size of coarse rock salt is used, the proportion being three parts ice to one of salt. Ice cream, custard, or fruit juice to be frozen, should be more highly flavored and sweetened than if it were to be eaten at an ordinary temperature. The organs of taste are benumbed by the cold, and a stronger flavor is necessary to produce an effect. The cost of ice for making frozen desserts is less than the cost of fuel for cooking many. 207 Uncooked Food Preserving Food PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION OF FOODS All processes of cooking are the result of gradual evolution. Nature ripens fruits and seeds in the sun- light. Dry nuts and seeds are stored by squirrels and other creatures. Primitive men were but little in ad- vance of the squirrel when they saved different grains and pounded or parched them for food. We may understand better the origin of our proc- esses of cooking if we first consider the foods avail- able without special preparation. Tropical countries have always afforded a variety of fruits capable of sus- taining human life. It is estimated that many more persons may be supported on a given piece of ground planted to bananas than by the same surface planted with any crop in a temperate climate. The breadfruit, fig, date, and raisin are other important fruit foods. In temperate climates without knowledge of agricul- ture mankind must depend largely upon animal foods, and doubtless here would come the first application of heat to change the flavor or to aid in preservation of the food from day to day. The drying of fruits and the smoking of meats natu- rally were the earliest methods of preserving foods. Probably the preservative action of smoke was acci- dentally discovered and the salting of fish may have been derived naturally from its association with salt water. Since all foods are mainly water it was an immense advantage to wandering tribes to reduce their burdens 32 208 PRESERVING FOOD. 33 by drying their foods. Even the most primitive house- keepers discovered that in proportion as food parted with water it was less liable to ferment, mould, or de- cay, though the scientific reason for this that most bac- teria can live and develop more rapidly in fluids has only been discovered recently by bacteriologists. The modern housekeeper seems to be losing the art Dried of drying foods, yet in many cases that mode of preser- vation is more desirable than canning or cold storage. Dried Prunes Before and After Soaking. One reason why dried fruits have fallen into dis- repute is this : To remove the discoloration which takes place when cut fruits are dried or evaporated in fac- tories they are often bleached by sulphur and suffer loss of flavor. Another reason for not using dried foods is that it takes time to soak them. When they are to be made ready for use the first step is to supply as much water as they lost from evaporation. This is best accomplished by long soak- ing without heat, merely cooking them enough at the end to soften tough fibres and to prevent fermenta- tion. 209 34 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Honey and olive oil may be considered with the food products requiring little preparation. They were commonly used by the ancients. Nuts Nuts are an important food in some parts of the world. The peasantry of southern Europe find in the chestnut a substitute for cereals. It is made more di- gestible by a partial cooking. The neglect of nuts in our country is due to the cheapness of cereal products but there is an increasing use of them as a substitute for meats. Average shelled nuts have weight for weight about twice the fuel value of wheat flour be- cause they contain so much fat. Chestnuts are about two-thirds starch, and contain little fat. Other nuts are from one-third to two-thirds fat. It is a common idea that nuts are very indigestible. That may be changed if we learn to masticate them properly or to grind them and combine with other foods instead of eating them without chewing properly, as dessert after sufficient nourishment has been taken. Nuts and fruits supplement each other, to some ex- tent, the one containing what the other lacks. The leguminous seeds, peas, beans, lentils, and pea- nuts, are somewhat like nuts, but are not so rich in fat and are unpalatable unless cooked. Most of our common vegetables are the result of ages of cultivation. Fruits We are only on the threshold of the possibilities of combining and preserving fruits. An increased use of fruit, fresh and preserved, will tend to cause a di- minished use of alcoholic beverages. Fruit juice is one 210 CANNING. 35 of the best agents to quench thirst. A desire for some other beverage than water may be taken as a cry for food. Fruit juices, hot or cold, will better supply this desire than tea or coffee. The expressed juice of real fruit may be sterilized and then charged with carbon dioxide, as well as the chemical compounds now sold as soft drinks. Inferior fruits and skins and cores, if clean, may Jellies under pressure yield juice for jellies, or to flavor other foods. Fruits may be blended, pressed, and strained, and used in many ways even for children and invalids when the solid particles and seeds would prove irritat- ing. The juice of the lemon or orange and the pulp of the banana may thus be combined. Since modern housekeepers lack patience to dry foods canned and soak them out again the canning factory has come to their aid. Within the last half century this business has developed immensely. Home canning cannot com- pete with that of the factory, because there a higher temperature is gained which more effectively sterilizes the food. Canned foods keep because the bacteria in them are destroyed and others cannot enter because the air is kept out. Fruit will not spoil even if the jar is not full, provided the air above it has been sterilized. Unfortunately, ignorance of the processes involved makes the consumer demand impossibilities in color and form, and this has led the manufacturer to use artificial colorings freely. 211 36 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Preservatives of different kinds have been found to be cheaper than care and time expended in the prepara- tion. Clean foods keep better than unclean ones, but skilled human labor is the means to cleanliness and that is expensive. Preserving Pound for pound preserves which include jellies sugar mac [ e f rom f ru it juice and marmalades from fruit pulp with equal weight of sugar keep even if exposed to air, because bacteria do not flourish in dense substances. Some fruits are preserved half by drying in the sun- shine, half by sugar. Spiced fruits were more common before the days of air-tight jars, for spices are enemies of bacteria. Canning The cann i n " of fod is not a complicated process. Everything must be clean, that is, free from spores of mould or germs that promote decay. Such cleanli- ness may be accomplished in part by water, partly by heat. The jars, covers, tunnels, and spoons 'must be subjected to boiling water to render them sterile. They are usually put in cold water which is slowly brought to the boiling point. The scalding of tomatoes and peaches not only renders the skin easy of removal but sterilizes the outside so that nothing is rubbed on to the inner surface as it is peeled. An accumulation of dust, mould, and decayed por- tions, even if each be slight, cannot but affect the re- sult. Therefore the fruit for any purpose must be care- fully picked over and washed. Very juicy fruits, like currants, may have the juice expressed without first 212 CANNING. 37 Cooking, while others, like the crab apple, require the effect of heat to start the juice. The utensils for cooking and straining should not be of metal if the best flavors of the fruit are to be re- tained. Agate or earthen ware kettles, wooden spoons, and linen strainers are desirable for this work. If 'LIGHTNING." PRESERVE JARS. IMPROVED "MASON." necessary to use metal anywhere, do it as quickly as possible, and never leave an iron spoon in a kettle of cooked fruit. Sugar is not essential to canning, but is usually added for flavor and because fruit cooked in a syrup keeps its shape better than when cooked in water. The best jars are those having glass covers and fastening with a spring. The screw tops are easily rendered imperfect and are hard to close and open. Preserve Jars 213 &8 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. The less lettering there is in the glass the surer we are of keeping it clean. The rubber rings spoil quickly and none that are stretched or brittle should be used. New ones are usually required every year. Pint jars are more satisfactory for the average family than the larger sizes. A grocer's tunnel is desirable for filling the jars, and a half-pint dipper with a long handle is another help. The essential points in canning fruit may be summed up in very few words. All that is necessary is to have the fruit and everything that comes in contact with it sterilized, and then keep the air away from it. That is, the fruit and whatever it touches must be raised to a sufficient degree of heat to destroy any micro-organisms already there that would cause change of form or de- cay. This being done care must be taken that no others are allowed to enter through the air. There is no magic about it, only constant watchfulness. Gentle cooking, long continued, seems to be fatal to the bacteria, which might work so much ill, and this method is more conducive to preserving the natural appearance of the fruit than is intense heat for a short period. Fruit, vegetables, milk, and meats all are prepared in similar fashion. Animal foods spoil easily because of their composition. 214 CHOICE OF FOOD Primitive man made use of anything near his hand to satisfy his need and accidents and extreme hunger made many foods appetizing to our ancestors which might not appeal to us today if we had not inherited the taste for them. According to W. Mattieu Williams, "the fact that we use the digestive and nutrient apparatus of sheep, oxen, etc., for the preparation of our food is merely a transitory barbarism." Other authorities agree with him that the art of cooking may some time be so de- veloped as to enable us to prepare the coarser vegetable substances in an easily assimilated form without de- pending upon animals as middle ,men. The art of the cook has done much to make un- - The Art likely food materials attractive, but there is another of Cookin s phase of the question, and that is the problem how to make what we know is nourishing both pleasant and attractive. The cook of the past had to make the best possible use of the meager nutrients at hand. The cook of the present and future has the harvests of the whole world within reach all the year around. How shall such abundant material be combined to sat- isfy the palate without overloading the digestive or- gans ? More important still, how shall we select and pre- pare foods that they may produce sufficient energy in the human body for the great tasks awaiting it in our complex civilization. 215 4 o PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Classification of Food Organic Foods During the last twenty years or less much material has been published by the U. S. Department of Agri- culture recording the results of investigations. Many of these pamphlets can be secured for the asking. For practical use all the principal substances found in our foods may be classified under five heads : water, mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. The first, and its importance in cooking, has already been considered. The second appears in different forms in all foods, rarely exceeding one per cent, of their natural weight. This it is which remains as ash when a food is burned. It is most prominent in the refuse portions of food which are removed before coming to the table, such as the husks and bones. Some of these mineral matters are readily soluble in water, hence are lost when no use is made of the water in which vege- tables are boiled. Common salt is the principal mineral substance in use in cooking. The other three great classes of food substances are known as organic compounds, the protein, fat, and carbohydrate. The proteins are subdivided into many classes, but so far as practical cooking is concerned, little need be said of these here. Since this type of material constitutes about one-fifth of the human body by weight it must be found in the daily food. Lean meat, eggs, milk *Following the nomenclature of the U. S. Department o Agriculture, the term protein is used to denote all classes o nitrogenous foods. 216 CHOICE OF FOOD. 4! curd, and portions of grains and seeds are the princi- pal sources of this class of food. As a whole, protein of vegetable origin is more slowly and less perfectly absorbed than animal protein. The principal duty of nitrogenous foods is to build up the body and to keep it in repair. Fats are obtained from both animal and vegetable Fatg sources and for the convenience of the cook are com- monly separated by heat or pressure. Considerable fat is stored as a reserve fund in the normal human body. Its principal office is that of fuel to keep the body's ma- chinery going. Carbohydrates are chiefly of vegetable origin and in- C arix elude starch and sugar. They are not apparent to any hydrs extent in the body but are important fuel foods, though more than two pounds of starch or sugar would be re- quired to produce as much energy or bodily heat as one pound of fat. The provider of food, the cook, and the consumer all should be familiar with the composition of com- mon foods in order that the daily meals may be adapted not only to purse and palate but to climate and the con- dition of individual bodies. 217 MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS Milk is a complete food for the young animal because it contains the five fundamental types of food ma- terial water, mineral matter, fat, carbohydrate, and protein. The analysis of average milk is about as follows : Per cent. Water 87 Mineral 01 Fat 04 Casein .03 Sugar 05 i.oo Since the fat is the most valuable portion commer- cially, dairymen study to feed their cows in such a way as to increase it, and in some instances milk has been produced containing 6 per cent of fat. Use of Though mainly water, milk is a valuable nutritious Mllk food and should be used freely by itself and in com- bination with other food materials, in soups, sauces, and puddings. When we remember what the depart- ment of agriculture has proved for us, that a quart of milk is quite as nourishing as a quart of oysters for which we pay six or eight times -as much, we can see that it is desirable to use it more freely than is generally done. Especially during the summer months we do well to substitute milk and cheese for meats. There are average families which do not use over a pint of milk a day ; there are others who find it neces- 42 218 MILK. 43 sary to take a gallon, and the meat bill in the latter cases becomes proportionately small. A pint of milk a day is not an excessive allowance for each member of a family, though many households consume much less. To study the composition of milk put a quart of fresh milk in a glass jar and leave it twenty-four hours or longer until it is thick and sour. What percentage of the whole is the cream? Remove the layer of cream on top to another jar, screw on the top, and shake until the fat separates from the watery por- tion of the milk. Collect the butter on a spoon, wash out the milk by pressing and folding with a knife. Weigh or estimate carefully the value of the butter ob- tained. What proportion of the original bulk of milk does it represent ? Persons fond of unsalted butter may thus prepare it for themselves. Why is salt added to butter ? The remainder of the milk, now a thick mass of curd, may be pressed out with a spoon or cut with a knife to show the greenish water known as whey. What nutritive substances are there in this? Turn the thick milk into a two-quart pan and fill with hot water, in twenty minutes drain the water off through a strainer, that no curd need be lost, and pour on more hot water. Do this several times until the curd loses its sour taste and has contracted, but do not allow it to become too hard. If boiling water is used the curd will become unpalatable and indigestible. 219 44 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Buttons have been made of sour milk treated by heat and pressure. Sour Press as much water as possible from the curd and cheese compare the quantity with the original amount of milk. Remember that this still contains much water. Now combine the curd with butter or thick cream, salt it and shape in small balls or pack in cups. Thus we learn something of the value of milk and have made a sour milk cheese more palatable than when the whole mass of curdled milk is heated on the stove or strained in a cloth. junket With prepared rennet in liquid or tablet form the curd and whey of sweet milk may be separated. The milk should be warmed slightly before the dissolved rennet is added, then chilled in the dishes from which it is to be served. This is known as junket or rennet custard. Absolute cleanliness is essential for every utensil to come in contact with milk. The souring of the milk is .due to the action of bacteria which come to it from contact with utensils and the air. Its fluid form and nutritive material afford a medium peculiarly favor- able to the development of germs of disease, as well as to the growth of useful bacteria which aid in butter and cheese making. The growth of such micro-organisms is hastened by moderate heat, but most of them are killed by raising the milk to the boiling point. Sterilization requires a temperature of two hun- 220 MILK. 45 dred and twelve degrees F, continued for about twenty minutes ; this process usually changes the flavor of the milk so that it is disagreeable to many palates. The high temperature also causes the fat globules to separate instead of being retained in the form of cream. Pasteurization takes its name from the noted French scientist, and consists in raising the milk to a tempera- ture of about one hundred and fifty-five degrees F. By this means the flavor of the milk is unchanged. The cook finds it safe to scald the milk for soups, bread, cr puddings, to prevent its souring during the process, before cooking it with the other ingredients. There is a gain in the time of cooking when the milk- is heated while the other materials are being pre- pared. A bit of bicarbonate of soda dissolved in milk before it is heated often will neutralize any incipient acidity and make it usable for puddings or soups. The "cream" of tomato soup is liable to curdle unless the acid of the tomato is neutralized by soda or the milk thickened with flour before the two parts are combined. It is safer with all "cream" soups to keep the stock and thickened milk apart until just before using. Lemon or other acid fruit juices are sometimes mixed with milk for sherbet without curdling if, before the juice is added, the milk is thoroughly chilled in the freezer can. 221 46 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Salt sometimes curdles milk, especially when it is added to hot milk. Since the solid portions of milk readily adhere to the bottom of the saucepan placed in direct contact with heat, and the resulting burned flavor rapidly pene- trates the whole of the milk, a double boiler or its equivalent, one dish set in another of boiling water, is the best way to heat milk. Milk is an important ingredient in preparing cocoa and chocolate, and such beverages rank with soup in nutritive value. Hot milk sipped slowly is a simple remedy for exhaustion and sleeplessness. Hot milk should be served with coffee when cream is not avail- able. The milk soups are valuable foods and have as their foundation the white sauce described further on. Most of our puddings require milk, especially the cereal and custard varieties. cooking Because there are solids in the milk more time must be allowed for the grains of rice or corn meal to absorb the moisture than when cooked in water. The protein portions of the milk have somewhat the same effect as the egg used to coat the croquette or oyster before frying. If the particles of grain are thus var- nished over they cannot absorb moisture as rapidly as from clear water. Hence, it is often advisable to cook the grains in water first and finish the process in the milk. In making blanc mange from Irish moss, if the moss is first cooked in a small quantity of water and 222 MILK. 47 the thick paste strained before it is added to the milk, there is no loss of milk. When the moss is cooked di- rectly in the milk there is some loss of milk when the mosa is strained out. The baked Indian meal pudding and the creamy rice pudding require long, gentle baking. There is a continual evaporation of moisture from the surface of "BLANC-MANGE." the pudding pan, and really a condensing of the milk. In proportion as the pudding dish is refilled with milk, the pudding increases in nutritive value. Milk is commonly used for mixing dough of many types and this adds to the nutritive value of bread and cakes. Bread made of milk or part milk will have a browner, tenderer crust than bread made wholly with water. There seems to be good ground, however, for the prev- alent idea that bread or cake made with milk does 223 48 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. not keep so well as that made with water. A cer- tain cheesy flavor develops where milk is a principal ingredient. Sour Sour milk is often used for mixing griddle cakes and quick doughs, because the acid it contains will be neu- tralized by the soda added, and thus produce the effer- vescence which makes the dough light. The souring process seems to have so affected the protein sub- stances in the milk that such a dough is tenderer than one made with sweet milk and baking powder. The use of sour milk will be further treated in the section on doughs. Skimmed For doughs, soups, and puddings, in which additional fat is introduced, skimmed milk may be used as well as full milk. The use of cream in well-to-do families is increas- ing. Whipped cream is demanded as a garnish or sauce for many desserts quite complete in themselves. The process of beating or "whipping" cream gives it an attractive appearance, and by expanding its par- ticles probably makes it more digestible. BUTTER Butter is one of the most digestible forms of fat. An ounce of butter a day is a fair allowance for each person when meats, lard, olive oil, and cream are used. To test this in your own case, divide one ounce of butter in three portions, one for each meal, and see whether you naturally use less or want more. Or, this 224 BUTTER. 49 may be tried in a family by shaping a portion of but- ter into balls with butter paddles and noting the amount consumed by each person at the table. An ounce of butter is easily secured by cutting a quarter pound pat into quarters. Or, if -that is not available, measure the butter. Two level or one round table- spoonful is equivalent to one ounce. A pound of but- ter will measure one pint. Individual Shortcakes to be Served with Whipped Cream. Butter is probably rendered slower of digestion by cooking, and for this reason it is wiser to flavor foods with it after they are cooked. Often it is better to allow the individual eater to butter the broiled meat, or fish, or mashed vegetables, according to his own taste. Then there need be no waste if a portion of the whole dish is not eaten, and if the food is re- heated the flavor is better. In one dietary study of the Department of Agricul- ture of the United States (Bulletin 75 from *he office of Experiment Station), so much butter came back in 225 White Sauce 50 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. the platters where it had been poured over steaks, chops, and fish, that it was assumed l^hat none was con- sumed. .Certainly, in every household considerable but- ter and other valuable fat finds its way to the dish water. One of the first steps in the application of science to housekeeping is to stop such needless waste. In a glass measure cup, or a tumbler, put a quar- ter of a pound of butter, set the glass in a pan of warm water and leave until the butter melts. Estimate the percentage of clear fat. What other substances appear to be present? How does this explain the sour and cheesy tastes sometimes noticed in butter? Milk thickened by flour and made richer with but- ter and flavored, is known as milk gravy, drawn but- ter, or white, or cream sauce. It is a substantial food in itself and forms a valuable addition to fish, eggs, meats, and vegetables. By its addition a small por- tion of any food substance is extended and made to do more service, and flavors too pronounced to be agree- able to all are much modified. There are several ways of compounding this sauce which apply to other sauces in which butter is the principal ingredient. A general formula covering the ordinary sauces white, tomato, and brown is this: one ounce of butter, one-half ounce of flour, and one- half pint of liquid ; or, to express the same quantities in other terms, two level tablespoons of butter, the same of flour, and one cup of liquid. 226 t. Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the dry Method flour, cook and stir until frothy all over, then draw ofMak to a cooler part of the stove and stir while adding the liquid hot or cold, then cook again till thick, stir- ring till smooth. 2. Another way is to rub butter and flour together and stir into the warm liquid in a double boiler, then stir till thick and smooth. 3. When thin cream is substituted for butter and milk, or when less butter is to be used, rub the flour smoothly with a little cold liquid and stir into the re- mainder, which should be hot, and cook over water until smooth. Then add butter and season. The theory of the" first method is that the butter at- tains a slightly higher temperature than the milk and if the flour is combined with the hot butter it is cooked more quickly and thoroughly than when put into milk. In the second case, longer time is required, but the flavor of the butter is changed less than by the first method. The third way is more economical of butter. Butter is also used for brown sauces. These are _ Brown made after the first plan for the white sauce, but the Sauce butter is allowed to brown before the flour is put in, and is cooked until a reddish brown hue is acquired before the liquid, which is usually brown meat stock, is added. 227 Varieties of White Sauce Creamed Dishes $2 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. In many other sauces the plan is similar to that followed in making the white sauce, but meat stock, strained tomato, or other vegetable stocks, are used in place of part or all of the milk. These sauces are the foundation of many entrees or made dishes, such as croquettes and souffles. For meat or fish croquettes the sauce is made of a double thickness by using only half as much liquid. It is then combined with about an equal quantity of meat, seasoned and cooled, when the mixture may be shaped. Souffles have the sauce as the basis and the puffy effect is produced by eggs. The usual white sauce, combined with an equal quan- tity of meat, fish or vegetable stock, gives us the cream soup, cream of chicken, cream of cod, cream of as- paragus, etc., etc. Since butter is not pure fat but contains water and curd, it is less desirable than other fats for greasing pans unless it is melted and the fat used alone. Except in cases when it is necessary to brown some- in using thing quickly, butter should not be used for frying or or sauteing. It is too expensive and burns easily. Be- cause of the quantity of milk, often sour, contained in butter, it is not strange that some recipes for riclf cake call for small quantities of soda to balance this acidity. For such purposes, butter is frequently washed to remove milk and salt. That butter responds quickly to changes of tempera- ture should be remembered in mixing any dough, precautions Butte 228 CHEESE. 53 like pastry, when a large proportion of butter is used. Slightly rancid butter may be made usable for some purposes by scalding it in water, then chilling and re- moving the cake of fat on top. If further treatment is necessary the fat alone may be heated with bits of charcoal. CHEESE The origin of cheese is probably more ancient than that of butter. It is a form of dried or condensed milk convenient for transportation. Milk is nine-tenths water, while cheese contains but a trifle over three- tenths water. Average cheese is about one-third each water, fat, and casein. A pound of cheese costing sixteen cents contains about twice as much nutritive matter as a pound of meat which will vary in price. There will be less waste in the cheese than in an average piece of meat. Moreover, cheese has the advantage of keeping better than the meat under adverse conditions. Its disad- vantages are that because of its concentration it is" not easy of digestion. This may be overcome somewhat by diluting the cheese with milk, as is done in many of the rarebits, fondues, and souffles. The addition of a small quantity of bicarbonate of potash or soda' aids in making cheese soluble. There is danger that the cheese will be over cooked. When merely melted it is probably quite as digestible if used moderately, as Rancid Butter 229 54 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. many of our common ways of preparing meat. Judg- ing from the types of people who depend upon cheese largely it might be used with us more generally than it is. The annual consumption of cheese in this coun- try is only about three pounds per capita. We might well use cheese more freely in cooked dishes, for flavor as well as for nutriment. 230 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY, PART I. Read Carefully* Place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instructor may know that you understand the subject. Read the les- son paper a number of times before attempting 1 to answer the questions. 1. 2. Give a rough diagram of the stove or range with which you are most familiar. Show where in the oven and on top of the stove the heat is greatest, and explain why. What is your method of starting and regulating a coal fire? Counting the time required to keep fire and stove in good condition, what is the most economical fuel within your reach? Fig. 1. Fig. 2, 4. Fig. i represents the dial of gas meter at the beginning of the month; Fig. 2, at the end of 231 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. the month. What is the reading in each case, and what will be the amount of the bill at $1.25 per 1,000 feet of gas? 5. If you use a gas stove, read the meter before and after a day's baking and find the cost of fuel. If other fuel is used, give the amount and ap- proximate cost. 6. Where, in your experience, would a thermometer be helpful in cookery ? 7. Mention several foods requiring the action of heat, yet which need little preparation and few utensils. 8. What different ways have we of cooking with the aid of water ? 9. Is it possible to cook in water that does not boil ? Give examples. 10. What gain in cooking certain foods over, rather than in, water? Describe utensils by which this can be accomplished. 11. What kinds of foods should be kept in the refrig- erator? Describe the refrigerator, or whatever is used in its place. 12. What are the essential points in canning fruit? 13. How should dried fruit and vegetables be pre- pared to restore them as nearly as possible to their original condition? 14. Are there any substances suitable to add to foods as preservatives? 232 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 15. What are the relative merits of paper bags, wooden boxes, tin cans, and glass jars for keep- ing groceries in pantry or store closet? 1 5. How can you determine for yourself that there is water and fat in milk, cheese, and butter? 17. Make a menu for meals for two days, introducing as many dishes as feasible that contain milk or cheese. 18. Suggest treatment and uses for sour milk, dry cheese, and butter of poor flavor. 19. Make a white sauce three times or more, putting the ingredients together in different order each time, and report which seems the most satis- factory and expeditious. 20. Are there any questions which you would like an- swered, relating to the topics taken up in this lesson ? NOTE. After completing the test sign your full name. 233 I 234 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY PART II EGGS Since the egg is similar to milk in composition, both containing water, fat, and protein, without starch, and as there are many simple dishes in which milk and eggs are combined, it is natural that that should be our next topic. The egg may seem a small article to have much space devoted to it, but there is no other food so indispensable to the art of cooking. A French chef has compared the office of eggs in cooking to the usefulness of the, an, and a, in conversation, both would be difficult without them. Aside from its great food value, and there is no egg of bird that may not be eaten, the egg is a general harmonizer in the kitchen ; it serves t thicken cus- tards and sauces ; to clarify soups and jellies ; to make a coating of crumbs adhere to chops or croquettes; it puffs up souffles ; it leavens a whole group of cakes ; it garnishes salads and emulsifies oil into a smooth, rich dressing for them, and combined with odd bits of fish or meat, it makes many a savory dish of what would otherwise be lost. 235 56 PRINCIPLES OF COOKER^. The composition of eggs varies with the kind of fowl and its food. The edible portion of the average hen's egg is nearly 75 per cent, water, 12 per cent, protein, 12 per cent, fat, and I per cent, ash or mineral mat- ter. Since carbohydrates are lacking, we naturally com- bine eggs with starches and sugar which supply the class of substance missing. Like milk, eggs may be eaten either raw or cooked, and the ways of cooking eggs, however elaborate they seejn, may be reduced to a few simple processes. We shall have the key to all cookery of eggs if we study some eggs cooked by moderate and some by intense heat. Effect To see how the egg is affected by different degrees on ?Ss of heat, we may poach several eggs, or drop them from their shells into water at different temperatures. When an egg is dropped into a saucepan with cold water, and heat applied, before the egg begins to cook, the egg and water mingle somewhat, showing that a portion of the raw egg is soluble in cold water. As the water is heated, this soluble egg becomes cooked and rises in a thick froth on top, and if the cooking is continued longer, this froth may contract and settle. This point is turned to the cook's advantage in clear- ing jellies, soup stocks, and coffee c Thus even the lit- tle portion of the egg white adhering to the shell is sometimes utilized for clearing coffee. 236 EGGS. 57 When an egg is dropped directly into boiling water, the outer portions of it are hardened by the heat. This cooked egg does not appear to be soluble itself and, moreover, protects the under portion until that also is penetrated by the heat. Experiment. Boil one egg rapidly ; put another into the boiling water, remove from the . stove, and let stand for fifteen minutes or more. Compare tempera- tures with a thermometer. See which egg is more ten- der, and presumably, more easy of digestion. The white and yolk of eggs cook at different tem- peratures, and these appear to vary slightly with the freshness of the egg. For general use it is sufficient to remember that 150 to 180 F is ample heat for dishes composed mainly of eggs and milk. When starch is used, a higher temperature is required, and whenever possible, this should be obtained before combination with the eggs. Having learned this, we have the key to the successful cooking of all custards and the like. A custard that has curdled, or wheyed, or settled in the center, has cooked too long, or in too hot an oven. The custom of setting a custard in a pan of water in the oven is wise, for the moisture lowers the tem- perature of the oven. Excessive beating of eggs may aid the curdling of the custard ; it certainly is a waste of effort here, however it may be in cake making. Average custards are made with three to six eggs to a quart of milk ; naturally the larger number makes a firmer custard, but the other is quite palatable. Often Custards 237 Eggs ri.th Starch 58 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. gelatine or corn starch is used to assist in thickening milk when eggs are expensive, but these combinations are not real custards. There is a long list of puddings where a custard or egg and milk are combined with starchy materials. In such cases as have already been stated, it is wise to have the starch, whether in the form of rice, tapioca, sago s or corn starch, cooked in the milk before the Dropped Egg POACHED EGGS ON I- ISH BALLS. egg is added. Bread or cracker crumbs may be com- bined directly with the milk, for then the starch has al- ready been cooked. A single dropped egg may show that water need not boil in order to cook an egg. Even if a thermometer is not available, it can be seen that the white of the egg instantly changes in appearance when it comes in contact witfy water far below the boiling point. A muf- fin ring placed in the water assists in keeping the egg 238 EGGS. 59 in good shape. A little salt and lemon juice or vinegar in the water makes the egg harden quickly on the out- side instead of mingling with the water. Since we reckon the cost of other foods by the pound, for easy comparison we must estimate the value of eggs on the same basis. It will be found that the average hen's egg weighs about two ounces, and that eight good sized eggs in their shells, or nine or ten shelled eggs, weigh one pound. The fuel required, the labor of preparation, and the waste are much less with eggs than for most other foods. Some experiments recorded in "Eggs and Their Uses as Food" (Farmers' Bulletin No. 128, U. S. Dept. Agl.), show that it cost more than twice as much to serve and satisfy at breakfast a family of over one hundred women in a college boarding hall with mutton chops or beefsteak at less than 2oc. per pound, than with eggs at 25c. a dozen. Commercially, there are many grades of eggs, de- pendent upon their age. Cold storage has done away with most other methods of preserving eggs. Anything that will exclude air, without bringing ill flavor to the egg, will aid in preserving it. Eggs are available al- most everywhere at all seasons and even at their high- est prices, are not more expensive than the choicer cuts of meat. An inferior egg injures all other materials with which it is combined, therefore it is never economy to buy poor eggs. When eggs are high do without them, Value Preserving 239 6o PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Variety Combinations to Reduce Cost making dishes which require few, if any; then when they are again plenty they will be all the more appetiz- ing. With proper conditions for keeping eggs, it may be economy for some housekeepers to buy a large quan- tity in the fall and pack them carefully in an upright position, but many find it better to give the grocer a few cents more than to take the time and rfsk of loss. COMBINATION OF EGGS WITH OTHER FOODS. Any fundamental food, like the egg, must be served in a variety of ways or we tire of them. Foods having short seasons should be prepared in the simplest fashion. The nutritive value of the food is not materially changed by a variation in the method of cooking, pro- vided no additions are made to it. It may appeal more to the palate in one form than another, and the time of digestion may vary, though in the end as much may be absorbed in the one case as in the other. To illustrate this point, let us take two eggs costing at average prices two cents each, or four cents. . Whether boiled in the shell or dropped from the shell into boiling water, their food value would be practi- cally the same ; when scrambled or made into an omelet there is a slight addition of nutritive material. But the rigid economist says that eggs at two cents apiece are too expensive for the family of limited means. Then comes in the art of cooking to show how the eggs may be combined with less costly food ma- 240 61 terials to make several palatable dishes which may take the place of meats and yet require but little more labor in preparation. First, the two eggs may be combined with one cup of white sauce ; this may be served with the omelet, or blended with the scrambled egg, or made into a souffle, or served with hard boiled eggs chopped or sliced. The identical quantities might be used in each case. By such combination the cost of the dish is doubled, but it will go at least twice as far and it fuel value is more than trebled. Or, instead of the sauce, we may use one cup of milk thickened with white bread crumbs and well salted and omit the butter or use less. This will reduce both cost and fuel value. The foundation may be again extended and varied. To the two eggs and cup of white sauce may be added two ounces of grated cheese or two ounces of chopped ham. If the ham is of average fatness, the fuel value of the cheese and ham will be about the same. The ham might be more expensive than the cheese were it not that this is a way to turn to good account the smaller bits of meat. By this addition the dish, at two and a half times the cost of the eggs, becomes about five times as efficient in fuel value. This combination may be served in many forms, the cheese may be warmed in the sauce and poured over the eggs hard boiled, poached or made into an omelet, and the ham might be used in the same way. After mixing sauce, cheese, and yolks of raw eggs, With White Sauce With Cheese or Ham Serving 241 62 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. the stiff whites of the egg may be folded in and the mixture baked in one dish or several little ones. All such combinations are naturally eaten with some form of bread, and here again the whole cost is di- minished with an increase of fuel value. A summary of these possible combinations may be clearer in tabular form, as follows : Weight. Cost. Cal. 2 eggs 4oz. 40. 161 White Sauce: i C. milk 8 oz. 2c. 162 Butter i oz. 2c. 217 Flour . . . ]/2 oz. 51 Cheese 2 oz. 2c. 246 Ham 2 oz. 2c. 207 It would be interesting to trace the history of egg cooking and find who first discovered that eggs cooked in milk, sweetened and flavored, made the palatable compound we know as custard ; or who first discovered the delicious sponge cake or "diet bread," as our fore- mothers called it. All our modern recipes for sponge cake, angel cake, Cake lady-fingers, and sponge drops, are but slight varia- tions from the recipes to be found in old cook books, which call for the weight of the eggs in sugar and half the weight of the eggs in flour. The tendency of the artistic cook is to separate the two parts of the egg, using the yolk to produce cer- tain effects and the white for others. The proportions are about the same in the angel cake 242 EGGS, 63 as in the sponge cake, but the egg whites only are used. The egg yolks, left from such cakes, are more desirable than the whole egg for many custards and sauces, producing a richer and more creamy effect, since the yolk of egg contains considerable oil. Eggs in doughs may better be studied here with other qualities of eggs rather than later with doughs. Under this head may be included noodles, pop- overs, Yorkshire pudding, cream puffs, eclairs, tim- bale ca.ses, fritters of many varieties, as well as sponge and angel cakes and macaroons. From a study of these distinctly egg doughs we may see why eggs are added to muffins, puddings, etc. These may be divided into three classes : ( I ) When the egg is used merely to stick flour together, such as noodles and timbale cases.. (2) When the cake re- sulting is to be hollow like popovers and puffs, then the egg is beaten with the other ingredients. (3) Where a spongy texture is desired, the eggs are sep- arated and beaten separately. For such mixtures as the first class lightness is not essential, is really undesirable; hence, the eggs are Eggs in Doughs 64 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY, r< oodles Timbales beaten only enough to blend yolk and white, and not to mix air with them. In noodles, which are a kind of egg macaroni, the egg supplies liquid as well as aids in sticking the particles of flour together. After a stiff, smooth dough is made, it is rolled much thinner than would be possible if it did not contain egg. Then it is Pop Overs an Example Dough Raised by the Expansion of Air. cut in strips or fancy shapes and may be cooked at once or dried and used like macaroni. The timbale cases are made from a thin batter, in which, to egg and flour, milk and .small quantities of fat and sugar are added, and the whole beaten to- gether until smooth. If the batter is then allowed to stand until the air bubbles escape, the timbale cases will have fewer holes in them. The hot timbale iron is then dipped into the batter and the coating adher* ing is fried until crisp. 244 EGGS. The second class should be hollow, and to secure this result the eggs are beaten without separating yolk and white, or better still, are dropped in with the other ingredients and all beaten together. Popovers are the result of a very thin batter, usually one cup each of flour and milk, one egg, and a little salt. This is beaten thoroughly together with a Dover SPONGE CAKE. beater, poured quickly into greased cups, iron or earthen, and baked until thoroughly done. Yorkshire pudding is a similar combination. Cream puffs have a cooked foundation of water, but- ter and flour ; to this when cool the eggs are added and beaten into it one by one. Because of the scalding of the flour this is a stiff mixture and will keep its shape when dropped on flat pans, and will puff while baking. The same mixture, fried in deep fat, produces a hollow fritter which may be filled like a cream puff. Popover Creac? Puffy 245 66 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Spongy For tne third class of egg doughs and for meringues Mixtures an( j puffy omelets, the whites of eggs are beaten by themselves and mixed with special care into the other ingredients that none of the air which has bee^ ,.*- tangled may be lost. This air expands when ' .ted, " producing the delicate lightness of the meringue, or sponge, or angel cake. Beating The use of a whisk on a platter is the best way of Eggs q u i c kiy converting the slippery egg. white into a frothy, flaky mass, so firm and dry that it may be turned up- side down without slipping from the platter. Egg beaters are not absolutely essential, for the work may be done with a fork in time. The whisks are best for beating whites alone those with cog wheels for the whole egg or for beating batters. When yolk and white are mixed, it is impossible to beat in as much air as into the white alone, probably be- cause of the oil contained in the yelk. Even a very little of the yolk will prevent the whites from becom- ing a stiff froth. Cooking Popovers, meringues, and sponge cake, like other articles containing large proportions of egg, require long cooking at moderate heat. When taken from the oven too soon they shrivel out of shape. It is not wise to make cheap cakes and try to make baking powder take the place of eggs in making the mass light. When eggs are cheap, make good cakes and custards, but when they are high in price, de- pend upon desserts where they are not required. 246 FISH, FOWL, AND FLESH. Two important animal products, milk and eggs, have . 4 i, studied, and we come now to a consideration of tht sh of animals as food. The cooking of the flesh in any way is a comparatively simple matter once we have mastered a few fundamental laws which are prac- tically the same as in cooking eggs. The choice of different sections -of a creature for different purposes and the decision as to best ways of cooking whatever cut happens to be available, are less simple. The primitive cook applied heat to his fish, fowl, or section of meat and consumed it when cooked. The modern marketmen first divide and clean, then the chef seasons and applies the heat in different ways to the various portions. One part is naturally tender and ready for immediate cooking, another will be better if kept a week or a month, others will be improved by salting or smoking. Savages have fewer kinds of food and simpler meth- ods of preparation than civilized man. Because of greater abundance it is a natural tendency in civiliza- tion to discard as refuse certain portions formerly eaten. On the other hand, business competition makes it necessary to save all by-products and every por- tion of an animal is used for some purpose and brings some money return, even though small. Were it not for this, our animal foods would be higher in price 67 247 68 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Comparative Composition of Animal Food than they are. As it is, they are the most expensive part of the daily food. Meat a This * s P art ty due to the fact that the flesh of ani- Se poduct ma ^ s * s a secon dary product. Animals consume grains and require additional human care, and thus must cost more than the grains, themselves, alone. More- over, it has been learned by dietary studies th^t average families in the United States obtain from half to two-thirds of the protein in their food from animal source, and the cost of food is usually proportionate to the demand. The composition of all animal foods is similar. Milk is mainly water, but contains some of each of the food principles. Eggs have less water than milk, and no carbohydrates, but furnish larger proportions of fat and protein. Fish would average about the same proportion of protein as eggs, but rather less fat. Poultry yields more protein than eggs, but about the same amount of fat. The flesh of the larger ani- mals will average about two-thirds water, the pro- tein and fat being in varying proportions according to the age and condition of the animal. Without regard to the names given by marketmen of different localities to the cuts of meat, we may learn the location of the choicest pieces. Cuts which offer tender muscle or large proportion of muscle will natu- rally command the higher prices. In any of these animals the framework of bone is practically the same. The larger portion of bone is Costs of Meat 248 MEAT. 69 in the forequarter. This is one reason why the fore- quarters are cheaper than hindquarters in our mar- kets. Consequently, there is less nutritive value per pound and what there is is less accessible, for the meat is not easily carved unless boned before cooking. Meat of any kind should have little odor when in Judging good condition. It should be firm and dry rather than Meat LAMB CHOPS AND KIDNEYS. moist, and should be well marbled with fat. The lower part of the legs will have little muscle in proportion to the bone, and there will be tendons hold- ing the muscle to the bone. Muscles getting little motion or exercise will be Tou hne tender, while those which are active will be tough, though juicy. The neck and legs, therefore, will be suitable for broths but not desirable for roasts. A general rule is this: the market value of meat increases backward from the head, but decreases down- 249 ;o PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. ward toward the legs. This brings the choicest cuts in the back upper part of the creature and includes the rump and loin. The muscle of good beef is dark red when first, cut and grows brighter when exposed to the air for a short time. The fat is yellowish white. Mutton Mutton and lamb have a hard white fat. The flesh and Lamb o f mu tton is a duller red than beef. The lamb is pinkish in tinge. The bones of veal and lamb are smaller than those of beef and mutton. Veal and fresh lean pork are somewhat the same shade of dull pink, but the pork has more fat mixed with it. Meat from young animals is tender but not so nu- tritious, and does not keep so well as that from older ones. The heart, liver, sweetbread, kidney, tripe, are also used as food and the same general laws govern the methods of cooking them. The chef may not recognize the same elements in meat that the chemist does, yet his choice and prepara- tion of a cut of meat are based upon its composition. From this point of view, meat consists of three parts : lean muscle, fat, and bone, and the market value of any cut is based upon its relative proportion of these. Lean meat is most desired and tender fibres com- mand the higher prices. Some fat is utilized with the meat, but a large part goes to the manufacture of artificial butter, lard, and soap. Much of the bone is 250 Some Fat Needed MEAT. 71 refuse, but some of its substance may be extracted by right treatment. The lean portion of meats is about one-fifth or twenty per cent, protein about, five times as much as in an equal weight of milk. The muscle or the lean meat may be freed from Preparation skin, gristle, bone, and fat, wholly or in part before cookingo It is easier to serve when this is done, and there is no waste at the table, but there may be loss of flavor. Raw meat may be digested readily, but we cook it to make it more attractive in appearance and- more appetizing in flavor. Some fat is required to keep the meat from drying during the cooking process. Often the muscle is so closely associated with bone, tendon, and gristle, that to remove them would cause serious loss of juice. In any case, when the tougher portions are removed they should be used for stock and their flavor returned to the muscle as a sauce or used for soup or other good purpose. Tender muscles may be cooked quickly steaks and roasts and should be exposed to intense heat at first. Tougher portipns may be made more palatable by pounding to separate the connective tissue, but this is often accompanied by loss of juice, or they may be put through the meat chopper or cooked slowly for a long time in a gravy, or both. By browning tough meat first we give it a good Browning flavor and sear the surface so that more of -the juice will Tough Meat 251 Braising Salt Meat Fatness 72 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. be retained than if raw meat were used. Some scraps of fat may be browned, an onion sliced and fried in the fat, an equal measure of flour added, and when it is mixed smoothly with the fat, water is put in, in the same proportions as for white sauce. The meat is put in the gravy and left covered on the back of the stove to cook slowly, later vegetables are added. Braised meat and pot roasts are similar in effect, but large pieces of meat are used and more time is re- quired. All the trimmings, except the fat, are put with the bones, covered with cold water and the kettle is set on the stove to heat slowly. Salt meats should be cooked slowly in plenty of water until tender. When the meat is very salt, it should be put on in cold instead of boiling water. Wild animals usually are less fat than those that have been raised for food. Excessive fat may mean disease. Young animals have but little fat compared with older ones. Half the weight of a pig may be fat and a fourth of a fat sheep or ox. Some portions of a creature will contain much more fat than others. Layers of fat occur around the inner organs of ani- mals. Some fish have fat or oil in the liver and little or none elsewhere. Fat mingled with the lean tissues is partly visible, partly detected only by chemical meth- ods. To a certain extent fat takes the place of water in the tissues, In fat meat the purchaser gets the same amount of protein but buys fat instead of water* MEAT. K The surplus fat purchased with meats should be turned to good account by clarifying it for shortening or frying. It should be freed from the protein mat- ter as far as possible by- trimming and soaking in cold salted water. The water should be changed often, and the fat, after being cut in small pieces, may soak from twelve to twenty-four hours. Then it is drained and Saving, the Fa^ SAUSAGE AND FRIED APPLES. heated slowly to separate the clear fat from the heavy, honeycomb-like tissues which contain it. At the end of several hours the fat will have melted and may be strained from the crisp brown tissues. If raised to too high a temperature the fat is less wholesome and well flavoredo In the average household, trimmings of beef, pork, veal, lamb, and poultry, may be prepared together for 253 74 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Frying in Deep Fat Testing Temperature Bones fry fat, and where much meat is used will keep a sup- ply in the frying kettle. Frying in deep fat is a satisfactory method of st curing a crisp, brown crust. When the process is prop- erly conducted very little fat is absorbed by the food. The temperature of fat suitable for cooking is much higher than that of boiling water and ranges from 300 to 400 F, according to the nature of the article to be cooked. For doughs which should rise, and fish which must be cooked through, a lower temperature and longer time are required than for fishballs or cro- quettes, already cooked and only to be browned. If many pieces of cold food are put into the kettle of fat at one time, the temperature will be lowered so much that they may absorb fat and even fall to pieces. A bit of bread dropped into the kettle will brown in one minute if the fat is right for frying doughs, and in less time if it is ready for croquettes. Fat by itself does not boil, but when moist food is put into it large bubbles of steam begin to form. At first the foods being cold and heavy sink to the bottom of the kettle ; as they warm and the water es- capes, they rise toward the top. As soon as the food is brown it should be removed from the fat and drained on soft paper before serv- ing. The bones of animals yield considerable nutritive material if we use proper methods to extract it. Mar- 254 MhA'l. 75 row is found in the leg bones, but they have not so much protein matter as the spongy rib bones. When meat is boned before cooking, bits of meat cling to the bone. By soaking in cold water, then cooking gently, a large part of the flavor and nutritive part of the bone is dissolved in the water. Cartilage, gristle MEAT LOAF IN RICE. and tendons are also somewhat soluble when exposed to moisture and* heat. The smaller the pieces- into which bone and meat are divided the greater the sur- face exposed to the dissolving action of the water. The flavors of meat which are drawn into the water are known as extractives and are stimulating rather than nourishing. Extracting Nutriment 255 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Soup Stock This process of extraction from portions unsuit- able to eat is known as making soup stock. Bouillon and beef tea are made from tough lean meat with little Names of Soups FILLET CUT FROM SIDE OF FISH. or no bone. Consomme is made from meat and poul- try together. Anything that would give a strong flavor must be removed. The skin of lamb or beef should be thrown away. The flavoring of the soup or the garnish served in it gives its distinctive name. All meat, poultry, and fish soups have as their basis a stock made from the portions undesirable to use in any other way. Yet stock contains but a small proportion of the nutriment of the meat, and fibre of the meat from which stock has been made may be used for hashes, with herbs, etc., to give flavor. 256 FISH, FOWL AND FLESH. 77 FISH. Fresh fish have full lifelike eyes, red gills, silvery, not slimy skin and scales, firm tail, not flabby and drooping, and firm flesh. Plump short fish are better than long thin ones of the same variety. The time of their transfer from the water to the table should be as short as possible. While fish "as a whole is not so nu- tritious as meat, it may often take the place of meat on our tables. It is the province of the cook to sup- plement the fish with such sauces as will supply both flavor and nutriment. In general, the methods of cooking fish are the same as those followed in cooking meats. The flesh should be thoroughly cooked, but not overdone. Oily fish, like For Fish Stock, PREPARATION OF FISH. Ready to Fry. salmon and mackerel, are best broiled. Almost any fish may be baked whole or in fillets. Boiling is an extravagant method of cooking unless the water is used for a soup or a sauce. Steaming is better than 257 78 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. boiling, as more of the flavor is retained in the fish. Frying in salt pork fat is a desirable way to cook fish lacking flavor or fat, but for uniformity in cooking the kettle of deep fat is to be preferred to the thin layer in a shallow pan. If a fish lacking in fat is brushed over with oil or melted butter and broiled under gas, the result gives the best effects of frying without the disagreeable odors. Sauces with Fish FISH STUFFED AND TRUSSED FOR BAKING. Fish stock may be kept for several days if convenient, or it may be used as* the basis of a sauce to serve with the fillets of the flesh. Since so many varieties of fish lack fat, rich sauces are generally considered a necessary accompaniment. The composition of the fish and the way in which it is cooked should decide the kind of sauce to be served with it. Acids like lemon juice, pickles, and tomato are often agreeable additions to a fish sauce. 258 FISH, FOWL AND FLESH. 79 POULTRY Young birds are to be chosen for broiling and other judging quick cooking, but full grown fowls are more nutritious for broths and stews. A fowl is usually fatter than a chicken, the skin is tougher, and the bones especially the tip of the breast bone are harder. In the skin of the young bird there are usually pinfeathers, the feet are smoother, and the muscles or flesh are less well developed than in the fowl. To prepare poultry, pick out, pinfeathers, singe and Preparin rub off the hairs and wipe clean. Cut through the Frksse< loose skin on the back, pull away from the- neck, take out the crop and windpipe in front, cut off the neck. Cut through the skin on the legs about an inch below the joint, break the bone, twist the leg and pull out the tendons one by one. Take off the wings and cut through the loose skin on the sides and sep- arate the leg and thigh joints. From backbone to tip of breastbone cut through thin muscles on either side. This exposes the interior or- gans 1 so that it is easy to learn their relative positions. Then one knows how to proceed when preparing a bird to roast when the opening is small. Loosen the membranes which attach these organs to the body, following the breastbone with the fingers until the point of the heart is felt. Then remove heart, liver, and gizzard together. The gallbag is protected by the liver, so there is little danger of breaking it if 259 260 POULTRY. 81 they are not separated. The intestines should be re- moved when the fowls are dressed for market. Next detach the lungs from the backbone near the wings, and the kidneys, which are lower down in the back. These are not used. Separate trie gallbag from the liver without break- ing, and cut away any portions of the liver which are tinged with green. Cut across the larger end of the heart and slip it out of the membrane enclosing it. Cut through the gizard on the wide side and take out the inner portion without breaking, if possible. Learn the order of removal of these portions from order of the body, and then nothing will be forgotten when emova i preparing a bird for any purpose, the crop and wind- pipe from the neck. The heart, liver, and gizzard, together, from an open- ing near the tail. The lungs and kidneys from the hollows in the back- . bone. The oil bag on the upper part of the tail. The backbone can now be^ divided near the middle, and by slipping a knife under the sharp end of the shoulder blade and then cutting through the ribs from the point where the wings come off, the upper part of the back is separated from the breast. If desired, the fillets of white flesh can be separated from the breastbone and wishbone by running the knife Close to tlu- hones, 82 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY, Never soak a fowl in water, as is often the practice. If any parts need washing rinse them off quickly one by one. The breastbone, upper part of back and neck, and sharp ends of wings should be put in cold water and Putin Boiling Water CHICKEN STUFFED AND TRUSSED FOR ROASTING. heated slowly ; thus more flavor is extracted from these portions which have but little meat. When the water is boiling hot the otHer sections are put in and the hot water coagulates the juices on the outside and thus more flavor is retained. To accom- plish the same end, the joints are often browned in hot fat and then are stewed afterward, 262 VEGETABLES AND Like the foods already studied, vegetables are mainly water, but all the five food principles may be ob- tained from the vegetable kingdom. Here we secure our supplies of starch and sugar, or the carbohydrates, but the proportions of proteid and fat are, as a whole, smaller than in the animal foods. From fruits, vege- tables, and grains we obtain mineral substances valu- able for making bones and teeth and keeping the whole system in good condition. The woody fibre or cellulose, abundant in vegetable Soft ening structures, is the great obstacle to be overcome by cellulose cooking. Plants growing rapidly with plenty of water and sunshine usually have less of this fibre, and it is the aim of the gardener to eliminate it as far as possible. By improved methods of cultivation the agriculturist has removed the acrid flavors of the nat- ural vegetables and has reduced the proportion of woody fibre. The cell walls cannot be separated wholly from the nutritive substances they contain, and unless softened by cooking may irritate the alimentary canal so that the whole is hurried through before digestion is com- t)leted. Cellulose, though of little food value, may aid digestion by providing the necessary bulk for its me- chanical processes. Experiment. To get a clear idea of the structure and composition of vegetables, grate a portion of a 83 263 84 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. potato or turnip. Let the pulp fall from the grater into a strainer placed over a glass and press out all the watery juice possible. Some of the starch of the potato will settle from the juice, and more may be washed out of the mass remaining in the strainer. The presence of sugar in the juice of a carrot may be recog- nized by tasting it after evaporation. By examination of the woody fiber left in 'the strain- er we see how closely it is connected with the starch and sugar, how impossible it would be to separate it, and the necessity for softening it that we may be able to digest the nutrients. We discard portions of vegetable foods, the pods, husks, cobs, etc., because of our inability to cook them so they can be digested. Chopping and straining aid the cook in dividing the ' cellulose so that the particles are less irritating and the nutrients are more accessible. Parts of It is interesting to note the different parts of plants Pla ?orFood which are used for food the roots, tubers or bulbs, stems, leaves, fruits, and seeds. The last are used mainly in the dry form, and absorb much water in preparation. This must be remembered when study* ing analyses of dried legumes and cereals. The botanical grouping of plants is helpful. Once we have learned how to prepare and cook one member of a plant family we have something to guide us with its relatives. Among the principal classes to' study in 264 VEGETABLES. 85 this way are the pulses, the grains, and the cabbage family. There are many kinds of each vegetable offered by the seedsmen. Moreover, any vegetable differs ma- terially in different years and at different seasons- of the year. From the standpoint of the cook a convenient classi- fication of vegetables may be made according to the general preparation, the time, and the amount of water required for cooking them. Dried vegetables must have abundant water sup- plied and must be allowed time to soak, thus absorb- ing an amount of water similar to that lost in the dry- ing process. There is little difference aside from the fat added in cooking, in the analysis of the dry bean which has been soaked and baked, and that of the green shelled bean. Sometimes we try to hasten this process of absorption by heat, but the best results are attained when dried fruits or vegetables are soaked until at least double in size before cooking. Old or strongly flavored vegetables, such as pota- toes, turnips, and onions, will be improved by the re- moval of the skin and any imperfections before cook- ing, and by soaking in cold water for an hour or two. Inferior onions may be scalded in soda water before cooking, and by changing the water once or twice dur- ing the cooking process will be rendered less strong in flavor. It is wiser to make the vegetable palatable Dried Vegetables Strongly Flavored Vegetables; 265 266 VEGETABLES. 87 Vegetables Vegetables Pulses at the risk of some loss of nutriment than to retain everything and have it uneatable. Young vegetables in summer and those having Young sugary juices, like squash and beets, should be cooked in little water or by steaming or baking, so that all their sweetness may be retained, unless the water is reserved for soup or used in a sauce for the vegetable itself. Slightly wilted vegetables may be improved by wilted washing and soaking or by wrapping in a damp cloth and placing in the refrigerator or by hanging in a draft of air. The pulses or leguminous plants include the bean, lentil, pea, and peanut. In the bean we have an example of a vegetable which differs- much at different stages of growth. We may use the pods before the seeds they contain have reached their normal size, the full grown seeds may be cooked green, or dry after first being soaked. This class of plants is of great value where people must be fed at small expense. They are staples in in China, Japan, Southern Europe and Mexico, are in- valuable in prisons, charitable institutions, and for the pioneer or logger. Because they lack fat, cream, butter, or pork are added before eating. Some varieties like the Japanese soy beans, contain as much as sixteen per cent of fat, and peanuts are more than one-third, or about forty per cent fat. Fat Contents 267 Digestibility Pea* 88 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Though rich in nutrients this class of vegetables ap- pears to be slow of digestion. The ease and complete- ness of digestion are aided by thorough cooking and by removing the skins, grinding, mashing, or strain- ing. Long, gentle cooking develops new flavors and removes the peculiar granular texture present in beans and peas insufficiently cooked, even after straining. Black Bean Sou^ Garnished with Lemon and Parsley. The main object in cooking beans, like all vegeta- bles, is to soften the tough fibres of the pods of the string beans and the skins- and cellulose of the dry ones. Split peas have the skins removed and thus are more readily digested. The skins of the larger beans may be rubbed off after soaking and parboiling. Hard water retards the cooking of beans and a bit of soda is often added to soften the water and loosen 268 VEGETABLES. 89 the skin this water is poured off when the beans are partly cooked. Few people use the variety of beans they might, as Beftng the black beans for soup, the limas or red kidney for stewed beans, the pea bean and yellow eye for baking" and the French flageolets for salads. Potatoes are generally liked because of their lack p ota toe& of pronounced flavor, and for the same reason, may be combined with many other foods. A peck of potatoes may cost from fifteen to seventy- five cents, according to the season of the year, and the abundance of the crop. This quantity will weigh fif- teen pounds and will average from fifty to sixty po- tatoes. That is, one pound will be about four pota- toes of medium size, and will cost from one to five cents. If pared before cooking and all bad places removed, Logg in average potatoes will lose from twenty to twenty-five Preparin per cent, or one of the four potatoes in a pound. From selected potatoes the government experts scraped the skins, removing as little flesh of the potato as possible. This was about eleven per cent of the weight. In po- tatoes as usually purchased, the green ends, decayed places, and the potatoes gashed with the hoe easily bring the total loss up to the higher percentage. It may be a profitable loss to pare old and inferior potatoes before cooking. The main point to notice in th^ cooking of the potato is to let out the steatfy pr to Potatoes with Meat Combinations Cooking Vegetables go PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. pour off the water as soon as the fibre and starch are softened. Because the potato is lacking in protein and fat, the instinct of man has taught him to eat it with meat, since it gave him the food principles the meat lacked, and also the bulk desirable for the process of diges- tion. The art of the cook has devised many methods of combining butter, oil, milk and eggs with the potato and other vegetables to supply protein and fat. The fried potato absorbs fat while cooking ; the white sauce of creamed potato adds both fat and protein ; a potato soup is creamed potato with more milk ; the potato croquette contains egg and is cooked in fat; a potato salad has oil and often eggs. Such additions, though increasing the cost of the food, make the result equivalent to vegetables with a moderate allowance of meat. Hence vegetable souf- flees, or croquettes, may be served when the meat sup- ply is limited. Almost any vegetable, by due combination with milk, butter, and eggs may appear as soup, fritters, croquettes, soufflees, or salads. For these complicated dishes, it is essential that the vegetable first shall be perfectly cooked in a simple fashion. The methods of cookery applied to vegetables are similar to those used for meat, but must be adapted to the composition and condition of the individual specimen. 270 VEGETABLES. 91 It is impossible to give the exact time for 'cooking any variety of vegetable, for every sample will differ. They are unpalatable when underdone and also at the other extreme. There is usually some way of cooking best for each vegetable, but if one kind only is available it is neces- sary to serve it in a variety of ways. This, perhaps, explains why the average cook book gives more re- ceipes for the potato than for all other vegetables. Suitable utensils are essential ; vegetables should not be cooked in iron kettles when others are attainable; strainers, mashers, cutters, ricers and presses are de- sirable. Strong flavors frequently are due to careless prep- Preparation aration. Careful trimming and thorough washing are essential. . Wilted vegetables are improved, as has been said, by soaking. Salad plants need especial care in washing to remove parasites and insecticides. Any portion of a root or tuber grown above ground becomes green and strong flavored and will impart its flavor to other portions with which it may be cooked. A decayed bit, or the scorching where the water evaporates, may often ruin the flavor of all. Young, tender, well flavored vegetables should be cooked and served in the simplest manner. Inferior specimens, like tough asparagus or celery which has lost its crispness, by boiling, straining, and flavoring may be made into palatable soup when they would be worthless under simple treatment. 271 92 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. vegetable Vegetable soups are of two types; for one, the vegetables are cooked till tender, cut in convenient bits and added to a meat stock. For the other, by long cooking in water a single vegetable or several together' are made into stock, and all that is soft enough is rubbed through a strainer and then put with about an equal quantity, according to the strength of each, of Preparation and Digestibility TOMATO JELLY WITH BEETS. meat stock or thin white sauce. Thick, pulpy stock, like that from peas, beans, or potatoes, needs a much thinner sauce than would celery or asparagus. Un- less some thickening of flour is used, the solider por- tions will settle, leaving the soup watery on top. In one of the publications of the United States De- partment of Agriculture the difference in digestibility of the same food cooked in various ways is thus stated : Whole peas soaked and cooked, 60 per cent digested; 272 VEGETABLES. 93 peas cooked a long time and strained, 82.5 per cent ; pea flour cooked with milk, butter and eggs, 92 per cent. This would seem to prove that the portion of vegetable food considered undigestible can be reduced by right methods of cooking. Mashing is a form of preparation suited to squash, turnip, parsnip, and potatoes. A seasoning of cream, INDIVIDUAL APPLE AND CELERY SALAD. or butter, and salt and pepper, is usually added. Frit- ters and croquettes usually have mashed vegetables- as their foundation, or small bits are mixed with a thick cr^.am sauce. The white sauce is a useful additori to vegetables since it increases their nutritive value and modifies strong flavors. Almost any cooked vegetables may thus be "creamed" or ''scalloped'' by adding both the sauce and buttered crumbs and baking. This is an ex- cellent way to 'reheat something left from a previous day. Mashing Creamed. Vegetables 273 94 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. salads Salad is a term belonging especially to a class of uncooked vegetables and in all cases implies a vegeta- ble foundation though meats or fish may be added. The dressing of oil and vinegar is likewise of vegeta- ble origin. Here is another of our attempts to bring together the five food principles in a single compound. Water and mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate are usually blended in fairly balanced proportions. This is especially true of salads containing eggs, fish, or meat and eaten with bread. GRAINS The grains or cereals are the main dependence of the human race for food and have been known from very early times. Some member of this- family ef plants is found in every section of the world. Rice, wheat and corn are most largely used as food, while oats, rye, barley, and millet follow closely. Animals can eat these grains- or grasses as they grow. For the human stom- ach the coarser portions must be removed. All are similar in composition, being from two-thirds to three- fourths starch.. The protein ranges from 7 to 15 per cent ; fat varies from i to 10 per cent ; there is about i per cent mineral matter and 10 to 12 per cent of water. Addition Before we can eat -and digest such foods a large amount of water must be combined with them. Analy- ses have shown that the percentage of water in mushes, 274 GRAINS. 95 boiled rice, macaroni, and mashed potato is nearly the same. When we buy cereals in paper packages we pay a little more for them than when they are bought in bulk, but that is a convenient, clean form in which to keep 'them. All cereals should be looked over before cooking since they are liable to attacks from insects. A Cup of Corn Meal, and the Amount of Mush It Will Make. To make mushes start with the desired proportion of liquid, as that regulates the final amount. If too much water is used it can seldom be drained off, as it might be from potatoes, and if there is too little at the begin- ning it is practically impossible to add more without making the mush lumpy and pasty. A double boiler, a dish set in a steamer or a covered pail in a kettle of water, are the utensils- suitable for cooking mushes. Musne, 275 96 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Cooking The coarser the grain, the more water required, and cereals ^g i on g er w {\\ foe t| ie time of cooking. Whole grains are improved by soaking in cold water, finely ground preparations must be mixed with cold water to pre- vent the formation of lumps. All others should be put into boiling water. Add one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water. Ordinary oatmeal and granulated wheat need four times their bulk of water, cracked wheat and hominy require more. The rolled grains re- quire but twice their bulk of water. The cooking at first should be rapid and the upper part of the double boiler should be placed directly on the stove for five minutes. Then put it over the other part, cook closely covered and do not stir. Such foods are not injured by cooking for a longer time than the usual directions allow. Coarse hominy, oatmeal, or cracked wheat for breakfast should be cooked several hours the previous 1 day. Bice Rice may be boiled in a quantity of water which is afterwards drained off, but this is wasteful unless some use is made of the liquid. Macaroni and tapioca are not strictly cereals but con- form to the same rules of cooking. * Fried Most mushes or cooked cereals may be moulded and Mush serve( j co \d f or variety, especially in warm weather, or be packed smoothly in oblong pans or round tin boxes and when cold sliced and fried to serve with syrups or to eat with meats. 276 GRAINS. 97 A portion of cooked cereal may be added to the liquid used in mixing muffins. Manufacturers of the present day seem to be trying to see in how many different forms they can prepare the few standard grains ; they are left whole, are cracked, are crushed into flakes, or broken into gran- ules. As the result of this variety of preparations- and Cereals shaped in Fancy Moulds. the generous way in which they are advertised cereals are used more and more. During the last few years they have been cooked in the factories and prepared in forms ready for immedi- to Eat - ate use. These forms- have many merits though not all that are claimed for them. In some respects they resemble the primitive forms of unleavened bread which were the first attempts among all races, the bannock, the hoe cake, the tortilla* PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. PART II. Read Carefully* Place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instructor may know that you understand the subject. Read the les- son paper a number of times before attempting to answer the questions. 1. In what ways are eggs used in cookery? 2. What substances are naturally combined with eggs and milk, and why? 3. What is the fundamental principle in cooking arti- cles containing a large proportion of egg? 4. Mention five dishes where egg is an essential in-- gredien-t, and five others where it may be used or omitted. ' Explain why. 5. If we find it necessary to reduce the number of eggs in a cake or custard, what other changes would be necessary? 6. Make a two days' menu for the season when eggs / are at the lowest price, and two days' menu for the season when they are expensive. 7. Which forms of animal food are the most ex- pensive and why? Which most economical and why? So What portions of meat are best for soup stock? What should be discarded ? Describe the proc- ess of making soup. Has the extracted meat nutritive value? 278 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 9. Why is less fat absorbed by food in frying in deep, fat than in sautering? 10. Give methods of preparing tough meat so that it is palatable and nutritious. 11. Give the names of soups which have (a) little, (b) much, and (c) great nutritive value. 12. Why do we add stuffing and sauce to meats and fish? 13. What is the greatest obstacle to be overcome in cooking vegetables? 14. Give methods for cooking fish. What is the proper appearance of a fresh fish? 15. Plan a rotation of different cereals for five break- fasts in winter and five in summer, giving rea- sons for your choice. 1 6. How may different methods of preparing a veg- etable change its nutritive value? 17. Describe your own method of roasting meat. 1 8. Give the names of the vegetables and grains used in your household. Name some that are not used. 19. Is there any question you wish to ask or subject you would like to discuss relating to this les- son? NOTE. After completing the test, sign your full name. 279 280 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY PART III BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS Having considered the whole grains we must learn how to use them when ground into flour. Although some forma of bread like hoe cake and tortillas can be made from cracked grain without making it into a flour, most people depend upon flour for a large part of their daily food. In the best cook books the ingredients are mentioned in the order in which they are to be put together to secure the best results and to save dishes ; the dry cups and spoons are used for the flour and spices, then for the shortening and liquids. The flour is- sifted before measuring and sifted again to mix the other materials with it. There is such variation in flours that it is impossible to give exact recipes for doughs, but it is easy to learn certain general proportions and experience must teach the rest. A simple formula will be helpful in inter- preting old recipes in which the exact quantities of flour or liquid are not stated, or in analyzing recipes to decide whether they are doughs or batters. One measure of flour to one of liquid makes a bat- ter. Two measures of flour to one of liquid gives the usual mufnn mixture. Order of Mixing Ingredients General Proportions in Doughs 281 ioo ' PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Three measures of flour to one of liquid makes a soft dough, but one that may be kneaded. Four measures of flour to one of liquid is the usual proportion for doughs to be rolled thin like pastry or cookies. Batters and muffins can be stirred with a .s-poon. Doughs are mixed more thoroughly and easily with a knife. Doughs are made light because thus they are more palatable and digestible. Making The almost endless variety of breads, cake, and pas- Li!ht try may be classified according, to the means used to make them light. Yeast has been known. to the human race from a .very early period, the others are much later inventions. The principal means are these: The mechanical introduction of air, as by beating or by the addition of eggs or by the folding of pastry, or in the aerated or Daughlish bread. The use of yeast, the growth of a plant filling the dough with gas. The chemical combination of a bi-carbonate of soda, with some acid substance. Yeast For practical use in every-day life it is essential to remember that yeast must be treated like other forms of plant life and if we want it to grow, we must pro- vide the right kind of soil, sufficient moisture, and suit- able temperature. After its work is done, the vitality of the yeast must be destroyed by beat. 282 BREAD. 101 It may be desirable to know how to manufacture Yeast yeast at home and how to utilize the dried yeast cakes Cakes in emergencies, though compressed yeast cakes are now so generally used that it is hardly neces-ary. A com- pressed yeast cake should be firm and solid, not soft, and pasty ; it should look something like fresh cheese, not dark colored and moldy. When only part of a USEFUL UTENSILS. yeast cake is to be used, it should be cut off squarely and the remainder wrapped smoothly in tin foil again, when it may be kept a few days longer. BREAD The essential ingredients in bread making are yeast, liquid, and flour; the proportions may be varied ac- cording to conditons. Sugar and shortening are commonly used, but if they were omitted wholly it would be possible to have palatable, nutritious bread. Salt is essential to suit the taste of most persons, but as bread is usually combined 283 102 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Causes of Slow Rising Kinds of Flour wkh salted butter its absence would be less noticeable, and bread might be made without it. Fermentation is hindered by the presence of salt, a small amount of sugar hastens the process. Sugar in large quantities makes the dough dense and the yeast cannot expand so readily. An excess- of short- ening has much the same effect. If a dough is made stiff with flour it rises more slowly. A stiff dough usually has small air cells and is finer grained than when the dough is made softer. The liquid may be milk, whole or skimmed, or water, or half of each. The milk supplies some sugar, fat and nitrogenous matter and produces a more nourishing loaf than that which is made with water. Mashed po- tatoes or sifted squash or cooked cereals are some- times added to a bread dough for variety, but the proc- ess is not changed by such additions. The best bread flour is made from spring wheat and pastry flour from winter wheat, though they .may be used interchangeably if necessary. The spring wheat flour contains more gluten and less starch, so that less of the bread flour is required to produce a dough of a given consistency. The entire or whole wheat flours provide more bone making materials than white flour, otherwise there is little difference in the nutritive value of the better grades of each. The presence of gluten makes wheat the favorite flour for yeast dough. Gluten is adhesive when moist- 284 BREAD. 103 ened and thus retains the gas- bubbles formed by the yeast in somewhat the same way that egg-whites hold air when they are beaten. Old recipes for mixing yeast bread usually give di- rections for rubbing shortening into the flour and then "BREAD CAKE" OR BUN BREAD. adding the other ingredients with liquid to make a dough that can be kneaded. The best authorities to- day reverse the order, thus saving time and energy and producing a better result. The liquid is warmed that the fat, sugar, and salt may readily blend with the other ingredients and that the dough may rise more rapidly. When it is below 100 F, or cool enough to avoid cooking the yeast, that Order of Mixing Liquid Warmed 285 104 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY is added and well mixed through the liquid. Sufficient flour then is mixed in to give the desired consistency for kneading. At first the mixture may be stirred with a spoon, but as it becomes stiffer a knife will more easily serve to produce a smooth dough. Double Thl * process of mixing bread may illustrate the bat- P Brtfa 8 d ter ancl dro ^ Batter or muffin mixture as well as the dough. To make a sponge, half the quantity of flour to be used is- mixed with the liquid and this allowed to rise till foamy, when the remainder of the flour is add- ed. The advantages of this double process are that a trifle less flour is required since the first has time ^6 expand before the second is- put in, and that the process is somewhat shortened because in the first stasre there o is- less resistance for the yeast to overcome and the whole sponge becomes full of yeast for the second stage.. Sometimes it is more convenient to use a small pof- Amount of -ieast tion of yeast and allow the dough to rise for a longer time, and again to use more yeast and thus do the work more quickly. Until the scientists decide which is real- ly the better method, the housekeeper will find it de- sirable to vary the quantity of yeast according to her conditions-. Time, temperature, and quantity of yeast must be considered, if one must be diminished, the others should be increased. short For common use, a short process is to be preferred J Q the o | c j custorn O f letting the dough rise over, night- 286 BREAD. 105 When it rises by day we can regulate the temperature and stop the process at the right time. One yeast cake to one pint of liquid and about three pints of flour, will make two medium-sized loaves of bread, which can be completed inside of six hours. BREAD MAKING MACHINE. When necessary, a dough well risen and ready to Holding shape may be cut down and put in a refrigerator or STchec other cold place and thus held in check for several hours without injury. Sometimes half the bread may be shaped in a loaf and the remainder in rolls and the ' pans containing the latter set away in a cool place for several hours before baking that they may be hot for a later meal. When first mixed, dough is kneaded just enough to i S ing blend all ingredients, then it is put back in the bowl, 287 io6 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. brushed over with water or with melted fat and cov- ered while it is rising. Such precautions aid in pre- venting the formation of a dry crust caused by the evaporation of the water on the surface during the process- of rising. The bowl containing the dough may be set in a pan of warm water which is changed often enough to keep the temperature even. When the dough must stand over night in a cool kitchen, the bowl may be wrapped in a blanket to prevent the es- cape of heat. Kneading Much time is doubtless wasted in kneading doughs, though it seems to be agreed that this process works all ingredients together and thus give a better texture to the bread. To knead work the edges of the dough little by little toward the center, pull it over, press down into the mass and press it away with one hand while turning the whole around with the other. When the dough is smooth, elastic, and rises quickly when pressed and does not stick to the hand then it is done. After the dough is double in bulk it should be kneaded enough to redistribute the air bubbles which have run together and formed larger ones, and to shape it for baking. At this stage no flour should be added, for here much time would be required to work in a little flour, and that is why long kneading has been thought necessary. Dip the fingers in soft fat if the dough inclines to stick, as one would do when pull- ing candy, shaping To shape biscuits or rolls,. first make smooth round 288 BREAD. 107 balls, then by gentle rolling and pressure make the fin- ger rolls then farther extend till the strips can be twisted or left as sticks for soup. Thus one form may be developed from another. When rolls are to be cut out and folded, the pressure of the rolling pin will equalize the air bubbles without previous- kneading. Instead of making the dough for rolls rich with butter or lard, it is wiser to brush over the outside of the rolls with melted fat when they are put in the pan. BUNS SEPARATE AND IN LOAF. Again the dough must be allowed to double in bulk and then it is ready to bake. To summarize the points already covered. The time required depends upon the quantity of yeast used, and the temperature at which the dough is kept. One measure of liquid to three of flour is the usual propor- tion. For fancy breads make a sponge first, and let the mixture rise three times. Large quantities of sugar and butter tend to retard the growth of the yeast plant. For bread add all the flour at once. Small shapes- are Suxninftr? 289 io8 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Baking of Bread Cooking Soda with Acids preferable to large ones, as thus more thorough cook- ing is insured. The baking of bread is not easily disposed of in a few words. Yeast doughs having risen before being put in the oven will bear rather a higher degree of heat at first than other doughs. A more moderate oven is required for loaves than for rolls that the heat may penetrate evenly, but the loaf must remain a suf- ficient time to raise the center to a degree of heat that will insure the destruction of the yeast. A moderate temperature might allow the dough to continue rising and even to sour from the growth of bacteria when in the oven. When thoroughly baked, a loaf of bread will seem light and hollow and no steam will come from it to burn the hand as it is turned from the pan. The usual temperature for baking bread is about 400 F, though a good result may be reached by a more moderate heat continued for a longer time. Experiment. Three or four glass tubes or common tumblers are all the apparatus needed for some prac- tical experiments which will make the use of these leav- ening agents much clearer than does the ordinary cook- book. Dissolve some soda in half a tumbler of water ; in another tumbler dissolve some cream of tartar, in a third have a little molasses; in a fourth place some sour milk, and in a fifth some vinegar. Now put a .part of the soda water into each of the other glasses, stir well, and watch the result. Leave 290 BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS. 109 these till later to see how soon the gas escapes and that it cannot be revived. By tasting soda and cream of tartar we shall see that it is desirable to combine them in such proportions that each may neutralize the other. This is done in baking powders. In another glass dissolve some baking powder, first in cold and then in warm water to show that the gas escapes more rapidly at a high temperature. CORN BREA.D. These experiments show us why we should sift cream of tartar and soda or baking .powder with the flour instead of dissolving it in liquid. The gas which is to make the dough light begins to escape from the soda when it comes in contact with an acid liquid. Some baking powder manufacturers try to convince us that their product is so perfect that it is useless for the housekeeper to continue to keep soda and cream of tartar in her store closet. But much as we owe to their perfect methods 1 of grinding 1 , and sifting and combining Soda and Cream ot Tartar 291 no PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Molasses and Soda Sour Milk and Soda these substances in the right proportions, there are times when we must use them separately. Angel cake, for example, requires the addition of cream of tartar to stiffen the egg-white which is its foundation. This aids in holding up the spongy mass until it is made firm by heat. In any case where there is a large proportion of egg-white a slight excess of cream of tartar is desirable. That molasses is acid in spite of its sweetness is evi- dent by testing it with a bit of soda. For this reason soda is added to molasses candy since if it is filled with air bubbles it will be more brittle. The acidity varies in different grades of molasses, and modern methods of manufacture and quick transportation give us a less acid product than that of the past. - This explains why many of the recipes of our great-grandmothers called for such large quantities of soda in gingerbread, etc. In such recipes it is usually wise to reduce the quantity of soda and use a small amount of baking powder. Brown bread and all cakes and puddings containing molasses, because of its acidity, are usually more pal- atable if some soda is used to make them light instead of baking powder only. Butter contains so much buttermilk that, unless it is washed before using, a bit of soda is- essential for all rich cakes and cookies which are to be kept for any length of time. Because of the tendency to use an excess of soda with it, the use of sour milk has been condemned. But 292 BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS. in thick, sour milk is not very variable in acidity, and the use of one even teaspoonful of soda with each pint of sour milk is safe. Soda is inexpensive and sour milk is also, while cream of tartar and baking powder are costly. One half level teaspoon of soda is usually enough when one cup of molasses is used, as it is with one cup of sour milk. When it is more convenient to BOSTON BROWN BREAD. substitute sweet milk for sour, we retain the soda and add one slightly rounding teaspoonful of cream of tar- tar. Baking powder contains some starch, but two or three level teaspoonfuls of baking powder are equal in effect to one rounding teaspoonful of cream of tartar and the half level teaspoonful of soda. Just why some good old recipes recommend dissolv- ing soda in hot water before adding it to the other ingredients, or mixing it with hot molasses, is uncer- tain. Perhaps the housewives wanted to "see with 293 ii2 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. their eyes" that action would result. Or the habit might have been the result of the impure quality of the alkaline substance. The "pearl ash," as saleratus was called, was not as finely pulverized as is the soda of today, and may not have been as thoroughly purified from other ash. Hot water would dissolve it quickly, any impurities would settle, and even if some gas es- caped enough was left to do the work of puffing up the dough. Such small quaniities relatively of soda, cream of tartar, and baking powder are used in a dough that it has- been a question how they should be mixed with the other ingredients to secure the most perfect result. The dough should be light throughout, not here a solid streak, .and there large bubbles. Some teachers of cookery have recommended sifting the one or two teaspoon fuls of baking powder over a cake after it was mixed and beating thoroughly just before pouring into the pan in which it is to be baked. But as soon as the powder comes in contact with the moist surface of the dough some gas will be lost, and moreover, it is doubtful whether two teaspoonfuls of baking powder can be evenly mixed through a quart of cake batter without much beating which does not improve the quality of the cake at that stage and de- lays the baking. The accepted plan at present is to sift with the flour the baking powder or cream of tartar and soda or the 294 BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS. 113 soda alone when it is to be used with some sour milk or molasses. The sooner the process is completed after the acid and soda meet each other the better. Therefore we keep all the materials dry until the last moment, then mix quickly and bake at once. Similar recipes are found in all cook books, and once the general, proportions and the office of each ingre- RYE MUFFINS. dient are learned, it is easy to make many variations. The process 1 of mixing is practically the same in all cases. Prepare the fire and dishes for cooking, be- fore mixing any of the ingredients measure every- thing, sift all dry materials together, add liquids, mix all thoroughly, and cook immediately. Changes in the proportions of materials often lead to a change in the manner of mixing them. For ex- ample, when a small quantity of shortening is used in batters, it may be melted and beaten in, but if a large General Directions Manner of Mixing 295 H4 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. proportion is required, it should be rubbed till creamy and blended with the sugar as for cake, or mixed into the flour as in pastry making. For stiff doughs which are to be rolled, it is essential that the fat should be put in cold since even a small quantity, if warm, will tend to make the dough soft and sticky. We grease 'Shortening" pans, griddles, etc., because fat prevents adhesion; in the same way fat in a dough keeps the particles sepa- rate and makes it break apart readily, so that we call it "short" or "tender." Hence shortening is any form of fat that will accomplish such a result. To give like results, more shortening is required with bread flour high in gluten than with pastry flour low in gluten. Eggs in doughs, as in other cases, have the quality of making particles hold together, just the reverse of shortening. Any dough containing much egg will be elastic and spongy, and if cooked too quickly will be tough. Doughs to be made rich with butter, like pound cake, may be saved from heaviness by the use of eggs. PASTRY AND CAKE Shortcake and pastry are illustrations of the use of much fat in doughs and the result is brittle and tender. Success in pastry-making depends more upon keeping the ingredients cold and handling the dough deftly than any special formula or order of mixing. When but a small amount of shortening is used, a small quan- tity of baking powder is helpful ; this, of course, is omitted in puff pastry, in which the weights- of the 296 PASTRY AND CAKE. flour and butter are equal, and it is not essential in other cases. Few doughs require a smaller number of ingredients than pastry ; flour, salt, shortening, and liquid are the essentials, and air is incorporated in the process of mix- ing. When the flour and shortening are warm they stick together so that less air is mixed into the dough. APPLE PIE IN DEEP PLATE. The process of rolling and folding is a device for catch- ing more air in the dough. This air, when heated, ex- pands and puffs the layers apart. The colder the air mixed in the dough the greater its expansion in baking. In cake-making a single, well proportioned formula may be made the basis for a great number of varieties. Therefore, it is essential that the fundamental princi- ples be understood, then the variations can be accom- plished easily. Pastry Cake Making 297 CAKE. 117 The principles underlying sponge cake were ex- plained in the section on eggs. The main points in such cakes, which contain no butter and are made light by eggs only, are to mix carefully that sufficient air may be entangled in the dough to make it light, and then to bake slowly but thoroughly. The shape in which cake is to be baked should de- cide the proportion of flour to be used. Layer cakes or small cakes require less flour than large loaves. This is probably because the small cake is- stiffened more quickly by the heat, while the large mass must be stiffened with flour to hold up the air cells until the heat can penetrate the whole. Variations in cake are easily obtained through changes in flavoring ingredi- ents. To mix chocolate in the cake melt it and mix with the sugar and butter. Such a cake might have a white frosting flavored with vanilla. A cake flavored with almond may have a few shred- ded almonds- sprinkled over the top just before the cake is put in the oven. Almond paste can be rubbed into the butter and sugar in making cookies ; it is rather rich and heavy for a cake. Desiccated cocoanut, chopped nuts, raisins, currants, dates, citron, candied orange and lemon peel, singly or in various combina- tions, serve to give us many cakes from a single recipe. The ingredients mentioned for pastry are com- mon to all cakes as well, but further variety is gained by the addition of sweetening and seasoning. Air or gas- to make the cake light is obtained by the use of Sponge Cake Flavoring 299 Sweetening Relative Proportions in Cake ii8 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. beaten eggs and of baking powders, etc., as well as by creaming butter and beating the blended ingredients. The shortening for this class of dishes may be lard, dripping, nut oil, cottolene, butter, or cream, each hav- ing its own special characteristic. When these are known, combinations and substitutions are possible to adapt a given formula to the available materials. The range of sweetening is limited to sugar and mo- lasses, but the quantity to be used in a cake should be SPONGE CAKE STUFFED WITH CREAM. reduced if a frosting or sweet filling is to be added later. When we consider the long list of spices and ex- tracts and fruits and nuts available for seasoning the cake, we can see how it is possible to make many va- rieties of the same cake. There is a certain relative proportion to be followed in the use of these ingredients which, once learned, 300 COOKING OF DOUGHS. 119 enable us to decide whether a recipe is reliable. In butter cakes there is usually less butter than sugar, and less sugar than flour. When baking powder is used less is required than would be necessary for a dough where there are no eggs. Thus two even tea- spoonfuls of baking powder is enough for three cups of flour for a cake in which three or four eggs are use. Some cooks use from one to two teaspoons of bak- ing powder for each cup of flour in all cases, forgetting that the eggs alone would make a cake quite light. When there is an excess of baking powder, the cake is liable to be coarse grained and will dry quickly. Dutch apple cake and cottage pudding are similar to the common muffin mixture in the proportions of flour, liquid, etc., but are made richer by increasing the quan- tity of fat and sugar. The ordinary doughnut mixture is not unlike a cot- tage pudding dough, with the addition of flour to make it stiff enough to roll easily. Or it is similar to the quick biscuit dough with the addition of sugar, egg, ad spice. Because doughnuts are cooked in fat, less shortening is required than for most stiff doughs. Cooky doughs are more like pastry with the addi- tion of sugar, spice, and egg, and the same care should be given to keeping the dough cold in order to roll and cut it without adhering to the board. COOKING OF DOUGHS Doughs are steamed, baked in the oven, or on a grid- dle on top of the stove. Such mixtures of many differ- Cottage Pudding Cookies 301 120 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. ent ingredients are more difficult to cook than the sepa- rate substances of which they are composed, though heat affects each ingredient in combination much a.s it does singly. Sugar carmelizes and this aids in pro- ducing a golden brown color in the crust of anything AN ACCURATE OVEN THERMOMETER. Punch a hole in a comnjon gas stove oven and insert thermometer, which will register to 600 degrees F, wrapped with asbestos and wire where it passes through the top. containing it. Since it burns readily, cakes and cookies are more liable to be scorched than unsweetened doughs. Flour browns when exposed to dry heat. Eggs cook at a low temperature. Butter melts, hence doughs containing much must contain more flour than those that have little or none. 302 COOKING OF DOUGHS. 121 The heat applied should conform to the way in which it affects the principal ingredients in any dough. Those containing many eggs need moderate heat, etc., etc. The size and shape of the article are also to be considered. In general, small thin portions require less time but will bear higher temperature than larger portions as with bread doughs. There are various tests for the heat of the oven. Oven thermometers are valuable aids, showing com- parative if not actual degree of heat. When a ther- mometer is inaccessible, a piece of white paper or a teaspoonful of flour if charred from a five minutes' stay in the oven indicate too great heat and other de- grees may be gauged accordingly. All parts of an oven are not equally hot and each housekeeper must study her own. The lower part of a gas oven is very hot because the full force of heat is below ; in the wood or coal range one side is usually hotter than the other because of the position of the firebox. Heat Required 303 FORM AND FLAVORS Thus far we have studied the fundamental princi- ples- of cooking and have seen that some knowledge of the chemical composition of each food is necessary before we can secure the best result through the ap- plication of heat and moisture. But this is only the foundation of the art of cookery. variety The form in which our food is served may attract or repel, and the flavor may make it appetizing or the reverse. We must depend mainly for sustenance upon a few kinds of meat, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and unless variety were secured in some way we should quickly tire of them. Through the ingenuity of cooks of all times and countries, so many combinations have been devised, by changes in flavor and form, that some of our common foods might appear in different guise every day in the year. The multiplicity of formulas in our cook-books, even when well classified, are puzzling to the beginner who has not learned to analyze each recipe and thus find the simple processes- of which it consists. "Fancy" What is generally termed "fancy" or "high-class" Cookery cookery is merely the application of the simple proc- esses to costly foods or a further complicated prepara- tion to foods which have first been cooked as perfectly as possible, according to the principles 1 already out- lined. 123 304 FORM. 123 For example, if we have learned how to make a white sauce and how to cook meats and vegetables, we do not require separate detailed recipes for creamed chicken, creamed oysters, creamed potatoes, creamed cauliflower, or creamed asparagus; we only need to make the sauce a little thinner or thicker to offset the Creamet Dishes CREAMED FISH IN RAMEKINS. dry or watery nature of the article with which it is to be put and to vary the flavor slightly to adapt it to an- other material. Furthermore, any such creamed meat or vegetable may be served plain, or on toast, or in timbale cases, or combined with buttered crumbs, as a "scallop," or by the addition of stiff egg whites it becomes a "souffle" when baked. When the sauce is made of double thick- ness, and combined with the meat or vegetable and chilled, the mass may be shaped into croquettes or cut- Variety in Serving 305 124 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Adaptation Principle of Contrast Made Dishes lets which are then coated with egg and crumbs and fried. Thus any intelligent woman knowing something of the nature of foods and the effect of heat and moisture may to some extent make her own recipes or adapt oth- ers to the supplies available at the moment. No cook-book can be sufficiently expanded to pro- vide for great variation in climate, food materials, and utensils. The cook must constantly adapt to her condi- tions, she must be observant of the changes of tem- perature and learn when one food material or flavor may be substituted for another. If uncertain about the wisest combination of ar- ticles of food, whether in a single dish or for the differ- ent courses in a menu, it is safe to follow the plan of contrast. Thus the cream soup is served with crisp crackers or croutons, the creamed fish is covered with buttered crumbs and baked till crisp, the croquettes are crisp outside and creamy within. Another point is to add to any food, substances sup- plying any of the food principles it lacks. Potatoes are mashed with cream or butter because they lack fat, are blended with egg for croquettes or souffle because they lack protein. Eggs lack starch, so we serve them on toast or use them in puddings with rice, tapioca, etc. . Composite preparations of food, often classed as en- trees or made dis-hes, are known by many names de- rived from different languages, especially from the French. 306 FORM. 125 Here is no place to attempt to define all the terms Names used on a menu card, but we may group some of these compound dishes under a few general heads and study their characteristics. Soups have as their basis either animal or vegetable Soups stock or both combined. Stock is secured by the aid of heat and moisture from portions of meat and vegeta- bles too tough to be used in other ways. Flavor and some nutriment are soaked, cooked and strained out, and this water is the stock which is then further fla- vored and garnished by the addition of some contrast- ing substance. Thus a meat stock is usually garnished with grains or shreds of vegetable, and a vegetable stock is often combined with milk and thickened. Stews are thick soups containing larger portions of stews the meat and vegetables. These are also known as chowders, ragouts, salmis, etc., etc. Sometimes a stew has- dumplings steamed over it, sometimes it is cov- ered with a crust of pastry, mashed potatoes, or cooked cereal and baked as a pie. Here again are combined contrasting food principles. Hash is a term that also may include the assortment H ash of foods known as scallops, timbales, etc., since the substance giving a specific name to each of these is minced or chopped fine before it is combined with other materials. Meat and fish are put on toast or mixed with potatoes or bread crumbs or encased in rice or in a pastry shell. The exact proportions of the con- 307 126 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Souffles Salads Left Overs trasting ingredients is of less importance than their proper moistening and flavoring. The scallop owes- its name to the shell in which it is often served. Au gratm is another name for the same combination of a meat or vegetable with sauce and crumbs. The croquette gets its name from its crisp crust, the timbale from its thimble-like shape. Rissoles and kromeskies are kinds of fried meat pies or cro- quettes in a pastry crust. Souffles have as a foundation fruit or vegetable pulp or minced meat in a sauce and are puffed up by the in- troduction of stiffly beaten egg whites. The name is sometimes given to cold dishes where a similar effect is gained by whipped cream. Salads may consist of cold cooked meats, fish, etc., vegetables cooked or raw, fruits and nuts. Almost any food may be served in a salad, singly or in combina- tion. The distinctive feature of a salad is the dressing of fat, oil, butter, or thick cream, which is variously flavored. Many of the most satisfactory of these made dishes doubtless had their origin in an effort to use left-overs. Milk surplus may be used in many ways. Skimmed milk answers as well as full milk for soups and doughs when fat is also used. Even if otherwise likely to curdle in heating, the addition of a little cooking soda makes it possible to scald milk, and then it may be used for custards, puddings, etc. Sour milk is available for 308 FORM. 127 doughs and cheese, and cream may be substituted for butter and milk in simpler cakes and cookies. Eggs left at the table in a soft-boiled condition may be cooked again until hard and then combined with sauces and served on toast or used as a garnish in soups or salads. Meat left-overs should be carefully sorted. The obloquy heaped upon hashes is due to careless- ness. All uneatable portions, bone, skin, and gristle, should be removed, but may yield a little stock if put in cold water. The clear lean may have about one- fourth as much fat with it if it is to be used in the com- bination with potatoes, bread or cereal. There may be two grades of the lean, one cut in pieces of uniform shape an inch or more across, to be served in a sauce or moulded in a jelly; the other to be chopped fine for hashes, croquettes, etc. Vegetables. Cooked vegetables spoil quickly but often may serve as soup, or a scallop, or a salad for a second meal. Fruits. It seems practically impossible to put to- gether several kinds of fruit without good results. Combinations of left-over fruits, raw or cooked, will serve as the basis of a gelatine dessert made like the jelly described elsewhere, or may be frozen alone, or combined with crea'm, or thickened for a pudding sauce, or diluted with water for a fruit punch. Add sugar as desired. Meat Left Overs 309 128 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Attractive Form Garnish Shapes Bread. No scrap of bread of any kind need be lost. Brown bread and muffins of different kinds are some- times wasted when they might be steamed, or toasted and served in cream sauce, or made into puddings like a baked Indian pudding. Slices of stale raised bread, dried, gives us croutons, cut in cubes, or crumbs white and brown, coarse and fine, to use for scalloped dishes, stuffing for fish and poultry, and for many kinds of sweet puddings. The use of gelatine is an instance of our endeavor to make foods attractive in form. It has doubtful food value and m> agreeable flavor, but it gives solidity to fruit juices, or in aspic jelly to soup stock, and in such jellies we may mould fruits for dessert, or meat and vegetables for salad. Garnish is often desirable to make foods more ap- petizing, but it is a question whether this purpos-e is served by the addition of unedible materials which must be laid one side before the food itself is accessible. The truest art does not waste effort on useless things. The form of foods is further varied by utensils pro- ducing different shapes, the meat choppers with ad- justable knives for particles of different sizes, the fancy knives for making thin slices or balls of vegeta- bles and fruits, the muffin pans, waffle iron, the timbale iron, the many cutters and moulds for puddings, etc, The tendency of the present day is plainly towards small portions for individual service, and here again a 310 FORM. 129 new recipe is not required, only the necessary changes in time of cooking which would result when a mass was divided into several portions-. Moulds in which a food is to be cooked should be greased, but rinsed with cold . water when the food is only to be cooled in them. Scales and measures are lacking in many kitchens and accurate work is impossible without them. The SALMON LOAF. average kitchen need not be furnished with many special utensils, but there should be a full supply of "general purpose" articles of the best grade of mate- rial and finish. The utensils should be adapted to the size of the family and to the physical ability of those who are to use them. The saving of human life and energy is more to be considered than the durability of imple- ments. Weighing Utensils 311 Preparation Eight Heat Common Salt FLAVOR The art of cooking shows us many ways of develop- ing the appetizing flavor of foods. First, by the removal of whatever might pf oduce bad flavors, such portions as skin and tainted bits- of meat, decayed parts of vegetables, and over brown portions of bread and cake. Second, by the right application of heat and moisture to bring out the natural flavors in each food. The steeping of tea instead of boiling, the browning of the coffee berry and cocoa bean before they are ground, the flavor developed by long cooking in cases like the baking of beans and steaming of 'puddings and brown bread. Sometimes a portion of the nutritive value is sacrificed to flavor, as in the browning of the outer surface of the steak or roast. Third, by the use of many additional flavoring ma- terials to intensify natural flavors to supply deficiencies and to produce variety. Salt is useful as a preservative, seems to supply a need in the human system and therefore is an agreea- ble addition, but it also serves to bring out natural flavors. As an illustration of this power, taste of a meat or chicken broth that is unsalted, and again after salting, when the flavor of the meat will be much more apparent. For this purpose salt is often eaten with fruits, is added in minute quantities to lemon and other jellies made with gelatine, to custards, ice creams, and often even to coffee. 130 312 FLAVOR. 131 Lemon juice is also an .aid in extending other flavor and is acceptable with many foods, especially fish. Salt, pepper, lemon, and onion are the extent of the flavors used in some households, and food need not be insipid if no others are tried, but it is wiser to make occasional use of the long list of condiments and spices. The distinction as usually made is that the condi- m /its pepper, mustard, etc., are used with meats, wKle spices, cloves, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, etc., are associated with fruits and sweets, but this classi- fication has exceptions. Spices are neglected nowa- days and it often seems as if people hardly were ac- quainted with any other flavor for dessert dishes than vanilla. The list of flavoring herbs is a long one, run- ning through sage, thyme, majoram, summer savory, bay leaves, tarragon and parsley, which are used dry or fresh, to the green mint, cress, and salad plants which are condimental rather than nutritive. There are many compound flavors which every housekeeper should keep in her store closet, and use in her cooking instead of supplying a single perennial :atsup on the table, such are curry, tabasco, tarragon vinegar, mushroom catsup, poultry seasoning, etc. Onion, celery, cheese, chocolate, coffee, meat ex- tracts, each may have an important place in our list of flavors. Sugar is an important food and also must be looked upon as a flavor, since it will often bring an insipid vegetable up to its normal condition. Common Flavoring Material Condiments and Spices Sugar as Flavoring 313 132 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Blended Flavors Adding Flavoring Reasons for the Use of Flavoring French cooking excels in that blending of flavors which produces an agreeable effect, though no one is apparent. The best results are usually reached when the flavor- ing is combined with the food in the process of cook- ing, but there are right and wrong ways of doing this. If salt is put on the cut surface of a roast, juice will be drawn out, but if sprinkled over the fat will gradually flavor all. Whole herbs and spices, tied in a bit of cheese cloth may be left to cook in a soup stock or brown gravy until the desired flavor is attained and then withdrawn, leaving the stock clear. Ground spices would give a cloudy effect. The use of flavors is economic, for thus inexpensive foods are varied and made palatable. It is a part of the art of cooking, since nowhere are greater skill and intelligence required than in the distribution of these elusive yet powerful substances, and by discrim- ination in the. use of condiments' and spices our foods may be made more healthful. 314 FOOD FOR THE DAY In the preceding pages the most important foods, heir composition and preparation for the table have >een considered. Our study would be incomplete with- >ut some reference to their best combination for the laily meals that they may appeal to the palate and pro- note health without exceeding the bounds of mod- erate incomes. There are three important divisions in the prepara- Buying ion of food for a family, wise buying, good cooking, jjjf md careful serving. When buying foods the house- Deeper should know the sum available for feeding each person for the day or week, she must note the season >f each food, and also adapt her choice to the climate md weather. She must remember the individual needs of each member of the household, depending apon age, health, and occupation. The art of cookery finds its field between the Artof :hoice of food and the serving of the cooked dishes- at cookery the table. As with other arts perfection can come 3nly through constant practice in manipulation, and from continual adaptation of conditions to the desired snd. No formulas for combinations of foods can be devised so complete that continuous care is not re- quired in every step of the 133 315 134 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. Cost of Food "Constants 9 Few housekeepers have the time or take the trouble to keep their accounts in such a way as to know how much it costs to feed each person in their charge for a day, week, or month ; fewer still know anything of the relative proportion of protein, fat, and carbo- hydrate which is placed on the family table week by week. When purchasing clothing we take note of its wear- ing qualities and the ability to keep us warm, but we seldom apply the same reasoning to our foods, al- though it is quite as necessary. Some one has estimated that in the average house- hold one-tenth of the sum spent for food will go for flour, a tenth for butter, another for sugar, another for milk, one-fifth for meat, one-fifth for fruit and vegeta- bles, and the remaining fifth for sundries. There are certain articles of which equal quantities will be used each week or month, and by an examina- tion of previous bills it is easy to estimate the amount required for a given period. Many of these "con- stants'' like butter, sugar, and flour, can be bought in quantities sufficient for a month, then the housekeeper knows how to apportion her money for the variable supplies. It is not necessary for the housekeeper to attempt to estimate the proportion of food principles in every dish she serves, but once a month or a quarter, if her accounts are well kept, she can see how nearly she ap- 316 FOOD FOR A DAY. 135 preaches such daily estimate as the one below for each member of her family : A DAY'S RATION Ounces. Meat and fish . . 12 to 16 One egg 2 Butter i to 2 Milk, i gill to i pt 4 to 16 Sugar 2 to 3 Dry fruits i Legumes i Fresh vegetables and fruits 6 to 8 Potatoes 8 to 12 Flour and grains , . 12 to 16 Multiply this by thirty and we have a fair allow- ance for one person for one month. Multiply this by the number of persons in the family, or, to be more accurate, by the fractional parts of a man's ra- tions, usually allowed for women and children, and we have an ample supply for one month for the fam- iiy. If the larger quantity of potatoes has been used the smaller amount of flour would have been ample, while if eggs were cheap and two or more consumed by each person daily there should be a corresponding reduc- tion in the amount of meat and fish. Of the amount purchased there will be not far from Refuse andWastB 10 per cent refuse and waste. Refuse in the form of bones, skin, and parings, waste of what is- left on in- dividual plates and odd bits that are spoiled and are 317 136 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. A Day's Alowance Cost of Labor Prepared Food Buying thrown away. Much fat also is thrown away, but it should be remembered that fat is worth more than twice as much as the carbohydrates in keeping the body warm. Twenty-five cents a head a day is a fair allowance for an abundance and variety of wholesome, satisfying food. Life may be sustained on half that amount, while fifty cents daily cannot nourish more completely, but may provide luxuries and foods out of season. The actual cost of table board appears, from studies made under different conditions, to be about equally divided between the raw material and the labor re- quired for the preparation and service. It may be cheaper to pay a little more for a prepared food than to use one's own strength or pay for service to get ready a less expensive article. The woman who has time and strength and no other wa^ to earn should choose the cheaper grade of food. Cheapness does not always indicate mean- ness, it may mean an abundant supply or less human labor in preparation. There is a growing tendency toward the fuller preparation of food outside the home, but there is the more need that the housekeeper should be familiar with processes of manufacture that she may know when she is well served. The housekeeper who never goes to grocery and market and does not study the market reports in the 318 FOOD FOR A DAY. 137 papers is rarely an economical buyer. She is liable to go on in the same old routine instead of varying her menus with the litcie surorises that may be found by visiting the markets. There are bargains to be had in foods as well as in clothing, when the market is over- stocked, or some odd lot is left over. Cuts of meat cannot be made to order and the first choice falls to the early visitor to the market. Where one woman must take .entire care of a fam- planning ily, she must plan carefully if she would have a well balanced household. Elaborate cooking and meals of many courses are out of the question even if they were desirable. Meals should be planned several days in advance and the buying- done accordingly, though such plans will be much modified in the performance. A reserve store of canned foods, etc., is a great aid in the emergencies that arise in all households. By wise use of outside supplies and by making one's system head do more work and hands- and feet less, the food for a family may be provided without exhausting the energy of the housekeeper. The actual cooking necessary for a family through a day may be done in a shorter period than is usually allotted to it if the work is planned wisely. The de- tail of arrangement depends upon the kind of fuel used, and whether the chief meal is served at noon or night. 319 Breakfast Dinner 138 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. The breakfast should be a simple meal fruit, raw or cooked, cereal or warm muffins, (seldom both at the same meal), and eggs, bacon, creamed salt fish or some cold meat. When the meat is cold the bread is warm, while with bacon or omelet toast may be served. Some one must be in the kitchen for some time to prepare and serve even a simple breakfast, especially if there are tardy members of the family. With the same supply of fuel required for the muffins, it is not difficult for a woman of average ability to bake a cake or pudding which will then be ready for the noon or the night meal. Or at this time the vegetables may be cleaned, fruit picked over and little details attended to which save much time later. Noon dinners usually are considered easier for housekeeper and cook, since the work can all be done by daylight and the hours of work if not actually less are not so extended through the day. When supplies are ordered early and delivered promptly, much energy and worry is saved. At least half the time the soup may be derived from previous supplies, and be pre- pared in advance. One kind of meat or fish, potatoes or rice and a single other vegetable or salad are enough for all ordinary occasions. Fruit or a dessert prepared earlier in the day completes a meal sufficient for all needs of the human body if the articles have been chosen wisely to supplement each other. 320 FOOD FOR A DAY. 139 For a noon luncheon or night supper there are many variations of the souffles, hashes and scallops already described. One of these with bread and butter, tea or cocoa, fruit and a simple sweet will provide all that is essential. To prepare meals for a family year in and out is not an easy task. The housekeeper must remember not only the cost and nutritive value of the foods- but the whims and notions of her family. The ability of the human being to talk makes him much harder to feed than the animals who must accept the balanced ration bestowed upon them. A few points to be observed in planning menus are these : avoid routine, introduce novelties, cheap or ex- pensive, in attractive form, but say little of nutritive value or cost. Do not allow the same meat or fish to appear too many meals in succession. Let some- thing else intervene. When the meat course is sub- stantial let the dessert be light and make the dessert especially nutritious when the meat course is insuf- ficient. Let there be variety on the table through the 'week or month but have few dishes at each meal. The fundamental processes of cookery are not many and the essential points have been outlined in these pages. An intelligent woman can adapt the recipes in any reliable cook-book to her Own conditions after she knows something of the composition of foods and the way each is affected by heat and moisture. Supper Planning Menus In Conclusion 321 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. . BIBLIOGRAPHY Boston Cooking School Cook Book ($2.00). Fannie M. Farmer. Boston Cook Book ($2.00). Mary J. Lincoln. Catering for Two ($1.25). Alice J. James. 'Century Cook Book ($2.00). Mary Roland. Home Science Cook Book ($1.00). Anna Barrows and Mary J. Lincoln. Kitchen Companion ($2.50). Maria Parloa. Practical Cooking and Serving ($2.00). Janet M. Hill. Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking ($0.40). M. H. Abel. Young Housekeeper ($1.00). Maria Parloa. Rorer's (Mrs.) Ne*w Cook Book ($2.00). Mrs. S. T. Rorer. Easiest Way in Housekeeping and Cooking ($1.00). Helen Campbell. Hostess of To-day ($1.50). Linda Hull Lamed. Luncheons ($1.40). Mary Roland. Note. These books may be borrowed by Members. Any one may pur- chase them through the School by sending price. GOVERNMENT BULLETINS Free, of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 34. Meats: Composition and Cooking Charles D. Woods. 85. Fish as Food C. F. Langworthy, Ph.D. 93. Sugar as Food Mary Hinman Abel. 121. Beans, Peas and other Legumes as Food M. H. Abel. 128. Eggs and their uses as Foods C. F. Langworthy, Ph.D. 182. Poultry as Food Helen W. Atwater. 183. Meat on the Farm Andrew Boss. 203. Canned Fruits, Preserves and Jellies Parloa. 249. Cereal Breakfast Foods Woods and Snyder. 256. Preparation of Vegetables for the Table Parloa. 263. Use of Milk as Food R. S. Milner. 293. Use of Fruits as Food C. F. Langworthy. 295. Potato and other Root Crops as Food Langworthy. 298. Food Value of Corn and Corn Products. 332. Nuts and their use as Food M. E. Jaffa. 359. Canning Vegetables in the Home J. F. Breazeale. 375. Care of Food in the Home Mary Hinman Abel. 389. Bread and Bread Making Helen W. Atwater. 391. Economical use of Meats in the Home Hunt 322 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY PART III. Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instruc- tor may know that you understand the subject. Read the lesson paper a number of times before attempting to answer the questions. 1. Mention and describe three methods of making doughs light. 2. What are the advantages in the use of baking powder ? When should baking soda and cream of tartar be used separately? 3. Describe some mixture where more than one means of making it light is used. 4. How does the bread obtainable outside your home compare with what you can produce there as to cost, including time and fuel, substance, and palatability ? 5. Experiment, if you can, under your own condi- tions and report of the effect of too rapid and too slow baking on different types of dough. 6. Rearrange this recipe for a simple cake in proper proportions and order of mixing: J/ egg, 2 teaspoonfuls butter, 2 c. milk, I c. flavoring, I teasp. flour, 3 c. baking powder, I teasp. sugar. 323 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 7. Give examples wherein the form and manner of serving may add to the attractiveness of food and not require too much time. 8. How does bread flour differ from pastry flour? How does this affect its use in doughs ? 9. Give the general proportion of flour and liquid in (i) soft doughs, (2) a batter, (3) muffin mixtures, (4) pastry or cookies. 10. Why does shortening make doughs flaky? M. Give the one method of making bread. What conditions will hasten the process ; what will retard the process? . Successful pastry how made? 13. What varieties of cake are there and what ai th general proportion of the ingredients ? Give some of the reasons why a cake "falls ?" What makes cake dry and coarse in texture? 14. Discuss the use and abuse of "fancy cookery." 15. What is meant by contrast in foods? Give ex- amples. 1 6. What can you say of flavoring? 17. How may "left-overs" of meat of vegetables of bread, be used? 1 8. On what principle should menus be planned? 19. Give the menus for the meals served in your household during one week and suggest how they might be improved without additional la- bor or expense. 324 SUPPLEMENT PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY IN APPLICATION TO DAILY LIFE BY ANNA BARROWS Director, Chautauqua School of Cookery; Lecturer, Teachers, College, Columbia University, and Simmons College. The conditions of life in the households represented by the pupils of this school vary greatly with locality and climate, and, taken together, would give a fine composite picture of the average American home. While reading the hundreds of papers which have passed through my hands since the School opened, nothing has impressed me more than the variety of conditions to which any woman in this country must be ready to adjust herself at short notice. Much human energy might be set free for other pur- poses, and much money saved, if men and women gave closer study to some of these e very-day questions. Emerson has said truly : ' ' We must learn the homely laws of fire and water; we must feed, wash, plant, build. These are the ends of necessity, and first in the order of nature. Poverty, frost, famine, disease, debt, are the beadles and guardsmen that hold us to common sense." COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FUELS Every householder and housekeeper should have more definite knowledge regarding the amount of heat available from a given bulk of each of the stand - 325 148 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY ard fuels. One cord of wood is approximately equal to one-half ton of coal; 1,000 cubic feet of coal-gas is equal to 50 or 60 pounds of coal, or about four and one-half gallons of oil or gasoline. The time re- quired to keep stove and fire in good condition must be counted with the cost of the fuel. Irr this connection, facts reported in some of the test papers received are interesting. From a southern plantation, wood is reported as costing only the labor of preparation for the stove, and that only sixty cents a cord. In another locality, one sixteenth of a cord of wood is used daily at a cost of twelve cents, or about two dollars a cord. Else- where, a housekeeper finds wood at five dollars a cord the cheapest fuel within her reach, and estimates her daily supply to cost ten cents, or about one fiftieth of a cord. Another burns a cord of wood each week for cooking only. An English pupil writes: "The range to which I am most accustomed is the almost universal farm- house open fireplace and Glendenning oven, used in Cumberland and Westmoreland. The oven is heated by the hot air from the fire by a passage at the back of the fireplace, with only one damper for oven. At the opposite side there is nearly always what is called here a 'set-pot' for heating water. The heat of my oven is greatest at the bottom, on account of the hot air being underneath. What is not cooked in the oven is done over the open fire." 326 FUELS . 149 COAL The price of coal varies according to quality and distance from the mines, and may cost from three to twelve dollars a ton. A hodful or scuttle of coal may weigh from fifteen to thirty pounds, but after weighing the contents of an average hod, any house- keeper may estimate readily the amount used daily, or for different purposes. One woman writes that she can do her day's work with a single hodful of coal, making a ton last nearly three months, while a maid in her kitchen usually disposes of a ton a month. Another housekeeper runs a fire day and night on half a ton a month, while in a colder region three hods daily is the usual winter allowance. GAS Gas is available in- comparatively few sections of the country outside of the large cities, but wherever it is used, housekeepers soon learn to plan their cook- ery to save fuel. This usually results in economy of time, so that fewer hours are spent in the kitchen, though all the necessary work is as well done as before. A thousand feet of gas a week is a generous allow- ance for kitchen use in an average family. Accord- ing to one report, gas at $1.50 a thousand feet has proved cheaper than coal at $5.00 a ton. One cannot use a gas range in the same fashion as the wood or coal stove, but must adapt herself to its 327 150 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY plan and the nature of the fuel. A steam cooker makes it possible to cook enough food for two days over one burner at one time. Today's dinner, a cereal for tomorrow's breakfast, some cup custards for supper, a stuffed fowl to be browned over in the oven for tomorrow's dinner, all may be cooking at once. Then, with the ovens as commonly arranged, we may broil or roast beneath the flame which is heating the other oven to bake potatoes, bread or cake. One pupil reports that she boils potatoes in the lower part of the double boiler while cooking cereal for the. next day, and above that sets a basin of milk to heat for a pudding or sauce or soup. By such forethought the expense of gas is no greater than any other fuel, and the labor of housework is much reduced. ALCOHOL The removal of the tax on fuel alcohol, January, 1907, may mean much to the housekeeper as well as to the manufacturer. Every one who has used a chafing dish or alcohol lamp has wished that alcohol was as cheap as kerosene. Under the new law it may reach that point. Since it may be made of many coarse and inferior vegetable products now unused, there need be no lack of this fuel, which is practically without odor or smoke. Thus the housekeeper must be ready to adapt her- 328 FUELS 151 self to another change in fuels and apparatus for its use. With the alcohol lamp and the hay-box much of the discomfort and dirt now associated with kitchen processes will be banished, never to return, and the kitchen itself well may be dignified with the name of "laboratory." KEROSENE The small oil and gasoline stoves are not used as much as they deserve. With intelligent care and high-grade oil, a well-made oil stove is safe. Fire in any form is not a plaything. Every household without gas or electricity should be supplied with a good three-burner lamp stove and small oven to fit it. These will cost about $3 . oo. If this lamp is given the same care that is given lamps for evening use, results will be satisfactory. But one must not expect a small stove to work as rapidly or accomplish as much as a larger one. Have the lamp full of oil to do good work. Do not let it burn many hours in succession, but give it a chance to cool off. Keep the wicks even and clean, and have new ones when they become discolored, or too short to reach the bottom of the lamp. Oil stoves are liable to smoke if they stand in a draft, and therefore should be protected. Choose utensils to fit the stove and oven, and never fill them so full that there is danger of boiling over into the lamp. Since the heat is greatest in the lower part of 329 152 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY the oven, cook on the upper shelf as much as possible, or exchange when possible. Asbestos mats may be used on the lower shelves. With two three-burner lamp stoves, and an oven to fit one, it has been easy several times, in my own experience, to do all the cooking for a family of six or eight persons. FIRELESS COOKERS The Norwegian Cooking Box or Fireless Cook Stove is described and illustrated on pages 12-13. This device has been exploited so much of late that it deserves further description. The new interest in this method of cooking is prob- ably due to the experiments made in 1905, under the direction of the Commissary-General of the War Department, and these were the result of a report from United States Consular Clerk, George H. Murphy, of Frankfort, Germany. Below is a con- densation of Mr. Murphy's report, as it appeared in Daily Consular Reports in April, 1905. "In an address to an audience of working people, Mrs. Back, wife of the director of the industrial school at Frankfort, brought to the attention of her hearers, the hay -box or fireless stove. "Every housewife knows that a pot of coffee can be kept hot for some time, without fire, simply by wrapping it in a dry towel to hinder escape of heat. The Norwegian "automatic kitchen" attracted at- tention at the Paris exposition of 1867 but failed to come into general use. Now in Berlin, Munich, and * EIRELESS COOKER 153 other cities popular lecturers are showing the prac- tical value of this method of cooking. "Mrs Back stated that she had used the hay-box for thirteen years, thus greatly reducing the cares of housekeeping. At first she used the box merely to keep finished food warm. Discovering that the process of cooking continued, she experimented and found that she could finish, in the box, all boiled and roasted meats, sauces, fish, soup, vegetables, fruits, puddings, etc. "The box cannot be used for articles whose chief attraction lies in the crispness resulting from rapid cooking on a hot fire, but the rest of the meal may be ready and hot in the box. Patience will secure needed experience, and remove all doubts. In general, two or three minutes actual boiling on the fire is sufficient for vegetables, while roasted meat requires twenty to thirty minutes. Most articles should remain tightly closed in the box for two or three hours, and may be left to keep hot for ten or twelve hours. "Dried legumes, fruit, etc., should be well soaked in cold water, allowed to boil two to five minutes and left for two hours in the box. Soft vegetables should be merely brought to a boil and then placed for an hour or two in the box. Soups are improved by being allowed to develop for two or three hours in the box. "Covers of pots should not be lifted when they 331 154 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY are being transferred. The object is to retain the heat as long as possible when it has once been de- veloped. Too much water is better than too little. "A home-made hay -box will usually be found cheaper and more practical than those with immovable felt and upholstery. Almost any box will do, which has a tight cover. The wood should not be too thin, and there should be no knot-holes or cracks. Old trunks and valises may sometimes be used in this way. "The box should be loosely filled with shavings, paper or hay, the last being probably most satis- factory. The hay should be renewed every two or three weeks. Nests are made for the pots and the hay packed tightly under and around them. Any kind of pots can be used, although, of course, earthen ones hold the heat best. The tighter the tops fit, the better, but if the food is to be used within six or eight hours, they need not be hermetically closed. When the pots have been placed in the box carefully, without lifting the lids, they sh6uld be covered with a pillow and the lid at once securely closed. "When not in use, the box should always be left open and the hay loosened, the pillow being hung in the air to dry thoroughly. "The chief advantages of the hay-box may be summarized as follows: "The cost of fuel can be reduced four-fifths or even nine-tenths. 332 FIRELESS COOKER 155 "The pots are not made difficult to wash; they are not blackened, and they will last for an almost indefinite period of time. "The food is better cooked, more tasty, more nutritious and more digestible. "Kitchen .odors are obviated. "Time and labor are saved. "There is no need of stirring, no fear of scorching or burning. "The cares of the housewife are lessened, and her health and happiness are protected. "The kitchen need not be in disorder half of the day. "Warm water can always be had when there is illness in the house and during the summer when fires are not kept up. "Where workmen's families live crowded in one or two rooms, the additional suffering caused by kitchen heat is obviated by the hay -box, for the pre- liminary cooking can all be done in the cool of the morning. "At picnics the appetites of young people are only half satisfied by sandwiches and other cold food. The hay-box can furnish a hot meal anywhere at any time. "Similarly, men and women working in the fields, or having night employment, can take with them hot coffee, soup or an entire meal, thus avoiding the necessity of returning home at a fixed hour or having it brought to them by another member of the family. 333 156 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY ''When different employments make it necessary for the various members of a family to take their meals at different hours, this can be arranged with- out a multiplication of work with the assistance of the hay -box." This consular report covered the ground so fully that any intelligent woman can make it the basis of experiments adapted to her own surroundings. A small trunk measuring 18x22x24 inches, an agate-ware kettle with close tin cover, made to order to fit in, or merely rest on the kettle, were the appli- ances which served me satisfactorily this summer. It was not easy to secure hay, so we looked about for a similar non-conducting substance, and found some boxes of excelsior and sawdust not quite enough of either, so they were combined and put in bags and sewed up closely enough to prevent clut- ter. The most of the bags were of denim, but some thin cotton bags, in which five and ten pounds of sugar had come, were filled, and did good service in filling chinks. To test the heat- retaining capacity of this outfit, two gallons of water was raised to the boiling point in the kettle. Closely covered, it was placed on one of the thicker cushions in the trunk and the others fitted in closely around and over the kettle. A blanket and some newspapers were spread over all, and the trunk locked. Twenty-four hours later the water was hot enough for dish-washing or bathing. 334 FIRELESS COOKER 157 The statements made in the above report were fully verified by my own experience. This method of cooking is especially adapted to any article requir- ing long, gentle heat, such as the making of soup- stocks and broths and rendering tough meats tender. With very tough fowls, when the water cools down below 150-160 F., the whole may again be raised to the boiling point and started again in the hay-box. It must not be expected to do everything, but every housekeeper who must depend upon a gas or kerosene stove should arrange a fireless cooker for economy of fuel and to increase her own comfort. Many an American housewife uses both coal and gas ranges in her winter home, and in the summer cottage must depend upon wood and kerosene stoves. Probably during the year she also uses a chafing-dish occasionally, and that may derive its heat from alco r hoi or electricity. Wherever a house is supplied with electric lights there should be at least one elec- trical cooking appliance. Some excellent ones are already on the market, and the next generation, doubt- less, will use this force in housekeeping as freely as we use gas. Each of these methods of securing heat for cooking may be the best under certain conditions and have disadvantages under others. The housekeeper needs to be keen in judgment anct quick to see in order to adapt her formulas of cookery successfully in turn to wood, coal, gas, kerosene, gasoline, alcohol or 335 158 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY electricity. She must know how to tell when a thing is "done," and not trust wholly to the number of minutes prescribed in a recipe. Women who are called upon to make such rapid transitions become adaptable, inventive, and are less "set in their ways" in other directions. The study of processes of cookery may thus become a broadening influence and means of general education. CO-OPERATIVE COOKING But there are certain household traditions which hold many intelligent women in a firm grasp, and these traditions may be traced to the generations behind us, when no money value was placed upon woman's labor. It does not yet seem easy for women to count fairly the cost of foods cooked under their own roof. Until this can be done there is small chance for co-operative industries, which might relieve the pressure of home cares where house- workers are not readily secured. Few families to-day find it wise to make butter for themselves, and many would do well to buy bread, also. When there is a demand for high-grade bread made outside the home, it will be supplied, as has been the case here with other commodities, and with bread in other countries. There are many small towns to-day to which bread is sent from first- class bakeries 100 to 200 miles away. With stronger laws, better enforced for the clean- liness and purity of food products; with greater 336 KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 1 59 intelligence on the part of the consumer, and greater skill on the part of the producer, there is no reason why we should not in the future be able to secure wholesome prepared foods of all grades at fair prices outside the home, rather than attempt to prepare everything under the home roof. The isolated home must still be its own^ factory, and its director must be a Jack of all Trades. Such households should be supplied with all helps to make labor easy, but even then, much hard labor is neces- sary. Only where large quantities of any product are to be prepared does it pay to have all manner of machines and cunning devices to produce the most perfect results. KITCHEN FURNISHINGS Where many people are to be fed, a few good tools like a bread-mixer (Seep. 105), meat-chopper, etc., are often more helpful than another pair of hands, unless they are especially efficient ones. One pupil has asked for a list of necessary kitchen furnishings. A good list is given in Household Man- agement, page 105. Here is another designed for beginners in housekeeping, or for small families living in city flats, where there is no room to store super- fluous utensils. The stove and refrigerator are usu- ally supplied with such apartments. For light housekeeping, where a chafing-dish or small oil or gas stove is the only means for cooking, still fewer utensils would suffice. With the addition 337 KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 161 of a few fancy molds, all the foods illustrated in this book could be prepared by the utensils here men- tioned. On page 101 some of the most useful are shown. When selecting any utensil, be sure that it is of good quality, with no imperfections that will inter- fere with keeping it perfectly clean. KITCHEN FURNISHINGS. High stool $i . 50 Scales i .00 Fibre pail .50 Dish pan .50 Soap shaker .10 Dish mop .10 Vegetable brush .10 Tea kettle i . oo Pastry board 40 Rolling pin .10 Chopping bowl and knife 50 Bean pot 30 Lemon squeezer(glassj . 10 Tea pot 25 Coffee pot 50 Muffin pan, agate ware .50 Quart measure .35 Pitcher .50 Stew kettle and cover, i . oo Roasting pan .50 Sauce pans (three) . . .75 Bowls (two) .50 Double boiler .75 Two quart pans (two) . 50 Deep plates, to fit pan as covers (two) 50 Cups for moulds (six) . 75 French knife .50 Paring knives (two) . . .30 Spatula .30 Cork screw .25 Can opener .50 Measure cups, glass and tin .20 Wire egg beater .10 Dover egg beater .10 Fine strainer .05 Coarse strainer. .10 Colander 20 Flour sieve .20 Wire potato masher. . .10 Grater .10 Wooden spoons (two) . 20 Tablespoons (six) 20 Teaspoons (six) 10 Long fork 10 Cutters (two) 20 Omelet pan .25 Loaf pans (three) .... .60 Cake pans (three) .... .30 Cake pans (three) .... .30 Scotch bowl .50 Glass jars (one dozen), i . oo Total $20.00 339 162 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LIBRARY Quite as important as helpful utensils to the house- keeper are the right kind of books. When we remember that cooking -schools have been established for a generation in all our large cit and that the lessons given in such schools ru, , e in several places been put in book form, and when we see the lists of cook-books sent out by publishers, we might suppose that every housekeeper in America would be the possessor of several reliable cook-books. But even the intelligent women taking this course are rarely well supplied. One pupil honestly states the matter thus : "My failures have been many, owing partly to my lack of a cook-book. I have overcooked custards, and undercooked corn starch. I have stirred and beaten all the gas out of pancakes, and wondered why they did not rise, etc., etc." Many women everywhere are content to depend upon cook-books issued by patent medicine venders, and upon newspaper clippings liable to typographical errors. Such things may afford helpful suggestions, but much food-material has been wasted by blind following of careless printers, and writers who have little knowledge of the art and science of cookery. Enterprising business men realize that they must read their trade journals to keep abreast of the tide of competition. Many a woman spends more than a dollar a year for tissue paper patterns for clothing, 340 HOUSEKEEPER'S LIBRARY 163 who would hesitate to buy a cook-book once in five years, or to subscribe for a reliable household maga- zine. There has been little cash recompense for the ^ i se keeper, however^ much she studied her trade, but now we are beginning to realize that personal health and family comfort are above price; that they depend chiefly on the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. On page 140 of this hand-book, there is given a list of reliable books relating to food and cookery, the whole costing about $20. The average American housekeeper, especially if she does her own house- work, should own at least half of these books. While she may not find it feasible to spend more than a dollar a year in this way, still she may be sure that ten dollars spent in the purchase of helpful books would save more than that amount, in a single year, in her bills for food materials. Any one near a public library has the opportunity to read such books, and thus discover which are the ones she wishes to own. If the library is not already supplied in this direction, send in requests that cer- tain books be purchased. (Any of the books will be loaned to members by the School). The study of this hand-book lays the foundations in the fewest words possible for the fundamental processes of cookery. As one pupil has expressed it: "I have found the lessons wonderfully helpful in 341 CARD CATALOG OF FOODS classifying and fixing facts in my mind, and I feel that I am much better grounded in the principles of cookery than I ever should have been by merely studying cook-books." After such a beginning, each one reading a cook- book will instinctively select arid add to the founda- tion principles, already acquired, such explanatory details as are best adapted to her home conditions. CARD CATALOG OF FOODS The up-to-date housekeeper is ready to accept modern ideas and adapt methods from other depart- ments of life to her business of housekeeping. She finds a card catalogue one of the simplest means for keeping addresses, and has another for an inventory of her household possessions, and a third for a list of foods especially, suited to her family. In this list each card records not only the name of a food, but the approximate beginning and end of its season, its average price, the quantity required to serve a given number of persons, and several of the best methods of using it. Here, also, may be references to certain pages of the cook-books in her library. Or the cards may have copies of the recipes; such cards should have a hole in the top, so that they may be hung up in the kitchen within view of the worker. When uncertain what to chose for the next day's dinner, or for some special occasion, she looks over these cards, and several possibilities will be suggested . From this plan one naturally comes to the study of dietaries and an application of the principles laid down in Food and Dietetics. 342 COOKING A FINE ART 167 Among the helps in study along these lines are the series of dietary studies which have been issued from time to time by the office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture, Washing- ton, D. C. Two of the best to begin with are Bulletin 28 (Revised), "The Chemical Composition of American Food Materials" (5 cents), and Bulletin 129, "Dietary Studies in Boston, Springfield, Philadelphia, Chicago" (10 cents). The latter gives menus for several days at different prices, with itemized list of materials used and cost of each. These may be obtained by sending coin to the Su- perintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. COOKERY A FINE ART In cookery, quite as much depends upon the order and manner of combining the materials as upon the ingredients themselves. The manipulation of the cook-stove has something in common with that of a musical instrument. It is possible to play by ear with little knowledge of scales and chords, or to cook without knowing the laws of heat or the chemical composition of food materials. Or, by continual practice, a single composition may be committed to memory and be reproduced in a mechanical fashion either upon the piano or on the kitchen range. Only after much study and repetition of processes does one become able to interpret intel- ligently the works of great masters, and the funda- mental laws of harmony must be known, before one 343 CAKE MAKING 169 can produce new creations either in music or more material things. As music appeals to the sense of hearing, so does cookery to that of taste. The truest art in cookery is not the ability to construct wondrous complica- tions of food materials, or to carve roses from beets, or model f.aces in butter, but rather to develop the full flavor of a food by the simplest process, to make the "mouth water"- that is, to stimulate the flow of the digestive juices by savory odors and flavors. Brillat Savarin well said that the invention of a new dish meant more happiness to the human race than the discovery of a constellation, but quite as important is the constant preparation of the simple, old foods in the very best way the baked potato, the boiled egg, the broiled steak, etc., etc. CAKE MAKING The mixing of cake often has more to do with its texture than the proportion of materials used, though both have their influence. It is an interesting experiment to make a good cooky dough and bake portions of it with different proportions of flour. Take, for example, the familiar 1-2-3-4 cake formulas and transpose the flour and eggs so that we use one cup of butter, two cups of sugar, three eggs and four cups of flour. The stiffness of this dough will vary with size of the eggs and the quality of the flour. Often some liquid and more flour are added, making a less rich mixture, and then 345 1 70 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY some baking-powder or its equivalent will be needed, otherwise the creaming of the butter and the eggs will bring sufficient air into the dough. Even before all the flour is worked in, some of the dough may be spread on a tin and cut in shapes after baking. When slightly stifter, bits of the mixture may be dropped on the tin, fruit or nuts put over them, and they will spread out in dainty little cakes. If still more flour is added, but before the dough is quite firm enough to use a .rolling-pin, small balls of the dough may be shaped round with the hands and flattened on the pan with the under surface of a smooth tin cup. A dough in this stage may be chilled, and then can be rolled easily, and the resulting cakes will be much richer than if more flour had been worked in. Deft, experienced hands produce satisfactory results with doughs, because they can shape them without working in an excessive amount of flour. MENU MAKING Through the test questions, the attention of our pupils has been called to the planning of meals for a household, for this is an important part of the house- keeper's duties. Under Part I we asked for menus introducing as many dishes as feasible containing milk and cheese. Such menus would be useful where the meat markets were poor, and milk abundant, since one may thus secure similar nutritive elements, and usually at less expense than for meats. 346 MENU MAKING 171 After Part II, the request was made for a menu for two days when eggs were cheap, and for two days more when they were expensive. This was done because few housekeepers pay sufficient attention to market prices. They get the idea that a certain food is costly, and therefore not to be used at all, when, perhaps, a careful comparison of the prices of all ingredients would show it to be cheap at some seasons. Angel and sponge-cakes, for example, when eggs are at their lowest price, are less expensive than average butter-cakes. With eggs at 25 cents a dozen and butter at 25 cents a pound, a sponge-cake with five eggs costs no more than a cake with two eggs and half a cup of butter. If the whites of twice as many eggs are used, the actual cost is no greater, since the yolks are avail- able for other purposes. At the close of the lessons we asked for a week's menu from each householder represented, with sug- gestions for their improvement, without increase of labor or expense. The responses show an increased attention to the details that count in feeding a family satisfactorily to all concerned. Yet menu-making is still a great bugbear to many pupils, and a few more hints on the subject may be helpful. Many are hampered seriously by the habits and wishes of different members of their households. 347 172 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY One young woman writes: "My father demands griddle cakes every morning the year round." Naturally, with such tastes, it is difficult to intro- duce many new dishes, or to secure a very varied menu. In the old days of the brick oven, most of the necessary cooking for a family was done on one day of the week, for the proper heating of that oven could not be accomplished hurriedly. Now with" the gas stove, condition's are very djf- ferent, and .two or three hours each day should be ample time for the actual cookery for an average family. But to accomplish everything in these limits wise planning is required. Whatever requires long cooking for breakfast, must be started the pre- vious day, and preparation for the dinner or luncheon is begun while breakfast is being made ready, and so on. Many business women keep house in this way, and their families are as well fed as those where more time is frittered away on petty nothings. It is only by application of business methods in our kitchens, that the routine in many households can be simplified and untangled. The preparation of food for an average household is not a difficult matter when the manager has learned her trade and each individual member is not unreasonable in his or her requirements. The housekeeper must think out her plan of action 348 MENU MAKING 173 for days in advance and thus save unnecessary dupli- cation of processes. When one pair of hands must do all the cooking, it is a foolish waste of time and strength to cook fresh food for the purpose of making composite dishes. Let those come occasionally as an easy way of finishing up some bits too good to throw away, which have already appeared in other forms. For example, it Making Timbale Cases. takes no more effort or fuel to boil twelve potatoes than is required to cook six. These may appear one day as plain boiled, if we have a roast with a good gravy. The next day we are to serve the meat cold or perhaps fried fish with no sauce, so the second portion of potatoes is cut in cubes or slices and reheated in butter, flavored with onion, and sprinkled with chopped parsley just before serving, giving us Lyonnaise potatoes. Or we might prefer Delmonico potatoes and put them in layers in a pudding dish with 349 MENU MAKING 175 a sprinkle of cheese between, pour a thin white sauce over, cover with buttered crumbs, and heat through in the oven. Or the potatoes may be mashed and for a second appearance take the form of a huge cone, or apples, or pears for individual service. Sometimes in our zeal to use up left-overs, we expend much time and strength and more additional material than the value of the original article war- rants. But if one owns a timbale iron, those fragile Shells resulting from frying a batter on it are attractive receptacles for a little creamed chicken or a sweet- bread. Croquettes have their place occasionally, and often save the purchase of more meat and thus justify the time they require. A garnish of crisp triangles of toast around a dish of creamed meat disposes of both the scraps of meat and bits of bread or cases may be made of bread and browned in the oven and filled with meat. The store closet should be kept well stocked, and this is less expensive and far easier than buying things as needed. One order a week ought to be enough for the staple groceries, and two orders a week in winter and three in summer for meats, fruits, and fresh vegetables. Do not order by tele- phone, but at least once each week visit the market and make the order according to what is available there. The time often spent in a daily visit to markets or 351 MENU MAKING 177 a daily call from the store-man can be used to better advantage in an average home. A fair supply of good-grade canned goods should be kept in the house for emergencies ; but as a whole these are more expensive than fresh cooked meats and vegetables; but where fuel is expensive and labor high, they may be used more~ freely. Milk should be used generously. Many families would do well to double their present milk supply. Where milk is abundant and canned vegetables at hand, it takes but a few moments to prepare a nour- ishing and attractive cream soup of corn, beans, peas, or tomatoes. If the top 'of the milk has been used for cereal and coffee, the remainder will be quite as satisfactory as whole milk for soups or puddings, when butter or other fat is added. If our home is at a distance from markets and we have an abundance of one type of food material and little of others, then it may be necessary for us to devise many ways of serving this one, and then we must use different forms and flavors that we may not tire of the monotonous diet. But when the sea- son of any fruit, vegetable, or meat is brief, then we need serve it only in its natural form or cooked in the simplest manner. As the seasons change, cold merging into heat and heat into cold again, we let our fires go out, then we kindle them, and we decrease and then increase our .clothing. But few households make a corres- 353 178 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY pondingly marked change in their food, adapting it to the differing needs of the body as the external temperature changes. All of us know places where pork and pies occupy as prominent a position on the tables in July as in Janu- ary, though their heat-giving qualities make them out of place in summer, even if admissible in winter. Some Ways of Serving Oranges. "Pork and beans," where the fat predominates, may be suitable for midwinter, while "baked beans," with a small amount of fat be it pork, beef, butter or olive oil are not out of place at any season. Another phase of this matter is the improvement in nagging appetites, which is accomplished by a change in food. The city dwellers are often better off in the spring than the country family. From the South to the city markets come greens of several kinds, asparagus, lettuce, cucumbers, and radishes, while the country garden is still bare. A small bunch of asparagus as a garnish around some inex- 354 MENU MAKING 179 Lambs Heart with Asparagus. pensive meat like lamb or calf hearts will give relish when a larger quantity would be an extravagance. Those who prepare the food for the family deserve a change of labor from season to season, and many women in the country would do well to strike from pie making and spend the time so saved out of doors. It is no harder to care for a strawberry bed than to Apricotcor Peach Jelly. 355 i8o PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY wield the rolling pin or bend over a hot stove, and strawberries may well be substituted for pies. True economy must be practiced in .the planning of menus and one thing fitted into another so that nothing is lost. USE OF FATS Perhaps trie re is no one thing more often wasted in the average household than fat, yet this is essen- tial to our health, and we pay high prices for it in cream, olive oil, and butter, when cheaper forms might be substituted in some cases. The fat trimmed from meats is too often left at the market or thrown away after cooking, instead of clarifying it according to the directions on page 73, This, when properly prepared, would be far superior to the lard and cooking butter often bought for culinary purposes. The flank fat from beef, or "cod fat," as some market-men call it, is much softer than suet, and, if carefully prepared, is to be preferred to cooking- butter for making ordinary cookies, gingerbread, pastry, etc. This clarified fat usually costs less than ten cents a pound, even after the weight of the scraps is deducted. When a housekeeper has not time to prepare such fat, she may buy uncolored oleomargarine at about half the price of table butter, or in the vicinity of fifteen cents a pound. (Colored butterine is taxed ten cents a pound.) Many preparations of cotton 356 TABLE SERVICE 181 seed oil are on the market, which are satisfactory when fresh for frying and for use in doughs. One must use discretion in combining fats for different uses. It is not desirable to use smoked fat like that from bacon, or highly seasoned fat, such as comes from sausages, for frying doughs, but these should be kept each by itself and used for warming potatoes and other vegetables. The hard suet and soft chicken oil clarified together give an excellent compound, which may be substi- tuted for butter in tomato sauce and some soups, as well as in many doughs. In the same way all bits of meat and bone should be used for stock, alone, or combined with vegetables. Where meat is served once or twice daily in a house, there is rarely need of buying any especially for soups. TABLE SERVICE The desirability of careful table service for the simplest foods is shown by this incident told by one pupil. "My aunt had great difficulty in getting us to eat cereal for breakfast, so she bought us each a very pretty blue bowl. We were allowed to use these only when we had cereal for breakfast. The result was that we eagerly asked for it every morning and now are very fond of the various kinds." No one can deny that such attention to details is an important part of the housekeeper's duty. Where there are no servants, a housekeeper must 357 1 82 .. PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY be careful that her efforts for dainty service do not involve her in labor beyond her strength. Each member of the family should have a part in the table service that everything may move smoothly. MENUS FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS Every housekeeper occasionally has to plan a special menu for home or club or church society, and consideration of this matter may be helpful here. It is of first importance that we do not undertake more than we can carry out well. This applies to the choice of the food material, to the number of courses, and the way in which they are to be served. Instead of sending away for rare luxuries with which our guests might be familiar every day, let us make the most of the specialties of our own locality. The table decorations may take the form or color of the season, but .beware of special shapes or gar- nishes which might cause any deterioration of the food to be served. Other essential points are to have everything served at the proper temperature, to alternate brown and white or crisp and soft effects, and to avoid having the same article appear in two different courses. This couplet from an old English poet sums up the whole matter: "Three dishes well dressed, and a welcome withal, Both pleaseth thy guest, and become th thy hall." 358 SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR CLASS STUDY ON PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY Ample material for a course of six or more lessons may be secured from the lesson books on Principles of Cookery and from the Government Bulletins. The Farmers ' Bulletins may be obtained without charge by writing to the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. As many copies of each will be sent as desired. The bulletins for which a price is given may be obtained by sending coin to the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. The Government will not accept postage stamps. A few reference books are mentioned which will be loaned by the School for the cost of postage given, if not available in the local public library. Any encyclopedia will furnish much on every subject, and a book of standard quotations will also add to the interest of the meeting. All the common daily foods may be studied from the historical or literary standpoint, for each has a history and literature of its own. Often it is wise to set the practical housekeeper to look up the historical side of a food, while a philosophical member is required to report upon its prac- tical use. Thus each, gets a fresh point of view and a new ^ interest in an old subject. It might prove interesting to arrange for a series of lunches to illustrate the foods being studied. Here it is best to keep out of the conventional lines and make the menus educational. When the class is large, a few may be chosen to prepare the lunch for all and directed to keep the expense within certain limits, 10 to 20 cents apiece, and to give a report. Chafing dishes should be provided for each group of four to eight and some experimental cookery tried, 189 359 1 9 o PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY MEETING I (Study pages 139) Fuels and Appliances for their Use Work of Count Rumford: Rumford Kitchen Leaflets, No. i. ($1.00, postage 8c.) Work of Benjamin Franklin. See encyclopedias. Aladdin Oven. See Science of Nutrition, by Edward Atkins. ($2.00, postage i4C.) Fireless Cook Stove. Pamphlet, postage 4C. See also Supplement to Principles of Cookery. The Gas Stove. If gas is in common use, have members calculate the amount of gas required to bake a loaf of bread, a cake, to boil two quarts of water, etc., by observ- ing the length of time taken to burn two cubic feet i, e., one complete revolution of the hand of the small dial D. See page 10. See also Question 5. Electric Cooking Technical World Magazine, July 1906. (Postage 6c.) Water Experiments: See pages 21, 22. Test the water boiling slowly and boiling hard with a thermometer. Note the simmering temperature and- observe how much less heat is required to keep the water at this temperature' than to keep it boiling vigorously. (If a gas stove is not available, use a small kerosene stove or a chafing dish burner.) A suitable thermometer may be obtained through the school for 50 cents. Loaned for 6c postage. The experiment on page 22 can be made with one dish using the same quantity (say a cup) in each case. Topic: Kitchen Experiment. References: Chemistry of Cooking-, by Williams. Chapter II. Boiling of Water. ($1.50, postage i2c.) Drinking Water and Ice Supplies, by Prudden. (750., postage 6c.) 360 PROGRAM 191 Preserving Canning of Fruit, Preserves and Jellies, Maria Parloa. Farmers' Bulletin No. 203, free. Improved Method of Canning, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 262. Use and Abuse of Food Preservatives. Extract No. 221. Free, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. MEETING II (Study pages 39-54) Milk Make sour milk cheese and junket. (See page 44.) Show how acid may be used with milk without curdling. (See page 45.). References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 42, Facts about Milk; No. 74, Milk as Food; No. 29, Souring of Milk and othe^ Changes in Milk Products; No. 63, Care of Milk on the Farm; No. 210, The Covered Milk pail; No. 227, Clean Milk. Milk and its Products, by Wing. ($1.00, postage IDC.) Butter See experiments page 50. White Sauce: In a chafing dish, or over a small kerosene or gas burner, make white sauce by three methods described on page 51. To what extent may other less expensive fats be substi- tuted for butter. Make white sauce with oleomargarine. Have some membar make two or three small cakes from the same recipe. In one use butter, in another oleomarga- rine, in another a mixture of equal parts of lard and beef suet. Bake all at the same time and have all conditions as nearly the same as possible. Show results. 361 192 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY Topic: French Sauces and their Inventors. See Hand Book of Domestic Science, by Wilson, page 69. ($1.00, postage loc.) And other books. References: Extract No. 44. Butter Substitutes. Sanitary and Economic Cooking, by Mary Hinman Abel. Chapter on Fats and Oils. (4oc. , postage 6c.) Cheese Make and serve Welsh rarebit made from- different recipes. using the same kind of cheese, or make two lots by the same recipe and method, using two or more grades of cheese.. See Question 17. Exhibit: Show samples of all possible kinds of cheese; prices and composition. Topic: Ways of using Cheese in Cookery. See Sanitary and Economic Cooking and Cook Books. References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 82, Curd Test in Cheese Making; No. 144, The Curing of Cheese; No. 162, Cheese Prints; No: 202, Manufacture of Cottage Cheese; No. 244, The Food Value of Cottage Cheese; No. 166, Cheese Making on on the Farm. Chemistry of Cooking, by Williams; Chapter IX, Cheese. ($1.50, postage 2C.) (Select answers to Test Questions on Part I and send them to the School for correction and report on experiments.) MEETING III (Study pages 55-82) Eggs See experiments on cooking of eggs in water, page 57. Try similar experiments in "frying" eggs with fat at high and low temperature. See Question 6. Show egg mixtures a's custards, sponge cakes, etc., cooked at too high a temperature and the same ingredients cooked at correct temperature. 362 PROGRAM 193 References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 128, Eggs and their Use as Food; No. 103, preserving Eggs; No. 122, Flavor of Eggs; No. 262. Color of Eggs. Meat, Fish, Fowl Sanitary and Economic Cooking, "Methods of Cocking Meat, " by Mary Hinman Abel. (4oc., postage 6c.) See Cook Books. Farmers' Bulletin No. 34, Meats: Composition and Cooking; No. 85, Fish as Food; No. 182, Poultry as Food; No. 193, Cooking Meat; No. 162, Cooking Meat. The Roasting of Beef, by Isabel Bevier. Circular No. 71, University of Illinois (postage 2C.). Topic: Methods of Cooking Cheap Cuts of Meat in Palatable Form. MEETING IV (Study pages 83-97) Vegetables See experiments, pages 83-84. Get up an exhibit of uncommon vegetables. Illustrate the effect of overcooking vegetables by boiling a peeled potato, one until it is just soft, another until it becomes soggy. Topic: History of the White Potato. References: Farmers' Bulletin No 256, Preparation of Vegetables for the Table, by Maria Parloa. Farmers' Bulletin No. 121, Beans, Peas and other Legumes as Food, by Mary Hinman Abel; No. 127, Sweet Potatoes; No. 244, Cooking Qualities of Potatoes; No. 73, Losses in the Cooking of Vegetables; Extract from Year-Book, 1900, Value of Potatoes as Food. 363 194 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY Grains History: See "Corn Plant" by Sargent. (750., postage 6c.) Experiment: Cook cereal breakfast food for twenty minutes as directed. Start another portion the night before and cook for two hours, heating before serving. Compare results. References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 249, Cereal Breakfast Foods; Extract 324, Wheat Flour and Bread; Extract 326, Macaroni Wheat. The Cooking of Starch in Cereals, Extract No. 7, Illinois Experiment Station. (Postage 2C ) (Select and send answers to Test Questions on Part II.) MEETING V (Study pages 99 122) Bread Demonstration: Illustrate proportion of flour and liquid for (i) Batters, (2) Muffin Mixtures, (3) Soft Dough, (4) Pastry Dough. See pages 99 - 100. See experiments with Leavening Agents, page 108. If members are in the habit of making their own bread, hold a bread contest, appointing judges to grade the bread according to the chart designed by Professor Isabel Bevier for the Illinois Domestic Science Association, viz. Flavor 35 Lightness 15 Grain and Texture 20 Crust Color ) Depth [ 10 Texture ) Crumb Color ) MoistureJ ' Shape and Size . . ,. 10 100 Size of pan recommended, 7^ x 3 \ x z\ inches. 364 PROGRAM 195 Pastry and Cake: Illustrate the difference between bread and pastry flour by making two cakes exactly alike and baking at the same time. Illustrate the effect of a quick and a slow oven on the same dough. Topic: Use of thermometers. Bread: Quotations from prose and poetry by members. References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 112, Bread and the Principles of Bread Making; No. 114, Skim Milk in Bread Making. Story of a Grain of Wheat, by W. C. Edge. ($i . oo, postage IOC.) MEETING VI (Study pages 122-138) Food and its Appeal to the Senses The importance of flavor, etc., as an aid to digestion: See The Work of the Digestive Glands, by Pawlow, the "Psychic or Appetite Juices." ($2. oo, postage i6c.) Also Food and Dietetics, by Hutchison. Pages 396397. ($3.00, postage 26c.) Cut illustration of cooked food from magazine to be discussed and criticised by members. Topics: The Use and Abuse of Garnish in Food. Harmony in Colors, Flavors and Odors in our Foods. Salads. Use of Left-overs. Menus See Supplement. Menus for a week: Have each member give her method of planning meals. Menus for Social Occasions. Topics: Economy of Time and Strength in Cooking. Is Hospitality a Lost Art . Serving by different Methods. Illustrated 365 CYLINDER TYPE FIRELESS COOKER BENCH TYPE FIRELESS COOKER The "Caloric," Alummoid Lined with Aluminum Utensils. The aluminum utensils with clamped covers can be purchased separately for home-made cookers. 366 FREEHAND COOKING THE purpose of this Bulletin is to tabulate the material in Principles of Cookery and to give the compara- tively few fundamental recipes in cooking which are capable of infinite variation. Exact proportions, conditions, and materials are essen- tial to obtain identical results in cooking, but materials vary somewhat and conditions differ, so that it is often necessary to modify a recipe. By "free hand cooking" is not meant hit or miss cooking, or cooking by guess, but the compound- ing of food materials on scientific principles not following blindly by "rule of thumb" recipes which may have been made for different conditions. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 3 teaspoons=l tablespoon 2 pints=l quart 16 tablespoons=l cup 4 quarts=l gallon 2 cups=l pint 1 cup=8 ounces (volume) A gallon of water weighs 8 1/3 pounds a cup of water, 8 1/3 ounces (avoirdupois). A gallon contains 231 cubic inches. All materials are measured level, i. e., by filling cup or spoon more than full and leveling with a case knife. This applies to liquids which "round up" in spoons. Flour, meal, and fine sugar are measured after sifting. Measuring cups are not always accu- rate and ordinary tea and tablespoons vary considerably. Test spoons witli each other and with the cup before using. APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF ONE POUND. 2 cups milk 2 5/6 cups granulated cornmeal 2 cups butter 2 2/3 cups oatmeal 2 cups chopped meat 6 cups rolled oats 2 cups granulated sugar 4 1/3 cups rye meal 2 2/3 cups brown sugar 1^ cups rice 2 2/3 cups powdered sugar 2 1/3 cups dry beans 3]/ 2 cups confectioners' sugar 4 1/3 cups coffee 4 cups patent flour 8 large eggs 4 cups entire wheat flour 9 medium eggs 4*/2 cups Graham flour 10 small eggs Note. Read "tablespoons" in place of cups in the above and the weight is about 1 ounce. Copyright 1910, by American School of Home Economics. 357 No table of weights to measure can be more than approximate, as different samples vary in weight for bulk. In truly scientific cookery quantities should be measured by weight. The table is useful for comparison, i. e., pow- dered sugar is more bulky than granulated and less so than confectioners', hence the greater sweetening power of gran- ulated; ordinary white flour (sifted) is less bulky than Graham flour, and so on. Experiments have shown that there may be a difference of 25 per cent in the weight of a "cup of flour" measured by different persons in different ways. One method is to sift the flour onto a square of glazed paper (or oil cloth) and pour it into the cup placed on another piece of paper tap the side of the cup once with a knife and level. METHODS OF APPLYING HEAT. BROILING Cooking before or over glowing coals or under gas. Radiant heat. High temperature at first to sear outside, thus developing flavor and retaining juices; then lower temperature for the heat to penetrate and to avoid burning. PAN BROILING Cooking on very hot griddle with only sufficient fat to prevent sticking. ROASTING Same as broiling, superseded by baking in oven. BAKING Cooking in oven by heated air and radiation. Slow oven, 270 350 F. Moderate oven, 350-400 F. Quick oven, 400^80 F. (Temperatures taken by a thermometer through the top of a gas stove oven.) BOILING Cooking in boiling water, 212 F. STEWING Cooking in water at temperature 160 to 180 F. STEAMING Cooking in contact with steam, 212 F. DRY STEAMING, as in a double boiler, 192 F. FRYING Cooking by immersion in deep fat, approximately 350 F. for uncooked foods, 380 F. for cooked foods. The fat used: all lard, 2/3 lard and 1/3 beef suet, "cod fat" from the flank of beef, oil, "cottolene" and mixtures. Temperatures vary to produce similar effects with different fats. SAUTEING Cooking in small quantity of fat often called frying. BRAISING Combination of stewing and baking. Meat is often first seared to develop flavor and prevent escape of juices. FRICASSEEING Combination of sauteing and stewing. 4 368 COMPOSITION OF RAW FOODS. Parts in 100 (approximate). Wheat Flour 12 water, 12 gluten, 75 starch, 1 fat. Cornmeal 12 water, 9 protein, 75 starch, 2 fat. Beans and Peas, dry 13 water, 24 legumen, 60 starch, 2 fat. Potato, white 78 water, 2 protein, 18 starch, trace of fat. Parsnips, Carrots, Turnips 85 water, 1 proteid substance, 912 starch and sugar, y* fat. Banana 75 water, 1 protein, 22 sugar and starch, ^ fat. Loin of Beef (avg.) 60 water, 13 protein, 20 fat. Eggs 74 water, 13 albumen, 10 fat. Egg, white 86 water, 12 albumen, no fat. Egg, yolk 50 water, 16 albumen, 33 fat. Milk 87 water, 3 casein, 5 sugar, 4 fat. Cheese 33 water, 26 casein, 33 fat. Nuts 3 water, 20 protein, 15 starch, 55 fat. Butter 12 water, 1 protein, 85 fat. Lard, Olive Oil 100 fat. All the above foods except refined fats, sugar and starch, contain from y* per cent to 1 per cent of mineral matter (salts), apparent when the foods are burned as ash. Butter and cheese have 2 per cent or 3 per cent of common salt added. Protein foods are eggs, meats, fish, cheese. Starchy foods are the grains wheat, rice, rye, oats, corn, etc., beans, peas, potatoes, chestnut. Fats are prominent in fat meats, nuts, cream, butter, lard. Cellulose or woody fiber is found in vegetables, unscreened flours and meals, and in fruits, especially when unripe. EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOOD MATERIALS. STARCH absorbs water, swells and becomes partially soluble in water. This begins at about 150 F. Dry starch begins to change to dextrine at about 320 F. CELLULOSE itself is not affected by cooking, but the con- necting substances are softened and it may be separated. ALBUMEN is hardened, "coagulated," and will no longer dis- solve in water. Temperature about 160 F. Other pro- teins, as the gluten of flour, casein of milk, legumen of 5 369 peas and beans, myosin of meat, are hardened some- what. GELATIN is formed from gristle and connecting tissue of meat, and from bones, by long continued heating in the presence of water. SUGAR is not changed at low temperatures unless acid is present. It melts at about 365 and begins to caramelize at about 420 F. Sugar, boiled with acid, changes slowly to glucose or non-crystallizing sugar. FAT is not changed, except at a very high temperature, 500 F. and over, when it is broken apart "split" into fatty acid and glycerine. Some of the glycerine is changed to "acrolein," which is very irritating to the mucus membrane, as is recognized by the smarting sensation given to the eyes and nose when fats are heated too hot. Butter begins to "split" at 374 F, lard at 446 F, olive oil at 630 F. BAKING POWDER, a mixture of cooking soda and an acid substance, as cream of tartar, or phosphates, or alum, undergoes chemical change ; the acid part of the mix- ture drives out the carbon dioxid gas of the soda and salts as Rochelle salts, or phosphates, or alumina compounds are formed. The heat of the oven expands any air or gas in the food, evaporates part of the water and drives out volatile sub- stances like alcohol. All these changes are, for the most part, physical rather than chemical in their nature. For example, in a cake. after baking, the sugar is still sugar, the starch is still starch, the fat is still fat, and the albumen is still albumen. All the materials have been blended, flavors having been developed through minor but complex chemical changes and a small proportion of the starch and sugar in the crust have been changed to dextrin and caramel. TEMPERATURE AND TIME OF COOKING. All food materials are poor conductors of heat it takes time for the heat to penetrate. The correct time and temperature depends on (1) what 6 370 is to be accomplished, (2) size to thickness, i. e., the extent of surface exposed to the heat, compared to the bulk. Foods with a large proportion of eggs require low tem- perature to prevent toughening. Starch requires nearly the temperature of boiling water for cooking.' No food containing much water can be raised to a tem- perature above the boiling point 212 F. Water gives off vapor at all temperatures, but at 212 F. steam forms rapidly and in so doing absorbs a large quantity of heat. No brown crust can be formed until the water from the surface is nearly all evaporated. A full oven in which much water vapor is being given off requires the application of more heat than when only one or two dishes are in it. In baking doughs, the larger the mass the lower must be the temperature in order that the heat may have time to penetrate to the interior and expand the gas and harden the albumen and gluten. If the temperature is too high at first, a crust forms, preventing the proper expansion of the loaf and hindering the penetration of the heat. Thin loaves, pieces of meat, etc., need much less time for cooking, because the heat pentrates quickly. Higher tem- peratures may be used, as the food is cooked before the surface begins to be burned. Mixtures containing much sugar or molasses burn easily. Vegetables containing much fiber need long boiling to soften them and separate the cellulose. Young, green vege- tables contain less fiber and require less time in cooking. Bearing all the above in mind, the following tables may serve as a general guide for beginners. When it is possible to do so, TEST. 371 TIME TABLE. BOILING Meats (4 to 5 Ibs.) 2 to 5 hours. (Tough meats should be kept below boiling, 180 F.) Fish (2 to 5 Ibs.) 30 to 45 min- utes. Ham (12 to 14 Ibs.) 4 to 5 hours. Corned Meat (6 to 8 Ibs.) 4 to 6 hours. Potatoes, white 20 to 30 min- utes. Potatoes, sweet 15 to 25 min- utes. Peas, green 20 to 60 minutes. Beans, string % to 1 hour. Beets, young 45 minutes. Beets, old 3 or 4 hours. Onions 40 to 60 minutes. Cauliflower 20 to 25 minutes. Cabbage, cut up 20 to 25 min- utes. Turnips, parsnips 30 to 45 min- utes. Carrots 1 hour ; less if young. Green corn 8 to 15 minutes. Spinach 15 to 20 minutes. Squash 20 to 30 minutes. Asparagus 20 to 30 minutes. Diced Vegetables 10 to 20 min- utes. BAKING Beef rib (medium, 4 Ibs.) 1 hour, 15 min. Beef rib (medium, 8 Ibs.) 2 hours, 15 min. Leg of lamb 1 hour, 30 minutes. Pork (rib) 3 to 4 hours. Veal (leg) 3 to 4 hours. Chicken (3 to 4 Ibs.) 1 to iy 2 hours. Turkey (8 to 10 Ibs.) 2 to 3 hours. Fish (3 to 4 Ibs.) 45 to 60 min- utes. Braised beef 4 to 5 hours. Bread, white 45 to 60 min. de- pending on shape of loaf. Bread, Graham 35 to 45 min- utes. Quick Doughs 8 to 15 minutes. Cookies 8 to 10 minutes. Cake, thin 15 to 30 minutes. Cake, loaf 40 to 60 minutes. Pudding, Indian, etc. 3 hours or more. Bread Pudding 20 to 45 min., depending on shape and num- ber of eggs. Pies 30 to 45 minutes. Scalloped Dishes 15 to 20 min. Baked Beans 12 hours or longer. OVEN TEMPERATURES. ENTER AT KEEP AT Roast Meats , 480 F. 350 F. Fish 425 F. 350 F. Bread 440 F. 400 F. Popovers 480 F. 450 F. Cookies, Puff Paste 480 F. 450 F. Quick Doughs 480 F. 480 F. Ginger Bread and Molasses Mixture 380 F. 380 F. Plain Cake 380 F. 380 F. Sponge Cake 350 F. 340 F. Baked Custard 350 F. Higher in water These temperatures are for gas ovens, with thermometer through the top. An oven door "thermostat" should register from 50 to 70 less. Few of these are accurate in their readings, but after being tested a few times they are useful in obtaining desired temperatures thereafter. 8 372 PROCESSES IK addition to the methods or processes of applying heat, there are a few fundamental processes in cooking, i. e. f thickening, leavening, shortening and flavoring. THICKENING AGENTS. The common thickening agents are flour, corn starch, eggs, gelatin, sea moss, junket for milk, and pectin of unripe fruits for jellies and freezing. One level tablespoon of flour will thicken one cup of liquid for soups. Two level tablespoons of flour will thicken one cup of drippings or other liquid for gravies and sauces. Five level tablespoons of browned flour will thicken one cup of liquid for gravy. The thickening power of corn starch is about twice that of flour. Four level tablespoons of corn starch will stiffen about one pint of liquid, as in corn starch pudding. One level tablespoon of granulated gelatin will stiffen about one pint of liquid, if cooled on ice. Two good sized eggs to one pint of milk make a custard - one egg to a cup for soft custard or baked cup custard: three eggs to a pint of milk for a large mould custard. LEAVENING AGENTS. Doughs are made light or porous in the following ways: (a) By the production (and expansion by heat) of car- bon dioxid gas from the baking soda in baking powder or baking soda, combined with some acid substance. (b) From carbon dioxid gas produced .by the growth of yeast a plant. . (c) From the expansion of entangled air, incorporated in the dough by means of beaten eggs, especially the white, and by the beating batters, and by folding thick doughs. (d) From the expansion of water to steam. 9 373 Two level teaspoons of baking powder are equivalent to one-half teaspoon of baking soda combined with one and one-fourth (i. e., slightly rounded) teaspoon of cream of tar- tar; or one cup of thick sour milk, or one cup of molasses, in place of the cream of tartar. Two cups of flour made into a soft dough requires two to four level teaspoons of baking powder. Batters and muffin mixtures require somewhat more bak- ing powder to the flour than soft doughs. One teaspoon less of baking powder may be used for each egg added. The yeast plant grows best at 75 to 90 F. It changes sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxid gas. Flour contains a small proportion of sugar and during bread making some of the starch is changed into sugar, but the yeast begins to act more quickly if a little sugar or glucose is added at first. Salt and fats hinder the growth of the yeast. Low temper- atures stop the growth almost completely ; high temperatures kill the plant. When eggs are used as leavening agents, the whites are beaten separately, as they will hold much more air than the yolks, and folded into the mixture the last thing, breaking as few air cells as possible. When air is depended on for leavening agent, all mate- rials are kept as cold as possible. Cold air expands more on heating than warm air. In pastry making, heat also melts the fat, so that the dough cannot be handled. SHORTENING. Fats are added to doughs to make the product brittle friable "short," and to enrich the mixture. The fat coun- teracts the adhesive properties of the gluten and starch in flour. Pastry flours contain less gluten than bread flours and so require less shortening. Butter and oleomargarine contain about one-eighth water and salt, and thus have less shortening powers than lard, drippings, cottolene, and the like, which contain no water. Two cups of flour (eight ounces) made into puff paste requires eight ounces (one cup) of shortening. 10 374 Two cups of flour in ordinary pie crust requires four ounces (one-half cup) of shortening. Two cups of flour in cookies requires four ounces (one- half cup) of shortening, or less. Two cups of flour in cake requires about three ounces of shortening. Two cups of flour in short cake requires two ounces (one- fourth cup) of shortening, or more. Two cups of flour in tea biscuits requires one-half to one ounce (one to two tablespoons) or more of shortening. In yeast doughs less shortening is used from one-half to an ounce to two cups of flour. The tenacity of the gluten is required to hold the carbon dioxid gas slowly formed by the yeast, hence too much shortening prevents proper rising. Shortening for batters may be melted and mixed in, but in doughs which are to be rolled pastry, cookies, short-cake, biscuit, etc. the fat should be cold and hard and cut into the flour with a knife, or rubbed in with the tips of the fingers. FLAVORING. The flavoring materials most commonly used are salt, sugar, spices and extracts. The fine art of cookery consists of developing the full natural flavor of the foods themselves and in combining them in pleasing ways. The amount of salt to be used depends, in general, on the total volume of the food. When food tastes salty, too much has been used. A safe proportion is one teaspoon salt to one quart of liquid in soups, cereals, sauces, or to one quart of flour in doughs. When the flavors are delicate, some- what less salt is used, and with strong flavors, somewhat more. Cakes in which much salt butter is used do not need more salt. The quantity of sugar to be used depends on the taste desired. Foods served frozen need more sweetening than when at ordinary temperatures. On the other hand, foods that are served warm taste somewhat sweeter than when at ordinary temperature. 11 375 RECIPES The following recipes were furn. hed by Miss Anna Barrows, teacher of cookery, Columbia University, author of Principles of Cookery, or adapted by the editor from the various standard recipes used in cooking schools: WATER: EXTRACTING FLAVOR. Tea. Heat an earthenware teapot with hot water. Empty it and put in one teaspoon of tea for each measuring cup of fresh boiling water. Let it stand in a warm place two or three minutes. Strain and serve at once. If the tea boils or stands too long with the leaves it is unfit to drink. Coffee. Use one-fourth cup of coffee for one pint of water. Place fine ground coffee in strainer in the coffee pot; add actually boiling water slowly, a spoonful or two at a time. Cover between additions Pour through a second time if desired stronger. OR: Mix one-fourth cap coffee and one teaspoon beaten egg with a little cold water, add the remainder of one pint of water boiling hot. Let it boil up, pour from the spout and turn back into the pot and leave for ten minutes where it will keep hot but not boil. Stock. Stock is the basis for all soups, except milk or cream soups, to which it is sometimes added. From a pint to a quart of cold salted water is used to each pound of meat and bone, both of which should be in small pieces. Let stand one hour, heat slowly and simmer gently for four hours or more, strain and cool quickly. Remove the hard- ened fat before using. About a cup of mixed vegetables carrot, onion, parsley, celery, etc. may be added during the last hour. Mixed herbs and spices, as bay-leaf, blade of mace, two or three cloves and pepper corns, may be tied in cheese cloth and removed from the liquor when sufficient flavor has been extracted. 12 376 BOUILLON usually made from beef with little bone and no vegetables. BROWN STOCK some of the meat and a part of the vegetables browned in hot fat or marrow. WHITE STOCK made from chicken, veal, or fish; no flavoring which gives color added. MACARONI, VERMICELLI, NOODLE, RICE, BARLEY SOUP and the like cook about one-fourth cup of dry material until tender and add a quart of hot stock, or use cooked left-overs. JULIENNE SOUP one-half cup mixed cooked vegetables cut in cubes, strips or fancy shapes, to one quart of stock. RESTORING WATER. Dried Fruits and Vegetables. Pick over, cover with cold water, leave for half an hour, then wash thoroughly, inspecting each portion and drain. Again cover with cold water and soak 12 to 24 hours, and then cook slowly until tender. Add sugar if desired for sauce when nearly done, or use like fresh fruit for pies, short- cake, etc. Prunes, apricots, peaches, apples, pears and vegetables are treated in this way. THICKENING. Sauces. Methods of mixing: (i) Melt butter (or other fat) in saucepan, stir in dry flour, cook and stir until frothy all over, then add liquid slowly, hot or cold, while stirring; cook again until thick, stirring until smooth. (2) Rub butter and flour together and stir into the warm liquid in a double boiler, then cook and stir until thick and smooth. (3) When cream or less butter is used, rub the flour smoothly with a little cold liquid and stir into the remain- der, which should be hot, and cook in double boiler until smooth. Then add butter and seasoning. THIN SAUCE: One level tablespoon fat, one tablespoon flour and one cup liquid, one-fourth teaspoon salt, few grains pepper (white). Suitable for creamed potatoes, macaroni, toast, etc. 13 377 MEDIUM SAUCE: Two tablespoons fat, two tablespoons flour and one cup of liquid. Seasoning. For general use with fish and vegetables. THICK SAUCE : Two to four tablespoons of fat and three or four of flour for each cup of liquid, either milk or milk and stock. This is the basis of souffles and croquettes. WHITE SAUCE may be varied by different flavors and gar- nishes, such as capers, celery, mushrooms, oysters, lobsters, etc., etc. TOMATO for the liquid in sauce may be seasoned with onion, herbs and spices, by cooking them with it for a short time before straining. SPANISH SAUCE is tomato sauce with the addition of onion and peppers. DUTCH OR HOLLANDAISE SAUCE: To one cup white or milk sauce add one or two beaten egg yolks and cook in double boiler like custard. Flavor with one tablespoon lemon juice. BROWN SAUCE FOR ROAST OR PAN BROILED MEATS : After placing the meat on the platter drain out any fat in the pan and put some water to soak off the browned juice and flour. For each cup of gravy put two tablespoons of the fat in a saucepan and brown two tablespoons of flour in it; then add one cup of the water from the pan. Cook like white sauce. Season as desired with salt and pepper. OR, Melt and brown two tablespoons of butter in a sauce- pan ; add two or three tablespoons of flour and continue the browning. When coffee color, add one cup water or stock or milk. Welsh Rarebit. Heat one-half cup of cream in the blazier of a chafing dish or in a skillet, add one tablespoon of butter creamed with one teaspoon of corn-starch, one-fourth teaspoon of salt, and a few grains of cayenne. When thick, set over the hot water or heat very slowly and add one-half pound of soft mild cheese cut up fine and one-half teaspoon of mushroom ket- , * - " ,- . , , - 14 378 /:hup or Worcestershire sauce or one-fourth teaspoon of mustard. Stir until the cheese is melted and pour over crack- ers or thin toast. Cream Soups. Cook the vegetable till soft and rub through a strainer, using all or a part of the water in which the vegetable is cooked, except with potatoes. Combine with an equal quan- tity of white sauce or white stock or mixture of the two. Season. If too thick, add hot milk. Beaten egg may be added just before serving if too thin. Asparagus, Carrots, Cauliflower, Celery, Corn, Cucum- bers, Lettuce, Mushrooms, Onions, Spinach, Summer Squash, Turnips, Water Cress. CREAM OF PEAS. BEANS, LENTIL, POTATO and other thick soups have half quantity or less of white sauce added to keep the materials from settling. CREAM OF CHICKEN, FISH, etc., made of stock from bone, skin and other inedible portions combined with about equal quantities of hot white sauce seasoned in various ways. Corn Starch Blanc Mange. Blend two tablespoons cornstarch with an equal bulk of milk, heat remainder of one cup milk in double boiler. Stir the hot milk into the moistened starch, return to double boiler, stir on stove till thick, put over water, cover and cook twenty to thirty minutes or longer. Add two table- spoons sugar, a bit of salt, flavor and put in moulds. VARIATIONS : For liquid use part thin cream and part strong coffee, or all fruit juice. Put layers of raw or cooked fruit alternately with the blanc mange in the moulds. Blend two tablespoons of cocoa with the sugar before it i? added to the cornstarch mixture. Irish Moss Blanc Mange. To soften the moss, soak one-half cup in cold water, wash pick over and cook in one pint of water in a double boiler for about half an hour. Strain and make up to a quart with scalded rich milk or thin cream ; add a teaspoon of extract 379 flavoring and one-fourth teaspoon of salt. Or cook the softened moss directly in one quart of milk, season and strain. Put in molds. Use of Gelatine. One level tablespoon granulated gelatine will stiffen about one pint liquid. Different makes of sheet, shredded, granu- lated and powdered gelatine may be used interchangeably by weight. A larger proportion of gelatine is required for large moulds than for small. A little salt improves most gelatine combinations. Soak gelatine in cold water until soft, dissolve by adding boiling liquid, sweeten and flavor with coffee, lemon, or other fruit juices and pulp. Keep the proportions of gelatine and total liquid right. A little more gelatine is required in hot weather, unless ice is used. Such jellies may be served with whipped cream or boiled custard. Every package of gelatine is accompanied with directions for its use. Fruit Pudding. Make a jelly flavored with fruit juice, slightly increasing the proportion of gelatine. As it begins to stiffen, combine nearly an equal amount of fruit with it. With each half cup of jelly may be used one date, one-half fig, two or three almonds, one-fourth orange, one-fourth banana, etc. Snow Pudding or Fruit Sponge. Beat one egg stiff and add one cup half stiffened jelly gradually. Or, beat the jelly till frothing and blend the stiff egg with that. Mould and chill. Serve with soft cus- tard sauce made of the egg yolks. Bavarian Cream. Stiffen a soft custard, or fruit juice, or combination of the two, with gelatine. As it begins to stiffen, fold in stiff whipped cream. Baked Custards. Scald one pint milk. Beat two eggs till smooth, add one-fourth cup sugar, a bit of salt, and blend with the hot milk. Strain into buttered molds, set in a pan of hot water 16 380 and bake until firm. Put a thin knife blade in center of custard and if clone no milk will adhere to the blade as it is removed. The same proportions may be used for custard pies, or may be combined with cooked rice for a pudding. Soft Custard. Use the same proportions as for baked custards, or three egg yolks in place of two whole eggs. Pour hot milk over the beaten eggs, stirring constantly. Sugar may be added before or after cooking the custard. Return milk and egg to the double boiler and cook, stirring all the time until the custard thickens and coats the spoon, three minutes or longer. If cooked too long the custard will curdle. Cool quickly. Flavor before serving. Egg Timbals. Use only one-fourth to one-half cup liquid, milk or stock, for each egg. Flavor with salt, pepper, etc. Cook like custards, turn from mold and serve hot with tomato sauce. Thickened Custards. Filling for Cream Puffs, Layer Cake, Sauces, Ices, etc. Make a smooth paste with one-fourth cup flour and a little milk and scald the remainder of one pint of milk. When it is hot, blend carefully with the flour and cook in a double boiler twenty minutes or more. Then combine with the beaten yolks of two or three eggs and stir steadily while cooking three to five minutes longer. Take from the fire and sweeten and flavor according to its use. For filling for a layer cake one-fourth cup sugar may serve, while for cream puffs one-half cup or more will be needed. The same foundation may be combined with an equal quantity of cream or of fruit juice, or of each, made very sweet and frozen as ice cream. Frozen Desserts General Directions. All mixtures must be sweeter and more highly flavored than if served without freezing. Cool thoroughly before packing in ice and salt. Use three measures fine cracked ice to one measure of salt. 17 381 Lemon Ice. Mix in proportion of the juice of one lemon, one-fourth cup of sugar and one cup of water. Or, make a quantity of syrup, 4 measures of sugar to 2 of water, and use 4 measures of syrup to I of fruit juice. Strain into a tin can or straight glass jar with a close cover. Pack this in a pail or pan with ice (or snow) and salt. Turn the can around and occasionally scrape down the ice which forms inside. Use other fruit juices in the same way orange, pineapple, raspberry to which lemon juice is usually added, grape juice or acid jelly. Pineapple Sherbet. One can of grated pineapple, one cup of sugar, juice of two lemons, one tablespoon of powdered gelatine, one quart of water or milk. Ice Cream. Scald thin cream in double boiler, dissolve sugar in the proportion of one cup to a quart, add flavoring when cool extract, one tablespoon to a quart. This is "Phila- delphia" ice cream. Thickened custard made very sweet and highly flavored is often called "New York" ice cream. Mousse or Parfait. Mix together one cup thick cream, two tablespoons pow- dered sugar and flavoring. Whip cream with egg beater, skimming off froth as it rises and draining on a sieve. Return liquid to bowl and whip until no more froth will rise. Turn drained froth into a mould ; cover, and bind the lid with a strip of muslin dipped into melted fat. Bury in ice and salt for three to four hours before serving. Junket. The active principle in junket is reiinin or "rennet," which is extracted from the lining of calf's stomach. This will coagulate or thicken warm milk but nothing else. Its prop- erties are destroyed at the boiling temperature and it has no action in the cold. Heat two cups of milk to body tem- perature, 99 degrees, powder junket tablet and dissolve in a little water, add one-third cup of sugar dissolved in one- "From Home Science Cook Book. 18 382 third cup of warm water and flavoring extract. Pour into serving dishes and keep warm until set. Cool. Caramel syrup or maple syrup may be used in place of sugar. Chocolate may be added or beaten egg yolks with beaten whites on top. Jellies. Pectin is the gelatinizing agent in jellies and jams. It is a substance similar to starch and is found in most fruits and some vegetables. It is most abundant when fruit is just ripe or nearly so. The making of good jelly depends on having the ccrreci proportion of fruit juice, sugar, and acid and on boiling. The density of the mixture should be between 24 degrees and 30 degrees as measured by the syrup gage at the boiling temperature, and the boiling point 217 degrees F. or 103 degrees C. Long boiling alters the gelatinizing properties of pectin. Too great a propor- tion of sugar and violent boiling cause the sugar to crys- tallize in the jelly. Pick over and clean, or pare, core and cut up large fruits, heat with or without water and cook until very soft. Juicy fruits like currants and grapes need no added water, while fruits like apples should be barely covered with w'ater. Strain the juice from the pulp through cheese-cloth or. flannel. To the strained juice granulated sugar is added usually in the proportion of pint to pint, but good jelly may be made with half the volume of sugar to juice. The pro- portion depends on the acid and sugar in the fruit. Heat slowly to dissolve sugar, and boil gently until proper density is obtained, skimming froth that rises. If no syrup gauge is used, fest by dropping a little on a cold plate to see if the jellying point is reached. Pour into sterilized glasses and when set cover with melted paraffine. The pulp may be squeezed in the straining bag to get a marmalade or even a second quality jelly: or, better, heat pulp again with a small amount of water and strain without pressure. This process may be repeated. Boil down some- what and add sugar and finish as before. Jelly may be made from parings and cores. As the presence of acid is essential to make the materials jelly, lemon or currant juice is usually added to sweet flavored 19 383 fruits. (Summary of the result of experiments made by Dr. Goldthwaite at University of Illinois- and Miss Snow at University of Chicago). Soft Cooked Eggs. Place eggs in one cup of boiling water to each egg in a saucepan, cover and remove from the fire. From five to ten minutes will be required according to the firmness desired. Or, put one egg in one cup of cold water and bring slowly to the boiling point. Then remove the egg. Hard Cooked Eggs. Keep eggs in water just below the boiling point for thirty minutes. The yolks should be dry enough to mash easily. Such eggs are suitable for salads may be warmed in any well flavored sauce, may be stuffed by blending the yolks with chopped meat or nuts or seasoning of any kind. THICKENING AND LEAVENING. Omelets. There are but two types of omelet to which special names are given from the garnish added. French Omelet. Beat an egg slightly. Add one tablespoon water or milk, season with salt and a dash of pepper. Turn into a hot buttered frying pan, which must be perfectly clean and smooth. Lift cooked portions with a fork. Shake the pan to prevent adhesion. When all is firm, fold and serve at once. Puffy Omelet. Separate white and yolk of one egg. Beat white stiff, add yolk and blend together. Add salt, pepper and one tablespoon of water or milk. Turn into buttered pan and place where it will cook slowly and evenly. When firm, fold and serve. Two tablespoons of white sauce or bread softened in milk may be used instead of one of milk or water. Chopped parsley, or other vegetable, any nice bits of meat or fish, cheese', jelly, etc., may be folded into the onielet just before serving. ^ 20 384 Meringues or Kisses. Beat egg whites with a speck of cream of tartar. When stiff fold in one-fourth cup powdered sugar for each white. Flavor slightly, drop on ungreased paper, and bake slowly until dry, thirty minutes or more. For soft meringues on puddings, use half as much sugar. Fruit Souffles. For each stiffly beaten egg white fold in one- fourth cup thick, sweetened fruit pulp, or marmalade, or jam. Partly fill buttered molds, and bake like custards, until firm. Serve with soft custard as a sauce. Sponge Cakes. Equal measures of eggs, sugar and flour, or the weight of the eggs in sugar, and half of the weight of the eggs in flour. This also applies to the use of egg whites only as in angel cakes. In other words, two large or three small eggs rightly blended with one-half cup each of sugar and flour and carefully flavored and baked slowly will produce such a cake as that shown on page 65. The yolks of the eggs should be beaten until thicker and lighter colored than when beginning the process. To them add the sugar, one or two teaspoons of lemon juice and a bit of grated rind. Over the whites of the eggs sprinkle a bit of salt and beat until stiff. Fold them into the yolks and gradually sift the half cup of flour over, blending care- fully without stirring. . Put into the pans and bake in a gentle heat for twenty minutes, if in small cakes; twice as long if in one mass. Cream Puffs. In a saucepan heat one-half cup water with two ounces of butter or less. When boiling hot mix in one-half cup of flour and continue to stir while it cooks into a smooth mass. Cool till it will not cook eggs and mix in one egg and a second and beat the whole vigorously with the spoon. Shape on greased pan some distance from each other in six to twelve mounds and bake about thirty minutes ac- cording to the size. They should be light and dry when taken from the* pan, otherwise they will shrink and be heavy. 21 385 M y CO c^ C^ OJ cN 8 w O |H , o N.N OH OH OH OH o d en 4-> en CJ g CJ P CJ 3 CJ in. HH 1-1 st * * * N - H 1 -p g * w S CO W en J3 1 (N en h- 1 PI O N O N N O V-, N N CN Tj- Q OH en OH OH OH OH OH OH OH P P CJ OH 3 OH P CJ P CJ P CJ P P CJ CJ P P CJ CJ a CJ s^ CJ CJ "^ \04 V y_+. V s p O \PO \r^ ^ d M . ^\ (N\ (N\ H>-x i? ^ d en -*-> . ! 5 < 'd en d en u Q d en d en d d en en d en ^ ^ CN ^ 0< CO ro en OH OH P a a ^ "r^ "^ CJ "r-J "^J c c o t^ ^H HH -H * * [T. CJ CJ OH OH OH ^\ 'On G '& 'On 'On r 1 OH 1 I en en a en V CJ E u a3 U 'S en g g OJ x K^ O - J en en ^~] er en OS o 2 =3 C TJO 'S. ^ CJ >^ 4-^ ^ OH P T3 ^ ,-. _'^ P O rt O en H 'C o > U 1 acu H J rt c^ CL, 386 LEAVENING AND SHORTENING. Biscuit. Two cups sifted flour, three teaspoons of baking powder, one-half teaspoon of salt ; sift together, rub in one table- spoon of shortening butter, oleo, lard, cottolene or drip- pings. Mix to a soft dough with about two-thirds cup of milk or water. Turn onto a floured board, roll and pat gently to three-quarters inch thick, cut and bake. Pastry flour make more delicate biscuits than bread flour. DUMPLINGS FOR STEWS : Omit shortening, add milk until dough may be dropped from the spoon into boiling stew. Cover tightly and cook rapidly 10 minutes. SHORTCAKE: Rub in one-fourth cup of butter in biscuit mixture. Cut like biscuit for individual shortcakes or use a square pan and divide with knife dipped in melted butter so that portions may separate readily after baking. Use shortcake mixture for covering to meat pies, apple dumplings, .etc. Muffins. Two cups of sifted flour, two teaspoons of baking powder, one-half teaspoon of salt, one tablespoon of sugar; sift and add one tablespoon of shortening melted, one beaten egg and one cup of milk. Beat together thoroughly and bake in a quick oven. BLUEBERRY MUFFINS: Use a little less milk in muffin mixture and add one cup of blueberries and a little more sugar. Chopped apples or other fruit may be used in same way. TEA MUFFINS: In the above muffin mixture use one- fourth cup of sugar and of butter and add two more eggs. Drop Cakes. One and one-half cups of graham flour, one-half teaspoon each of salt and soda, and one-fourth cup of brown sugar; sift together and mix with three-fourths cup of thick sour milk into stiff batter which drop from a spoon onto a greased pan or in heated gem pans and bake quickly 12 to 15 minutes. Sweet milk and two teaspoons of baking powder may be substituted as well as rye and other flours. 23 387 Cereal Gems. Use even quantities of flour and softened cooked break- fast food, one teaspoon of baking powder to a cup of ma- terial ; add sufficient milk to make a batter which will drop from the spoon. Mix thoroughly and bake in hot buttered gem pans. Boston Brown Bread. Sift together one cup of cornmeal, one cup of rye meal, or entire wheat flour, one teaspoon of soda, one-half tea- spoon salt. Mix with one-half cup molasses and one cup sour milk. If not soft enough to smooth out in the bowl, add a little water. Put in greased tins with tight cover and steam three hours or more. Corn Cake. Use one cup cornmeal, one cup flour, one-half teaspoon of salt, one tablespoon of sugar, three teaspoons baking powder; sift together and add one egg, one cup of sour milk and one tablespoon of shortening. Bake in pan 20 to 30 minutes, according to thickness, or in muffin pans. The cornmeal may be scalded with an equal volume of boiling water ; let cool, and more shortening, sugar and two more eggs may be added. Griddle Cakes. Sift together two cups of flour, three teaspoons of baking powder and one teaspoon each of salt and sugar; add two eggs well beaten and one and one-half cups of milk grad- 'Ually and two tablespoons of melted butter. Beat well and add more milk until the batter is as thick as thick cream. Beat vigorously before each frying. Fry on hot griddle, grease with rind of pork or ham. Drop batter from end of the spoon, making circular cakes. Turn when full of bubbles. Waffles. Are cooked on a waffle iron, using the griddle cake mix- ture with an extra egg added. 24 388 Plain Cake ("Lightning" Cake). Place the flour sifter in the mixing bowl and put in it one and one-half cups of flour, three-fourths cup of fine granu- lated sugar, two level teaspoons of baking powder, one-half teaspoon of salt. Sift into the bowl. In the measuring cup, melt one-fourth cup of butter (or oleo), break in two eggs, fill up the cup with milk. Add one-half teaspoon flavoring extract or saltspoon of spice. Mix with the dry ingredients and beat well two or three minutes. Bake in sheet or greased muffin tins in quick oven. VARIATIONS : Add two tablespoons of cocoa, or an ounce of melted chocolate. Use one cup caramel or maple syrup in place of sugar. Leave out part of the sugar for Cottage Pudding. Cookies. Cream, one-half cup of butter, adding gradually one cup of sugar; add one egg and beat well. Now mix in, a little at a time, one-third cup of milk and two cups of flour sifted with two teaspoons of baking powder. Add more flour, from one to two cups, depending on the absorbing power of the flour, to make a soft dough, which rpll out thin, and cut with cookie cutter in fancy shapes. Bake in a quick oven 10 minutes. VARIATIONS : Before all the flour is added, divide into four portions ; to one add one teaspoon of lemon extract, to another one-half cup of desiccated cocoanut ; one-half ounce of chocolate melted, or a teaspoon of cocoa, sifted in with a little flour; to the fourth, one teaspoon of mixed spice and one-half cup of chopped raisins, etc. Or flavor the portions with ginger, almond with chopped almonds on top, or with dates, figs, nuts. Or use less flour and drop from a spoon for a soft thick cake. Gingerbread. Two cups of flour, one-half teaspoon of salt and of soda, one teaspoon of ginger ; sift together and mix with one cup of molasses and one-half cup of hot water in which two table- spoons of fat is melted. Bake in a moderate oven twenty minutes or more, 25 389 Doughnuts.* Sift together four cups of flour, one teaspoon of salt, three teaspoons of baking powder, one-half teaspoon of mixed spice and one cup of sugar. Mix with one egg and one cup of milk. Sour milk and soda may be used in place of baking pow- der. For richer doughnuts, two eggs and one tablespoon of butter may be used. Plain Pastry.* Sift two cups of flour with one-half teaspoon of salt and cut in with a knife, one-fourth cup or two ounces of short- ening. Mix with about one-half cup of ice water into a stiff dough. Roll out and spread with one ounce' of butter, fold and add a second ounce of butter in the same way, making one-half cup of shortening in all. For upper crusts more shortening may be rolled in if desired. Keep every- thing as cool as possible. The lightne'ss of the pastry de- pends on the amount and coolness of the air enclosed and the flakiness on the number of layers of fat and dough .pro- duced by folding and rolling. YEAST DOUGHS GENERAL PROPORTIONS. SUGAR SHORT- ENING LIQUID YEAST CAKE FLOUR EGGS Bread I tsp /> oz. + i cup j/4 tO I 7 CUPS Muffins. . . . Rolls I tbs. I tbs l /2 OZ. I OZ. I CUp i cup y+ to i y\ to i- 2 Clips ^ cups ) + Fancy Rolls . Buns 2 tbs. ^/-> cup 2 OZ. 2 OZ. I CUp I CUp y 4 toi y 4 to i 3 cups '+ 3 cups 4- i + Coffee Cake y 4 cup 20Z. y* cup Mtoi 2 Clips 2 + 390 Bread Short Process. - For each loaf, use one cup of milk scalded or half rriilk and half hot water, or all warm water, one-half teaspoon of salt and of sugar, one-half or more compressed yeast cake, softened with luke warm water, and about three cups of bread flo.u-. Mix well and kneed until the dough is smooth and springy. The dough should now be warm. Let rise till double, shape, put in pan and let rise again and bake. Or this amount of dough may be shaped into a dozen or two dozen small rolls before final rising. Entire Wheat Bread. Scald one cup of milk; in it melt one teaspoon of butter and half a teaspoon each of sugar and salt. When luke- warm, add half a cake of compressed yeast, softened in one-fourth cup of warm water. Stir in between two and three cups of flour to make a dough stiff enough to hold its shape. Mix thoroughly with a knife, but do not knead it until after it has risen to double its bulk, then shape into small loaves, let rise until double in size, bake in hot oven about half an hour. One-fourth cup of molasses may be used in place of the sugar if preferred. Rolls Long Process. For rolls or two loaves of bread, put into the mixing bowl one tablespoon of butter or lard, one tablespoon of sugar, one teaspoon of salt and one pint of scalded milk. When luke- warm, add one quarter yeast cake softened in water ana three cups of flour. Cover and let rise. In the morning, add to this sponge about three cups of flour to make thick enough to knead. Let rise till double, shape, put in pans, rise again and bake. MUFFINS : Add two or three eggs to the sponge, but no more flour. Bake in muffin pans. Coffee Cake. Work into one pint of light dough, two-thirds cuj? of white sugar, one egg, and two ounces of melted butter, thoroughly to a creamy, smooth batter by beating, m Pour into shallow pan and let rise again. Sift sugar and cinnamon over the top and bake in a quick oven. Serve warm. Use of Stale Bread. Bread Cases. Cut slices of bread two inches thick and three inches long. Remove part of crumbs from the center, leaving a hollow space. Spread with butter and brown in the oven. Croutons. Cut stale bread into slices about one-third inch thick and then in cubes. Bake in moderate oven until golden brown. Dry Crumbs. Crusts remaining from croutons, etc., should be dried in the oven, rolled and sifted, the fine ones used for cro- quettes, etc., the coarser for stuffing or escalloped dishes. Cracker crumbs may be used in the same way. Buttered Crumbs. Melt butter and stir in crumbs till the butter is evenly distributed. One ounce of butter for one cup of crumbs is a fair pro- portion. Buttered crumbs seasoned and moistened are used for stuffing peppers, tomatoes, fish, poultry, etc. Filling for Fish or Fowl. One cup of crumbs will serve for a small fish or chicken, while a large fowl or turkey will require two or three. With each cup of crumbs blend one ounce or more of butter or chopped fat salt pork, one teaspoon parsley or mixed herbs, one-half teaspoon salt and a little pepper. Moisten with milk, water or stock. For fish season also with lemon and onion juice. Mashed potato or chestnuts may be used instead of crumbs. .. ..--' 28 392 Fat To Try Out and Clarify. Cut the fat beef suet or flank fat in small pieces, re- moving skin and bits of lean meat. Cover with cold salted water and leave in a cold place for several hours. Drain off the water, and if possible soak again, and drain. Cook slowly in moderate oven or in upper part of the double boiler till the fat has melted and the scraps are crisp, but not brown. Strain and cool. Slices of raw potato or pieces of charcoal cooked in the fat before straining will absorb any impurities. Beef, pork and chicken fat may be combined. Surplus fat from roast beef, corned beef, etc., may be added. Such fat may be used for shortening muffins, ginger- bread, etc., for greasing pans, for some sauces and soups,, or for deep frying. Mutton fat may be prepared to add to fry fat. Fat from bacon, ham or sausages should "be reserved for hashes or warming over potatoes. MEATS. Broiled Meats, Chops, Steaks. The meat should be cut in convenient pieces, and some of the bone, gristle and fat removed. Sections one inch thick will be more juicy than thinner ones. Wipe the meat with a damp cloth, grease the broiler or pan with a piece of the fat, or brush melted fat over the meat. Place the meat where intense heat will reach it. at first, under the gas flame, or in a hot pan on top of the stove, or over hot coals. "Turn often at first, every half minute if directly over the coals, until well seared and browned on both sides, then move it farther away from the fire so the heat may penetrate to the center without burning the outside. As the meat is seared on the surface the juices are driven towards the center, and expanding with the heat tend to make the surface of the meat puff outward. This is very apparent between the wires of a double broiler and probably is the best indication that the meat is cooked. Steaks one incji thick should cook in five or six minutes to be rare, eight or ten minutes to be well done, the time 29 varying according to the method of cooking and intensity of heat. Mutton chops may be served rare, lamb usually well done, veal and pork always must be thoroughly cooked. Broiled meats should be served 'at once on a hot dish and with slight seasoning beside their own juices. If kept hot the cooking is continued too far. Fish and chicken may be partially broiled arid then fin- ished in the oven. Apply the direct heat mainly to the cut inside surface, as the skin burns easily. Roast Meats. Trim, wipe, score the fat portion and rub salt into that, place on rack in pan, sprinkle flour all over it, put skin side down. Have oven very hot at first to sear outside quickly to prevent escape of juice, then "reduce heat. Baste occa- sionally as needed 'with the fat which cooks out into the pan, and turn the roast over to cook it evenly. If there is danger of burning put some water in the pan after the meat is seared, but this is not necessary if heat of oven is lowered. A sirloin or rib roast, weighing five pounds will require about one hour, or longer, if it is to be well done. A surer rule for time of cooking is to allow fifteen minutes for each inch in thickness, or twenty minutes if wanted well done. Braised Beef. Use a thick section of the lower part of the round, two to four pounds. Trim, wipe and sprinkle with flour, season with salt and pepper. Brown under the gas or in hot fat. Put in casserole, partly cover with water or brown or tomato sauce. Cover closely and cook in very slow oven three to five hours. Meat Stew. Neck or breast of lamb, of veal or inexpensive cuts of beef may be used in this way. Cover bones with coid water and heat slowly. Cut meat in convenient pieces, roll in flour seasoned with salt and pepper, Fry bits of fat, then 30 394 brown sections of prepared meat and onion if desired. Put meat in kettle with bones when water is hot. When nearly tender add -carrot, turnip, peppers, or celery cut in small shapes about one cup each to one pound of meat. Potatoes pared and cut in quarters may be added 20 to 30 minutes before serving, and dumplings 10 minutes before serving. Escalloped Fish or Meat. Equal measures of cooked minced meat, bread crumbs and white or tomato sauce ; -or, for one measure of meat, half as much sauce and one-fourth as much buttered crumbs. (Boiled rice or macaroni may be used instead of crumbs.) Remove all uneatable portions from meat and mince or chop. Put in layers in a butterejd dish, having crumbs for the last. Bake until heated through and brown on top. Fish or Meat Loaf, or Timbales. Remove skin, gristle and bone from meat or fish and mince fine. Combine with an equal quantity of bread crumbs or stuffing from a baked fish or roast fowl, season as desired, moisten with milk or stock. Add one beaten egg or more to each pint of the mixture. Pack in buttered moulds, steam or bake until firm in center. Turn out and serve with sauce. Meat Loaf in Rice. Line a mould with well-cooked rice. Fill with the meat prepared as above. Cover with rice. Steam an hour. Serve with tomato sauce. Fish Balls. In a stew pan put one pint potatoes, pared and quartered, and one cup salt cod fish which has been picked apart in cold water. Cover with boiling water and cook until the potatoes are soft. Drain in a colander till no water can be shaken out. Return to pan, mash thoroughly, add salt if needed, a shake* of pepper, one teaspoon butter, one raw egs:, and beat all together. Shape on a spoon or in small balls and fry in deep fat, hot enough to brown them in one minute. Drain on soft paper. 31 395 CEREALS AND VEGETABLES. Breakfast Foods. Usual proportions one-half cup flakes or one-fourth cup granules to one cup water, one-fourth teaspoon salt to one cup water. The denser the cereal, the more water and the longer the time required. Bring water to boiling point in upper part of double boiler, placed directly on the stove. Pour cereal slowly into boiling water, stirring constantly. Let boiling continue about five minutes till mixture begins to thicken. Place over boiling water in lower part of the boiler. Cover and cook gently with little stirring one hour or more, or till tender and soft. Or put in Fireless Cooker for three hours. Serve hot, with or without sugar, with milk, cream or butter. Put in moulds with fruit and serve cold as dessert. Pack solidly in loaf shape, slice when cold, brown in hot fat, serve hot. Corn Meal Mush. Mix one cup cornmeal, one-fourth cup of flour, one tea- spoon salt, one cup cold milk or water. When smooth blend with one pint boiling water, stir for about five min- utes. When thick place over water or in steamers and cook one hour or more. Serve hot or pack in pan to fry, or dip in fat and toast under the gas. Rice. Pick over and wash thoroughly or parboil five minutes and drain. Then put in a buttered dish with twice its bulk of boiling water and set in a steam cooker. In three- quarters of an hour it should be tender and every kernel distinct, and it may be cooked longer without becoming mushy. Rice Croquettes. With one pint of cooked rice (if cold, reheated) blend one tablespoon butter and one or two beaten egg yolks. Season with salt, pepper and parsley, or with sugar and 32 396 spice. Divide in ten or twelve portions, press in firm shape, roll in egg and. crumbs, and fry in deep fat. Boston Baked Beans. Soak one pint beans over night. Parboil in the morning until the skins crack readily with a slight pressure. A very little soda may be put into the water to help this process. Score the rind of one-fourth pound fat salt pork and rinse it. Drain the beans and put part in the t>ean pot, then the pork and cover with the beans, leaving only a little of the pork rind exposed. Mix one teaspoon of salt, one-fourth teaspoon of mustard and a tablespoon or more of molasses as desired, add water and pour over the beans. Cover and bake twelve hours or more, keeping the beans filled up with water until the last hour, when the cover should be removed and the pork rind and the top layer of beans should brown. Potatoes. Baked. Choose those of equal size and scrub with brush. Cook in hot oven 30 to 40 minutes, or until soft. Then crack the skin to let out steam. The potato should be plump (not ^shriveled), and the inside white and mealy. Boiled. Wash, pare if imperfect or old. If not of uniform size, divide the larger ones. Put in boiling salted water and cook for 20 to 30 minutes, till tender. Drain off the water and shake the uncovered kettle to let the steam escape. Riced. Put boiled potatoes through strainer or ricer into a hot dish from which they are to be served. Mashed. In a hot pan mash boiled potatoes. For each half pint, add two tablespoons milk, one teaspoon butter, season with salt and pepper. 33 397 Croquettes* Prepare mashed potato with less milk and one egg yolk for each half pint and season with celery salt, paprika and parsley. Roll in crumbs, egg and crumbs, and fry in deep fat. Stuffed Potatoes. Cut a slice from end of baked potatoes, scrape out inside, mash and season. Add chopped meat, cheese or parsley for variety. Refill skins and reheat in oven. Canoes, or Potatoes on the Half Shell. Cut the potatoes in two lengthwise, refill each part and brown. Creamed. Cut boiled potatoes in cubes or slices and reheat in thin white sauce, one-half cup to each cup of potato. Hash. Use two parts potato to one part meat, or equal amounts of each. Chop meat, chop or mash potato. Season with salt, pepper, onion, etc., moisten with gravy or water. For one cup hash, put one tablespoon fat in a frying pan. When hot, put in the hash" and cook slowly, without stirring, until a brown crust forms on the bottom. Fold like an omelet. French Hash. Put meat and gravy in a deep dish, cover with mashed potato and bake till golden brown. SUGAR. Caramel. Put sugar in a smooth iron pan over a hot fire and stir constantly with an old wooden spoon until melted to a light brown syrup. Scrape off any sugar that forms in lumps. When all is melted add an equal amount of boiling water and simmer a few moments until blended into a thick syrup. A quantity of this may be made at once and kept on hand to flavor and sw r eeten custards and ice cream, or to serve as a sauce with other puddings. If it should happen to brown beyond the shade of good maple syrup, let it go a little further until the sweet flavor 34 398 would be lost. Then dissolve as above and bottle to use for coloring soups and meat gravies. Syrup. Combine equal quantities of water and sugar in a sauce- pan and stir until dissolved. Boil five to ten minutes until only slightly reduced in quantity. Can while hot in small jars and keep on hand to sweeten fruit drinks or ices as the 'dissolving of the sugar in cold liquids is a slow and unsat- isfactory process. Fondant. In an agate saucepan put one cup granulated sugar, about one-sixteenth of a teaspoon of cream of tartar a bit the size of a small pea and one-half cup of hot water. Stir till sugar, is dissolved, then cover and cook without stirring. Skim and wipe the sides of the pan if necessary. Boil about ten minutes or till 238 to 240 degrees F., when it will form a soft ball in cold water. Turn into a greased bowl or platter and cool slightly. It will grain if stirred while too warm. Beat and knead till a smooth, creamy mass. If- it hardens too rapidly dip the hands in water and continue the kneading. Pack away in covered dish for a day or longer, then shape as desired. Colors and flavors must be very concentrated. By combination with chocolate, dates, figs, nuts, etc., a 'great variety of candies may be secured. This fondant is a very satisfactory frosting for cake and may be kept on hand. Warm it over water until it can be spread on the cake. Boiled Frostings. Cook one cup of sugar with one-half cup of water or less, and a bit of cream of tartar until it will thread, not quite reaching the soft ball stage. Then pour slowly on the stiffly beaten white of one egg and continue beating until cool enough to spread. Much depends on the moisture in the atmosphere as well as the dryness of the cake. For a still softer frosting a larger proportion of egg white is used. This may be varied with different flavors and colors. 35 399 MISCELLANEOUS. French Dressing for Salads. One-fourth teaspoon salt, speck pepper, one tablespoon vinegar, two or three tablespoons oil. Blend thoroughly and pour over the salad. Mayonnaise Dressing. One egg yolk, one-half to one cup oil, one tablespoon vinegar, one tablespoon lemon juice, one-half teaspoon salt, one-half teaspoon mustard, few grains cayenne. Mix vinegar, lemon juice and seasoning. Beat egg yolk, add oil drop by drop at first, beating con- tinually. When thick acid a little of the seasoning mixture, then more oil and alternate until all is used. Utensils and materials should be kept as cool as possible. Chocolate. Melt one ounce chocolate in saucepan over hot water, add a few grains salt, one tablespoon sugar, one-half pint boiling water ; stir till smooth ; boil one minute. Blend with one pint hot milk and cook in double boiler. Beat with Dover egg beater to prevent skin forming on top. Just before serving, an egg yolk may be added to the chocolate. Serve with whipped cream. Chocolate and cocoa both contain starch which requires cooking. 36 400 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT IN THE study of Economics there are two great divisions production and consumption. Until within a few years, by far the lion's share of time and study has been given to the first of these divisions. It has been deemed sufficient for the securing of happi- ness and prosperity to a people to point out how the greatest degree of efficiency in producing wealth might be obtained. The manner in which that wealth was expended was considered less important. Recently a decided change has taken place. A conviction has been growing, especially among students or economics, of the equal importance of the other division, which covers the use made of the money after it has been acquired. This emphasizes the important place of the home in Economics as will be realized by those who consider how largely the home is the center of the consumption of wealth. In former times the home was practically the entire economic world. Most of what was produced to meet the needs of the people originated there, while all of it found ready consumption within the family circle or by limited exchange. To-day the shop and factory have taken most of the productions and developed them Place of Home in Consumption of Wealth 401 2 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT one by one, into large industries outside the home, such as the manufacture of dress goods and cloth of all kinds, carpets, bedding, candles and soap; trades, such as tailoring, shoe-making and millinery, all hav- ing their origin in the home. The preparation of food is almost the only work left to the home which may be called creative, unless we include the supreme work of developing men and women. Yet with production passed practically out of the control of the home, we find the other branch of Economics, consumption, still chiefly confined there. Most of the wealth acquired outside is expended on either the home or the interests closely connected with it. Women thus become the main directors of these expenditures. It is generally conceded that most of them stand in great need of a better understanding of the importance of the work that is theirs, and of the principles which underlie all correct economy. Economy Two aims are of equal importance, in the practice of economy; (i) to increase the income, and (2) to diminish the expenditures. The last contains possi- bilities of comfort of quite as high order as the first. There are, according to Devine, "three methods by which general prosperity may be increased ; a better choice, a better production, a better consumption. In comparing the relative importance of the three methods it will be found that there are greater imme- diate possibilities in the third (a better consumption) than in either of the others, and that of the two that 402 ECONOMICS 3 remain, the first (a better choice) is more important than the second."* In the light of all these facts it is a surprising thing that anyone can look lightly upon the share that is given to woman in the economic struggle. There are those who urge that the reason why women are finding the care of their homes less attractive than formerly is the fact that all which adds zest and is worth while is taken from them. Rather is it true that some things which demanded time and strength have yielded to more vital things, and there is now op- portunity to perfect that which is left, with a better appreciation of its importance. Devine further affirms that "it is the present duty of the economist to magnify the office of the wealth expender, to accompany her to the very threshold of the home, that he may point out, with untiring vig- ilance, its woeful defects, its emptiness, caused not so much by lack of income, as by lack of knowledge of how to spend wisely. There is no higher economic function than that of determining how wealth shall be used. Even if man remains the chief producer, and woman remains the chief factor in determining how wealth shall be used, the economic position of woman will not be considered by those who judge with dis- crimination, inferior to that of man. Both may in their respective .positions contribute directly and powerfully to the advancement of general prosperity." * Devine: Economic Function of Woman. Office of the Wealth Expender 403 Use of Money Business Side of Home-Making' 4 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT As women awaken to a realization of this truth, and bend their energy to acquire the knowledge and skill necessary to do their part more successfully, we shall begin to attain the degree of comfort and pros- perity possible for us to enjoy. There is far more money earned in the majority of families than is wisely spent. The error is frequently careless expenditure, not sloth in acquiring, a misuse rather than lack of income. The old adage, "A penny saved is a penn> earned," should be daily before the housewife. She should weigh in a less vague and general way the saying that "one cannot have his money and spend it too." Money has but a limited purchasing power: if it goes to gratify one desire, another must be denied. Few, very few, are able to satisfy all material desires. The mistake is made in giving too little thought to the various avenues of expenditure, the desire uppermost at the time being the one gratified, regardless of the relative importance of others. Combined with this are usually the failure to exercise foresight and the lack of sufficient knowledge of values to insure full money value for each outlay. 'The woman who longs to get where she 'won't have to count every penny' will never have her longing satisfied until she makes every penny count."* As the economic importance of the home is more fully realized, the business side of home-making is emphasized. The home has a close and intimate rela- * Miss Richardson : The Woman Who Spends. 404 HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION 5 tion to the business world in general. The house- wife in her customary purchases comes in touch with retail trade of almost every variety and adds her con- tribution. If she makes use of the bank as the best medium of exchange, she shares in the interests of one of the large business enterprises. With a surplus to invest, she has to do with one or another branch of the business world in selecting the form of invest- ment, and in looking after the income from it. To conduct any and all of these interests in the most ef- ficient and successful manner requires as thorough training as for any other line of business. Only busi- ness-like methods can succeed. The reason why so many women fail at just this point is from a lack, in their early life and education, of the training which develops business ability. HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION Housekeeping ranks among the professions as truly as any other occupation. It is more than a trade, since one who works at a trade performs each day the task assigned, the work being planned and directed by another. Thus little of the worker's energy is ex- pended in deciding his activities. It is the director who must possess and exercise the power to guide; his work being to initiate, plan and direct. This re- quires larger capacity and ability than is required of the one who merely practices a trade. It is the work of the housewife to initiate, plan and direct the business of the house. The woman who considers this work as the opportunity to assist 405 Need of Education Estimation of Values Education of the Home-Maker 6 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT in sharing the responsibilities of the wage-earner, and in developing the powers of those making up the fam- ily, has grasped the truth concerning the possibilities of her work. There should be no more question as to the need of education and training for the woman who selects the food, clothing and works of art which minister to the highest welfare of a family than there is for the need cf study on the part of the farmer, the manufacturer, or the artist who produces them. Everywhere training is showing its benefits in the greater efficiency and skill of those who take ad- vantage of it. Women will never be able to spend money so as to bring adequate results,, until they have in some way acquired a broad training in the estimation of values. The word of the salesman is a poor guide, yet one who has had no training to aid her is unable to select for herself any more satis- factorily. Houses which are turned over to "experts" are usually striking witnesses of abundant expendi- ture, but pitiably fail to convey to eye or heart the refreshing individuality or the satisfaction to be real- ized in the cultivated woman's home. The fullest, most completely rounded education is none too good for one who is called upon to use and impart so varied information as is the housewife. The study of science is especially practical for one who aspires to master all the things that come within the range of her work. A knowledge of chemistry is 406 HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION 7 necessary to an understanding of food composition, of cooking, cleaning, etc. The laws of physics are as closely related. For the mother, modern psychology is an indispensable study, if she is to understand her child, and wisely guide its development. If this knowledge may not be secured in school, a great deal may be done to supplement such training. Study in this course should do much along this line. In addition to the knowledge gained through study, there should be a liberal amount of practice in the various duties before one assumes the care of a house. Unfortunate the home where the practical experience all comes after marriage. It comes at the hardest of periods and is unjust to any man. In no busi- ness can failure be graver or the results more serious. The fact that some very efficient housekeepers have evolved from unpromising beginnings is no argument. Such are, without exception, most eager for their daughters to receive training, since they know by dear experience its value. Much of the present aversion to household duties would vanish before adequate preparation to perform them. The American Kitchen Magazine published, in January, 1901, some suggestions of leading men on the general subject of Housekeeping on a Business- like Basis. Some of their remarks are significant. One says : "Whenever one's knowledge of a subject has passed the stage of drudgery and becomes a science, its performance immediately becomes a pleasure. The ability to do a thing in the highest known perfection, 4O7 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT A Right Spirit Training and Devotion Essential Business Principles or a little better than anyone else, is always a source of delight, and it matters little what that something is. This spirit imparts its influence to everyone in any way associated with the work. The men or women who know their business seldom have diffi- culty in keeping those under them happily employed. .... Wherever the circumstances of our life land us, we should make our stand, do our part of the world's work, and do it well The woman who would have a home of her own and a happy one, should know, not only how to manage the chamber- maid, but the cook as well. The moment that either discovers that there is method on the part of their mistress and knowledge superior to their own, they will comply with her requests There will be no trouble with the kitchen end of the house when women take the same pains to know their business as men do. "The first essential is the proper training. The sec- ond essential is such a desire for success that she is willing to perform her part with industry and devo- tion. "It is not as necessary to show that housekeeping has in it elements of business as to make house- keepers themselves recognize its business character and apply to it ordinary business principles. A quick attention to details, a fine sense of values, good judg- ment in buying and selling, and a ready adaptation of means to end with the le^st possible loss, are points of a good business man, the housekeeper certainly has need of them." HOME EXPENDITURES Whatever the condition of a family, whether large or small, in city or country, in private house or apart- ment, the successful expenditure of money to supply the family with needed comforts depends vastly more upon brains than upon dollars, upon the standard of life than upon circumstances. To know where to economize and where to lavish, to be on the alert for the small wastes, so often disregarded, only train- ing and experience can realize the ideal in these things. The extreme economies practiced in former years are beyond doubt questionable in these days of aston- ishing increase in the production of wealth. Time has become too valuable to be profitably spent in weaving rag carpets merely to save the rags. If done, there must be some aesthetic value found to justify it. The same holds true of many occupations of the earlier housekeeper. The taking of these occupations from the home and the development of them into independ- ent industries has liberated much time and strength, which it is the duty of the housewife not to waste. The changes have been phenomenally rapid, and ad- justment could hardly be expected to keep pace, but there is much to indicate an appreciation of the sit- uation on the part of manv women and a sincere desire and endeavor to co-operate in meeting the changes intelligently. .There is no less need of the practice of economy in the expenditures of the present time than formerly, 409 io HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT even if the methods necessarily differ. For instance, while we may afford ourselves finer materials and more variety in clothing there is a correspondingly greater demand for wise and intelligent choice of ma- terials for bodily needs and the avoidance of such as purport to be what they are not. Otherwise extrav- agance in the loss of time through illness, or even of life itself, results. Economy in food no longer re- . quires the family to forego certain food-stuffs which were formerly luxuries. The requisite is rather the exercise of foresight in buying the product when in season, or legitimately within the reach of the limited purse. standards O ne niust have a standard, conciously defined and recognized, in order to choose successfully. A stand- ard of life consists of those principles which guide one's motives and direct one's activities. Conscious standards are not often enough realized in things ethical. We have standards of weights and measures by which all weights and measures are tested. We have standards by which we discriminate in music, art, and many other things. But who can define his Standard of Life readily ? We may reveal it to others, in fact we are constantly doing so as we decide this or that. The great difference between a successful person who accomplishes much, and one who never seems to amount to anything in particular, is the dif- ference in which their standards of life have been made clear and conscious, thus becoming a vital, guid- ing factor in action. 410 HO USEHOLD EXPENDITURES 1 1 We recognize innumerable varieties of standards, as the result of varying education and training, advan- tages and opportunity, or the lack of them. False standards arise from failure to discriminate between needs and wants. There are conflicting opinions as to what vital needs are, although it would seem self- evident that they consist materially, in those things which man must have to live under the best conditions, such as pure food, healthful clothing, sanitary houses, sufficient air and light together with those things which will minister to his highest intellectual and spiritual development. Through failure to distinguish intelligently the majority of people spend two-thirds or more of their income for what fails to bring them the best results in health and happiness. We are too inclined to scorn the women of former days because of their more limited horizons. We may profitably study their understanding of their con- ditions and needs and the wise adaptation to them, which gave them an important place in the work and progress of their time. The women who succeed to- day in the use of larger opportunities are those 'who, like them, dare to live in intelligent independence, true each to her individual standard of life. Such women do not indiscriminately copy the manners of living or dress of others merely to be like them or in fashion. They are not ashamed to acknowledge a liking for home-making and housekeeping. They spend with care and judgment A suggestive, com- Needs and Wants 411 12 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Differing Standards parison between the women of the past and those of the present is that of Miss Richardson in The Wom- an Who Spends: "In olden times women thought and thought and thought before they spent, often mak- ing the spending a burden. Now women often spend, and then think and think and think. Nor does the lack of thought beforehand ease the burden of the results of her spending." As urged elsewhere it is not enough that we be well- intentioned since even then we may be painfully or harmfully extravagant through ignorance. We must know not only that pure food, hygienic clothing and durable furnishings are well, but we must know what constitutes each and how to secure them. Other- wise we must be classed among the extravagant. No true economy can be practiced in the home" until a standard is adopted by all the members of the family, in which there is agreement of effort to promote the family well-being; at the same time that all unite to accept with intelligent grace the common deprivations necessary to lessen family waste either of money, labor, time, health, strength, or possessions. Standards in regard to living must necessarily dif- fer greatly with different individuals and families. The education, tastes, and occupations of people dif- fer so widely that it would be entirely impossible to establish a universal standard. That one may have greater demands than another is purely accidental, yet must be reckoned with. Even our individual stand- 412 HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 13 ards are not stationary but are ever giving way to new and higher ones if we are as progressive as we should be. All this makes it difficult to proportion ex- penditures so that the highest good shall always be secured. The most important reason for attempting to classify our wants and our provision for their gratification, is that thereby we may provide ourselves with a defi- nitely recognized standard which can be reckoned with, studied, and, from time to time improved. Man shares with the brutes a low or primitive range of desires consisting of the satisfying of the physical de- mands for food, rest, shelter and clothing. Gradually he comes to desire other things, his standard is raised, and by the repression of his desires in the lower range he is able to secure satisfaction in the higher. The day laborer necessarily has standards as to food which differ from those of the scholar. The scholar must expend more for dress, perhaps, regardless of the dif- ference of income but this difference is not vital, since all genuine and legitimate differences seem to pro- mote progress in the people. The danger lies rather in "accidental accompaniments" which are not neces- sities. In deciding upon a standard of life, one acts upon his best judgment at the time, independent of others, except as he recognizes that he may improve his stand- ard by comparison with theirs. "Style of living/' on the contrary, is thrust upon one from without Ac- style of Living 413 Accurate Record Important I 4 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT cepting it, he becomes its slave, entirely depend- ent upon what "they" will say as to this or that ex- penditure, never upon the consideration of the real good to be derived. Only by keeping an accurate record of expenditures can one follow the outgo so as to find how the stand- ards of the family measure up to the ideal. Without indisputable facts in black and white one is easily de- ceived. It is natural to feel that economy is being practiced when many a coveted article is resisted. The year's bill with its record of many other indulgences is sometimes a rude but wholesome awakening. Twenty-five cents to-day and another to-morrow for some luxury in food seems too slight to take account of, but multiplied by three hundred and sixty-five the increase in the food-expense becomes a considerable sum. It is well to look frequently to aggregated ex- penses like these. In arriving at a basis for the classification of ex- penditures it is helpful to compare those of a large number of families, studying the avenues of expense to determine in what way the maximum of health ; physical, mental, and moral is reached. Several such comparative studies have been made and a few typical budgets have been selected to illustrate the method pursued in attacking the problem. In making a classification of one's own, it will be most useful to decide upon a tentative division of the year's income under the heads which seem most valu- 414 HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 15 able to keep as separate divisions. These proportions may be studied in per cents, or the salary for each week or month or quarter may be divided and the amount for each division reserved to defray the ex- penses which arise in connection with that division during the period. As time goes on one is able to see how accurately the provisional division was made to fit the needs. Such a theoretical division should always be de- cided upon as a check to undue expenditure, as one will try to bring the actual expense within the limits that seemed wise to set when all things were taken into account at the time of deciding upon the propor- tions. A regular income is the fortunate arrangement in many families. This tends to develop thrift and to remove the tendency to run up bills leading to debts. The tendency for such is to live up to the limit of the income and the division for saving and higher life in general is usually small. It is found that salaried people seldom get deeply in debt, but also seldom accumulate very much. For those without regular and known income the problem of apportioning expenditures is very dif- ficult. The only safe course is to determine upon a definite minimum income. The surplus will then be an unexpected pleasure. The actual per cent of the income allowed for each division will depend chiefly upon two things; namely, 415 iC HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Real Values Budgets the size of the income, and the ideals or standards of the family. The necessities of life must be provided and if the income is small, barely enough to cover these needs, there is little choice left but to spend all for them. Yet as a matter of fact, choice is possible for most families. While a large wage-earning class are receiving smaller incomes than one would wish, at the same time we find choice playing an important role in determining the purchases of the day laborer, as well as of those who are not limited for money. In fact, it is with those who can least afford to be gov- erned by caprices that the most pitiful lawlessness in these things prevails because of ignorance. Enlightenment through education in real values is needed by all alike, that correct divisions may be made and lived up to, and that the division for higher life, most often cut to a discreditably low per cent, may be recognized and properly provided for. The following table from The Cost of Living by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards gives some actual and typical family budgets : HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES Typical Budgets Perc entag 3 for Oc 3|~2 *s Family Income Per Year. " 1 ill | ,d eS 2 .jftno 8 Q n $3,098, three adults, two chil- dren 27.5 21.1 16.8 10. 2i.6 2,500 (Mass.), three adults, no children 25. 25. 13. 12. 25. 2,500 (Mass.), two adults, one child, much company. 32. 18. 18. 10. 22. 1 ,980 (St. Louis) , four adults, two children 36.3 24.2 20.9 18. JO 950 (Mass.), two adults. three children 20. 19. 16. 15. 30. 600 (Boston), two adults (women) , two children. 23. 26. 4. 5. C 26.1 1 Travel, ', Sickness, etc. 535 (N. Y.), two adults, I 15.9 three children. 55.2 22.4 5.3 9.4 7.7 312 ' ' mean ' ' Englishman, two adults, three chil- dren.. E5 2 15.5 8 9 13.1 7 3 300, Dr. Engell's estimates 62. 12. 5! 16. 5 From Cost of Living, Mrs. E. H. Richards. From these budgets it will be seen that little choice is given the families of most limited means. The necessities cost about the same for all. It is in the range of luxuries that the greatest divergence is to be found. Only there can limitations be wisely set. In those where choice is possible, one observes a va- riety of results, showing that one family preferred to economize in one way, another in another. The com- forts to be secured through increase of rent appeal to 417 iS HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Ideal Budgets one, those of additional service, another, and so throughout the list. Extravagance is most frequently found in the Food and Operating expense divisions. Individual extrav- agance occurs most frequently in clothes. With these actual and typical budgets in mind note the Budgets, as suggested by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, which give the ideal theoretical division of incomes varying from $500 to $4000. The interest and profit to the housewife in the comparison of these widely differing standards will be the stimulus to keep sys- tematic accounts, that she may be able to determine the percentages of her own family expenses. Such an account with its day of reckoning is an excellent moral support since one will learn to think twice over the temptation to spend for personal gratifica- tion, or for those things which have at best little to recommend them either for pleasure or profit. 418 HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES Ideal Budgets Percentage for *! | 1 Family Income. ||i bb -US! d 5^*I3 M , _j ^ 2 S cs 2 c8 w o a 8,S ^wS o ft H Two adults and two or three children (equal to four adults) : Ideal Division $2,000 to $4,000 .... 25 20 15 15 25 2,000 to 1,000 25 20 * 15 20 20 800 to 1,000 . .. 30 20 10 15 25 500 to 800 45 15 10 .10 20 Under $500 60 15 5 10 10 From Cost of Living, Mrs. E. H. Rich- ards. Four laws have been formulated by Dr. Engel, which state the tendency in the changes of per cents noted in such budgets as we have been considering: DR. ENGEL'S LAWS 1. The proportion between expenditure and nutri- ment grows in geometric progression in adverse ratio to well-being; in other words, the higher the income, the smaller is the per cent of cost of subsistence. 2. Clothing assumes and keeps a distinctly con- stant proportion in the whole. 3. Lodging, warming and lighting have an in- variable proportion, whatever the income. 4. The more the income increases the greater is the proportion of the different expenses which ex- press the degree of well-being. 419 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT DIVISION OF INCOME CHAET Typical Family of Two Adults and Three Children Running Expenses include Wages, Fuel, Light, Ice, Etc. With $1 000 Income the Children Would be Educated in the Public Schools. ' The above chart was adapted from a large colored chart prepared under the direction of Mrs. E. H. Richards for the Mary Lowell Stone Exhibit on Home Economics. 420 RENT 21 The classes of expenditure discussed in the follow- ing pages are those which, on the whole, best repre- sent the different divisions into which money expendi- ture may fall. These are Rent, or its equivalent paid for shelter, Operating Expenses, such as fuel, light, wages and repairs, Food, Clothes and Higher Life. The latter includes all that ministers to mental and moral well-being, as education, travel, amusements, charities, savings and insurance. These will be con- sidered in order. RENT The question of buying or renting a house which shall offer shelter and make a home for the family is often a difficult one in these days. Formerly private possession was much more universal than at the pres- ent time. It is more or less impossible within a wide radius of the center of our largest cities to-day to buy a single house at any price. For this reason peo- ple are more and more forced to rent, and must share a house with other families, usually, either in double houses, apartments or flats. Many of the objections which are to be urged against boarding are equally forceful for this manner of living. The too close proximity of others is a misfortune, yet it is preferable to boarding, since some privacy and individuality may still be preserved. Some, feeling the natural instinct of ownership too strongly to be content to give it up so completely, will prefer to go into the suburbs and Buying or Renting 421 22 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT rely upon electric cars or other means of transporta- tion, for going to and returning from business. The difficulties which present themselves when one considers buying, may be summed up under the fol- lowing heads: 1. Scarcity of available houses in places of any size. 2. Greatly increased cost, due to increasing valua- tion of property. 3. Tendency of fluctuating business, causing changes in plans or place of residence, necessitating the disposal of a house at a sacrifice. 4. Unforeseen changes in business centers in our rapidly growing towns, and cities, greatly affecting the desirability of the location for a home. 5. Constant expenditures required to keep a house in repair, often in excess of rent. 6. Decreasing tendency on the part of young peo- ple to have a saving fund which can be used or which they are willing to use for purchasing a home. The advantages of owning a home when it is at all possible or feasible, far outweigh these disadvantages. Renting tends to develop demoralizing habits of care- lessness and indifference. The word "home" should have a meaning for us vastly deeper and richer than can be bounded by four walls, it is true, or than can be centered in material or outward covering, yet a!7 such aids prove vital in developing and strengthening the highest regard for the name with children. The 422 RENT 23 man or woman is to be profoundly pitied to whose mind the name does not recall a definite and loved spot as the home of childhood. Nothing contributes more surely and steadily to the development of a worthy citizen and through him of a worthy community than proprietorship in his home. It removes the temptation to move from place to place always a great hindrance to the development of an ideal home. The family that rents tends to disregard property rights and to enter with less pride or con- cern into the neighborhood life. As soon as a home however humble, is acquired, a pride is taken in it and its surroundings and the sense of personal re- sponsibility for the tone of the community is much keener. In providing for shelter either by buying or renting, three factors should play a part, (i) sanitary require- ments, (2) those things which, like location and archi- tectural appearance, answer the social requirements, (3) and standards of living. Sanitary requhements may well be placed first. Money is well and econ- omically expended which secures the best possible sanitary conditions. Failure at this point has cost many families far more than the two or three dollars' difference per month in rents by adding doctor's bills most uneconomical of all expenditures to the lowering of vitality and decreasing of efficiency. Distinction should be made between essentials and non-essentials, between showy cheats and real worth. 423 24 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Bright gilding does not make good plumbing nor does an especially fine porch bespeak a carefully con- structed cellar. Some of the principle requisites are: Ample air space for each individual, (300 cu. ft. for each person having been found to be the lowest amount permissible according to sanitary rules) ; light, fresh air and water in abundance. Drainage conditions should be above suspicion within and without. A house so constructed as to require the minimum of labor to care for is also a wise and economical con- sideration. The housewife will be surprised in her search for these requirements to find what poor pro- visions exist in most houses. The demand for the best sanitary conditions has been so slight up to the present time, that those who build have not found it essential to give them large attention, since selling or renting so seldom depends upon these things. Reasons If a house is found which is offered at a price less for price than others which are similar in the vicinity, one of three reasons may be found to account for it. Either it is an old house out of repair, or is in an undesirable neighborhood, or it is simply cheaply con- structed. In weighing its merits great care should be exercised to distinguish as to the cause. If it is such as to be a menace to health, physical or moral, one has no right to choose it. If it will cost more to put it in good condition to live in than the difference, or if operating expenses, as fuel, will be increased more than enough to offset the difference, then it is 424 RENT 25 poor economy to select it; but if the difference is merely one in incidentals such as more or less expen- sive woods for finishing, etc., then it may be wise to sacrifice a little at this point rather than in something more vital. In building, the demands of modern life require, not including cost of land, an expenditure of about $1000 per person, or $4000 for the typical family of five persons. It is easy to vary this to the two ex- tremes. In most localities, $10,000 should build all that any family could use for themselves alone so far as essentials go. The cost of building varies so greatly that no very definite estimates can be given. In parts of the United States where building materials and labor are high the cost of a house may be nearly double that in places where prices are low. The recent experience of others or the conservative estimate of a local architect or con- tractor is the only safe guide. The difference in expense too often represents other than legitimate reasons: A large expenditure fre- quently represents bad taste and showy ornamentation rather than more abundant sunlight, fresh air and cleanly surroundings. A good rule to bear in mind is that "less should be spent for the mere house and more for what goes on in it the real life." In deciding what may be legitimately spent for rent one may safely estimate whatever is necessary to se- cure the requisites for health. It ought to be possible 425 26 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT to secure safe surroundings at a cost not exceeding 20 per cent of any income between $500 and $5000 a year, not including the expense of heating and lighting. If more than that is necessary, it is an indication that the sanitary standards in the community are not as high as they should be. As a matter of fact low standards which the individual alone is powerless to correct often force the expense to 25 per cent to secure safety. The location of a house in its relation to place of business, school, etc., should be considered. If at a dis- tance so that carfares are necessary these should be reckoned as a part of the rent. In considering the rent of a heated apartment about $5 per month should be credited for the heat, in addition to janitor service and hot water if these are furnished. OPERATING EXPENSES Operating expenses consist, for the most part, of the necessary expenditure to keep a house warmed, lighted, clean and in repair. The skill with which these expenses are managed is the supreme test of the ability of the housewife, materially speaking. Other decisions may be turned off more easily or at- tended to once for all, and there is some end to them. In these the highest success can only be realized by the woman who has a genius for details, who will allow nothing to escape her consideration, yet who has the ability to carry them with a degree of ease and 4.9 fi OPERATING EXPENSES 27 mastery so that it will not be apparent to others, at least, that she finds them perplexing or burdensome. The over-anxious, wearied woman is as lacking in the worry element of success as the careless and heedless one. She may be able, through her greater watchfulness, to save more money, but family happiness is perhaps more endangered, through the depression of spirits and the friction which result, than in the other case. To remove friction and reduce to a harmonious unit are parts of what she must accomplish through the direc- tion of the operating expenses. The same standards should control in deciding the Deterir avenues of expenditure here as in selecting a house or Factors deciding any of the other divisions. Health, comfort and happiness in the highest and broadest conception of these words should be the only factors having weight. Whether my neighbor has a maid should be nothing to me in my decision as to the necessity of having one. To be met at the door by a suitably at- tired official ought not to be as important as it would sometimes seem to be, in leading us to decide whether we have had a pleasant and profitable 'call on a friend. All these things are well in their place, but they are by no means so vital that one should sacrifice far more important things and magnify these out of all propor- tion. Much of the necessary operating expense is deter- mined when the house is selected, and the two should always be considered together. If the number of 427 28 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT rooms is limited, the expense of caring for them will be correspondingly less. If the house is conveniently arranged so that the work may be swiftly performed, the work of each helper will "go further" than if much time is wasted through unnecessary steps or move- ments. So, also, in the expense of heating. One should consider whether the house is arranged com- pactly or not, what the loss of heat through exposure of rooms will be, etc., so that the cost of heating can be correctly reckoned with. It has been estimated that, for an ordinary city house, the sum paid .annually for wages of servants should be equal to one-half the rental value of the house. This can only be realized, however, by those who are willing to simplify their manner of living so as to reduce expenses more than the average at the present time, or by those who give assistance in the duties. When servants are kept the cost of the other operat- ing expenses will be increased without corresponding satisfaction. In general, they should be kept equal to the amount paid as wages. An excellent standard to keep in mind is the maintenance of the "maximum of efficiency at minimum cost." It is true economy to expend for what will remove friction or prove time- saving. Wage The wages of a general helper for housework vary according to location, from $3.00 per week or less in some small towns in the East and through the middle 428 OPERATING EXPENSES 29 West to $4.00 or $5.00 in the larger cities. This must be doubled in allowing for board and room and for the additional outlay because of more wasteful cook- ing and more careless handling of furnishings. One housekeeper who kept a careful record of expenses both when with and without help, found the weekly expense from one-fourth to one-third more when help was employed. The average cost of hiring by the hour for work Hour done in the house is from 15 to 25 cents per hour in- Work eluding the midday meal, if the helper remains over that time. Laundry work for unstarched, flat pieces, averages 25 cents per dozen. When all the main avenues of expense have been Small carefully considered to eliminate excessive or 'unnec- waste essary expenditure, there remains for the thrifty housewife the daily exercise of much watchful care over the "littles" which otherwise astonishingly run up the expense. A three-burner chandelier ablaze in- stead of one Welsbach burner which would give better light at less than a third the cost ; a range fire opened, at the loss of at least a hod of coal, to prepare a warm dish for supper when the use of a gas or oil stove for a short time would accomplish the desired result much more cheaply; daily orders in piece-meal over a limited telephone service, because the difference is not considered sufficiently important to necessitate the thought required to combine all the orders for that day, or for several days, in one message: these are 429 30 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT all trifles in themselves, but five cents here and ten there make a surprisingly large difference in the sum total. The difference between skilful, thoughtful out- lay and careless spending, is to be measured in the added comforts to be secured by the one who learns the secret of successful management in this group of expenses. FOOD The influence of food upon the welfare of the house- hold must be first considered in apportioning the share of income rightly devoted to it. In referring to the budgets we find that as the income decreases the percentage devoted to food increases. Why is this, or why should it be so? It is because the life of the in- dividual depends upon his nourishment. His shelter may be poor, his clothing inadequate for his needs, but food he must have and upon proper food depends his capacity for doing work and doing it well. Proper The child must be properly nourished that it may Food be a strong little animal, growing into healthy happy youth. The adult must be well nourished to be an ef- ficient member of the community, whether as a wage- earner or as a household spender. The food supply must be right for errors and wrong doing here show their effects in a weakened power to perform work or resist disease. In 'this lies the justificatoin of the poor man who possibly spends two-thirds of his in- come for food. 430 FOOD 31 . The wide variation, however, as shown in the bud- gets, does not indicate proper nourishment in one case, improper food in another. Over-nutrition is often as dangerous as under-nutrition and the cost of food does not determine its nutritive value. It by no means fol- lows that because a family has large butcher's and grocer's bills it is therefore better nourished. The same causes affect the cost of foods as influence the price of other commodities. The demand for and scarcity of any article ; being in or out of season ; cost of transportation; loss through waste in foods that deteriorate quickly; fancy price asked for certain rare flavors, all these determine price outside of any con- sideration of nutritive value. Bullock gives five ways in which he estimates that one-fifth of the money expended for food is actually wasted. 1. Needlessly expensive material, providing little nutrition. 2. A great deal thrown away. 3. Bad preparation. 4. Failure to select rightly according to season, j. Badly constructed ovens. In 1900 when Mrs. Richard's book on The Cost of Living was published experiments in dietaries were made and the cost of the raw material required for so many persons a day estimated. The conclusions reached at that time were that twenty-five or thirty cents per person a day is ample to supply all the Cost per Person 431 High Cost of Food Sources f Waste 32 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT physical demands of one whose tastes have not been perverted by wrong habits of eating. Good, sub- stantial living, meeting all the needs of people of sim- ple habits, can be secured at less than that. When the expense exceeds that sum it is due to one or more of the following reasons : 1. Waste. 2. Buying out of season. 3. Choice of food of which there is a limited sup- ply therefore price is high. 4. Perishable food stuffs. 5. Fads or fashions in dishes. 6. High priced products because of choice flavors as "Gilt Edged Butter," or food which is "in season" but a short time, as venison. Since the year in which the experiments and in- vestigations were carried on certain staple food stuffs have increased nearly twenty per cent in price, so that the margin for the same bill of fare now should be wider, or from twenty-five to thirty-five cents per person a day. The housewife should carefully consider these esti- mates and the causes most fruitful of waste in the household. Far too lavish provision is often made in ordering. Study and observation must be given to the necessary quantity of meats, vegetables, etc., to be pro- vided and served. Large portions are left to be improp- erly warmed over, wasted in the kitchen, or thrown away altogether. Waste in the household arises mainly 432 FOOD 33 from lack of thought, planning, or carefulness in de- tail, just as in any other business. A study of foods and food values is necessary in order to know what less expensive material may be provided to sup- ply the same need, but above all else must the house- wife who desires to make a study of these things, and reduce the waste in the household realize that no waste is greater than poor material, illy prepared. The more knowledge, the more science used in the selec- tion and preparation of food for the table should mean more, not less appetizing results. It is of 'course easier to provide a good table for Numbers eight people on $2.40 per day than for four people at $1.20. It must be remembered that many people live well on less ; many more are well nourished on much less. The pecuniary economy of food is seen in the ac- companying charts, and those articles which would be classed under unnecessary expense may be easily sepa- rated from the more legitimate. Of course the price paid for food cannot be regu- Aesthetic lated entirely by a consideration of nutriment alone. It must satisfy aesthetic demands as well. Food must be enjoyed in order to be thoroughly well digested. This is a strong argument in favor of a moderate use of animal foods. Although vastly more expensive than vegetable foods, they do gratify the palate of most people in ways which vegetable foods do not. This fact together with their superiority in being more 433 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Chart of Composition of Foods Nutrients. Protein. Fats, Carbo- Mineral hydrates, matters, Non-nutrients. mm Water. Refuse. Fuel valnft. Calories. without bone. FOOD 35 Chart of Pecuniary Economy of Food Fats. Carbohydrates FOOD MATERIALS flmiutt c/tudnMt ajut salaries tntU worth*. tUu ili> toooCaL toooCat ooooGU, From Farmers' Bulletin, No. 142. 435 Real Purpose 36 ' HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT easily and completely digested are valid reasons for paying somewhat more for the sake of securing them. CLOTHING Clothing, like food, should be considered first of all in its relation to the possible increase of health and efficiency. Like the function of food, this is too much lost sight of at the present time while the aesthetic side of the subject is receiving an undue share of emphasis. The cost of clothing is too largely the re- sult of an attempt to gratify the desire to please the world at large, rather than of protecting the body. We all know too many instances of the rashest ex- cesses to which this may lead, destroying all hope of realizing higher and worthier ideals. A safe-guard to such excess lies in an intelligent training and thoughtful study of these things. Sufficient and suitable protection from clothing, so that one is enabled to meet the varying changes of cli- mate without loss of energy, is a distinct advantage, offering grounds for reasonable expenditure. This should debar either too scant provision, or too great excess, which weakens power of resistance. The aesthetic has a legitimate place in the consideration, but should be subordinate to health, if the two ever seem to conflict. There is, as we know, the greatest possible difference in people in ability to "make a lit- tle go a long way" in providing satisfactorily for cloth- ing. Knowledge and care will aid greatly in helping 436 HIGHER LIFE 37 one to conform to the laws both of health and beauty. A pleasing, becoming color or style is little, if any, more expensive than one which is unbecoming. One should seek to develop true individual taste and ex- pression, relying less upon the not infallible dictum of dress-makers. To secure clothing, then, which shall be a protection from heat and cold should be the first motive. Along with this should go a recognition that the outer garments may be and should be a means of contributing to the pleasure of others, through a cor- rect selection of pleasing colors and graceful forms. Both these may be entirely legitimate considerations, but there should not result, from over emphasis, a dwarfing of the more important things in life. HIGHER LIFE The preceding divisions have to do chiefly with those things which support and protect the physical well-being. The fifth important provision should be for the higher life, or the demands of the intellectual and spiritual nature. The most important business of any life is to develop this side to its highest possi- bilities and to find its fullest expression. Other con- siderations are in reality subordinate to this. Unless a definite allowance is set aside for the pur- pose material demands encroach until all is spent. Even if something more is realized each year than is spent, the money itself seems too often to be the most valuable possession, rather than the comforts and Good Taste 437 Wide Range 38 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT aesthetic ideals which it might secure. It is a battle, in these days of materialism, to reserve one-fourth of an income for the satisfaction of the needs of the higher nature, yet there is no greater need in our nation than that of more families who realize the im- perativeness of doing it, and who independently insist upon proving it to be possible. Those who resolutely decide upon this course tend to more refined living, give "more thought to the meaning of life, to the object for which all exertion should tend, more thought for the manner of accomplishing a given result, less for the money value of it." It means making a place for ideals, recognizing their necessary place in life, and resolutely setting one's face toward realizing them. Such a purpose serves as an admirable check to the gratification of lower desires and unnecessary spending, while whatever is found to be necessary and worthy will have a double value because of the thought -and care exercised in the de- cision. There is a very wide range possible for difTerent tastes in ministering to the higher life. One will pre- fer travel, another literature, a third art, while church and charity must find place in all higher life. It mat- ters, perhaps, less what particular side is developed than that there shall be conscious effort toward a higher and a fuller life, and that choice rather than idle drifting rules. It is true that all altruistic motives which look to the good of another, be he kin or other- 438 HIGHER LIFE 39 wise, are more full of elevating influence upon a life than those which seek merely one's own highest good. One should gain the habit of choosing those things that endure, and have abiding value rather than those of momentary or temporary advantage. Even when guided by an impulse to make provision for one's family, it is to be borne in mind that the best possible investment which can be made for a child is a liberal education. All that anyone in normal health and strength should need is a thorough preparation to do his or her work efficiently, with motives toward the best things which life has to offer and the possi- bilities of a better life than his parents have had. Too liberal provision is often seen to destroy incentive and the things of highest value are cheapened when they cost little effort. Progress can only be made through striving. Conscious effort is as necessary for the health of mind as for health of body. For this reason it is best that what we enjoy should be the result of choice and denial, and we should learn early to pay for what we get. A surplus should be reserved against emergencies, that a feeling of independence may be fostered, yet this should not be insisted upon to the point of crippling life. As to ways of saving, the field is large. Some methods employed at the present time are to be com- mended in highest terms. Against others too severe condemnation cannot be passed. Among those forms which are safe may be classed life insurance, savings Ways of Saving 439 Life Insurance Railroad Securities 40 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT banks, loans on real estate and investments in stocks and bonds. In selecting, one should consider whether the busi- ness which the company is transacting is legitimate and also whether it is probably permanent because it serves a real public use with elements of growth and lasting development, or whether it is merely a "flash in the pan" scheme. Again, it is important to know whether the company has sufficient capital to make the business a safe one, and whether the man- agement, so far as can be determined, is wise and honest. Life insurance is becoming an increasingly popular form of saving. With a reliable company, and under some of the favorable arrangements possible at the present time, such as terminal endowment policies, yielding a fair interest for money invested, as well as insurance, it is without doubt one of the best methods. Some find the imperative demand to meet the annual payments a very helpful check upon ex- penditure. There is not the risk of loss through fail- ure to pay at any time which formerly existed, since, in emergencies, money can be loaned on the insurance or one can secure at some sacrifice the return of the amount paid in. Railroad securities are possibly first in value, such bonds, if good, being unquestionable security and yielding good return. There is little fluctuation in value, and the reports are frequent and controlled by 440 HIGHER LIFE 41 state law, so that one may know the exact condition of the investment at any time. Loans on buildings, or real estate are excellent forms of investment, if one knows beyond question the value of the property secured. These may not be as readily transferred or their value realized, as with stocks and bonds. In general it may be said that for the ordinary in- vestors in our country any investment yielding over 4 1-2 or 5 per cent is to be classed as a risk, and is not consistent with sound finance. A safe investment yielding that return is far wiser than a questionable one promising more. A high interest rate is almost in- variably, in the very nature of things, a warning of insecurity. Shrewd capitalists of the country are cer- tain to know of any especially favorable opportunities and seize upon them, if desirable, so that the small investors should not look for phenomenal returns. The frequent reports of failures, and cases of those involved who have met with pitiable losses emphasizes the danger and evils of speculation. These often rise in the form of local crazes, with heated booming for a short lived career, or as investment in some gold or copper mines at too great distance to be personally investigated. These should be condemned and avoided as almost without exception dangerous. Women are found to be particularly susceptible to such alluring opportunities to "get rich quick" because of failure in training in sound business principles. Safe Interest Get-Rich- Quick Ventures 441 What Accounts Should Show HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS The management of the money affairs of a family is usually the most perplexing part of its domestic prob- lem. Yet, in spite of this fact, the least candid study and thought are given to it. The value of accurate accounts, as well as their necessity, is recognized in the entire business world. Few associations of indi- viduals are organized for any specific purpose without careful regard to the maintenance of the proper rela- tion of income and outgo. The value and importance of this is no less to the housekeeper than to the banker or grocer. The appallingly frequent examples of reck- less disregard in this respect, leading to a constantly increasing number of unpaid bills and final ruin, ought to teach the sad lesson of the unthrifty. Yet statisti- cians tell us that at least one-half of our well-to-do families are seriously handicapped by debt. Along with that fact should be emphasized another the number of families in which accounts of personal and family expenses are kept is astonishingly small, and in few instances where such records are kept is .suffi- cient study given to them to lead to advance in stand- ard of living from year to year. In conducting any business it is of the greatest importance (i) to follow the receipts and expenses, (2) to keep a record of investments and (3) to deter- mine at the end of the year, or shorter period, the results of the business and the exact condition of the 42 442 HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 43 capital. The modern household is an intricate business concern. Its financial administration demands as per- fect exactness, order and method as any other, if it is to attain in any degree its possible efficiency. Such exactness alone renders the accounts of any real worth. They may be made of priceless value in directing the activities and ministering to the comfort of all in the home. The question who shall be head bookkeeper and The director of the household expenditures will probably Keeper* be best decided by determining which grown member of the family has a genius for accounts. It naturally falls to the housekeeper as the one who can manage best and has the most intimate acquaintance with the entire situation. In any case, it should be one who loves it or who sees in it possibilities large enough to create a willingness to give the necessary thought and time to make it a success. It has been made a profitable and interesting business training in some families for growing boys and girls. Possibly promotion from the keeping of their own personal accounts to those of the household might be made an excellent stimulus. With a clear, convenient system, adapted to the needs of the particular records to be kept, and with a busi- ness-like promptness in entering each night the trans- actions of the day while fresh in mind, what is often looked upon as a perplexing hardship may become an interesting study. A helpful aid to memory is a card neatly fitted into the purse, upon which sufficient entry 443 44 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT may be made at the time of the expenditure to assist in recalling the details when they are wanted for enter- ing in the account. A shopping list filled out with prices as one purchases is a useful aid to memory. Systems The system employed in keeping the accounts may be very simple. The only necessary requirement is that it be sufficiently complete to record in concise, available form the necessary facts to indicate clearly the details of income and outgo. It must be possible to compare these two sides of the account at any time in order to prove that the balance as shown by the account corresponds with the cash on hand. Various systems have been devised and successfully used. The efficiency of anyone depends quite as much, perhaps, upon the thorough, painstaking effort of the user to bring it to its utmost point of efficiency and utility as upon the system itself. Envelope Some find a series of envelopes a very convenient Method form of keeping the records. Each envelope is labeled with the name of the particular division of the expenses which it is to hold. After it has been decided what proportion shall be spent for each division the sum is put into its envelope, to be drawn as needed. A slip of paper or card in the envelope records each addition, and the expenditures from that envelope during the week or month, or a cash account is also kept of the household expenses and personal account. Any division like the following may be made with the envelopes : 444 HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 45 Suppose a family consisting of a man and wife live in a steam-heated flat and have an income of $30 a week. The following divisions might be made each week: Rent $7.00 Household expenses 7.00 Fuel and light i.oo Man's personal allowance and expenses, including lunches and car fares 5.00 Madam's personal allowance 4.00 Extras and emergencies, including dentist, doctor, etc 2.00 Church and charities i.oo Insurance and savings bank 3.00 $30.00 For amusements there may be a separate envelope, or, as there are four months in which there will be five payments to the envelope, these extra four pay- ments may be used for amusements in connection with household expenses. A system like this has the advantage of keeping always before one just what is at hand to draw from. The leading disadvantages over other methods is its cumbrousness. It involves the keeping of a considerable amount of money on hand and also presents a great temptation to borrow from one envelope to another for making change, etc., which is likely to lead to confusion of accounts. 445 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Journal If the records for the envelopes were kept on cards, these might be filed in a card index for comparison and permanent reference as explained later. On the whole, a system by which the accounts are finally entered in books intended for that purpose proves most satisfactory. Such books may be pro- cured already ruled for entries, or a blank book can easily be ruled as desired. For a complete record the same books are useful as for other accountants a journal, ledger and balance sheet. The journal and ledger may well be combined in one book, as will be explained in connection with Table III. The household account records exchanges whereby the housewife buys the goods or services which her household needs, giving in exchange of her means. The simplest statement of such exchanges is made in a journal. A single page is used to enter both receipts and expenses. Thus : TABLE I 1904. Received. Paid. Jan. 1 Cash in hand $20 00 2 Washing Grocer $1.50 8 00 3 Coal 14.00 Flour. 4 75 5 Salary 50 00 Car fares .50 < Cleaning . 1 25 8 Eggs 1 10 Washing 1 50 10 Potatoes 1.70 $70.00 34.30 $34.30 " Balance on hand $35.70 446 HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 47 If purchases are itemized elsewhere for reference, such an account as this may contain sufficient data. It is possible to itemize more fully in this journal record if desired, as is illustrated in Table II. TABLE II 1903. Cr. Dr. Daily Totals. Feb. 1 2 By balance brought forward . . . To washing $75.70 $1 50 3 2 tons coal at $7 per ton 3 bu. potatoes at 80c. per bu 14.00 2 40 $15.50 5 doz. eggs at 22c. per doz 1 10 3.50 5 cleaning one day. 1 25 rent for January 8 Ibs. beef at 14c. per Ib 15 00 1 12 17 37 8 washing 1.50 1.50 10 Bv salary . . 50 00 " To car fares. .60 .60 Totals . . . $125.70 $38 47 (Balance. $87.23.) In the second table it will be noted that the terms usually employed in bookkeeping are introduced. These are easily understood. The term "By" intro- duces all terms belonging to the credit or receipt column; the "To," items of the debit or expense col- umn. The abbreviation "Cr." for credit heads the column of receipts, indicating that the house account has that much more to its credit, while the "Dr." abbreviation for debit shows to what extent the house has become indebted or has placed itself under obliga- tion for benefits received. Table II also includes a column for daily totals, which carries the account a step further in efficiency. In the final footing up of the columns these totals are Terms Daily Totals 447 Use of Ledger Credit Accounts 48 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT a convenience, since it is always easier to add a short list of large figures than a long column of small items. It is sometimes helpful also to be able to refer to the entire day's expenditures. As will be readily seen, the details of expenditures, when entered as above in the journal, are not easily referred to. One could at any time make a summary of any division which would show the amount spent for any one class of purchases, as clothes, rent or food. As a matter of fact, few seem to make such reviews when the accounts are kept in this way, finding it a seemingly endless task to assort the different items after they have become so thoroughly confused as they do in the journal account. In this way the great- est benefit of an account is lost. Their highest value is in one's being able to bring each set of expenses together, so that comparison of different divisions may be made, and a proper proportion maintained. It is far better to transfer the details of an account to a second book, called a ledger, which may for conven- ience be divided into sections, each devoted to its par- ticular class of items. The number of credit accounts should be limited to as few as possible, usually to grocer, butcher and doc- tor. Frequent settlement of such accounts should be made. The family physician has too frequent occa- sion to comment upon the unbusiness-like way that family bills are allowed to accumulate from year to year without attention. If a physician is tardy on his 448 HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 49 side and does not present bills promptly he is usually agreeably surprised, to have it called for, as it should be. The most complete and concise way of recording the combin facts to be preserved is to be found in the combination and 8 " 1 of journal and ledger, such as is illustrated in Table Led er III. This will prove in the end to be one of the most convenient, suggestive and helpful arrangements yet devised. Opposite pages of an account book may be used, the left-hand page for the journal record, the right-hand for the ledger. The ledger items are classified under a few typical heads and the amounts expended for each are entered apart from the whole. This tenders it very easy at any time to consult any one division, where all the record is clearly before one. The divisions used correspond to those suggested in the discussion of Division of Household Expenditures, page 21. These are optional both in character and number, but will in the main prove to be excellent general heads. Others may suggest themselves as desirable for an individual family. Multiolication of details must be avoided as far as possible, to avoid confusion. Particulars as to prices paid may well be left to the pass books or bills of butcher or grocer, or in a separate memorandum book. 449 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT TABLE III Date of Receipts and Expenditure. Receipts. Expenses. Sum. Daily Total. i o h Car Fares and Rent. [rS 1 Operating | g j Expenses. Clothing. 8 3 fe & a w Sources Sums. 1905. Jan.l " 2 " 3 " 4 " 5 " 8 Cash in hand. $90.00 Flour Dress Ma- terial. Meat ....;; Coal and Oil $4.75 6.00 1 25 7.50 $19.50 $4.75 1.25 $6.00 Salary 150.00 Eggs Car Fares Washing.. 1.10 .20 1.00 2 30 1.10 20 1.00 Rent Car Fares. 35.00 .40 35.40 $35.00 .40 Groceries.. Meat 3 25 1.10 4 35 3 25 1.10 $6.00 1.00 Total. Church Collect'n. 1.00 1.00 $240.00 $62.55 $62.55 $11.45 $35.60 $8.50 $1.00 In carrying on weekly or monthly accounts with butcher, grocer or at dry goods stores various methods are employed for keeping a memorandum of the char- acter and size of purchases made. If slips are sent with the goods when delivered they should be pre- served on file, to be compared with the bill when ren- dered. Pass books are sometimes used. In that case the entries should be made in the presence of the pur- chaser, to avoid error or deception. Household accounts should be balanced at least every week. A daily verifying with cash on hand is 450 HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 51 easiest and saves time in the end. These daily bal- ances may be indicated in pencil as the aim is to prove the account to be correct, thus showing that no item has been omitted. Every month's accounts should be balanced on the last day of the month and a new page opened for a new account for the next month. The first item on the new page should read as in Table II, "By balance brought forward " One should set a time for the final balancing of Yearly accounts and opening a fresh record. This is usually done at the close of the calendar year, although another time might be more convenient, as the holiday season brings other extras demanding time. The facts to be preserved on a balance sheet are Balance available after this summary of the year's expenses is made. The purpose of a balance sheet is to preserve from year to year a statement of the final condition at the end of each year for helpful comparison. It may be that the income has not been sufficient to meet the de- mands upon it, when a deficit with appear. Or the in- come may be just enough to cover expenses, or there may be a balance of the credit side. A properly man- aged household will show a steadily increasing gain of this nature, provided no exceptional and unexpected bills arise such as result from long illness and the like. An example of a properly managed entry and a satisfactory showing is given in Table IV. Household Account Book, with division of income, 64 page, cloth bound, 50 cents, from the School. 451 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT TABLE IV Income for year 1902... Cr. $2,500 Dr. Expense for year $2,250 Balance in hand. ' 250 52,500 $2,500 The household accounts may be kept by means of the card index system, which is perhaps the best meth- od of keeping any and all sorts of records, such as addresses, invoices and 'miscellaneous memoranda. CARD INDEX BOXES. A small linen or pasteboard box containing a set of alphabetical guide cards and some two hundred ruled cards in sizes 5x3 or 6x4 inches may be pur- chased for from fifty cents to a dollar. These cards are ruled horizontally and perpendicularly as in a cash book, or come without the perpendicular rulings. Various systems may be used. The most concise and 452 HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 53 simple is invariably the best, and it may be so done as to make further entering in a book superfluous. One plan now being used is as follows : Under the letter C in the alphabetical index are three cards for \<905 JAN. CASH RECEIVED 1 Cash of? htffftf 51. 64 6 salary *^ eo.ao 16 From J.M?S.oo safe of books 14.00 23 Ma0ax/r?e A/ovJIrt/cte 7.50 FB. 153.14 6 Salary 80.00 20 Extra werk for Sterling 10.00 24^.14 CARD CASH ACCOUNT. cash, (i) an account of cash received, (2) an account of cash disbursed and (3) the cash balance. It may take a card for each month for Cash Received or not, depending upon the items. In the case cited the num- ber of cards used during the year for Cash Received was six, two months on each. Cash disbursed takes at least one card a month, possibly more if there are many classified accounts. The items on this card are the totals of items on single cards devoted to daily or less frequent purchases. That is, under the letter R, as indicated by the index at the Typical Method 453 54 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT right on the Cash Disbursed card, illustrated, is found the card "Rents" with record of rental payments, when, to whom, and how paid, if by check or cash. Market- ing includes both the grocer's and butcher's accounts, hence the index letters G and B. These are itemized A N. CASH DISBURSEP, ftent Urrtfer P. Gas MitK. M. Ltc. s. Carfare C. P. Market/w 1.70 2.&0 6.00 2LJA 3.3$ 8.00 1.25 64.36 CASH PAID CARD. Bank Account Car... n.w- Mn * 4 1 - 3 >~ 131 31 tftl r? BALANCE FORWARD. 11 f-/ 3. A L* 33, (Lu^L a V? S? THE TWO SIDES OP AN INTERLEAVED POCKET CHECK BOOK, FOUR CHECKS TO A LEAF. be more easily and safely transferred than in any other way, since they can be enclosed in letters, if necessary, and they avoid the danger of mistakes in "making change," or of loss of money. Since they may be made payable to a stated person only, if lost they are of little value to the finder. Even if lost after indorse- 465 66 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Vouchers as Receipts Comparing Vouchers with Stubs ment, the payment may be withheld by notifying the bank. A check eventually becomes all the receipt necessary in paying bills, thus saving any further trouble of receipted bills. If checks are used entirely in pay- ments, the vouchers constitute a comparatively com- plete household account in themselves, but this is rarely feasible, as employees find checks an inconven- ient form of payment, since they are often not iden- tified so that they can get them cashed ; besides, checks are 1 quite unknown to them, so that they are slow in appreciating them as money equivalent, and their hours are such as not to conform well with banking hours. The pass book is important as a record of the depositor's standing at the bank. That this record may be kept accurately, it is necessary to present the book with each deposit. The depositor is never at liberty to make entries in it herself; that can only be done by the receiving teller. The pass book should be presented when called for and should be balanced as often as once a month if a considerable business is done through the bank ; even if the pass book is lost, the money may still be drawn out at will. Returned vouchers should always be compared care- fully with their stubs. Should there be any discrep- ancy between the balance as given by the bank and that shown in the check book, one should determine whether this corresponds exactly with the amounts of any checks issued, but not returned. 466 THE BANK ACCOUNT 67 Neither check nor pass book need affect in any way the household account book, except as they are made to be valuable aids. They form a very convenient department of the cash drawer, the cash in hand and cash balance in the bank together making up the sum total on hand. In some cases if a bank account is properly kept it may serve as a fairly complete system of book- A CHECK WITH STUB ATTACHED. keeping in itself. In such a system it is necessary to deposit all money received, making careful record on the blank sheets of the check book of the date, amount, source, etc. Then all bills possible should be paid by check. The vouchers are a receipt in themselves. These returned checks, with the receipted bills, filed in an ordinary 25-cent bill file, give a safeguard against paying the same bill twice. All bills should, of course, be checked up before being paid. The stubs of the check book show for what the money was spent so much for groceries, so much for the butcher, for gas, milk, rent, dress goods, etc. When cash is Bank Account Book- keeping 467 68 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Better than None necessary, as in paying employees or small incidentals, this can be drawn from the bank, or in some cases obtained from an obliging tradesman, who will exchange cash for checks. Memorandum should be made on the stub as to how the cash drawn is expend- ed, or, much better, a petty cash account can be kept in a book or on cards. At stated periods a summary may be made from the stubs and from the receipted bills as to how the money has been expended. This system is not to be recommended for those who should look after the pennies carefully. The inci- dentals will Jbe found to foot up to a surprising amount and it is always better to pay cash for gro- ceries, meat, etc. However, such a system is better than none, and as it is practically automatic, it can be followed throughout the year with very little effort. The poorest system, kept accurately from year to year, is better than the most perfect system kept only inter- mittently. in a family which is properly organized financially there is a definite idea as to how the income shall be divided. A certain proportion is allowed for rent, food, saving, etc., as already indicated. Then each member of the family should have a personal allow- ance, to include definite expenses, of which a personal account is kept. As soon as a child is old enough to trust with 5 or 10 cents of its own he should be given such allowance regularly and taught how to spend as well as to keep account of expenditure. Only by experience can one learn how to spend wisely. 468 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT PART I Read Carefully* Place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. Use a lig-ht grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. Leave space between an- swers. Read the lesson paper a number of times before answering 1 the questions. Answer fully. 1. What do you understand by the terms production and consumption in economics ? 2. Compare their relative importance in Home Eco- nomics at the present time. 3. What is true economy? 4. What do you consider valid reasons for main- taining individual homes ? 5. (a) What do you understand by the term Stand- ard of Life? (b) How are you conscious of such a guide in your own life? Have you been conscious of your standard changing from time to time ? 6. What value do you see in a Division of Income along some such lines as are indicated in the text? 7. Comment upon the examples of both Typical and Ideal Budgets in the light of your own expe- rience. 469 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 8. What do you consider a desirable division of a salary of $1,500 a year, the family, occupation and location to be chosen as you please ? Indi- cate clearly and fully both conditions and divi- sions. 9. Estimate as nearly as possible the division of the income in your own household and criticise. 10. Why are household accounts essential ? 11. How many housekeepers of your acquaintance keep careful household accounts? Do you dis- cover any indications of greater success be- cause of it when compared with those who do not? 12. What system of account keeping do you find most usable? Give details. 13. Explain "Balancing an Account." 14. What is meant by "Indorsing a check?" Illus- trate and explain value. 15. (a) What are stubs? How valuable? (b) What are vouchers? 1 6. In what lines of expenditure does there seem to be especial lack of thrift at the present time? Suggest causes and corrections. 17. What do you consider the chief cause of the in- creased distaste for housekeeping among women and of the tendency to give up indi- vidual homes in favor of apartments? How do you regard the change ? 470 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 1 8. To what extent have any subjects which you studied during your school life been directly and practically helpful to you in your home- making experience? 19. Is there any additional training or subject which it seems to you might be profitably added to the curricula of our schools or colleges for young women? 20. Have you gained any new or helpful suggestions for the more successful management of your home as a result of this study? If so, what? 21. What additional suggestions can you make on any of the topics taken up in this paper as a result of your experience or study ? 22. Ask two or more questions on the subjects con- sidered in this lesson. Note. After completing the test sign your full name. 471 MY SYMPHONY live content with small means CJ to seek elegance rather than luxury, and refinement rather than fash- ion If to be worthy not respedable flf to be wealthy, not rich I to study hard, think quietly, talk gently, ad: frankly jjf to listen to the Stars and birds, babes and sages, with open heart If to bear all cheerfully If to do all bravely, await occasions, hurry never IJ in a word, to let the spiritual unbidden and unconscious, grow up through the common Iff this is to be my symphony. William Ellery Channing 472 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT PART i;i ORGANIZATION AND DIVISION OF LABOR Few things in life are more pathetic than a house- order hold in which no organization exists, no systematic direction of activities, no appreciation of Heaven's first law, order. The haphazard, aimless living in such homes leaves an unmistakable stamp upon the inmates*. Without knowing it, the housewife in such a home suffers infinitely more friction, loss of time, strength and money than it would cost her to keep her house- keeping better in hand. To have sufficient system and organization so that what one knows (i) what is to be done, (2) who is to who^ do it, and (3) when is it to be done, is to have the chief requisites for the successful working out of ideals, coupled with ease and comfort of mind. Apply- ing this knowledge each day, one may utilize whatever time is at her disposal for other enjoyments, conscious that she is not thereby neglecting what should ever constitute her first duty the care of her home and family. It makes little difference whether it be the mother of several boys with limited means at her command or the woman who can afford to hire sev- eral helpers ; there is keen pleasure and satisfaction for 71 473 Requisites Brain Power Knowledge Health 72 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT all in work so carefully divided that each has the gratification of knowing the importance of his portion and feels a commendable pride in his own contribution toward the whole. This gratification may be made as real for the helpers as for the one for whom the work is performed. The joy of definite duties care- fully related to the whole, in contrast with the lifeless routine of ill-defined, meaningless details, appeals to the one as truly as to the other. Each thoughtful housekeeper finds her own best methods of accomplishing this organization. Some general suggestions as to necessary equipments may be an aid. Certain things are absolutely essential for success, such as the following: Brain Pozver with Mental Alertness and Activity. Method is impossible to one unwilling to contribute these. A Knowledge as to how to perform the details of housework in a superior manner. Unless one under- stands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain dish, or the length of time it ought to require to clean a room properly, it is quite impossible to direct it so that the requisite amount of time and strength shall be expended upon it, and no more. Health plays no small part. Much failure has poor physical conditions at the foundation. No truer criticism has been made of American women in gen- eral than that of a leader in the study of home prob- lems, when she affirms that too many are content to be 474 ORGANIZATION 73 "just able to be about." Home is the place where suffering resulting from this low standard is certain to be most keenly felt. Without excellent physical vitality, the cares of a house must, perforce, seem mountain-high. The exuberance of spirits of one full of life and energy is transmitted like an electric cur- rent to all who come in contact with it, and inspiration, each for his task, is the inevitable result. Very unfor- tunately, the reverse is equally true. Failure to possess the cheerfulness and optimism born of per- fect health creates conditions well suited to spread a contagion of a very depressing nature. Inability on the part of a leader to do his share is soon followed by a lessening of interest on the part of the helpers. A dropping off of punctual and hearty performance of duties results. Self-control is another necessity. Ability to think coolly and calmly, even under pressure, and to plan carefully and intelligently at all times, goes a long way in directing others. This characteristic is too often thought to be entirely a matter of temperament, beyond individual control. It is a great mistake. In- dividuals do differ in a marked degree, it is true, in the natural possession of it; nevertheless with good normal conditions of health, especially of "nerves," that bane of woman's existence, this virtue is as possi- ble of attainment as any other and well worth a strug- gle to secure. A large Sympathy, which appreciates the difficulties Sympathy 475 74 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Forethought Routine Written Notes encountered in doing the work, proves a priceless aid to the successful superintendent. Forethought is an important requisite. One must have in mind a broad survey of the work to be ac- complished. The outline of at least a week at a time should be clearly defined to oneself, each day being assigned its special work in addition to a regular rou- tine preserved from week to week. In this scheme all work such as washing, ironing, sweeping, cleaning and the like will find a place, if these are all done in the home. The routine should not be infringed upon, unless extraordinary emergencies arise. A system broken is hard to restore, and something is sure to be crowded out, if postponed. Each day's work should be so planned that the menu will be given to the cook, it one is employed, at least the day before, and market- ing will be attended to, so as to secure early and prompt delivery next morning. A careful mental, or better, written note should be made of all details liable to escape notice at the proper time. This avoids a con- fusion in the morning of being needed in several places at once, while the machinery will not be at a stand- still, waiting to be set in motion again. It avoids waste of time at a very valuable part of the day. The early hours count for much in starting the work so that tiring haste and over-pressure may be prevented later. If helpers know, when they arise, what the day's work is to include, they can plan to far greater advantage, saving time and strength. Written orders are a great help here. 476 ORGANIZATION 75 Adaptability of means to ends is a thing that the would-be organizer may well study in successful busi- ness men. A business man's office is so arranged that it is to the highest degree labor and time-saving. It is compact, orderly, simple, with nothing unnecessary rilling space. Every thing is at hand and adapted to make his work swift and easy. The successful work- man's tools are good in quality, in perfect order, and so arranged that every motion counts. He knows that it is economy to have them so. How many of our kitchens would stand the test satisfactorily in these particulars? Most kitchens, pantries and laundries are so arranged that there is a prodigal waste of time and strength in passing from one thing to another. One should see to it that the cooking table is not on the side of the kitchen opposite the pantry of supplies or cooking utensils, and both as far as possible from the stove. A little trouble and perhaps no expense will often better conditions. It would seem far more ideal a condition than has yet been reached were it possible to give certain fixed standards for the division of the work of a house so that helpers going from one to another would find practically the same duties expected of them. To at- tempt such outline, would be too hazardous to under- take. Were housewives who employ, asked to define the duties of "second girl," "nursery maid," or even of laundress or cook, hardly two would be found to agree, so individual has been the assignment according to the particular needs of each household. One ex- 477 Diversity of Requirement Study the Only Solution The Right to Servants ;6 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT pects assistance in one line of work, another in another. In one house the housewife rarely appears, gives no assistance and maintains the most formal relations with those employed. In another she prefers to direct minutely and to assist in the performance of portions of the work, attempting at the same time to make her helpers feel a home-like enjoyment of what she is able to provide them. Such diversity renders it im- possible to arrive at any general plan or division for each helper which shall be adapted to meet the needs of all who employ. Even in homes where several are employed some- thing of the same irregularity is found. A "second girl" at one place is expected to look after the door- bell, wait on table and do nursery work. Perhaps with her first change of place she is asked to assist the cook by preparing vegetables and does laundry work. The best guide at present is a patient, thoughtful study of the problems of one's own house until as equitable and consistent division is attained as can be made, meanwhile praying for speedy release from a condition so unsystematic and chaotic as that of the present time, and resolutely setting one's face toward the ultimate solution of some, at least, of the diffi- culties through better adaptation of household manage- ment to the demands of the age. A woman has no right to a servant until she knows the value of time and strength in relation to the work to be done. She cannot understand her servant's prob- lems until she understands a servant's duties. 478 DOMESTIC SERVICE Even the most fortunate housekeeper recognizes in the present situation of domestic service a state of affairs sadly chaotic, perplexing and deplorable. Merely to cry out against it is futile and would be but adding to an already long list of complaints. The following pages are intended rather as an Indicator of some indisputable facts, to be recognized and dealt with by would-be successful employers. Domestic service in the United States has passed through great changes in the last fifty years. Condi- tions, in some respects, were never like those in any .other country. Until within a few years in New Eng- land and the Northwest whatever assistance was needed in performing the work of the household beyond that rendered by the members of the family was secured by employing a neighbor's wife or daughter, who shared in all particulars the interests and privi- leges of the family in which she was employed. She was recognized in every way as an equal, sitting at the family table, sharing the common sitting room, often marrying into the family. While this continues to be true to a slight extent in rural districts to-day, there has been, generally speaking, an entire change, the present being a period of transition and reconstruction. The two factors which have had the greatest influence upon the domestic situation are immigration and the changes in the industrial system. 77 Changes 479 Influence of Immigration Rural Supply Industrial Changes 78 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT The influence of immigration upon domestic service has been more or less similar to its influence upon occupations for men. As the unskilled labor of the ignorant immigrant has entered into competition with the labor of the more skilled and intelligent native workers the native employes have progressed, pushing up and out into lines of work which have been deemed higher, more lucrative, pleasanter. This has happened in domestic service until very few native Americans can be secured for housework at the present time. Rural districts have suffered a surprising falling off in supply due to this change, as the immigrants tend to congregate in the large cities, especially those who come to us from the countries of the principal supply of domestics Ireland, Germany, Sweden, Canada and Newfoundland and the country girl has learned to seek the city also. Manufacturing industries have a large influence in determining the number of women engaged in domestic service in any city or community, as they seem to prove more attractive than housework at the present time. Whenever there is competition with other kinds of employment housework is inevitably the lesser attrac- tion. It is done, if at all, only when there is no other alternative; a last resort rather than a choice. It is not surprising, in the light of these facts, that the kind of service rendered by those who are engaged in it is not as satisfactory as it should be and that the stand- ards in the service are very low, with little apparent 480 DOMESTIC SERVICE 79 spirit of emulation or progress. Let us consider the leading elements in the problem from the point of view of both employer and employee, seeking to ascertain the real and alleged causes of this marked preference on the part of employees, and if there are any remedies which may be applied to the immediate relief of the situation. If we turn to consider, first, the advantages of Advantages domestic service over other forms of labor open to service 68 * women of the class thus employed, there are several decidedly advantageous conditions peculiar to the work. The conditions for preserving good health are superior to those in almost any other occupation. The work is normal, with greater variety, better provision * of light and pure air and more consideration in rase of temporary illness. Steady employment is afforded in work for the most part congenial to those who have any understanding of it. In spite of much said to the contrary concerning irregularity of hours, there is less rigid confinement than in most occupations. It affords more home life than other kinds of work, Home although this is in the home of the employer and is not considered as home life by the employee. The degree in which the employee is allowed or made to feel this differs greatly, as all know, with employers and, to a certain extent, the number of employees. That there is far less difficulty where there are many em- ployees is shown in the fact that the majority of state institutions have no difficulty in obtaining help of all 481 8o HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT kinds. Even insane asylums, where the work is very hard, can actually make a choice of applicants for housework instead of having to seek for them. Even tinder the worst circumstances a certain sense of pro- tection and comfort is offered in connection with the work, and at its best the comforts and positive luxuries which surround the maids far exceeds those they could have in their own homes. In spite of these important advantages, the work is most universally unpopular. All are familiar with the reasons offered for this. Irregularity of hours is a point frequently urged. It is true that the hours of labor are so loosely defined in most households that employees have little sense of having completed the work of the day. This is true to some extent in well- regulated households on account of the nature of the work. Lack of system and care in this respect too often unduly increases the irregularity and makes what might be a reasonable amount of work unreasonably heavy. It is also true that the employee, although nominally in the family, is in no sense a part of it. This is a position infinitely lonelier than to be outside it alto- gether. Very few employes feel free to receive or entertain personal friends in a manner natural or pleasant to them, nor are they expected to do so. Attempts to secure personal improvement or pleasure are perhaps ridiculed. This is probably not inten- tional on the part of the employer, but seems to be the 482 DOMESTIC SERVICE 81 result of failure to appreciate the needs of the employees or to provide suitably for meeting them. Opportunities for promotion and advancement, which play a very important part in stimulating to effort in other employments, are almost wholly lacking in the present methods of conducting domestic service. The most that can be hoped for through a change is an easier place, a slight increase in wages, a pleasanter employer or some trival gain. The w r ork is so ungraded that the unskilled, inefficient worker receives practically the same wages as the skilled and capable. Disparity in wages is sometimes offered as a reason for the choice of other work, but this is readily proved to. be invalid. A comparison with the pay in any other form of employment would be favorable for the wages of the domestic employee at the present time. Wages differ greatly in different sections, vet they bear sufficiently close relation to other expenses so that general comparisons may be made. Miss Salmon in her admirable work on Domestic Service makes the comparison between the average wages received by the domestic employee and the school teacher. In this she clearly shows that, considering the fewer demands made upon the domestic employee in maintaining her position in contrast with those made upon a teacher, and also the many aids and comforts which are not easily measured in full money values, such as board, lodging, laundry and the like, the average wages of the domestic employee is higher by a generous margin. Wagec 483 Social Stigma Employer's Standpoint 82 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT The average salary of women teachers is $545 a year ; $260 must be deducted for board and lodp-inp- and $25 for laundry. There is left $260 with which she must meet such necessary expenses as clothing, traveling, social obligations and working capital, as books, etc. If one considers in addition, as is certainly legitimate, the necessary outlay for training in the one case, in contrast with the low requirements in the other, it becomes very apparent that one must look elsewhere for an explanation of the great popularity of the one form of service and the unpopularity of the other. There remains a final objection, which is in reality first in importance and which has more to do with keeping desirable helpers from choosing this kind of employment than any other. It is the reason invariably, given first by those who express their feeling frankly and unreservedly. This is the social disadvantage experienced by those who engage in such service. This stigma is subtle, but very real in its resultant evils. It takes its rise in the false attitude of many employers toward housework, and the utterly false idea of what equality in this free American country really means by those whose limitations of ignorance or opportunity have led them to take a wrong view of the entire matter. When we turn to the employer's point of view there is much to be said considering: the unsatisfactory situa- tion. Taking the present-day employee into the home is attempting to introduce into the life there one who is of different nationality and who has little in common 484 DOMESTIC SERVICE 83 with the other members of the family from any point of view. Inheritance, former environment and experi- ences could hardly be more unlike in the majority of cases. There can be little expectation of accomplish- ing or even approximating perfect assimilation. As there is no opportunity, in the majority of house- holds, to rise in this employment, the desire for change or betterment finds lively expression and diversion through new places. As a result the employer is put to her wit's end to cope with this tendency, and is often exasperated, and rightly, by her neighbor, who resorts to illegitimate means of influence by over- paying, and who ignores the fact that she is thereby only multiplying the difficulties. Much selfishness is revealed in the methods employed bv harassed employ- ers, who are often placed in so hard a position that it becomes a supreme test of character to decide what to do to secure and keep the needed help. The majority of employees are astonishingly oblivious to real present opportunities, so eagerly do they grasp after vague advantages through change. As a result, the average length of service in one place is less than one and a half years in cities, and in towns where the desire to go to the cities is strong it is still shorter. The ignorance of the average employee of the present time is profound and very exasperating, the more difficult to cope with because of the assumed intelligence in most cases. The perplexities and trials of being forced to employ untrained helpers for work Irresponsi- bility Ignorance 485 Summary Time Off 84 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT which requires skilled labor can hardly be exagger- ated. That more of this crudeness is to be found in this line of work than in any other is indisputable. It is accounted for partly in the present failure to show appreciation of good work or to properly reward it. This is one of the greatest menaces to satisfactory service. These, then, are the objections to household service: It provides no real social life; it takes the worker from her own home and places her where, however comfortable she may be, she is an alien, often losing caste among her friends, hence having no social place ; it offers no incentive to rise, no spur to ambition, except that of personal pride or desire to please, and this, if not lacking in the first place, may cease, because there is no real competition. Also, it should be stated that all places are not com- fortable ; a cold, cheerless, illy furnished room cannot seem a rest or refuge after a hard day's work. Work over a hot stove, however neatly done, certainly does seem to demand for the person engaged in it proper hot water bathing facilities. Fresh air is an essential to happy, healthy living. One afternoon weekly cannot enable the maid to store away sufficient fresh air to keep her through the fol- lowing six days. Simply from the selfish standpoint, that of getting the best work from the machine, reasonable fore- thought should be given, not only for the comfort, but 486 DOMESTIC SERVICE 85 for the personal freedom of the employee. This means that if the best work is expected from the worker an endeavor should be made to keep her in the best physical condition for that work. When the prescribed work is finished it is normal for anyone to desire to get out and away from the place in which she has been working. If a maid's sitting room were or could be a part of every house there would not be the temptation to seek the street or a friend's kitchen for rest and recreation. This sitting room is often an entire impossibility ; it is frequently considered in that light because it entails a sacrifice of space or some expense. There is far too frequently an utter disregard of the actual condition of what may be termed the rolling stock of this business. It is economy to keep the machine well oiled, well repaired and well housed. Pleasant surroundings do much to lighten labor and make it attractive, whatever kind of work it may be. This 'fact large manufacturers and merchants have recognized and utilized to their great advantage. The housekeeper may learn the same lesson, and a maids' sitting room may become the rule rather than the exception. Reasonable forethought entails a recognition of the fact that as there are now few standards of work or methods of doing it, so that the new cook or maid, no matter how well recommended or even equipped, has no idea of how you desire your work done or how you wish it systematized. Proper and sufficient directions Pleasant Surroundings Standards of Work 487 86 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Written Directions Daily Outlines should be given and proper care that they should not be presented in a confused manner all at once. Perhaps they can be given best in writing, a type- written sheet placed in the kitchen or some suitable place and used for reference. To this can be attached the special direction for the following day each night or afternoon, and the chances are this plan will aid very materially in the smooth running of the ma- chinery of the household. Such a plan need not be in too great detail, unless the maid be very untrained. Miss Parloa suggests such a daily outline in her work on Home Economics, as follows : 1. Make the fires, air the dining room and hall. 2. Prepare the breakfast and set the table. 3. Put the bedrooms to air while the family is at breakfast. 4. Remove the breakfast dishes ; put away the food. Sort the dishes and put to soak all dishes and utensils that have had food in them which is liable to stick. 5. Put dining room and sitting room in order, airing them well. 6. Wash dishes, put kitchen and pantries in order. Prepare dishes that require slow cooking and put them to cook. 7. Make beds and put sleeping rooms and bathroom in order. 8. Trim lamps. 9. Dust halls and stairs ; sweep piazzas. This plan is for a maid of all work, and naturally would be varied in many households, but indicates the 488 DOMESTIC SERVICE 87 idea. The more definite the work can be made, the better. Personal freedom for the maid means about what Personal it does for the mistress ; freedom to choose and have Freedom her own friends, to have them call and visit with her; to receive them without unnecessary and seemingly impertinent interruption or surveillance; freedom to come and go within reasonable limits without asking permission or giving explanation each time. In short, it is an application of the Golden Rule, and means such treatment as will insure the respect, if not the liking, of employee for the employer. This may seem revolutionary, actually impossible to many, and prob- ably is where there is a succession of unknown, un- tried, unreferenced maids passing through the kitchen every four to six weeks. This plan, however, has been tried with success in many places. In a small city in Northern New York, where the A Case majority of people are in the maelstrom of the domestic situation, there is a family that secures help readily and whose maids remain with them until a proper rea- son, such as marrying, causes a change. The em- ployer in this case considers that she employs the maids to do the work, not simply to be in the house. When the work is finished the maids are at liberty. If two are in the house, one is expected to be ready to answer the bell ; if one only is employed, there never has been trouble or even necessity of making any rule about this mooted point. This housekeeper has argued that 489 88 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT in general she would prefer to answer her own door bell and have the real work cheerfully, faithfully and well done, and that to get out of doors undoubtedly would be better for maid and work than staying in would be. This mistress has provided her maids with suitable reading matter for their leisure time, and shows that she is interested in the outside life of the girls without unduly interfering with it. In conse- quence she has good service, the maids are well and happy, and so is she, for friction is almost unknown in the running machinery of that home. Perhaps this should be noted, that in general the mistress does not have to answer the door bell, and many little thought- ful services are performed for her not nominated in the bond. The real question is not the "reason for the dearth cf good household workers, but what suggestions may be made to assist the housewife in this trying situation. In its ultimate effects the domestic situation of to-day will probably bring about a reorganization of the home. This is to be hoped and desired, if that t~c organization means raising the work of the home to its proper position as a recognized business affair, whose director is required to have a krjowlccg? and skill somewhat commensurate with the issues at stake, the interests involved. It is absolutely necessary that the director of the home should know and be trained for her business if she is to demand and obtain skill and training in those she directs. The recognition of this need is the first great step toward reform. 490 DOMESTIC SERVICE 9 The second is the acknowledgment of the fact that in general the housekeeping of to-day is run on an antiquated plan, one not even fulfilling the needs of an earlier generation and entirely inadequate to cope w r ith the tendencies of to-day. The plan has to be changed. No progress will be made if women spend their time in bewailing the present condition only ; we must put our wits to work to better it. These, then, are suggestions : First, that there should be more universal effort made, particularly in communities where clubs discuss these things, to secure certain just standards of work to be done for a certain just wage. The work of each household should not vary between unknown limits and the wages still be the same in each. Co-operation in establishing standards of work is much needed. Why should the cook who prepares three elaborate meals daily for a family of six adults, who often entertain, be paid the same wages as the cook next door, who prepares simple meals for three people who live most quietly and rarely have a guest? Workers in factories and stores at least are governed by the same number of hours. Just as the life, num- bers and demands of different families vary, so does the work vary. A standard of wage cannot be estab- lished without a corresponding standard of work. Secondly, that housekeepers should bring themselves to a willingness to adopt the hour plan, the worker coming in, and work being done and paid for by the Establish Standards Work by the Hour 491 Expense of the Hour Flan An Actual Experience 90 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT hour according to kind or skill involved in accom- plishing it. The immediate objections to this plan are, first, its expense, and then the seeming strain upon the house- keeper, who must either piece out or piece together this patchwork scheme. Then arises the question: "Where shall we get the workers ?" for in many places this is a problem. As to expense, in only a few cases has it been com- pared, hence there is a lack of sufficient data. In general it may be computed in this way: Take first into account the wages of the maid or maids, add board and what may be called room rent, including light, etc., used. One family living in the West has carefully kept account of the expenses with and with- out a maid and have concluded that in general a maid of all work costs $5 a week above her wages. This is higher than Mrs. Abel's estimates, which were based on the actual experience of a family of seven. The family lived in a small town in New York, and consisted of five men and boys and two women. These estimates are the comparison of two successive sum- mers. In both cases the laundry was done outside, hence has no place in the comparison. First Summer. Wages of maid per week $3oo Board per week 2.50 Rent of bedroom 50 $6.00 492 DOMESTIC SERVICE gi The exact amount of room rent could be known, as the house was too small for the maid and a room was rented outside for her. Second Summer. (Work done by the hour.) Dishwashing, two and a half hours for six days (fifteen hours) $1.50 Cleaning ( 15 hours) 1.50 Dinner service, three hours for six days (eigh- teen hours) 1. 80 Sunday dinners at hotel, seven, at 25 cents (less estimated cost of food material) 88 $5.68 From these and other data it might be determined that in general a maid costs her wages ; that is, if paid $5.00 a week, the conditions are such that the probable cost for her board and lodging is $5.00 also ; if paid $3.00, it cost another like amount for her "keep." In Chicago so many of the very good apartment houses are constructed without accommodation for maids that the hour plan is popular. The general con- census of opinion is that the hour plan is less, not more, expensive, and has advantages not reckoned in dollars and cents. By those who have tried it the advantages of the hour system are stated to be that the work is in general better and more rapidly done; there is not such waste of material, and that the free- dom from the responsibility and presence of an actual 493 Where to Obtain Workers Natural Progress 92 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT alien in the house, especially in an apartment, is incal- culable. The question of where to get these workers remains to be solved. That is a very individual one, belonging to the conditions of each city or town. As club women take this up, bureaus such as the Household Aids Company of Boston will be established, and even now from guilds and industrial unions, often from bureaus of charity, such workers are easily obtainable. One young woman in Brooklyn, after desperate times with incompetent help, advertised for a married woman with children who could leave her home for a certain number of hours a day. She obtained a refined woman in reduced circumstances, untrained for any definite work, whose experience made her of the great- est assistance. She goes to the house for a stated number of hours each day to care for the babies, while the mother performs her social duties. This mother does her own cooking, having the dishwashing done by the hour. The expense is lessened, her home is charming, she feels she is leaving the children in safe, "grammatical," understanding hands, and she has leisure for profit and pleasure, for the higher life, which she says she never had in the old plan, even with a smaller family. We must realize that natural, industrial progress has taken one by one from the home the occupations formerly carried on there, until housekeeping no longer means the making of many things, but the proper expending of money for things already made. 494 DOMESTIC SERVICE 93 We should not resist this tendency, but recognize and fit into it. It must be remembered that the sanctity of the home is not preserved by the industries carried on there. To preserve one home at the expense of several others is neither economic nor ethical. When clubwomen talk about the sanctity of the home they should ask the question, ''Whose home ?" B Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel, who is a close student and a wise observer of economic conditions as they affect the home, says that the solution of present troubles must come in part from reducing the kinds of work done in the home. This is along the line of industrial progress as well as that of the least resist- ance in this case. The laundry is disappearing from the house, follow- ing soap and candle making. True, there are many more poor laundries than good ones, but that there are good ones, and that these have been run with a profit, proves there can and should be more. The establishment of laundries is one step, and a perfectly possible one. A well-educated Southern woman, after taking a course in household science at a Northern institution, started a laundry in a Northern city. The work was entirely done by hand and a fair price charged for it. She supervised the work and employed competent people to do it. It paid well in every sense for both owner and patrons. When cir- cumstances forced her to lay aside the work her customers were as homeless people ; they had no other Sanctity of the Home Establishment of Laundries 495 94 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Good Employment Agencies The Future place to go. What one woman has done other women can do, and it should be emphasized that this woman was well born, delicately brought up, educated and a Southerner, with the inevitable shrinking from labor outside that such a bringing up entails. She says that her patrons became her friends, that work she took up with shrinking became really delightful, simply because it was well done. Another step is the establishment of more properly run employment agencies. Too many cases are known of employment agencies that encourage their maids to change often, to the end that they may gain additional fees. Employment agencies where references are required and looked up, where the maid is actually investigated and known as well as the housekeeper, where honesty is considered not only the best but the only policy are not castles in Spain. They can be established, supported and run by women and women's clubs. Whatever solution the future may hold, employers are beginning to realize that it is not through greater individual indulgences, more equality or higher wages that the problems are to be solved. Employees do not ask to be admitted, to the family circle. Self- respecting helpers would not feel comfortable were this provision made, nor is it a practical way of removing the difficulty. What they desire as a class is, rather, the opportunity of independence which other forms of employment afford and which is missed in this a chance to perform their work and, apart from 496 DOMESTIC SERVICE 95 that, to live their own lives in their own way. However desirable any opening or advantage, the spirit of liberty demands that it be chosen rather than forced upon one. What domestic service is really claiming for itself is some adjustment whereby definite hours shall be secured, and, outside that, free choice of amusement, personal improvement, friendships life. This, when secured, will prove one of the most reasonable and satisfactory aids to the solution of difficulties of both employers and employees. The final adjustment to the same basis as all other indus- trial and business activities will be a work of time, no doubt, but it seems to be the inevitable goal. As employers and the world at larg^e erain and keep in mind a truer conception of the importance of house- hold employment in the economic world there will follow better practical results. As long as employers express scorn of these duties little can be hoped for in the way of "dignifying labor" in the home. The efficiency of the housework cannot be expected to rise above that of the mistress as manager. There is deep significance in the words of one who wrote : "To know the workman one must have been a workman himself, and, above all, remember it." The housekeeper must know the household affairs and respect them if she would have others do the same. There are some experiments being carried on at the present time that all should follow with interest. These go far to prove that the preceding statements are not without foundation. Notable among these is Definite Hours Industrial Basis Dignity of Labor 497 96 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT the attempt which has been made in Boston to create an attractive home center for helpers, from which they go each day for a definite number of hours for employ- ment in various homes which desire their services. The helpers are classified and graded, as already sug- gested, according to efficiency, the wages paid corre- sponding to the degree of skill attained. There is adequate stimulus to advancement, as instruction is given at the home center. The home life is natural and congenial, every attempt being made to enhance the wholesome pleasure to be derived from such a place. The rapidly increasing popularity of the experi- ment shows that no mistake has been made in the diagnosis of the employee's point of view. For the employer there is the difficulty of arranging the work to fit such a plan so that the desirable work shall be secured at a price not exceeding the expense of resi- dent help. This is a difficult thing to do, a thing not yet accomplished, but which the ingenuity of woman will yet solve. Without doubt it will mean the simpli- fying of life in some homes, but if this is wisely arranged it will be a gain rather *-han a loss. 498 BUYING SUPPLIES Women, as a usual thing, spend such small sums of money at a time in their purchases for the house, that they are apt to lose sight of the size of the total amount expended in a year. Not realizing the value of the ag- gregate it follows that they hesitate and study returns far more carefully and intelligently in investing one hundred dollars in any other way than in placing the same amount in household supplies. Those who real- ize the importance of economic buying follow cur- rent prices and buy when the market offers the best inducements. The difference in time expended in ex- ercising this care is not as great as is fancied. Watch- fulness and interest count chiefly. There are times of legitimate annual or clearance sales when real bar- gains may be secured. These should be watched for and taken advantage of in buying yearly supplies of things which may be safely stored. If the articles to be purchased are such as suffer from the competition of "style" one is especially enabled, with a slight sac- rifice of style to quality, to reap a rich harvest at the expense of the foolish of the world who must have the very latest fad at whatever cost. The extremes of fashion are folly economically, in that they make it impossible to realize nearly the value of money ex- pended. There is only a small range of supplies in which there is a marked style. Individual preference controls 97 Relative Importance Legitimate Bargains Buying in Quantity Storage 98 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT in the selection of most, so that when one has de- termined upon the most desirable brand, variety, etc., there are left but three things which must be weighed in deciding the amount to be bought. These are ( I ) room for storage, (2) ready money for the purchase, and (3) the perishable nature of the article. The economy of buying in quantity must, necessarily, de- pend to a large extent upon these points. When these can be satisfactorily met there is great advantage in buying in quantity. Thereby one has the advantage of wholesale prices or great reduction over retail prices on quantities not too large for a moderate-sized fam- ily to dispose of within desirable limits of time. The family that finds it necessary to buy its supply of coal by the fraction of a ton and flour by the pound, suffers great loss through the increased expense, pay- ing often very nearly twice as much as the same grade would cost in larger quantity, and with no gain since these products gain in value rather than lose, by stor- age. Buying in small quantities at retail means pay- ing a generous profit for grocer or messenger boy's wages in delivering the small amounts. Again, one suffers from having to look her supplies over fre- quently or has the annoyance of finding something missing when wanted. The changed conditions of modern life from those of our grandmothers affect our habits in regard to storing supplies. Now that a large number of homes are rented, each room counting and swelling the 500 BUYING SUPPLIES 90 monthly bill, it has naturally led to economy of space. The uncertainty of residence with some has its effect also, as the expense of moving is increased by quantity, and the danger of injury and breakage all have to be reckoned with. One great misfortune which results from these considerations is the inclination to turn to cheap grades which are more readily disposed of at such a time or cause less regret if injured. Thereby we are losing some of the refining influences of acquir- ing and possessing the best. This applies especially to furniture and utensils, which ought to be bought as though they were to last a lifetime. There is a happy medium between the huge chests Medium of linen in former time which held supplies not used for years, yellowing with age, and the modern ten- dency of hand-to-mouth provision, satisfying only the weekly demand. There should be always a small emergency store of linen. Additions can be too easily made to require that it be very large. In fact, since it may be added to, usually, any day, the principal gain is realized by being able to buy better at certain seasons, as in January, than others, and the same i eduction in price by buying in quantity may be real- ized in this as in groceries. Dish toweling by the roll at 133/2 cents instead of 15 cents a yard, sheeting by the web or piece at a similar reduction, etc., are illus- trations of the benefits to be derived through such methods of buying. An especial reason for buying table linens in January, in addition to any attractive ioo HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT prices which may be found at that time, is that the fresh supply of goods is in then and one may so secure a better selection. For storing linens a special chest or linen closet is very desirable and should be included in planning a house, but when not provided, an ordinary closet may be used, drawers, a trunk or a home-constructed box, any of which answers every purpose if well cared for. storage For storing groceries the requirements are a light, dry, cool room, as near the kitchen and pantries as possible. It should be supplied with lock and key, which the housekeeper or a trusted helper controls. Large quantities may so be put into it and smaller portions given out as needed for use. This is both an aid to economy (since the tendency is to use more liberally if there is a large amount at hand) and prevents such supplies as baking powder, tea, spices, etc., from losing in value through standing open. A year's supply is usually as large an amount as it is well to buy at a time. This is especially true of canned goods. These should be bought in the fall after the fresh supply is in market. By the dozen, or better yet, by the case of two dozen, canned goods may be secured at a reduction of from ten to twenty- five per cent. The same is true of the pack- ages of cereals, although for small families cereals cannot be used rapidly enough to buy in large quan- tity. It will be found to be well worth while for those of limited space to attempt to make space somewhere for some storage room. With a large number of 502 BUYING SUPPLIED 101 families that are not cramped for room it should be a matter of more consideration to utilize a portion for this purpose. It is only the very poor who have an excuse for being too limited in ready money for such advance purchasing. It is but thrifty to see to it that there is at least a small capital which may be used for such advantage. When once started it is a simple matter, since after that the woman of forethought will look ahead and plan so that the funds will be at hand as the supply-time comes around. Of course there is no economy in buying at a reduction a supply which is so rapidly perishable in nature as to cause a loss of enough to off-set, or more, the gain through getting in large amount. This is but a waste of time and energy as well as money. Vegetables are much cheaper by the bushel or barrel, and fruit, as oranges, by the box, but one must have a cold storage room to insure the safe keeping of either for any length of time. Even then there must be care in looking them over frequently to remove any that are decayed. For most families, therefore, it proves more satisfactory to buy perishable articles as needed. A great difficulty confronts the would-be-wise buyer to-day in the fact that it is hard to establish standards of quality without some sad experience. When the housewife manufactured her own soap she knew be- yond a question what constituted an excellent article. Through handling different kinds of cloth, in weaving Ready Money Perishable Supplies Quality 503 102 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT or sewing, standards were created in that direction. Ignorance of real value makes the thriving "bargain Remnants counters" possible with their "remnants" cut from the webs on the shelves and offered at a price equal or even in excess of that for which the same goods may be bought by the yard elsewhere in the same store. Shrewd, not over-scrupulous merchants are bound to take advantage where it is possible, and the ignorant, unsuspecting purchaser pays a dear price for his or her ignorance. utensils In buying utensils the maxim, "The best is the cheapest," is an excellent one to bear in mind. One who makes a trial of different grades has ample oppor- tunity to prove its truth. Cheap goods often increases the expense 100 per cent, while at no time does one secure anything of the satisfaction in use that is secured in the better class goods. Cheapness means, perforce, haste or flaw in manufacture. This results, naturally, in ill-shaped, defective ware. Durability seems to be a thing no longer estimated, so little does it enter into account in manufacture or purchase. No- where is the difference more marked than in kitchen utensils. Spoons with soldered or riveted handles, ready to part company with the bowls on the first real test of strength or heat, are poor economy. The same is true of the enamel ware which crackles and chips off with the first accidental heating or "sticking on" of food, after which it is unfit for use. So one might enumerate many illustrations of false economy of this 504 BUYING SUPPLIES 103 nature. It is the part of wisdom to pay a little more at the time and thus secure better wearing qualities and far greater satisfaction. The cheapest is rarely wise. On the other hand, a medium-priced article in many things has real worth to recommend it to one prac- tising close economy. In such purchases as bed or table linen and toweling, for example, the difference between a medium and high-priced grade may repre- sent the difference between hand work and machine, between embroidered or hemstitched articles and plainer. Since this is not a question of durability, a purchaser has a legitimate right to weigh the differ- ences in the light of her allowance and decide in favor of the plainer if it be wiser. It should, however, always be a decision based on an intelligent considera- tion of values. One should never be at a loss when detecting coarse, loosely woven and shoddy fabrics or other evidences of cheap work. Other differences she may be justified in weighing, never that. One may purchase most supplies either in a depart- ment store or in one devoted to a single or limited line of goods. There is, on the whole, a difference to be found both in quality and price of the stock in the two places. The grade of goods in the specialty store is usually better and the price somewhat higher. The department store has gained great popularity because of the convenience of purchasing everything in one place and because of competition in prices Medium Priced Articles Department and Specialty Stores 505 Classes of Supplies "Must Haves" and "May Haves" 104 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT which seem at sight to favor trading there. The careful buyer will frequently find the difference in price more than equalized in the quality of the pur- chase. This is especially noticeable in kitchen fur- nishings. The sharpness of the competition has tend- ed to lower prices in the specialty store as far as the quality of the wares will allow. Supplies may be classed as (i) furnishings or utensils which are subjected to wear and consequently must be replenished from time to time, as furniture, bedding, carpets, kitchen, laundry and dining-room furnishings; (2) such supplies as are consumed in one way or another and so must be replenished, as fuel, food, soap and the like, and (3) such miscel- laneous supplies as daily newspapers, magazines, plants, flowers, etc. In buying these supplies one may divide them into essentials or "must haves" and accessories or "may haves." The first division one must secure at once. It is well to leave the second list to be remodeled after one has lived in a house for a while. It is surprising to one who ha.s some experience like camp life to find how few the absolute essentials really are. Many accessories have. come to be looked upon as "must haves" through long use. The evi- dence of some utility in everything, together with refinement of taste in every selection, are the great essentials in giving a home the subtle charm and comfort which we covet. Furnishings need not be many in number nor elaborate in quality to satisfy 506 BUYING SUPPLIES 105 these requirements. The greater the simplicity the more satisfactory, usually. The following are lists of kitchen, laundry, dining- room and bed-room furnishings, with average prices. The amount of equipment required is determined by the size of the family and its demands. For two peo- pie of simple tastes the kitchen utensils may be quite limited and the dining-room furnishings few. The same things are required in bed-room fittings as for a large family, but not in such numbers. KITCHEN UTENSILS Range $30 00 and up Coal hod .75 Shovel, poker, lifter 50 Towel rack 25 Teakettle 1 .25 up 3 Stew pans, 1 quart to 8 quarts 75 to $3.50 Frying pan 60 \ip Double boiler 1.50 ' Broilers, fish, meat and toaster 90 Frying basket. 20 to .35 Muffin pan 50 up Colander 10 ' Coffeepot 1.25 " Tea pot : 75 " Chopping knife and bowl 75 Meat chopper 1 . 00 up Strainers 10 ' Bread pans, 2 or more 50 Breadboard 50 Meat board 50 Rolling pin 25 to 1 .00 Flour sieve 10 ' .25 Scoops for flour, sugar, meal, etc 10 " .50 Pans or basins, 2 or more 30 up Bowls, about five in assorted sizes 75 " Dishpans 10 " Drainer 10 ' Dishcloths 25 Floor and stove brushes Broom 50 Dustpan 25 Meat and bread knives 75 up Case knives and forks 90 Vegetable knives 20 Dripping pan 1 . 00 Egg beaters 2, Surprise and Dover 50 Lists 507 io6 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT KITCHEN UTENSILS (Continued) Graters 35 Measuring cups 25 Lemon squeezer '.'..'.' ' 10 Plates, granite 40 Skewers 25 Spoons .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.....'.'.'.'.'.' 1 . 00 t o 3 . 00 Bread box , .... 75 up Hand basin for sink '.30 Funnel '.'.'.'.'.'. JO Vegetable or pudding dishes, 2 or more 50 up Potato masher 25 " Garbage pail 75 " Refrigerator 15.00 Receptacles for flour, sugar, cereals, spices, condiments, molasses, etc. Chairs, stool, table. Prices The utensils on above list may be considered "must haves." The prices of the various things vary within quite wide limits, as will be seen. The housekeeper should know enough of the materials composing uten- sils to guide her in the choice of material and price. This she cannot know without some knowledge of the action of the ordinary acids and alkalis used in cooking and cleaning operations on tin, iron, porce- lain, agate, etc. To the list first given may be added many other things, many of which would be "must haves" in some kitchens. Estimate A fair estimate for fitting a kitchen with utensils given is from $35.00 to $40.00, including refrigerator, but not including range. $100.00 is not too large a sum to apportion to proper kitchen fittings if the range be included, and it is desired to begin with enough good utensils to make the work easy. 508 BUYING SUPPLIES Potato and Vegetable Press Salt Box- Meat Chopper Soap Savers, to utilize scraps. Slaw Cutter, knife adjustable to cut fine or coarse. Sink Strainer; keeps garbage from clogging sink and pipes. Household Scales SOME "MAY HAVES" IN KITCHEN UTENSILS. 509 io8 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT Tubs, 1 or 2 $3.00 soapstone 7 00 or $8 00 each Washboard 25 to 50 Wringer 2.75 " 4 50 Boiler 175" 300 Pails, 2 or more, " Fibrotta " 50 Baskets, lor 2 1. 25 to 250 Dipper , 15 Soap dishes 15 Clothes stick 10 Clothes line and reel for same 50 to 1 10 Clothes pins, 1 gross ... 25 up Skirt board 1.25 Bosom " .25 Whisk 10 Sad-irons, 3 at least 60 Iron stand or asbestos mat . . . 15 Holders 20 Clothes horse 75 Small vegetable or nail brush 10 Scrubbing brush 15 Ironing sheet 30 Blanket or felt 1 .00 up Watering pot 15 " Average Estimate 18.00 ADDITIONAL UTENSILS FOR SEPARATE LAUNDRY Stove . $8 00 to $25 00 Coal hod 25 " .75 Shovel, poker lifter 25 Basins, 2 50 Saucepan or kettle for starch 50 Strainer 10 Pans or tub for starch 30 Earthen bowls, 3 or more 30 Wooden or agate spoons, 2 30 Table or laundry settle 2.00 to 6.75 Case knife 15 Broom or floor brush 50 " 2.00 Small brush 50 Dustpan 25 Scrub brushes, 2 30 Chair 70 Total Estimate, liberal $40.00 " fair... 4. 00 to $5. 00 510 BUYING SUPPLIES 109 LAUNDRY SUPPLIES I soft, Soap, < hard, and ( sand. Borax 07 per Ib. Washing soda . . 03 Chloride of lime .10 Alum 07 Paraffin or Spermaceti 15 Beeswax (pure) 35 Gum Arabic 50 French ball blue or ultramarine 25 Ammonia (pure) 25 per qt. Alcohol .40 " Kerosine 09 to .15 per gal. Hydrochloric acid 10 " oz. Acetic acid 10 " Oxalic acid (crystals) 05 " Starch 10 " pkg. Salt Sandpaper Bags for boards, line and pins Bags for small articles in boiler Bags for lace curtains Cloths for covers " " scrubbing Clock Sewing materials Buttons Pins and cushion Scissors Twine Newspapers Thin paper Old sheets and flannel DINING ROOM FURNISHING Rug 9x12 ft Shades .. Table . . . $10 Chairs, common 1 arm, high 3 Sideboard 15, Serving table 4 Table linen, 3 cloths 4 doz. napkins 2 carving cloth s Tableware (Dinner set, or its equivalent 12 stock pattern) , semi-porcelain China 25 Glassware 2 Cutlery, knives, 1 doz. steel blades 3 Carving set 3 Silver-plated, quadruple knives per doz .. .. 3. forks " " 4. tablespoons " " 5 dessertspoons " " 4 teaspoons " " 3. Silence cloth 4.6 x 8 1 Average Estimate for small family, $75.00 to $150. 00 to $100. 00 up 90 per window. .00 to $50. 00 up. 75 " 10 00 00 " 15. CO 00 " :>U 00 00 " 30.00 9 00 10 00 2 00 .00 to 40.00 00 up 00 " .50 to 8.00 00 " 10.00 50 " 6 00 50 ' 6.00 .00 up 50 " 00 " .00 00 511 1 10 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT BED ROOM FURNISHING Matting .. $10 00 up Rugs 5.00 Shades and draperies (2 windows) 3 00 Enameled bed with spring 8 00 Mattress T^] sioo to $50.00 2 Pillows 5.00t p 5 Sheets 2 00 3 Pairs Pillow cases 50 4 Blankets 10.00 2 Counterpanes 3.00 Mattress cover 1 .00 Bureau 10 00 to 75.00 Washstand 400 2500 Table 1 . 75 loioo Rocker 2 00 up 2 Chairs . . 3 00 Couch 8 . 00 Toilet set 3.00 1 doz. Towels .75 4 Bath Towels 50 Average Estimate ... .$60.00 to $90.00 Floor Covering Stove Utensils KITCHEN FURNISHINGS In selecting kitchen furnishings it will be found that a linoleum covering for the floor will give the greatest satisfaction, preferably one which is entirely plain or with a pattern which extends all the way through. Next to linoleum, a hardwood floor. An oilcloth is unsatisfactory, unless it be, perhaps, the best quality, for a small family which will not give it hard wear. A painted floor is hard to care for and is, in many respects, least desirable. In selecting a stove a steel range is by far the most desirable, if possible. It is more expensive in first cost than a cast-iron stove, but this difference is more than offset by efficiency, economy of fuel and dura- bility. Galvanized iron is the most desirable material for such utensils as coal hod, garbage and ash cans and 512 KITCHEN FURNISHINGS in the like, being superior because of its light weight, durability and cleanliness. A nickeled teakettle with copper bottom is very sat- isfactory for general use, costing about $2.50. Alumi- num ware is increasing in favor. Its price alone limits its use. The price of a teakettle is from $2.25 up, but the aluminum teakettle wears a lifetime. Stransky ware is, next to aluminum, the most durable of any for cooking utensils. It is moderate in price, the teakettles being $1.75 to $2.25. Tin is very unde- sirable for almost all cooking utensils, as water and acids act upon the tin, forming unhealthful chemical compounds. For such uses as are allowable, one should buy block tin with rolled edge. The grade is readily seen by markings on the back. The cheapest is marked X, medium XX, .best XXX or XXXX. Those tins which have fewest crevices and seams are best. Sheet-iron bread tins with dull surface are excellent. Woodenware should be used as little as possible, as it is difficult to keep it sweet, dry and free from odors and insect life. Bread and meat boards and chopping trays are usually of wood. These should never be cheap in quality, as the wood of such is soft and not well seasoned, so that it cracks and peels easily. Wooden spoons should be those designated as the French holly. Glass or porcelain jars are excellent for spices and such articles as rice, tapioca, coffee, tea, etc. Materials Wooden Ware 513 112 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT A MOVABLE KITCHEN CABINET, USEFUL WHEN THERE IS NO BUILT-IN CABINET. 514 KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 113 These should be neatly labeled and conveniently ar- ranged in order on shelves in a cupboard near the cooking table. Iron for cooking utensils is almost a thing of the iron past. Although most durable, the weight is sufficient utenSS to banish it. Agate or Stransky have taken the place to a great extent. Agate ware has depreciated greatly in quality since first introduced. The best of it is more durable and safer than enamel ware. Sheet iron frying pans are best, as they endure the highest heat. Steel is next. Agate may be used for certain things. Chairs should be tested for comfort. Wooden ones, chairs if properly constructed, may be very comfortable. The shape and length of back, seat and legs greatly affect the comfort. A high stool is a strength saver when working at the table. Tables constructed for kitchen use are a great addi- Table* tion in modern furnishings. They are supplied with drawers for knives, spoons and such small utensils. Those of white wood are cheapest, pine being about 50 per cent more. The drawer increases the expense slightly, but this will not be grudgingly paid by one who has once enjoyed the advantage secured. The top should be unfinished, very smooth and even. It should be made of one piece of wood to avoid cracks. Oilcloth may be used as a covering, although less convenient because of the care necessary to avoid setting anything hot on it. Paisit is altogether unde- sirable for the same reason. 515 TABLE AND BED LINEN, TOWELLING, ETC. In buying cotton and linen material for the various needs of the house, one must consider the use to be made of it and select accordingly. Towelling suitable for glass and silver is not suitable for cooking uten- sils, and vice versa. If cast off garments, old bed linen and the like are thriftily cherished and pre- served, much exoense is saved and frequently better cloths secured than in using new. For scrubbing purposes a soft cloth that will not scratch is desirable, at the same time it must have a certain firmness and roughness for the friction necessary. One of the best materials for general purposes of this kind is the woven underwear. Outing flannel and "mill ends" are also excellent. For drying, cloth with good absorbing quality is necessary. Cotton is undesirable, especially if new and not worn until softened. Linen is best for the purpose and is easiest to care for. It gives off less lint than cotton. Cheap qualities are less well pre- pared and scratch. For dish towels, a medium light weight linen towel- ling is best, a still heavier for the china dishes, while a firm, heavy crash, like the Royal Russian, is service- able for cooking utensils. The latter is also excel- lent for kitchen hand towels. For washing dishes the small mops are excellent for glassware and are preferred by many for the 114 516 TABLE AND BED LINEN 115 entire dish washing. They are inexpensive and are not difficult to keep sweet with proper care. Cheese- cloth is very satisfactory for silver and glass. Cheesecloth should be kept on hand for various purposes, as wiping meat, drying lettuce when washed, tying up fish to boil, straining soups and jellies, dust cloths and many other uses. It is easily cleansed, is soft and readily absorbent when old and is free from lint. For drying windows and lamps cheesecloth is excellent, or old napkins rough dried. Old cotton, as sheets and pillow cases, is fairly good. Hand towels may be of crash, damask or huckaback. If the latter, the Scotch or Irish is the best. The choice of material depends upon individual preference of smooth or rough surface. The damask is soft, fine and smooth, the huckaback rougher. The Irish hucka- back is woven with smooth dots for overthreads and is a fine grade. The Scotch is woven looser and is more showy. It is cheaper, but is good when washed. The damask toweling is a poor absorbent, because of its smooth, satiny surface. It is cheapest to buy huckaback by the yard and hemstitch it. Fringed towels should be avoided, as they are difficult to iron well and the fringe eventually wears off, leaving un- sightly ends. If fringed at all it should be tied. Turkish toweling of good quality is best for bath towels. Although cotton, it is so woven as to be readily absorbent 517 Sheetins Bleach Brands of Cotton Cloth Size of Sheets BED LINEN Sheeting was formerly woven in narrow widths only one yard wide, necessitating laborious seaming in the middle of a sheet. At the present time it is pos- sible to secure sheeting woven for single, two-thirds or double beds, so that hems at top and bottom are the only needful sewing. Ready made sheets and pillow cases may also be bought in most places, less carefully made than home-made, but temptingly inex- pensive, and conveniently ready for use. In provid- ing in eithef way one should have the size of the bed carefully in mind and secure sheets and pillow cases ample in size. Cotton suitable for this purpose comes bleached, half-bleached or unbleached. The unbleached is two or three cents per yard cheaper than the bleached, and is more durable, this being due to the fact of chemicals being used in the process of bleaching which affect the fibre. This is, however, not often selected on account of the color. The half -bleached is less objectionable. There is considerable choice in the different brands of cotton. Among the best are the Wamsetta, Fruit of the Loom and Pequot. For a full sized double bed, one should buy the 10 quarters width of sheeting, for a two-thirds width bed 8 quarters, and for a cot or single bed 6 quarters. Pillow casing will vary to fit the size of the pillow, 5 116 518 TABLE AND BED LINEN 117 quarters or 45 ins. being a large size and 42 ins. medium. The price depends upon the brand and size. The Price best Wamsetta in the 10 quarters width is 400 per yard, 5 quarters width i8c, while cheaper grades may be had at 28c for the 10 quarters width and 12 i-2c for the 5 quarters. Made sheets, entirely plain, in the best Wamsetta brand are about as follows: 90 in. x 99 in 85c 72 in. x 99 in 75c Cheaper : 90 in. x 99 in 750 72 in. x 99 in 55c The tubing for pillow slips, woven without seams, are about: 45 in 140 42 in ' I3C 36 in I2C Made up I5c each, up The unbleached may be secured of Pequot cotton in the made sheets, largest size, 55 cents each. TABLE LINEN Most of the material sold as table linen is imported. Grades Its manufacture has been attempted in this country, but the temperature is unfavorable, so that the result is an inferior quality. There are three leading supplies the Irish, Scotch and German, +l*e Belgian, Austrian and French being 519 Hints on Selecting ii8 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT included under the latter. The Irish is considered the best "and is most expensive. BieacMng The time of bleaching is a large factor in deter- mining the value of the linen. Bleaching takes from the weight. The natural and best method is the grass bleaching in summer; next to that the snow. Arti- ficial methods take from the strength of the fabric. It is difficult even for experts to detect the method. It is known by the times of coming into market. The grass bleached comes into the retail market about the middle of December, making this the desirable time to purchase. A fine thread damask may not be a superior wear- ing fabric. The weight is the criterion. The best fabrics are not too fine, firm but not stiff and heavy with starch. Those with a more elastic, leathery ap- pearance are better. Those patterns are less durable which have long unbroken threads. The German damask has a closer, harder twisted thread than the others, making it a very durable linen. The Germans cater less to variety of pattern and therefore produce less showy cloths, but they are very durable and are also less expensive. Patterns In selecting a pattern a medium-sized pattern, as the tulip is very satisfactory. It is a matter of taste to a great extent. Large patterns are more effective than small but the latter are good taste. Some patterns are so generally liked as to become stock patterns, as the snowdrop. These can be found in all stores. With German Damask 520 TABLE AND BED LINEN 121 other patterns only a few are woven and these are distributed to a few stores or a few of each to each store. The Scotch have excellent patterns, are finished about as well as the Irish and cost less. In buying one should, if possible, have the exact size measurements of the table on which a cloth is to be used. An average length is 2 1-2 yards, 1-4 to 1-3 yard should be allowed to drop at each end if the table be square. Two dozen napkins should be allowed for each cloth. Material may be purchased by the yard or in pattern price lengths. The latter are 50-75 cents per yard more. The German linen runs from 50 cents to $1.50 per yards. The Scotch in the bleached run from 50 cents to $2.00 or over per yard. The Irish even in un- bleached begins at 75 cents or $1.00 per yard and may be $2.50 or $3.00. The latter are, of course, very beautiful goods, but for common use and durability a good quality may be secured for $i.oo-$2.oo per yard. Napkins vary in size from 5-8, as they are termed at Napkins the store (17-22 in.) known as breakfast size, to 3-4 (23-27 in.) and 7-8 (29-31 in.), the latter being very large. There is less difference in the price of napkins in the different makes. In either the 20 in. napkins vary in price from $1.75 per dozen up. Good ones are $3.oo-$3.5o per dozen. A heavy cloth, known as the silence cloth, is an es- silence sential accompaniment to a well appointed table. This Cloth 521 122 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT may be of felt, or two faced cotton flannel or may be a quilted or knitted cloth on purpose. Canton flannel, 54 inches wide, 5te. After completing the test, sign your full name. $26 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT PART III MARKETING A practical knowledge of marketing on the part of the housewife affects to a marked degree both the comfort and expense-book of the family. Intelligence and skill in buying are only secured by careful prac- tice. The purchaser must not fear to ask questions. Most men with whom she will have to deal will be found to be patient, helpful, painstaking and reliable, yet she must make sure by sufficient trials that the cuts of meat, etc., recommended are, all things con- sidered, those that are best adapted to meet the needs of her family. It is usually greatly to one's advantage to select a regular place for marketing. Greater consideration is shown such customers and better satisfaction results. Time is saved, and usually it proves to be quite a? economical, often more so. Disappointments are les? liable to occur than in buying more generally. The fact of buying regularly at the same place should not, however, lead to the erroneous idea that a telephone may be substituted for frequent visits to the market. This is a mistake which is increasing rapidly in America. Orders given in this way, by note, 127 Buying Regular Customers Use of Telephone 527 128 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT or to the driver at the door are liable to be less satisfactory than those which are given at the store where selection can be made by the purchaser. The telephone may be resorted to occasionally in emergencies, but should not take the place of regu- lar visits. The greater satisfaction to be secured through personal selection, the greater variety secured by seeing otherwise unthought-of articles and the closer economy possible more than offset the additional time consumed. Reasonable More than a single day's order may be given at a time. All orders needing prompt rilling, as meats and vegetables, should be given in ample season, usually the day before, so that there may be sufficient time to 1 fill the order without discomfort to those who serve. This is only reasonable consideration for others, be- sides securing for one's self the avoidance of disap- pointments which are very apt to occur when too limited time is allowed in rilling the order. It is evi- dence of an inexcusable lack of foresight when a housewife plans so little beyond the immediate need as to leave the ordering of roast beef for a twelve- o'clock dinner until 10 o'clock of the morning it is desired. supply Meats are, perhaps, the most difficult to understand and to buy to advantage. A few years ago the sup- ply of meats was practically all local, but at the present time only veal and lamb are supplied locally in places of any considerable size. The supply of beef and pork 528 BEEF 129 for the United States is almost wholly from the West, Chicago being the chief center, especially for the wholesale beef trade. Some of the objections raised by those who oppose the consumption of meat because of supposed unwholesome and unsanitary conditions of killing, storing and transporting, are practically without foundation at the present time. Conditions have been greatly improved within the last few years and great sanitary precautions are exercised. The large houses of Chicago are rendered thoroughly sani- tary and are carefully inspected by United States of- ficers who also inspect every animal killed, and tag the meat for shipping. Each quarter is numbered, the car in which it is shipped is also numbered and a rec- ord made of the meat sent. In this way any com- plaints can be readily traced. The transportation is now done by the use of refrigerator cars. The quality of beef depends upon several conditions. Quality The age of the animal when killed, the breed, the man- ner of fattening, the amount of exercise and the length of time the beef is allowed to cure before using, all ef- fect the quality of the meat to a" marked degree. The "prime" age of an animal for killing is 4 years, but the beef of a creature from 4 to 8 years of age is good. Beyond that age meat is apt to be tough and unsatisfactory. Although grass-fed animals are healthier than stall-fed, the latter is customary, or, at 529 130 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Texture and Position of Bones least, a combination of the two. Exercise toughens the muscles but if moderate, is considered desirable in rendering an animal healthier and the meat finer fla- vored. Beef has the finest flavor and is most tender when kept as long^ as possible before using. Three weeks is usually the shortest time allowed for this curing when conditions of storage are such as to per- mit. Meat should be selected which is firm and fine- grained. The color should be bright red, the fat yel- lowish white. The flesh and fat of old beef is darker, dry and coarser. Beef becomes dark through stand- ing exposed to the air. One should distinguish care- fully between a mere surface discoloration which may be trimmed off and the rest of the cut found to be en- tirely fresh and suitable to use, and the decomposition which gives a taint to the entire piece. In buying, economy demands in general, that the amount of bone in a cut should be small in proportion to the amount of meat. In order to buy wisely and successfully it is necessary to have in mind a clear idea of the anatomy of the animal, also the muscle- fibre arrangement. These are seen in the beef in the illustrations. The vertebrae making up the back- bone differ sufficiently so that with study one may recognize the different ones in the cuts of meat. The backbone is split in dividing the body into halves so that but one-half will be found in a joint of meat Study the illustrations carefully. 530 BEEF SKELETON OF BEEF. !, Neck; 2, Six Chuck Ribs; 3, Seven Prime Ribs and Loin; 4, Thick or Hip Sirloin; 5a, Top of Rump; 6a, Aitch Bone or Rump Piece; 6, Cartilage; c, Shoulder Blade; d, Cross Ribs. MUSCLE ARRANGEMENT OF BSEF. 1, Head; 2, Neck; 3, Chuck Ribs and Shoulder Blade; 4, Seven Prime Ribs; 5, Loin; 6, Thick Sirloin, called Boneless Sirloin in Chicago, Back of Rump in Boston ; 7-8, Rump Piece in New York ; 8, Aitch Bone; 9, Round; 10, Leg; a, Top of Sirloin; b, Flank; c, Plate ; d, Brisket. (Redrawn from Home Economics by Miria Parloa.) 531 1 3 2 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Arrangement of Muscles Carving A knowledge of the muscle fibres and their arrange- ments is as important in buying, cooking and carving meat as familiarity with the location of the bones. The lean of meat is made up of muscular tissue. This consists of prism-shaped bundles, divisible under the microscope into minute tubes or muscle fibres. These fibres are held together in bundles by connective tissue which is readily distinguished by holding up a loosely connected piece of meat and noting the thin, filmy membrane. When meat is cut "across the grain" these bundles of fibres are severed and the ends appear. The membrane forming the walls of these tubes is very deli- cate and elastic. Carving has a great effect upon the apparent toughness of the cut of meat. In the accompanying il- lustration, a shows the muscular bundle, a fibre partially separated into its minute tubes, while b shows the fibre cut across the grain as it should be in carving. In this way the fibres are broken into smaller pieces as an aid to digestion and the contents of the tubes are set free, thus being more accessible for the digestive juices than when the meat is carved lengthwise of the fibres. Fibres of Meat. 532 BEEF 133 In cutting up a beef the body is first cut through the backbone laying it open in "sides" or halves. Each half is then divided into quarters, called the fore quarter and the hind quarter, as will be seen in the illus- tration. The muscle fibres run very irregularly in the fore quarter. This, to- gether with the fact that they are coarser and have on the whole more exer- cise than those of the hind quarter to toughen them, renders the meat of the fore quarter of a less de- sirable, cheaper grade. The finest cuts of an ani- mal come from the middle of .the creature, in the most protected, least ex- ercised parts, decreasing in value as they lie to- ward either extremity. Cuts differ somewhat in different cities. According to the Boston cut, for instance, three ribs are left on the Cutting SIDE OF BEEF. aa, Suet; 6, Thin End of Tender- loin; ad, Thick End of Tenderloin; e, Inside or Top of Round ; /, Best Part of Round; g, Sternum; h, Thick Brisket; i, Thin Brisket; j, Flank. 533 134 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT hind quarter, ten on the fore quarter. In New York all the ribs are cut on the fore quarter. Beef is best from a creature weighing 800 to 900 pounds. CUTS OP BEEF ACCORDING TO THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fore Quarter Weight An average fore quarter weighs about 200 pounds. It is divided into : 1. Neck. 2. Chuck. 3. Ribs. 4. Sticking piece. 5. End of ribs. ) Sometimes called together 6. Brisket. \ Rattleran. 7. Shin or shank. The fore quarter as a whole being coarser is used chiefly for canned meat, stews, soup meat and corned 534 cond Cut round BEEF 135 beef. The neck is best used for mince meat. Prices on all meats differ too widely to make it possible to state with accuracy for all places, but that we may be guided somewhat by price in estimating values, aver- age prices will be given. For this cut 8 cents a pound is an average price. The Chuck lies just be- hind the neck, including the first five ribs. This cut may be used in a variety of ways, as cheap steak, roast, pot roast or stew. Several of the cheaper cuts indi- cated as possible roasts or steak cuts were formerly used much more commonly than now for such pur- poses. As our country has grown more prosperous there has been a great in- crease in the demand for the better cuts until many markets are forced to buy extra loins, etc., to meet the demand. A very fair small one rib roast may be cut from this portion. The chuck sells for about 12 1-2 cents a pound. The Ribs are used chiefly for roasts and constitute the best of the fore quarter. The portion lying nearest SIDE OF BEEF, U. S. DEPT AGRICULTURE. The Neck The Chuck The Ribs 535 136 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT First Cut of the Ribs Sticking Piece End of the Ribs the hind quarter is very nearly the same in quality. There is a decided preference in the rib roasts. The "first cut of the ribs," as it is called contains the first two or three ribs from the hind quarter, differing ac- cording- to the size of roast desired. Cut long, that is with the thin end pieces left on, such a roast brings as high as 17 to 23 cents a pound, while "cut short," that is with the thin rib ends removed, it sells in some places as high as 20 to 30 cents a pound. Following this cut are the second and third cuts, the third join- ing the first cut of the chuck. These are not as high in quality or price, 15 to 18 cents a pound. The sec- ond cut is a very good roast. The Sticking Piece is a cut between the neck and brisket, so called from the custom of bleeding there after killing. Although the fibre is coarse and tough in this piece it is an excellent piece when properly used. It is especially fine for beef tea, since for that, one should select as juicy a piece as possible. From the method of bleeding much blood collects in this piece and it is particularly juicy. It may be used for stews also where long, slow cooking renders the mus- cle fibre tender and sets free a portion of the rich juices. The End of the Ribs is often called the plate piece or rattleran. Although this portion has a liberal sup- ply of bones they are thin, and generous allowance is made for that fact in the price. It is an especially desirable piece for corned beef if it is to be pressed 536 BEEF 137 and served cold, as it has a good supply of fat blended with the lean and hardens to cut well. The Brisket is much preferred for corned beef by The some. It is a more solidly lean piece on the whole, thus carving better when hot. It is to a large extent a matter of choice as regards the amount of fat de- sired. There is a difference recognized at markets be- tween the thick end of the brisket, called "fancy brisket," and the thinner end, the former being con- sidered superior. The brisket corned brings as high as 15 cents a pound where there is good demand, while the rib piece is not over 8 cents, sometimes as low as 6 cents. The Shin is used for soup meat. It is divided into The shin three pieces, more meat being found on the upper piece. Many make a great mistake in throwing away the smallest, most bony part supposing it to be value- less, which is far from true. It is rich in gelatin and those properties which are desired in soup stock. The shin usually sells for not over 5 cents a pound. The Hind Quarter While there is a great variety in the possible cuts of Cutg the hind quarter they may be classed in general as follows : 1. Loin. 4. Shin. 2. Rump. 5. Flank. 3. Round. 537 138 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Sirloin Tenderloin Fillet The location of these sections will be seen by con- sulting page 135. The entire loin is frequently called the "sirloin." The choicest steaks and roasts are cut from this part. The first two slices from the end where the loin joins the ribs are called the first cuts of the sirloin. These are not as tender or desirable as those which follow. After these are removed, the tenderloin begins to appear which lies on the under or inside of the loin and being so protected is very tender. The slices which include the largest portions of tenderloin are considered the best and bring the high- est price. Some of these slices when trimmed bring as high as 35 or 40 cents a pound. It would seem that the tenderloin is greatly over- rated in some instances, since, except for the fact of its being especially tender, it is not more desirable*. It is not as rich in juices or flavor as the rest of the loin. The entire tenderloin is used for what is known as a "fillet." When removed and sold separately for this purpose it costs as high as 60 cents to $1.00 a pound since the remainder of the loin is rendered thereby far less salable. On the other hand, for one who wishes a delicious roast at moderate expense this loin with the tenderloin removed is very desirable. In buying for a fillet roast it is far the wisest plan to buy the entire loin or section necessary to give the size desired, at 35 cents a pound, have the tenderloin re- moved for the fillet roast and the rest reserved for other uses, as steaks or later roasts. The thinner end 538 BEEF 139 of the tenderloin which extends into the rump is % cheaper, about 35 cents a pound. Some cheaper fillets are sometimes to be found in the markets but are not desirable, as they are from inferior beef. The Rump lies back of the loin. As a whole it weighs about 52 pounds. It is divided into three sec- tions, known as back, middle cut and face. This por- tion is sometimes called hip or thick sirloin. It may be used for steaks or roasts, while some of the less de- sirable parts are used for pot roasts, braising, etc. The part nearest the loin is termed the back; it is the best part for all uses except for steaks. Next to that, the middle, the face having more muscle. A cut from the rump which is excellent for a variety Aitch of uses in the Aitch bone. It is satisfactory for a cheap roast, braising and the like. It weighs about six pounds usually and may be bought for 7 to 12 cents a pound. There is not enough bone included to offset the difference between this price and the 25 cents a pound which portions of the rump may bring, as the middle cut. The face makes a good piece for corning. The Round is divided into top and bottom, so called The Round because of the way in which the leg is laid upon the block to be cut up. The outside, being laid down, is called the bottom round, while the inside, being on the top as it is laid down is called the top round. The difference in quality to be found between -the two divisions is what would be expected from the rule stated earlier concerning the greater toughness of the 539 140 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT "more exposed and exercised parts of the animal. The bottom of the round being nearest the skin is the tougher and cheaper meat. The top round is used for a very fair quality of steak. The bottom round is better for braising, stews, etc. A vein divides the two sections so that it is easy to separate them. The top may bring 22 to 25 cents a pound, while the poorest parts may be secured for 12 1-2 cents. Shin The Shank or Shin is used as that of the fore Flank quarter, for soup. The Flank is usually corned, sell- ing for 7 to 10 cents a pound. It is a thin piece and has a good mixture of fat. Summary of Cuts of Beef Passing over the various cuts of beef in review, then, we may consider the cuts most desirable for the dif- ferent methods of cooking which we employ in the order of their desirability, regardless of cost, small The selection of a roast of meat for a small family Roasts . f J is the most difficult, since the larger the roast the bet- ter. Nothing smaller than a two-rib roast is very sat- isfactory to attempt to roast. Unless one is willing to roast less thoroughly the first day and reroast the second, or is willing to serve cold roast, the selection is very much limited. For such a family a rump fillet or Aitch bone is, perhaps, most satisfactory. The finest larger roasts are to be obtained from the first three cuts of the sirloin, and next to these the first cut of the ribs. Following these are the second and third 540 BEEF 141 cuts of the ribs, the back of the rump and a chuck roast. A rib-roll is a roast prepared by removing the bones, rolling and tying. It is thus made easier to carve. If one has a roast prepared in this way, she should have the bones sent home to be used in the soup kettle. There is little to be said in addition concerning the selection of cuts for steak, since in general meat that is especially desirable for roasts is equally good for slic- ing for steaks. The best is especially desirable here, since there is less opportunity to practice skill in cook- ing, which in other modes of preparing may avail greatly to improve an otherwise undesirable piece. It is not as pleasing to the majority of people to have meat served as steak unless it be fairly tender and juicy. In the main it is more satisfactory to those who should, economize closely to rely upon other cuts, buying an occasional good steak for variety and espe- cial luxury. While it is true that the better the piece of meat the better the result as a general thing, it is possible and desirable to save expense to some extent where it may be done without serious loss. The meat to be cut for Hamburg steak need not be of the best, since it is rendered more digestable by the mincing. The top of the round is quite good enough, while the bot- tom round or even the shoulder and flank are used, al- though less satisfactorily. The top of the round, eighth to the thirteenth ribs, first cut of chuck, the cheaper of the rump cuts, the Selection of Steaks Cheaper Cuts 541 142 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT flank and leg may all be used for braising or pot roasts. By this method of cooking much is done to soften tough pieces, rendering them more digestible and ac- ceptable, so that the cheaper cuts are made very palata- ble in the hands of a skillful cook. Corned The order of preference for corned beef might be, brisket, rump, piece from the chuck, plate, shoulder. Others would select the shoulder or chuck first for the reasons already mentioned. The flank is sometimes corned, but it is not considered a wise choice since it is not well protected by fat or bone as meat for corn- ing should be to prevent the loss of the juices in the process of corning. . Cuts for For stews it is desirable to extract some or all the juices from the meat/ The meat is finely divided be- fore cooking and the methods applied are those of slow, long cooking. The flank, leg and sticking piece are found to be very good for these purposes. Thus we find that all the animal may be used to good pur- pose in one or another of the ways indicated. The family that lives in the country and raises and provides its own supply finds it necessary to utilize all the parts. Those that depend on city markets are more ignorant of the different cuts and are as a result inclined to be much more extravagant, not having as wide experi- ence in learning to prepare the cheaper cuts in an ac- ceptable way. Beef Beef Heart is an economical and palatable meat. It is solid, and a good sized heart will serve fourteen 542 BEEF 145 people. There is nothing to be feared in having some left, as it is even better to serve cold for- a breakfast or supper dish than when hot. The most satisfactory way of cooking is to boil it three or four hours, cool, clean of coagulated blood, stuff and bake slowly for three hours. It may be braised or stewed. It is one of the most inexpensive meats, costing not over 5 cents a pound usually. One should be very careful in using liver to deter- Liver mine that it is in a healthy condition, as it is an organ which is not infrequently diseased. It should be clear, smooth and without spots. Spots and streaks indicate a dangerous condition. Calf's liver is usually preferred as more tender and delicate, but the liver from good beef is cheaper and satisfactory. There is a great dif- ference in it, some being hard and tough. Pig's is preferred by some. Calf's bring from 16 to 20 cents a pound, while beef's may be procured at from 8 to 10 cents. Kidneys are cooked by some, although not as x- Kidneys tensively as the organs already mentioned. They may be stewed or braised. Care should be used in select- ing, as in liver. Calf's are preferred, next lamb's, mutton and beef. Those weighing" from one to two pounds may be bought for 8 cents each. In selecting a tongue for cooking one should be Tongue chosen which is firm and thick, with plenty of fat, as the lean and flabby ones do not cook satisfactorily. Those of all animals are used, the beef more often, be- cause of its size. They may be bought fresh, smoked 543 J44 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Tripe Sweetbreads or corned. Tongues weighing from four to six pounds may be bought at from 16 to 18 cents a pound. Tripe is taken from the lining of the stomach of the animal. It is sold either simply cleaned or pickled. The honey-comb is the better. It is white and tender when taken from a healthy animal. The honey-comb costs about 10 cent a pound; the plain is a little cheaper. The cost of many of these things depends al- most wholly upon the demand for them. Sweetbreads consist of the pancreas and thymus glands of the young calf or lamb which later in its life are absorbed or changed so as not to be edible. Those from a milk-fed animal are far superior, being white, firm and plump, while those from an improperly fed animal are dark, flabby and tough. They are generally sold in pairs. The pancreas is larger and better. They range from 25 or 35 cents to 50 or 75 cents a pair. What are known as Chicago sweetbreads may be bought in Eastern markets at times for $1.50 a dozen. These are packed on ice. Where the de- mand for sweetbreads is great, pork sweetbreads are often substituted. These are coarse and dark colored. The buyer should learn to distinguish these from calves' sweetbreads and refuse them. 544 BEEF 145 Table of Cuts and Uses of Fore and Hind Quarters of Beef FORE QUARTERS. 4 Ribs Good roast. 6 Ch?ick Ribs Small steaks, pot roast, stews. Neck Cheap Hamburg steak, mince meat. Sticking-Piece Mince meat, beef tea, stews. ( Thick end \ Rattle Rand \ Second cut V Corned, especially cold sliced. ( Thin end ' i Navel end \ Brisket \ Butt end or v -Excellent for Corning. Perhaps best. I Fancy Brisket ' Fore-shin Soup stock, stews. HIND QUARTERS. 3 Ribs '. Excellent roast. / Tip Finest roast, steaks. Loin ] Middle Sirloin and porter house steak. ( First cut Roast and steaks. Tenderloin \\ .. Larded and roasted, or broiled, I otiGctKS fBack Best large roasts and cross-cut steaks. Rumt) J Middle Roasts. I Face Inferior roasts and stews. L Aitch Bone Cheap roast, corned, braised Round $ Top Steaks, excellent for beef tea. I Bottom Hamburg steak, curry of beef. Flank Stuffed, rolled and braised or corned, Shin or Shank Cheap stews or soup stock. 545 VEAL Season of Veal Bob Veal While veal is in season all the year in many markets, it is best in spring and summer, being at its prime in May. The quality of the veal depends to a considera- ble extent upon the age and manner of feeding. Six CUTS OF VEAL ACCORDING TO THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to ten weeks is the preferable age at the time of kill- ing. When the calf is killed under four weeks of age the meat is injurious, so that it is not allowed to be sold, such being known as "bob veal." The flesh of such immature calves is soft, flabby and gelatinous, blue and watery in color instead of fine-grained, tender and white with a tendency to pink, as in the healthy meat. The meat is best of calves which have been fed entirely upon milk. Grass-feeding is the poorest of all. 146 546 VEAL 147 ahonK In France an especially fine quality is secured by care- ful feeding, raw eggs being included in the feed. The cuts of veal are similar to those of beef, except Cuts simpler. The fore quarter includes only five ribs and to Beef is so small that it is easily boned and rolled for a good sized roast. The entire fore quarter weighs 6 to 12 pounds, and costs 8 to 10 cents entire or with neck removed 10 to 14 cents. The neck can be used for stew. The head and brains are esteemed by many, the head being used for soup, and the brains cooked in various ways. The loin includes all that is divided into loin and rump in the beef. This is an excellent roast, the leg alone being considered bet- ter. The leg is the choicest for roasts or for cutlets. The shoulder when boned, rolled and stuffed makes a veal roast. The breast is very acceptable cheap good for stew. The "knuckle" of veal corresponds to the shin in the beef and is especially fine for soup, being highly gelatinous. 547 MUTTON AND LAMB Mutton is, for most, a most nutritious and easily digested meat when of good quality and properly pre- pared, but it may. be very uninviting through careless- ness in cooking and serving. For this reason, no CUTS OF LAMB, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. doubt, it is less in favor in this ' country than beef. Lamb is the name applied to the animal until one year old, after that it is properly mutton. The age is told by the bone of the fore leg, being smooth in the young animal but showing ridges which grow deeper and deeper with age. Mutton and lamb are in season the year round. The best mutton is from an animal not over 5 years old, plump with small bones. Like the beef long curing before consumption is desirable. 148 548 MUTTON AND LAMB 149 The usual cuts of mutton are the leg, loin, shoulder, neck, breast and flank. The leg is, all things consid- ered, the best roast. The fore quarter, or the shoulder boned and rolled as in veal, is an excellent cheap roast, the choice depending on the size of the family. The ribs and loin may be used for roasts for a small family, but are more frequently cut into chops. The rib chops are smallest and, there- fore, more expensive. They must, in fact, be regarded as a great luxury, considering the price and the proportion of bone, but they are much in favor for their delicious delicacy and fine flavor. The shoulder, breast, and best part of the neck are excellent for stews, pot pies or for boiling. The portion of the neck nearest the head is tougher and is best used for broth for which it is especially desirable, being rich in flavor and nutriment. ho/lde-r SIDE OF LAM Bo 549 Season of Pork PORK Pork is good only in autumn and winter. A large part of the animal is so fat that instead of being sold fresh it is salted and sold as salt pork. The ribs and loin are the most desirable fresh cuts, being used either CUTS OF PORK, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bacon for roasts or chops. Care is needed to select a whole- some piece, suitable fresh pork having firm, clear and white fat and pink lean, while in the salted pork, one should select either a pinkish piece or one without color, a yellow appearance not being a good indica- tion. A thick, mediumly fat piece of salt pork is bet- ter to buy than the thin flank pieces. Bacon is secured by smoking the fat pork in addi- tion to the salting process. It is a most digestible form of fat and is enjoyed by many who do not care for 150 550 POULTRY other forms of salt pork ; It is somewhat more expen- sive, salt pork selling for n to 15 cents, bacon for 15 to 1 8 cents per pound. Sausages are made either of pork alone, or beef and pork, or of veal and pork together. Those sold in the market are usually put up in skins. In buying sausage one should be especially careful to buy a known and approved brand. Otherwise they are an untrustworthy form of meat, as fragments of all kinds are easily disposed of in this way. The price of sausage varies from 12 to 20 cents per pound. POULTRY There is perhaps no other kind of meat in which there is more need of skill and care in select- ing than poultry. Great care is necessary in handling, as the flesh easily becomes tainted or rendered unhealthful. Some states allow fowl to be kept for sale undrawn. This is not only a great menace to health, but a thing no thoughtful buyer will desire. The excess price charged for what are called Philadelphia Chickens comes from the method of killing and preparing for market. An improperly SIDE OP PORK. Care in Selecting 551 152 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Method of Plucking Tests drawn chicken is nearly as bad as one sold undrawn, in some cases may be even worse. The laws regulat- ing the sale of poultry in New York state are such that in the majority of cases chickens and turkeys are most miserably prepared for market. The flavor of the flesh is also affected by the method of plucking, the dry picking being much to be pre- ferred, although the appearance of the fowl may be less attractive. While scalding aids in removing the feathers it also affects the flavor, so that dry-picked sell at a higher price. In young fowl and turkey the breast bone is soft, bending readily, and the flesh is smooth. Hairs over the flesh are an indication of age, pin- feathers of a young bird. The body should be plump and fat. A poor bird is bluish white, thin and often too liberally supplied with. pin-feathers. Scaly legs are a further indication of age, the young having smooth legs. While the preference is always for chickens, especially for roasting, a good fowl may be thoroughly steamed before roasting and so rendered tender and very ac- ceptable. It is much greater economy to buy fowl as one secures far more meat in proportion to bone, and fowl is considerably cheaper. The West has be- come a large source of our supply as in meat, espe- cially in turkeys. Certain Eastern states like Ver- mont and Connecticut have acquired in the past an en- viable local reputation, but at the present time a large part even of the Eastern trade is in Western turkeys, 552 FISH 153 shipped East in refrigerator cars. Methods of cold storage have advanced so far that turkeys may be kept a year or more, but not without losing in quality. FISH Fish deteriorates and becomes injurious sooner than selecting any other animal food. Great care should be taken to select that which is strictly fresh. It is impossible to transport it a great distance and keep it as fresh as is necessary for health. For this reason it is not wise for those who live inland to rely upon this class of food, except such as may be secured from bodies of water near home. Fresh fish is firm, with no evi- dence of discoloration. Scales and eyes should be bright, gills red and fins firm. One should study the comparative value of the different varieties, as there is great difference in nutritive worth, largely due to the greater amount of fat in some, such as salmon. In general white fleshed fish has the oil confined in Kinds the liver and is therefore apt to be a little more digesti- ble than the dark fleshed fish where the oil is distribu- ted throughout the body. Note: Whitefish, halibut, etc. ; salmon, mackerel and bluefish. There is a decided difference in texture, firmness and price. Haddock is an excellent cheap fish for frying, be- Haddock ing firmer than cod, It is usually from 8 to 10 cents a pound. Halibut is the preference of the more expen- sive, costing from 14 to 18 cents. There is less waste in halibut, as the slices are from so large a fish that 553 154 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Faking Boiling Local Varieties the head and tail are not included as in smaller fish. This should be taken into account in ordering. Cod and bluefish are usually selected from the cheap fish for baking. Haddock is also good. The bluefish is preferred by most, being somewhat dry and of sweet flavor. It is always to be distinguished by a dark line running along each side from head to tail While cod and haddock are in season throughout the year, bluefish are in season only from May to October except as they are frozen and kept in cold storage. A frozen fish is not as desirable as fresh, so that the sea- son will govern choice somewhat. Halibut and mack- erel are good to bake. In selecting fish for boiling it is desirable to secure a firm fish and a solid piece which can be wrapped in cheesecloth and cooked without breaking in pieces. Halibut and salmon are especially good for this pur- pose. Haddock is the best of the three cheaper fish already mentioned. The fish already mentioned are those which are best as ordinarily found in the city markets. Many other varieties which are very delicious when freshly caught lose in flavor so much that it is not very satisfactory to try to serve them except when one may secure them strictly fresh. Trout, flounders and perch are ex- amples. It is an excellent plan to have some system of tables showing the season of such foods as have a distinct season which can be hung on kitchen wall or other available place o show at a glance the most 554 FISH 155 desirable times to buy the various foods. For ex- ample, for fish : The Season of Fish Variety. Price. >-3 5 & tl I < | i-s j>> 3 1-5 9 < a 0> CQ 4-5 i 1 I Bass Striped or black (To be filled in Blueflsh from lo- Butter cal mar- . Cod ket.) Flounders Haddock. . . Halibut Herring. Lobster.. Mackerel . Perch Pickerel Salmon Shad Smelts Sword Trout Weak White The same general directions hold for buying shell fish. Clams, oysters and lobster are not suitable to be eaten unless strictly fresh and procured from sources of which the healthfulness of the supply is assured. Injurious preservatives are sometimes used in shipping to the middle and Western states. Clams and lobster may be purchased the year round. Oysters, scallops and shrimps are in season from September to March. Fish is not a substitute for meat in nutritive value, be- cause it has less fat but makes a pleasant change for those who are able to purchase under favorable con- ditions. Season of Fish Shell Fish 555 VEGETABLES Vegetables are classified according to their form as follows : Potatoes f Corn Turnips Pumpkin Parsnips -*,. | Peas Roots and Tubers -a 1 w a- i >> oS o> t-3 j>. 3 *-5 to E3 < i Si +i 1 > o 1 Artichokes . 5cqt X Asparagus Beets . 15c pk. 5c b'nch X. X Cabbage. Cauliflower. lOc head lOc " X .X. Carrots Celery 3c b'nch 8c head .X. x Chicory ICc " X Corn. 8c doz. X Cucumbers 2c each X Egg Plant lOc " X Greens (Beet,... 1 Dandelion Mushrooms. 15c peck 30c Ib. .X. .... .X Okra 40c hun. X Onions . 15c peck .X. Oyster Planter Salsify Parsnips. 15c b'nch 3clb. x .X. Peas (fresh) lOc peck .X. . . . Potatoes- Sweet. Irish 75cbu. x Pumpkins 2clb. ' Radishes.. Rhubarb Romaine 3o b'nch 2clb. lOc head X Spinach 15c peck X. Squash- Summer 3c each X Winter 2c Ib. x String Beans.. lOc qt. X Tomatoes . . 5cqt. X Turnips 2clb. X X marks the height of the season, or when it is at its best. The prices given are the lowest, or those at the height of the season. 557 158 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Quantity for Serving Selecting: Vegetable*. It is sometimes puzzling to determine the quantity to order for the number of persons to be served. The following estimates may be a guide : Artichokes, 1 quart will serve ? people. Asparagus, 1 bunch Beets, 1 bunch (5) Cabbage, 1 good, solid .., Cauliflower, 1 small ' good size Carrots, 1 large one , " small bunch Celery, 1 head (3 bunches) Chicory, 1 head Corn, 1 doz Cucumber, 1 ... (in salad ) " (sliced). Egg Plant, medium Greens, 1 pk Onions, 1 qt Oyster Plant, 5 stalks Parsnips, 2 (1 Ib.) Peas, 1 pk Radishes, 1 bunch Rhubarb, 1 Ib (in sauce) . Romaine, 1 head String Beans, 1 qt Tomatoes, 1 qt. (5) Turnips, 1 (2J Ibs.) 4 6-8 4-0 4 8-13 4 11-12 4 2-3 6-8 6-8 4-6 4-6 4-6 4 4-8 All vegetables should be fresh, as it is very difficult to cook those that are wilted and they lose much in flavor. Greens and salad plants should *be crisp and tender without evidences of lying until bruised and partially decayed. Cabbage and cauliflower should have solid heads and not be discolored. Medium-sized vegetables are preferable to either extreme, usually. If small there is large waste, while too large ones are apt to be coarse and woody in texture. This applies especially to beets, parsnips, peas, beans, rhubarb, etc. The heavier potatoes are in proportion to their size the better, but medium sized ones are less likely to have hollow hearts. The varieties differ greatly as 558 VEGETABLES 159 to quality. One must, in general, learn by trial the best to be obtained in the local market. The Early Rose is an excellent variety. In selecting pumpkins choose a heavy one with hard shell and deep yellow color. Of winter squashes, the dark green Hubbard is the best. It should be very hard and good sized. The crooked neck is the best variety of summer squash. The evergreen and coun- try gentleman are excellent varieties of sweet corn. Spanish onions are the best, being more delicate than native but are somewhat higher in price. ANIMAL PRODUCTS Butter, milk and eggs are all of a nature to require the utmost care in purchasing and in storing before use. They are easily tainted so as to be spoiled for one of sensitive taste, while milk, especially, is proba- bly the most frequent transmiter of disease, with the exception of water, of all our foods and drinks. Butter should be of the best, but a high price is not always a test of merit. While some creamery butters bring a very high price and take high awards for flavor, so that creamery butter as a whole commands a higher price than dairy butter, it is not the most desirable. All good creameries maintain a high sanitary standard and conditions under which the butter is made are doubtless superior to those in the majority of private dairies, yet one must go back of the creameries to the farms from which the creameries are supplied to de- termine the final healthfulness of the product. It is Scmashes and Pumpkins Butter Milk Eggs 559 160 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT here that the difficulty lies with creamery butter, since th farmers that keep the poorest cows and who do not understand dairying under right conditions are those that supply the creameries, so that one cannot be sure that butter made from the cream produced under such conditions is healthful. It is far better, so far as is possible, to buy from an approved private dairy. Source The same may be said of the milk supply. One supply should follow to its source and know without a ques- tion that there can be no pollution if any milk is con- sumed in a raw state by the family. This becomes doubly imperative where there are children in the family. If necessary, a cent or two more in price per bottle is little for the sake of safety. Eggs are highest in price in winter. A housekeeper may take advantage of low prices in the spring or fall by buying a supply in advance, but she cannot do this unless she can be sure of a cool place to store them and is willing to take the trouble to coat each egg over so that the air may not penetrate the shell. Wrapping each in separate paper is a fairly good pro- tection. Care must be used not to use anything that will cause an unpleasant flavor, as the shells are very porous and the contents readily acquire odors of any- thing near. A 10 per cent solution of silicate of soda is an excellent preservative. Testing A salt solution is a good test of the freshness of an Eggs egg. Two tablespoonfuls of salt for a quart of water may be used. If fresh, the egg will sink in it ; if not 560 DRY GROCERIES 161 perfectly fresh, will show signs of rising, while a bad egg will float at once. DRY GROCERIES While most of what has been discussed in the pre- vious pages relates to food which must be purchased as needed, because perishable, there is a class in buy- ing which much time and thought may be saved by supplying enough for at least a month in advance. This is dry groceries such as sugar, flour, cereals, flavorings, coffee (unroasted), tea, chocolate, spices, soap, starch, and all like necessities. A store-closet large enough to allow the purchase of these things at a wholesale store, and so arranged as to temperature, dryness, light and ventilation as to keep them in perfect condition is a saving so great as to astonish one who trys the method for the first time. Often the difference amounts to twenty per cent. Sugar should be bought by the hundred weight at least, flour by the barrel, canned goods by the dozen or better by the case, cereals by the dozen packages after the fresh fall supply is in, vanilla by the quart (at the drug store to secure better quality), baking powder by the 5-pound box from which smaller quan- tities are transferred as needed to the box in use, soap by the box, that it may have a chance to dry out thor- oughly and so waste less readily, and so on through a long list. For a very small family the list would naturally be shorter. Anything that does not deteri- Storage Quantities 561 162 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Brand of Goods Adulterations Percentage in Saving Judgment orate in storage can be bought to much greater advan- tage in quantity. In groceries it is not well to buy an inferior grade. Here the best is the cheapest and wisest, especially in these days of intense competition and fraud. It is well to know a good brand and insist upon having it. For- eign labels are not a surety of a good grade of goods, in fact some of our best American firms put up their best quality of spices, for instance, under their own name and the poorer grades are labeled with French labels and sold to firms that deal in a cheaper line of goods. Through the reports of the Government upon adul- teration as given in the Bulletins and the report of different state and city inspectors one may ascertain to some extent which are reliable and which are not. CONCLUSION The household manager should learn to think in percentages. One cent less on a ten cent article seems a trivial saving, yet it is ten per cent ten dollars in every hundred. It is fair to state that there will be a difference in money paid of from ten to twenty per cent between careless and careful purchases. It should be remembered that the customer who knows and is particular receives the best of goods and services. The successful business man is an expert in judging the materials in which he deals ; he is perfectly familiar with the range of prices and quick to take advantage 562 DRY GROCERIES 163 of all favorable conditions. The household managcr needs to be just as familiar with all the goods which relate to the home and with their prices. One becomes an expert only through experience, but The Expert . -i-ii i j Household experience is not gained simply by ordering goods; Manager appearance must be noted carefully and results com- pared intelligently to acquire the trained eye and the trained judgment necessary to the successful house- hold manager. BIBLIOGRAPHY Art of Right Living ($0.50), Ellen H. Richards. Cost of Living ($1.00), Ellen H. Richards. Cost of Food ($1.00), Ellen H. Richards. Domestic Service ($2.00), Lucy M. Salmon. Economic Function of Woman ($0.15), E. T. Divine. Family Living on $500 a Year ($1.25), J. Corson. Home Economics ($1.50), Maria Parloa. Household Economics ($1.50), Helen Campbell. The Woman Who Spends ($1.00), B. J. Richardson. Toilers in the Home ($1.50), Lillian Pettengill. Woman and Economics ($1.50), Charlotte Perkins Gilman. Woman's Share in Primitive Culture ($1.75), Otis T. Mason. IT. S. Government Bulletins Farmer's Bulletin, No. '142, The Nutritive and Economic Value of Food (Free). Farmer's Bulletin, No. 183, Meat on the Farm. Reprint Year Book 1902, The Cost of Food as Related to its Nutritive Value (Free). Office of Experiment Stations, No. 129, Dietary Studies in Boston, Springfield, Philadelphia and Chicago (10 cents. coin}. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 391, Economical Use of Meats in the Home (Free) 563 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT PART III Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. L/eave space between an- swers. Read the lesson paper a number of times before answering the questions. Answer fully. 1. What factors combine to make meat suitable for the table? 2. (a) By what should one be governed in select- ing a cut of beef? (b) What cuts have you found especially satisfactory? 3. How is a side of beef cut up in your own mar- ket ? What are the prices ? 4. Describe the "bottom round," stating its location in the animal, quality, suitable uses, approxi- mate value, etc. 5. Compare with "top round." 6. Compare a cut from the brisket with the flank cut. 7. What cuts of beef have you never used ? 8. Have you any especially satisfactory methods of preparing cheap cuts, other than noted in these books ? 9. Describe a desirable piece of salt pork. 564 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 10. A satisfactory fowl to roast. 11. A satisfactory roast of pork. 12. The best cut of steak. 13. French lamb chops. id. What objections are there to canned meats? 15. Compare fish with meat as a food. 1 6. Make a table giving the season and prices of vegetables to be obtained in your local market similar to that on page 137. 17. State objections for excessive use of vegetables out of season. 1 8. What answer would you give a mother who states that her children like no vegetables ex- cept canned tomato, preferring it to the fresh fruit even in season, and asks if there is any harm in letting them have it exclusively, every meal? 19. Have you tried buying any groceries in quantity? If so, with what success in price, quality, and keeping? 20. What purchases do you find hardest to make? Why? 21. Can you add any suggestions or comments to help others? 22. Are there any questions you would like to ask relating to Household Management? Note. After completing this test, sign your full name. 565 SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR CLASS STUDY ON HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT i BY BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. B. MEETING I Place of Home and Home-maker in the Economic World. (Study pages 1-8.) 1. Economic Function of Woman, Divine. ($0.15, postage 2c.) Cost of Living, Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage lOc.) Standards of Living, Chapters I and II. Household Expenditures, Chapter I. 3. The Standard of Life, Bosanquet. (1.50, out of print.) Chapter I. 4. Household Economics, Helen Campbell. ($1.50, postage 16c.) Household Industries, Chapter VII. . 5. See works on Political Economics on place of Consump- tion in discussion of Wealth. MEETING II (Study pages 9-41.) Division of Incomes. 1. The Woman Who Spends, Bertha J. Richardson. ($1.00, postage lOc.) Chapters on Needs, Choices, Imitation versus Inde- pendence, Satisfaction, Responsibility. 2. Cost of Living, Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage 8c ) Housing, Chapter IV. Operating Expenses, Chapter V. Food, Chapter VI. Clothing. Higher Life. 3. Cost of Shelter, Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage lOc.) 4. Cost of Food, Ellen Richards. ($1.00, postage lOc.) See articles on "Increase in Household Expenses.'' Har- per's Bazar, Sept.-Dec., 1906. 566 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT MEETING III (Study pages 42-68.) (a) Household Accounts. (a) Value Worth the time and effort? (b) Different Methods. (c) Discussion of Personal Choices. Reference How to Keep Household Accounts, Haskell. ($1.00, postage lOc.) (b) Banking. (a) Use to housewife; opinion of members. (b) Varieties of Banks. Local Banks. (c) How made most useful? Reference How to Keep Household Accounts, Haskell. ($1.00, postage lOc.) See article on Finance, by Dr. Campbell, in Cosmopolitan Magazine. (Select answers to test questions on Part I.) MEETING IV (Study pages 71-96.) (a) Organization in the Home. 1. Household Economics, Chapter XII. Campbell. 2. Cost of Living, Chapter IX. Richards. ($1.00, postage lOc.) 3. Cosmopolitan Magazine April, May and June, 1899. 4. "The Eight Hour Day in Housekeeping." American Kitchen Magazine, Article in January, February and March, 1902. See Supplement, pages 181-191. (b) Domestic Service. 1. Domestic Service, Salmon. ($2.00, postage 18c.) 2. Household Economics, Chapter XI, Campbell. ($1.50, postage 16c.) PROGRAM MEETING V (Study pages 97-125.) Buying Supplies. (a) Bargains real and fictitious. (b) Grades best, the cheapest? (c) Comparison of Department and Specialty Stores. (d) Seasons for buying supplies. (e) Buying in quantity. (f) Local stores. (Select answers to test questions on Part II.) MEETING VI (Study pages 127-163.) Marketing. (a) Meats Local cuts. (b) Vegetables. (c) Groceries. Get estimates in quantity from whole- sale store. (d) Comparison of local markets in sanitary conditions and practices, cold storage facilities, cuts of meat, prices, etc. Reference Home Economics. Chapter on Marketing. Maria Parloa. ($1.50, postage 16c.) (Select answers to test questions on Part III.) 568 SUPPLEMENT HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT BY BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. B. A rare opportunity is afforded us, through these orrespondence courses, of sharing the experiences of \nany different housekeepers of widely differing loca- ations and conditions. Through this supplement I am glad to have the opportunity of passing on the most valuable contributions, and I anticipate that they will amplify helpfully the material of the text. DIFFERING OPINIONS In some points there has seemed to be universal agreement. In others, there have been flatest contra- dictions of opinions, amusingly so, sometimes, if one could forget the trials and struggles involved. One, for instance, affirms with much positiveness that help by the hour, in place of resident labor, is entirely im- possible. "How can shop and store hours be com- pared with those in a house, or the work be re- adjusted to conform to such a plan? Hasn't the prob- lem two sides? Is it unreasonable of me to desire a late dinner when we are hurried at breakfast, irregu- lar for luncheon, and dinner at night is the only meal the family may take together and enjoy leisurely?'' The next paper taken up assured me, no less posi- tively, that the plan is admirable, the writer has tried 167 569 168 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT it and finds it a great relief and no more expensive, all things considered. LAUNDRY WORK The question of laundry work, done in the house or sent out, brought forth as contradictory views, al- though such conclusions could easily be derived as that all would find it a relief to send laundry work out if it could be done as well, under as sanitary condi- tions, and no more expensively. (Not many seemed to have much idea of the actual difference in expense.) It was easy to s^., also, that in practically no com- munity thus far reported from, are there satisfactory laundries, and prices are reported as too high to be tolerated. Where are the clubs ready to devote some of their time and attention to the solution of this problem for their communities? One has done so, very satisfactorily. These differences of opinion spring largely from the great differences in local conditions and in personal experiences, yet they emphasize the fact that each home has its own peculiar problems to be worked out, and the most that can be hoped for from suggestion from without is the laying of fundamental principles, together with opportunity of studying the experience of others as a guide in deciding our own course of action. DIVISION OF INCOME There is less material contributed on Household Accounts than I could wish, less, I hope, than may 570 DIVISION OF INCOME 169 be in a few years, if all the housekeepers who have registered resolves to know more of this side of their business in future, live up to their intention. Evi- dently one in fifty would be a generous estimate of those who keep anything bordering upon helpful ac- counts at present, even among our students. Fortunately some have been keeping careful rec- ords and the papers of such have been full of in- terest. They show that the budgets given in the text are fair both the actual and the ideal, for some rarely wise, able women are finding the ideal budget possible today and are living close to its standard. I wish it were possible to present every detail of the management of such, that "he who runs may read" their valuable lessons. There is no evidence of un- worthy curtailment. One catches, on the contrary, the spirit of highest, worthiest enjoyments and con- tentment. Here is one in a city of an Eastern state, where husband and wife without children have an income of $1,200 in yearly salary, paid monthly, MONTHLY BUDGET, FAMILY OF TWO OUTGO. Rent $16.00 For 3 rooms and bath on 2nd floor, with storage and cellar privileges. Low for location. Car fares $3.50 Food $22.50 Average per year not over $15.00. Operating expenses $6.50 Gas, light and heat, average 3-5 571 i;o HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Laundry 1.50 Cleaning, 2 half days 1.50 Life Insurance 7.00 Investment 10.00 Personal allowances 30.00 Incidentals 4.50 Total .$100.00 Each is allowed $15.00 for clothing, gifts, charity, higher life and personal saving. A physician's family of four in Southern California with income of $1,500, spend for rent 10 per cent, operating expenses 33 per cent, food 25 per cent, clothing 15 per cent, and higher life 17 per cent, while a family of four in Montana with the same in- come ($1,500) rent a good-sized house with yard large enough for kitchen garden and small poultry yard for $18 a month, or 14 2-5 per cent, and spend for operating expenses 15 per cent, food 20 per cent, clothing 18 per cent and higher life 30 per cent. These three are interesting taken together, as show- ing some conditions which lie practically beyond in- dividual control, yet which may have decided effect upon the result. The operating expenses in the physi- cian's family, for instance, have to cover office rental, care, lighting, heating, telephone, etc., which is in reality not a part of the household expenses. Con- trast also the accommodations possible in the East- ern city at $16 rent per month, and that very low for the place, and those available in Montana for a similar price. 572 DIVISION OF INCOME 17; It has long been observed that salaries and wages do not vary in different localities in any way com- mensurate with the great difference in living expenses. In Washington, D. C, a family of husband, wife and four children, aged 6 to 16 years, with income of $1,500, spend for. rent $360, operating expenses $80 to $90, food $400, clothing $350, with balance of $300 for higher life. MONTHLY DIVISION OF $125 Rent $25 Food 30 Fuel and Gas v 10 Clothing 10 Laundry 5 Furniture 10 Higher Life 10 Bank Account 25 "Three members of the family who are not at home during midday take lunch consisting of buttered toast or bread and preserves that I had put up dur- ing the summer. We do not use cereal at every breakfast nor do we have dessert after every dinner, but about four times a week. I have used tomatoes rather frequently, although they are high in price, but we enjoy them and prefer them to something else costing less. I 'can' my own fruit which can be used in many ways as a dessert. "Out of $30 I spend $10 for such provisions as sugar, tea, coffee, butter, flour, meal, lard, yeast, powder, salt, pepper, cereals, starch, blue, soap, etc. 573 172 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT This gives $20 for meats and vegetables and the family is thus maintained on $5 a week. "My son makes all fires and goes errands, cleans front and back yard. My daughter arranges the table, airs bed rooms and puts them in order before going to school. Once a week my laundress scrubs kitchen and cleans vestibule, front porch and bath room. I superintend the cooking and house in gen- eral. My husband frequently aids in marketing." MENU FOR A WEEK Sunday (Breakfast) Fruit Oranges (Two cut in half) Sliced Ham (broiled) Scrambled Eggs (two) Hot corn bread (two eggs) Coffee (with cream ) (Dinner) Roast of Beef Mashed potatoes Cream of asparagus on toast. Bread with butter. Lettuce Salad. Rice pudding. Monday (Breakfast) Cream of Wheat. Scrapple (fried crisp) Hot Biscuits. Sliced Tomatoes. Coffee. (Dinner) Sliced Beef heated in meat sauce. Boiled Onions Cream Sauce (a la cream) Rice. Celery Salad (celery, eggs, spring onions and parsley) Bread. Tea. Tuesday (Breakfast) Oat Meal. Bacon. Egg Omelet (with parsley) Wheat Muffins. Coffee. 574 DIVISION OF INCOME 173 (Dinner) Clear Soup. Brown Hash. Beauregard Eggs on toast. Sliced Oranges and bananas with cocoanut. Wednesday (Breakfast) Sausage Corn Muffins, with butter. Poached Eggs. Coffee. (Dinner) Ham (Boiled) Spinach with Egg (hard cooked). Bread. Sweet Potatoes Delmonico (potatoes and cheese) Prunes. Tea or Cocoa. Thursday (Breakfast) Cream of Wheat with bananas and milk. Frizzled Beef. Toast (buttered) Sliced Tomatoes. (Dinner) Soup. (Vegetable). Ham Croquettes with Tomato Sauce. Macaroni with Cheese. Pickle. Bread. Celery Salad. Canned Peaches (Home Made.) Friday (Breakfast) Cream of Salmon. Potato Chips. Hot Biscuits. Coffee. (Dinner) Baked Shad, or Trout. Mashed Potatoes. Sliced Tomatoes with Salad Dressing. Corn Bread. Tea. Saturday (Breakfast) Mush with milk. Bacon. Scrambled Eggs. Potato Chips. Plain Bread or Toast. Coffee. (Dinner) Sliced Ham. Creamed Cabbage. Boiled Potatoes. Bread. Apple Sauce. Tea. 575 174 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT DIVISION OF $4,500 Family in Providence, R. I., physician, wife, two children, two maids, laundress one and a half days a week: Rent, 10 per cent $4 5Q Food, 14 per cent 6 30 Operating expenses, 20 per cent.... 900 Clothing, 9 per cent .$405 Incidentals, 2 per cent 90 Office Expense, 25 per cent 11 25 Higher Life, savings, etc., 20 per cent 900 Total $4500 DETAILS OF OPERATING EXPENSES. Services (including wages of 2 maids, laundry, ashes removed, snow shoveled, rugs beaten, win- dows washed, etc ^ $5 50 Fuel i 30 Lighting 60 Telephone 64 Water tax 16 Ice ... 20 Household Supplies 60 Total $900 She says : "Nothing is more helpful to the practice of economy than a record from year to year of all expenditures. I have been a more successful house- keeper since I began keeping careful accounts. I have reduced my monthly food bill from $60 to $50 and less since I offered my cook 10 per cent on what we saved each month/' 576 DIVISION OF INCOME 175 FOOD ECONOMY The practice of wise economies has been so success- ful and gratifying in one family of my acquaintance within the past few years that I must share some of the details with those interested. The mother has succeeded in saving enough in four years to take herself and son on a European trip as a supplement to his education. The family live in the middle West and consist of three ladies and a boy of eighteen. The mother writes : "I am almost ashamed to mention the small sum we live on. It is by saving all left-overs, and by the exercise of quite a little fore- thought and some self-denial that it is accomplished. I do not mean to practice economy at the expense of health, however." The daily average for each person for the year for good material was 12 2-5 cents one year, 86 4-5 cents a week, another, 85 1-6 cents. A small garden, cared for on shares, aided some- what, although not largely, it supplied apples and pears in season and for preserving, and a part of the summer vegetables and potatoes. Sample menus with the hints accompanying them will be as suggestive as anything could be, to show the methods of economy. On a basis of 85 to 90 cents per person a week : Winter Breakfast, 6:30 a. m. Oatmeal with cream and sugar. Bread of Franklin mills and Pillsbury flours mixed. 577 176 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT Muffins or pancakes. .Butter. Postum with 1-3 hot skimmed milk. Jelly or fruit syrup: In summer various wheat cereals are used, as Ral- ston's Breakfast Food, Cream of Wheat and the like. In the spring toast and eggs occasionally. Dinner 12 m. 1. Stuffed beefs heart. Stewed onions. Mashed potatoes. Spiced pears. Entire wheat bread and butter. Gelatine dessert with whipped cream. 2. Remains of beef's heart warmed. Creamed turnips. Fried mashed potatoes. Green tomato pickles. Rice with butter and sugar. Not more than two hearts are served in a year. They are excellent for variety, but not desirable too often. A variety of meats and vegetables is given. In a three weeks' menu a chicken appears, serving two meals, roast pork, mutton chops, oysters, Hamburg steak, creamed dried beef, cod fish, salmon with white sauce, beef steak and boiled ham. The meat from soup bones is used in a pie or seasoned well and served on toast. Two turkeys are served in a season. A good roast once a month and steak or chops once a week. Occasionally a bisque or other soup is served when 578 FOOD ECONOMY 177 the materials are at hand, but, as a rule, the soup course is omitted with meats, being reserved for days when fish or lighter courses are served. There is never a spoonful of anything wasted. A cupful of corn left from one dinner is scalloped for the next. A little tomato may be added to it for a change. Spoonfuls of fruit left from suppers are made into dumplings for dessert. Pies are seldom served. Hickory nuts and dates are a favorite dessert Tomatoes are home-canned. Lima beans are used oc- casionally as one vegetable. When spring comes and eggs are plentiful omelettes are used, milk and egg puddings and custards. Supper 5 p. m. Bread and butter. Buns, cinnamon rolls, etc., cookies, gingersnaps or cake. Fruit. Cheese. Peanut butter or a little cold meat. Sometimes milk toast, warmed potatoes or macaroni. If for guests, pressed veal, scalloped oysters with olives and jelly in addition. A great variety of fruits is used. All varieties are preserved. In summer and fall fruit is a frequent dessert. We are all more or less familiar with the enforced economies of life, but this is an example of voluntary curtailing for a larger good, without harm. Would that more homes could catch the spirit of this housekeeper 579 i;8 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT who writes : "There are so many things I rather spend money for than for food!" In a study of present standards of life as interpreted through facts in regard to food (Report of Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics, 1902) some things are emphasized which many housekeepers are ignoring, wilfully or otherwise, and which affect the cost of living seriously as well as the comfort and health of the family. The data was gathered from homes in which the wage-earners were professional men. Wherever sev- eral maids were employed the increase in expense of food is disproportionately large. A family of three is instanced. With three employes, cook, waitress and companion, with income of $3,400, 26.5 per cent is spent for food. In contrast, a family of the same size with $100 less income, that employs a nurse maid and one general helper, spends only 13.9 per cent for food. In the first case much of the ordering and preparation of the food is left to employes ; in the latter the housekeeper attends to the ordering and plans the meals herself. The menus submitted at that time show a surprising lack of variety and an ignorance of simple, inexpensive foods that can be used interchangeably. "Soups were very little used. Cheaper cuts of meat almost invari- ably took the form of stews. In no case were lentils or peas substituted for beans. Fish, which is one of the less expensive and most digestible foods, was 580 FOOD ECONOMY 179 used sparingly. Macaroni, spaghetti, rice, hominy and other cereals were almost never substituted for pota- toes. The possibilities of cheese seemed quite unex- plored. There was very little variety in vegetables in spite of the fact that" in almo'st every case the families lived in large cities where the markets were bewil- deringly rich with a great variety." These facts are but further evidence of the mis- conception in these days on the part of many, of the duties of the housekeeper. What greater duty can she have than looking after her share of the business engagement entered into when she assumed the re- sponsibilities of a home and pledged herself to faith- fulness in her part? These duties are worthy of, yes, require, if properly attended to, the mental ability and intelligent care and interest of the trained, skillful women who assume them, and it is a pity that so many homes are being wrecked and others falling far short of their finest possibilities because of such neglect. I sometimes try to picture the outcry there would be if the wage- earners in our homes were equally lax in their respon- sibilities of providing! And yet, as I have tried to point out in the text, care in the consumption is as important in the home-finance as is providing, and the difference in comfort is greater, proportionately. What is to start a great wave of pride over our land that shall stir every home-maker who is at pres- ent indifferent to, or ignorant of these great facts, 581 i8o HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT with an ambition to prove her right to her position and make her a worthy partner in her home-world, not a mere enjoyer of another's strenuous labor! I know protest will at once arise in the form of such questions as "Where is the overworked home-maker to find time to do any more?" "What if the hus- bands prefer to hire help that their wives may have freer, happier lives?" "What can women do who haven't strength to assume such duties?" If you ask, I must answer frankly, that the noble home-makers whom I look upon with unbounded re- spect, and whose homes and lives are a constant uplift to all who know them, never seem to have difficulty in adjusting these matters. Do we not all know, in reality, that time is ours, after all, to spend as we choose to spend it. We may have fallen into the poor method, have followed the way of all about us until it seems imperative to spend it all as we do, but if we looked at these matters as really serious we should find adjustment some way. Health and strength are so largely in our keeping, also! Confusion of too many outside interests, over excitement, lack of well- ordered, systematic living are depriving many a woman of the life rightfully hers. Lack of sufficient healthful exercise does the same for others. How few seem to understand it! At least the results would seem to indicate it. 582 DOMESTIC SERVICE 181 DOMESTIC SERVICE And now we come to the perplexing, annoying problems of Domestic Service ! We wish we had some effective solutions to offer ! Some women, in dis- cussing the condition, have contributed valuable hints regarding successful methods employed which, if not wholly new, .might well be reconsidered by many an employer. Hugo Miinsterberg, contrasting conditions in Amer- ica and Germany, writes : "The conviction of every American girl that it is dignified to work in a mill, but undignified to be a cook in any other family, would never have reached its present intensity if an anti- domestic feeling were not in the background. If we seek for the most striking features of woman's work here and abroad, it would seem that the aim of the Gei man woman is to further the interests of the house- hold and the American to escape from the household." It is a striking fact that in almost every instance the students who have written on the subject place the lion's share of the fault with the employer. What inference shall we draw? It reminds us of a School of Housekeeping which was started to train employes, but after a two years' study of conditions it was changed to a course for employers in recognition of the fact that they, first, needed training. I quote below from a few of the papers : "All who have help do not need it, many can ill afford it. Some time ago I heard the eldest daughter 583 182 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT of a family of five girls urging her mother to get a servant since they were now in a large house. The mother asked what a servant would do in a family of so many girls. In reply the girl said, 'we shan't be considered anybody if we don't have a servant/ "It is in a spirit like this that much of the trouble lies. When women are willing themselves to learn the art of good housekeeping and are willing to do a part of it, no matter how small the share, to show the interest, and then by kindness, gentleness and thought- fulness seek to help the servants along in the world, the situation will be greatly improved." It is the women with this spirit and attitude who are having least trouble. "I always employ intelligent help and do by them as I wish to be done by. When a young girl is intel- ligent one has splendid material to work with in train- ing her to do as you would your own daughter. "I have had help, who, after leaving my home when I needed help no longer, would return at odd times for a half day when they thought I stood in need and offer to give me their time without pay, wishing thus to show their appreciation of my kindness toward them. I believe my success is due to consideration and thoughtfulness of their little fancies. "Thoughtfulness goes a great way in winning the love of one's help. When I do my shopping I always remember my help as any other member of my family, not with the thought of being repaid in services, but through kindness. I have no patience with the person 584 DOMESTIC SERVICE 183 who does another a kindness merely to gain some selfish point." One woman attributes her success to personal at- tachment and a consequent desire to please. She says: "So few have any idea of how to buy clothes or get any value for their money that I made it a point to show them how they could have good clothes inside and out instead of the showy things they were hav- ing. They appreciated the interest I took in them. I think that women who employ are themselves largely responsible for the conditions of domestic affairs. Reprimanding before others, constant nagging and giving few liberties are the methods of many." "Most women in service change in the hope of 'bet- tering' themselves, which is laudable but often disap- pointing. It would seem profitable for employers to devise a scheme of increasing wages at stated inter- vals until a certain point is reached, after that a sum as yearly reward for continued service. I knew a family where some such plan has been followed for a number of years with great success. The lack of promotion in household service must be deadening to ambition." An Iowa student writes : "My observation has been that well ordered house- holds and households where the servants know just what they must do and be held responsible for, have been more successful even though the work was more 585 184 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT arduous than homeG where there was no system, the mistress capricious and all sorts of personal service was required. I believe that when housekeeping be- comes a business, women will have trusted and valued employes as do their husbands." HELP BY THE HOUR Here is an interesting experience of help by the hour contributed by the Director of the School. "After our raw boned, unprepossessing, though faithful Irish girl married a German with four children (to her subsequent regret) we had the usual string of unsatis- factory maids, so we decided to try help by the hour as recommended in Household Management. The fol- lowing 'ad' was put into an evening paper : ''WANTED A helper for light housework from 8 to 12 every morning. No washing. Pay $4.50 a week. Extra pay for extra time. "We expected to have only a few applicants, but that same evening, which was cold and rainy, ten ap- plied and during the next two days the number was raised to over fifty. The first applicant was accepted and while she proved fairly satisfactory, some of the others who applied looked more promising. After about two months we put in another advertisement asking for service from 7:30 to 12:00; pay, $4.00 a week. This time we had forty applicants. After about six months we advertised again, making the hours from 7:30 to 12:30, pay $3.50 per week. This third time we had about thirty applicants. Under the 586 HELP BY THE HOUR 185 last conditions the rate of pay comes down to 10 cents an hour. "This experience would seem to prove conclusively that, in Chicago at least, there is no lack of women willing to do housework, while it is almost impossible to obtain a satisfactory servant at $5.00 a week. Over 1 20 women in our locality were anxious for practically the same employment under different conditions. "The arrangement was not satisfactory as to hours, so we made the arrangement with the present helper to come at 8 o'clock and stay until n and come again from 4 130 to 7 130 p. m. every week day, and on Sun- day from 10 until 2 o'clock. This makes forty hours per week regularly, the rate of pay being as before, 10 cents per hour. The worker lives within a ten- minute walk. "We have a laundress one day a week who does the washing and makes a start on the ironing, which the helper finishes during the week. She receives $1.50 for nine hours' work. "Breakfast is a simple meal with us. When we have cooked cereal it is cooked the night before. Fruit, eggs or bacon, coffee and toast complete the meal, which is easily prepared in less than half an hour. "Breakfast is finished when the helper arrives in the morning. She makes the beds, dusts the floors and cleans the bath room. Then clears off the break- fast dishes, washes them and straightens the kitchen 587 i86 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT and dining room and is ready for the ironing or for any special cleaning. She leaves the table set for lunch and goes home to her own lunch. In the after- noon the helper washes up the luncheon dishes which have been rinsed and left in the kitchen ; prepares dinner and serves it at 6:15. She usually gets the dinner dishes washed and leaves the table set for breakfast by 7:30, but sometimes has to stay half an hour extra if dinner is late. "When we wish to go out in the evening we have to leave someone with the children, so the helper is kept until we return, or if especially late, she stays all night for 25 cents extra. The extra time runs from nothing to $1.00 a week, according to circumstances. "Our experience has been that this is a much less expensive arrangement than paying a maid, who sleeps and eats in the house and does the laundry work, $5.00 a week. The helper has no meals in our house unless she stays over time, in which case 10 cents is deducted for the food and time spent. "According to the prize schedules published in the department of 'The Housekeeper and Her Helper' in the Ladies' Home Journal for September, '06, in a one-servant household the working time of the maid was about 70 hours per week a fair average. This allows for two afternoons a week off and the even- ings after the evening meal is cleared away but does not take into account the time spent by the maid in eating her own meals. This might fairly be reckoned 588 HELP BY THE HOUR 187 at seven hours a week, leaving a balance of 63 hours spent in actual work. In most households the food which the maid consumes could not be reckoned at less than 30 cents a day or say $2.00 a week. If the maid receives $5.00 or even $4.50 a week in wages, it is ap- parent that her services cost over 10 cents an hour for the time actually spent in work, allowing nothing for the rent of her room and extra supplies and waste. "Our experience has been that food bills are a third less ($10 to $12 per month) than when we had a resi- dent maid. This is accounted for in part from the bills have averaged $i a month less than before. Then we have the use of the room which the maid would occupy and do use it. The proportional rental for the room might be reckoned at $4 or $5 per month. "With our family of five two children and a baby housekeeping is a much more difficult problem than in the average household. We live in a heated seven- room apartment, hot water and janitor service fur- nished. In summer the washing is appalling and sometimes the flat work is sent to the laundry. It seems as if double the amount of cleaning were neces- sary in a soft coal city like Chicago compared with that in a suburb of Boston. Certainly a third more clean- ing is required. "Our experience has been that those who apply for work are much more intelligent as a class than the general run of servants and that they work very much more rapidly and efficiently. More careful planning 589 1 88 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT and more forethought is necessary than with 'all the time' help. The feeling of relief comes, however, be- cause we know, and our helper knows, that plenty others to fill her flace can be found if she is not satis- fied with the work, or if she does not come up to our requirements. So far as our family is concerned we feel that the servant problem has been solved." SYSTEMS OF WORK Two systems of work for the week have seemed especially suggestive. In the first the housekeeper does her own work. I am particularly impressed with the wisdom of the plan for Monday. It is always harder to have washing come on Monday than on any other day. It is simply a long-honored custom. We need to break away from such if they are not sensible. Extra cleaning is needed Monday when none is done on Sunday. SCHEDULE Monday Pick-up day after Sunday. Brush Sunday clothes and put away. Clean bath room and put clothes to soak for washing. Tuesday Washing and cleaning kitchen. Wednesday Ironing, and arranging clothes to be mended. Thursday Clean bed rooms and hall. Sew or mend. Friday Clean sitting room, parlor and dining room. Bake bread. Saturday Clean kitchen, lamps. Cooking. Most households consist of several departments. In this there are two maids and a laundress once a week. The duties of the housemaid are : Every day (if win- ter), close ventilators, see that registers are open. Get 590 SYSTEMS OF WORK 189 dining room ready for breakfast, taking out to kitchen dishes needing to be heated. If summer, open win- dows, arrange living room. Serve breakfast. Clear table, leaving dishes rinsed and prepared to be washed. The bed rooms, which have been left ready, bed clothes, airing and windows opened by occupants are put in order. Breakfast dishes washed. SCHEDULE Monday Morning Two of the bedrooms are swept and "thorough cleaned.'' Tuesday Morning This maid irons the table line, small pieces, napkins, doileys from her own choice. Wednesday Morning Bathroom and another bedroom "thorough cleaned." Thursday Silver cleaned. Friday Drawing room. Saturday Library and dining room and hall. "Luncheon served at i, dinner at 6. Each girl has every other evening. Each has an afternoon. We have dinner on Sunday at i 130, after which both maids have the rest of the day and evening, only on extraor- dinary occasions being asked to return for any sup- per. Then if possible, each is asked in turn. The housemaid is responsible for keeping the china closets in order and her kitchen (in other houses it would be 'butler's pantry.') 'The cook prepares three meals per day, breakfast at 7:45, luncheon at i, dinner at 6. She is responsible for the cleanliness and order of the kitchen, the ad- joining pantry and ice closet, the back porch and maid's water closet. She assists the laundress with 591 igo HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT the ironing. She arranges her own time for her clean- ing, reserving Saturday for extra baking. The fur- nace man cares for the furnaces, sifting also ashes from range and cares for walks, shoveling snow in winter, cutting grass in summer, also works by hour at washing windows, beating rugs, etc." VALUE OF THE INDIVIDUAL HOME "The home is the center of all that is best in life. It is the greatest moulder of character. All the quali- ties of Christian manhood and womanhood, love, rev- erence, unselfishness, forbearance, order, regard for property and for the rights of others, should find their beginnings here. The strength of civic and natural life, respect for government, honest administration of public trusts, depend in large degree upon the high ideals of the home life. Family traditions are better fostered. The home is the housewife's 'place of busi- ness.' "Whatever affects the home affects the state. The moral standing of a nation depends upon the home life of its individuals. We cannot get a true idea of the sacredness of life without having some place, however humble, where high standards of living govern the ac- tions of its individuals. We have poems that stir the emotions and quicken into activity the best interests on the subject of 'Home,' but what poet ever attempted to stir the hearts of a nation to heroic deeds by writ- ing a poem on the 'Boarding House.' " 592 HOME CARE OF THE SICK. TT IS the minority, not the majority of people, who ^ can afford the luxury of a trained nurse, especially in cases of protracted and chronic illnesses. These lessons are intended to help those who cannot always command the services of a trained nurse, to teach how to carry out the doctor's orders, what to look for and observe in his absence, so that by giving him a definite report of what the patient's condition has been he may be able to work more understand- ingly, be able to Diagnose the disease more quickly, be surer of how the patient is progressing, and of the influence the medicine ordered is having. And to teach above all how to handle and move patients with- out tiring them, how to render them comfortable, there- by ensuring rest of nerve and body. What to do in illness is purposely omitted in these lessons, except in very simple troubles and in cases of emergency. The "what to do" is for the doctor to de- cide, the "how to do" for the mother to know. Incal- culable harm is continually being done by the latter encroaching on the doctor's, prerogative. Many a mother has treated her child for supposed colic and only called the doctor in after some days when the pain has refused to yield to her treatment. In very Aims of the Lessons The Doctor' Province. 593 2 HOME CARE OF THE SICK .many cases the treatment has been the worst thing possible for, what has proved to be appendicitis, gastro- enteritis, or other serious abdominal trouble. what There are few who can afford to run up the doctor's the Should bill by calling him in unnecessarily. To avoid this, Know and yet not run the risk of endangering the lives of those entrusted to her care, especially the little chil- dren who cannot tell clearly where the pain is or how badly they feel, it is imperative that every mother should know how to count the pulse, take the tempera- ture, and be cognizant of at least a few of the primary symptoms of the most common diseases, especially the contagious ones, where the lack of early recognition and isolation may imperil the health or life of others. The following table gives the primary symptoms, period of incubation, and usual time required for iso- lation of the most common contagious diseases. The number of days between exposure to and the develop- ment of a disease is called the period of incubation. FIRST SYMPTOMS IN SOME OF THE MOST COMMON DISEASES CONTAGIOUS DISEASES Mumps Days 14-21 Swelling of the From day when average 18 glands between swelling first ap- ear and jaw, on pears till 10 days either side or after, usually 3 both. weeks. 594 FIRST SYMPTOMS OF DISEASES CONTAGIOUS DISEASES (Continued) DISEASE Chicken- pox German Measles PERIOD OF INCUBATION Days 12-16 average 14 Days 6- 1 8 average 14 Measles Days 9-16 average 12 Small- pox Days 9-16 average 16 SYMPTOMS Slight fever, after 24 hours small pimples appear on back and face. Very slight fever, rash (if any) appears first on face, may only last a few hours. There may be headache and nausea. Sneezing, running from eyes and nose, face swol- len, sore throat, cough, f e V e r gradually rising, rash appears first on face and neck. Chill, rapidly ris- ing temperature, intense head- ache, pain in back and legs, rash, small, red, hard pimples, appearing first on face and wrists. TIME OF ISOLATION From onset until last crust has fallen, usually 14 days. From 2 days be- fore rash till symptoms are gone. Some- times 2 weeks. From first ca- tarrhal s y m p - toms until des- quamation ceas- es, usually .24 days. From onset until last crust has fallen, usually 6 weeks. 595 Children's Diseases HOME CARE OF THE SICK CONTAGIOUS DISEASES (Continued) DISEASE PERIOD OF INCUBATION Scarlet- Days 1-7 fever average 7 TIME OF ISOLATION From appearance of rash till des- quamation has entirely ceased ; usually 6 weeks. Diph- theria Days 1-6 average 6 From onset till germs have en- t i r e 1 y disap- peared. SYMPTOMS Sudden vomiting, sometimes phill or convulsions, high tempera- ture, sore throat, tongue coated on edges, bright red in center, gener- al malaise, typ- ical rash appear- ing first on chest and shoulders. Especially in the beginning of the disease the tem- perature is not as high 'as in tonsillitis ; head- ache, nausea, sore throat, with white patches on the tonsils. As it is sometimes difficult even for the physician to dis- tinguish between diphtheria and tonsillitis without taking a culture for examination, when white patches appear on a child's throat it should be isolated and a doctor called in at once. DISEASES NOT CONTAGIOUS Colic. Give castor oil, then a few drops of pepper- mint in hot water (never soothing syrup) ; keep the baby warm and lying on his abdomen. Gentle rubbing in a circular direction, and the application of hot flan- nels will generally .relieve it. If not, a physician 596 FIRST SYMPTOMS OF DISEASES 5 should be notified as continued abdominal pain is a symptom of many serious disorders. Cholera Infantum.' Caused by over or improper feeding, heat and impure air. Symptoms : Diarrhoea and intestinal pain, excessive thirst, but no appetite. Try no home remedies, seek medical aid at once. Intestinal Obstruction. Symptoms : Obstinate con- stipation, followed by vomiting and abdominal disten- tion ; usually not much temperature. Get medical ad- vice promptly, as immediate operation may be im- perative. Convulsions. Caused by indigestion, worms, difficult dentition, or fright. Muscular twitchings coming on suddenly, sometimes even during sleep. Send for the doctor immediately, but do not await his arrival to put the baby in a hot bath. Give castor oil and an enema, according to directions given on page 55, using, if the child is small, a rubber catheter for a rectal tube. Pneumonia. Primary symptoms : Chill followed by high temperature, cough, pain in chest, expectora- tion which gradually becomes rust colored and bloody. Put patient to bed and send for the doctor imme- diately. Typhoid Fever. Primary symptoms : Temperature rising a little higher each day, nausea, headache, pain in back and limbs, nose bleed, sometimes constipation, sometimes diarrhoea, watery, yellow stools, abdominal pain. Put patient to bed and only allow liquid diet until the doctor comes. 597 6 HOME CARE OF THE' SICK Meningitis. May develop suddenly with continuous convulsions, or come on gradually with symptoms of fretfulness, restlessness, headache, vomiting, and in- tolerance of light and noise. Put patient to bed in a quiet, dark, well-aired room and only allow liquid diet till the doctor comes. Croup. There are two forms of croup the true or membranous and the false or spasmodic. The former is always associated with diphtheria, but since the use of antitoxine it has become a much rarer complication, seldom occurring when antitoxine is used. It comes on gradually. False Croup False croup comes on suddenly, generally in the middle of the night ; it is as a rule the result of ex- posure to damp and cold, excitement, or indigestion. The spasm is the result of the spasmodic closing of the glottis. Though not dangerous, it is very distress- ing and calls for immediate treatment. Relief usually can be obtained best by applying hot fomentations to the throat, inducing vomiting by giving a drink of tepid water and salt a teaspoonful to the glass and by steam inhalations. The most effective way of giving inhalations is with the croup kettle and canopy. The quickest way to im- provise these is to tie an umbrella to the top of the child's crib and over this drape two sheets, pinning them to the sides of the bed. They must overlap about one inch and hang down far enough, over the sides and back of the bed to be tucked under the mat- 598 DISEASES 7 tress. The lower third of the front space is left open for the admission of fresh air. Water is kept boiling in a kettle at the back of the bed by a gas or oil stove Canopy for Giving Steam Inhalations Made with a Sheet and Umbrella and a cone of cardboard or stiff paper is attached to the spout and inserted between the overhanging sheets to carry the steam over the child's head. 599 8 HOME CARE OF THE SICK Minor Troubles In nearly all cases of slight indisposition, even diarrhoea, a cathartic such as castor oil or calomel, fol- lowed by salts such as Rochelle salts, magnesium sul- Rear View of Croup Canopy Showing Stove, Kettle, and Tube for Steam phate, or seidlitz powder, five or six hours later, to- gether with rest and fluid or soft diet is indicated. Give as little medicine as possible without a doctor's order. 600 THE CHOICE, FURNISHING AND CARE OF THE SICK> ROOM Sunshine, pure fresh air, and freedom from noise and odors are the principal things to be considered in choosing the sick-room. When possible it is advisa- ble to have a room with a southern exposure. If there is a fireplace or grate in the room so much the better, ? 3 a chimney is an excellent medium for ventilation. Despite the fact that the sick-room at the top .of the house gives many stairs to climb, it is better to have it there. It is further removed from the noises of the street and house and the air is generally purer. Only necessary articles of furniture should be re- Furnishings tained ; all heavy hangings, draperies, and upholstered furniture must be removed. Care must be taken, how- ever, that the room is not made too bare and unat- , tractive. Short, washable curtains ; clean, white linen covers for the tables ; a few f/esh flowers will help to make the sick-room bright and cheerful. Flowers should be removed at night, the water they are in changed daily, and they should never be tolerated after they begin to fade. The ideal bed is iron or brass ; single or three- The Bed quarter width. The double bed is unadvisable, for owing to its width, the mattress is apt to sink in the middle and it is then almost impossible to keep the under sheets drawn tightly enough to prevent wrinkles. The bed should be at least twenty-five inches in 601 10 HOME CARE OF THE SICK The Mattress Lighting height, but if it is not, can easily be made so by plac- ing heavy blocks of wood under each leg. Hollows about two inches in depth should be made in the blocks to fit the ends of the legs. Especially if the patient is liable to be ill long, the trouble of doing this is well repaid by the added convenience in lifting and working over the patient. A hair mattress is by far the best kind to have ; the feather one the worst. Not only is the latter too heat- ing, but when occupied it is almost impossible to make the bed properly. The bed should be placed far enough from the walls to give access on all sides, care being taken to avoid having the light in the patient's eyes. The best plan is to have the window behind the bed ; then more sun and light can be admitted without disturbing the patient. Except in certain cases, it is a mistake to keep the s^ick-room darkened. Besides the bed, there should be two or three chairs in- the room ; one a comfortable arm chair with high back. If upholstered, it should be encased in a pretty, light, washable cover. Rocking chairs should never be permitted in the sick-room ; when sitting in them one is almost sure to rock, and the motion is very apt to irritate the patient. Two tables are necessary ; on one should be kept writing material, where the doctor can write his orders and the nurse keep the recorj of the patient's condi- 602 THE SICK ROOM n tion. The second table can be near the bedside to hold the patient's bell; also her food-tray; the latter must always be removed as soon as the meal is finished. Never leave empty or half empty glasses of milk, cups of broth, etc., standing by the patient. There is a bedside table made on purpose for use Bedside in the sick-room which is very convenient. The top Table extends over the bed in front of the patient; it is ad- justable and has a foot piece which goes under the bed and keeps the table from upsetting. (See page 30.) Medicine bottles and all necessary utensils should be kept in an adjoining room, if possible. The floor should be swept with a soft broom cov- ered with cheese cloth, or other soft material which is free from lint. Carpets are very objectionable; small rugs which can be removed and shaken daily, being preferable. If the carpet must remain, see that it is kept well dusted, and that no dust is raised while doing so. The best way to do this to to sweep with a damp broom, going over it afterwards with a damp cloth pinned over the broom. Do not have this too wet or it will injure the carpet. When it is necessary for the nurse to sleep in the room, the cot is the most convenient arrangement, as it is comfortable, inexpensive and can be easily re- moved in the day time. Never use a feather duster but clean, soft dust cloths Dusting which may be washed out every day. Except for the 603 12 HOME CARE OF THE SICK Ventilation Airing varnished furniture, it is better to have the duster slightly damp, as this will prevent scattering of the dust. The air in the sick-room must be as pure as the air outside. The value of fresh air as an aid to recovery is sadly underrated. The open fireplace is one of the best methods of ventilation. A current of air can be created in summer by placing a lamp or a candle in the chimney place, and in winter a wood or a coal fire. Next to a fireplace, an open stove gives the best means of ventilation. Window ventilation is best obtained by double win- dows with double sashes. -The lower sash of the outer window is raised about two feet; the upper sash of the inner window lowered about the same distance. The passage of air being thus directed upward, a di- rect draught upon the patient will not be produced, if windows and doors on the opposite side of the room are kept closed. Where there are single windows, the same effect can be obtained by tacking the lower end of a piece of cotton, about twelve inches in depth, to the frame of the upper sash and to the top of the win- dow frame; then lower the sash about ten inches. When less air is desired the lower sash can be raised and a board fitted to the opening; the air then passes upward between the sashes. In addition to this slight continuous ventilation, the window must be opened and the entire air of the sick- room changed at least twice a day. In doing this, be 604 CARE OF THE PATIENT 13 careful that there is no draught and that the patient has extra blankets. If there is no screen at hand, a large umbrella will prove quite effective in protecting the patient's head from the direct current of air. If it is necessary to warm the air before it enters the patient's room, the window in an adjoining, well-heat- ed room may be opened, the door between the rooms being left slightly ajar. The corridor or bath room (especially the bath room) should not be used for this purpose. Hard coal should be used if the room is heated by a stove on account of its freedom from dust. In removing the ashes, they should be sprinkled with water first to prevent flying, then quietly shoveled up. The coal can be added in paper bags filled outside, thus avoiding all noise likely to disturb the patient. The temperature of the sick-room should be 68 de- grees F at night and 70 degrees F during the day. CARE OF THE PATIENT A few essential points to be remembered in caring for the sick may be stated briefly. To properly care for a patient those undertaking the responsibility of the nursing must take proper care of themselves. Rest, recreation, and out of door exer- cise are positive necessities. If the same member of the family has both day and night nursing to do she should always dress herself as comfortably as possible for the night. A cold bath Fuel and Ashes Care of the Nurse 605 I 4 HOME CARE OF THE SICK in the morning, with complete change of clothing, will be found very refreshing. Dresses of. light wash material should always be worn when attending the sick, 'but dresses and skirts must never be stiffly starched, as the rustling noise they make is very annoying to patients. Squeaking shoes are another abomination. 'Nevers" Never whisper in or near the sick-room. Never discuss the patient's condition with her, or with anyone else in her hearing. Never tell the patient what her temperature, pulse, etc., are, not even when they are normal. Never tell the patient what medication you are giv- ing her. Never lean nor sit on the patient's bed, and be care- ful not to knock against it in passing. When speaking to a patient always stand in front of her, where she can see you ; be particularly careful not to speak to her suddenly from behind, for when people are ill and nervous they are easily startled. Keep door and window hinges well oiled ; nothing is more aggravating than a squeaking door. When windows rattle, wedge them apart between the sashes with pieces of wood or newspaper. At Night Especially at night, or, rather, when getting ready for the night, attention must be paid to anything likely to prove a disturbing element to the patient's rest. Before the patient goes to sleep see that you have everything at hand that you are likely to need for the When Speaking 606 CARE OF THE PATIENT 15 night : Extra blankets a shade for the light, if neces- sary coal prepared in paper bags, as previously de- scribed milk water all the medicines you will re- onire ice, etc. Wrapping the ice in flannel or news- paper will keep it from melting. A hat pin makes an excellent and noiseless ice-pick. A large tin pan, en- veloped in a blanket, will make a serviceable refriger- ator in which to keep your ice, broth, milk and water. A shade for the lamp or gas can be easily made out of green or other dark colored cambric, but be sure that the globe over which it is pinned is far enough from the flame to avoid scorching the cambric. An uncomfortable bed is a great addition to the mis- Bed eries of an invalid, therefore, one of the first essentials Makm & to be learned is how to make a bed. The mattress is covered by a sheet, stretched tightly and tucked firmly as far under it as possible-; folding the corners like an envelope helps to keep it firm. Another sheet called the "draw sheet" is also used The under the patient ; this is put on with the length across Draw sheet the bed, thus allowing a considerable fold under the mattress, thereby securing a further means of keep- ing the sheet tight. When putting the draw sheet on care must be taken to have it perfectly straight; it is first tucked in on one side, well under the mattress. In tucking in the second side it is best to begin in the middle, going first towards the bottom, then from the middle to the top, pulling it very tightly. The top sheet and blankets (single blankets are preferable to 607 16 HOME CARE OF THE SICK double) should be put on separately, the corners being folded in, in the same manner as the under sheet. If it is not convenient to obtain a spread of dimity, or other light material, it is better to use a sheet, as the ordinary spread is heavy and gives comparatively lit- tle warmth. Protecting When it is necessary to protect the mattress a rub- the Mattress ber sheet is placed between the lower and draw sheets. White double faced rubber is the nicest for home use. The single faced rubber will answer the purpose and is cheaper, but it is not so easily kept clean. Either can be obtained at any rubber store. When impossible to get the regular rubber sheet- ing thin oil cloth, such as is used for covering tables, will serve. In cases of emergency, several thicknesses of newspapers may be used until something better can be obtained. CHANGING THE BED OF A HELPLESS PATIENT Before starting to change the bedding be sure that you have everything necessary near at hand, and that the bed clothes are all well aired, perfectly dry and warm. First take off the spread, fold it neatly; next take off the top blanket, and hang it out to air. Fold the other blanket and upper sheet over the patient, leav- ing the ends just long enough to cover her when you turn her over. This method answers a threefold pur- pose: (i) it has a neat appearance; (2) it replaces the 608 CHANGING THE DRAW SHEET i8 ' HOME CARE OF THE SICK discarded blanket, and (3) the clothes are not in the way while you work. Loosen the lower sheets by rais- ing the mattress with one hand while drawing out the sheets with the other. Raising the mattress is impor- tant, because the draw sheet has been tucked so far under the mattress that otherwise you risk not only jolting the patient but also tearing the sheets. Re- move the pillows and if the patient does not object to lying flat for a while leave them out; if she does, one can be replaced. It is necessary to take them out to turn them and to make sure that there are no crumbs caught between them or in the pillow cases. The night gown is the next thing changed. Have the patient lie on her back and flex her knees ; if she is well enough .she can easily raise herself while in this position; if not, place one hand under the buttocks and raise her, as you draw the gown up with the other hand, then raise the shoulders in like manner, drawing the gown up over them and -the head before taking out the arms. In putting on the clean gown roll the skirt up, and put the patient's head through the hole. Putting your hand through one sleeve grasp the patient's hand and draw it through ; then do likewise with the other sleeve. The gown is then pulled down in the same manner as the soiled one was taken off. The easiest way to change the under sheets is first to turn the patient on her side. To do this, stand on the side towards which you will 610 CHANGING THE BED ^ 19 turn her, slip one hand over and under her, with your arm slightly crooked, so that the hand and forearm will support and control one shoulder, the elbow sup- port the back of the head, and the arm the other shoul- der. Slip your other arm under the patient slantwise across the buttocks, so that the hand is under the small of the back. In this way the patient is well sup- ported as you gently turn her towards you. If there is an assistant, one can hold her thus while the other manipulates the sheets; if not, and the patient needs to be supported, a pillow placed well up against her back will answer the purpose. The sheets to be changed are folded close to the back of .the patient, making the fold as flat as pos- sible. The clean sheet is either folded fan shape or rolled to its centre, the roll or fold, as the case may be, is placed close to the sheet being removed, the loose edge is tucked in, as far under the mattress as possible, the patient is then rolled gently over on to the clean sheet, the soiled one removed, and the clean sheet well stretched, and tucked in according to the directions given in the making of the bed. The top sheet is next changed. Placing the clean sheet over the sheet and blanket which are still over the patient; on top of this put the blanket which has been airing, draw the other blanket and sheet from underneath, then tuck in the clean ones, put on the second blanket, if one is necessary, then the spread, and arrange the pillows. Turning the Patient 611 20 HOME CARE OF THE SICK The draw sheet, upper sheet, and night gown should be changed twice a day when the patient is not too ill ; if they are not soiled when removed, air them well, after which' they may.be used again. When the patient is not allowed to be bathed, her back should be washed with soap and warm water,, rubbed with alcohol and powdered with talcum pow- der. This should be done while she is turned on her side for the changing of the sheet. When the night gown is closed in the back it is sometimes more con- . venient not to put the clean gown on until the pa- tient's back has been washed. In such circumstances wrap a small shawl around the patient. Special When for any reason it is inadvisable to move the patient, and it is necessary for her to lie on her back, it is convenient to have short gowns, open in the back, buttoned at the back of the neck and shoulders. The skirts can be drawn from under the patient, enab- ling her to lie on the sheet, which it is comparatively easy to keep free from wrinkles. Another important advantage of the short gown is the ease with which it can be changed. Large collars or ruffles at the neck of the gown are very objectionable in illness. When changing the gown of a patient whose arm is disabled, the sleeve should be taken from the affected arm last, and the sleeve of the fresh gown put on first. LIFTING AND HANDLING THE PATIENT When lifting a patient it is important to stand firmly ; to do this the feet should be placed well apart. 612 LIFTING THE PATIENT 21 bracing one foot against the leg of the bed. Try to bend the back as little as possible, make the knees do the bending. In lifting, endeavor to have the weight come on your shoulders, not on your back. For example, when a patient is to be helped into a sitting position, bend your knees till your shoulder is only A BACK REST, CANVAS COVERED. slightly higher than the patient's, then have her put her arm across your shoulders, have your shoulder di- rectly under her armpit, your elbow supporting her head, your hand under her other armpit your other hand is thus free to arrange the pillows. Now raise the patient. By using this method your shoulder bears the burden, whereas if you attempt to raise the patient by bending your back, or if you have the pa- tient's arm around your neck, the entire weight must S13 22 HOME CARE OF THE SICK be sustained by your back, which will soon become strained. A back rest should always be provided when the patient sits up in bed for the first time. Many varieties of these are to be had, and they are inexpensive ; some are made entirely of wood, others have a wooden framework with canvas stretched across it. A good substitute for the back rest is a straight back chair turned upside down. The pillows should be placed across the rest in such a way that the head will not be thrown forward and that the small of the back will be well supported. When the patient is obliged to sit up all, or nearly all the time, something should be provided for her to brace her feet against. A convenient arrangement for this purpose is a board the same length as the width of the bed and about twelve inches wide, placed between double folds of strong muslin which must be long enough to tie around the head of the bed when the board is supporting the patient's feet. The board may be padded on one side if desired. When a patient has slipped down in bed and needs to be drawn up, place one arm under the shoulders in the usual crooked position so that your elbow may support her head, and^ taking a firm grip under the up- per part of her arm, put your other arm under the thighs, and move the patient gently upwards. If well enough the patient can flex her knees and help in the movement. 614 HANDLING THE PATIENT 23 If a patient is so heavy that two persons are re- quired to move her, they should stand on opposite sides of the bed and reaching across the patient's back firmly grasp her under the armpits, their crossed arms thus forming a V-shaped rest for her head while they clasp each other's hands under her thighs. When the patient is well enough to help herself, put- ting a stout, broad piece of muslin round the foot of the bed with the ends long enough to be grasped, will help her to assume a sitting position ; one round the top of the bed will help her to pull herself up higher in bed. If necessary to change your charge from one bed to another, place the beds about five feet apart, parallel with each other, with the head of one on a line with the foot of the other. Unless the patient is very light there should be two to lift, both standing on the same side (between the beds). One puts her arms under the shoulders and buttocks, the other under the back and thighs. If possible have the patient hold herself stiff. Lift her gently in unison, turn round and place her on the fresh bed. If the patient is heavy three may be required to do this well. Under these circumstances the first lifter supports the head and small of the back, the second the shoulders and thighs, the third the buttocks and under the knees. When the lighting of the room or other considera- tions render it unadvisable to change the position of Changing the Patient 615 CHANGING THE MATTRESS 25 the head of the bed, they are placed near together with the heads on a line. The patient is lifted from the far side of the first bed, carried around between the two, and laid , down in the second bed. This entails a longer carry, but if all work in unison it is not dif- ficult. TO CHANGE THE MATTRESS WITH THE PATIENT IN BED To the uninitiated this seems an almost impossible feat. In reality, if done according to rule, it is not much harder than changing the under sheets. If the patient is heavy four people will be required to ac- complish this deftly, two on either side of the bed. The sheets are loosened on all sides; the top sheets and the blankets treated in the same manner as when the bed clothes were changed ; the under sheets are rolled tightly up to the patient's side (the roll being undermost). Using these rolls for support, the patient is moved to one side of the mattress ; this side is then pulled to the centre of the bed, curving the mattress upwards ; the fresh mattress is placed alongside, the patient lifted by the bed-clothes on to it, the dis- carded mattress removed, the fresh one drawn into place, and the patient lifted to the centre; the sheets are again unrolled and tucked in place. THE PREVENTION AND CURE OF BED SORES A bed sore is gangrene, or death of the tissue of the affected parts. The bony prominences such as the lower part of the spine, the shoulder blades, elbows, 617 BED SORES 27 and heels are the parts most likely to be affected. Moisture, wrinkles, crumbs, and a too long continu- ance in one position are the pre-disposing causes, therefore these conditions must all be guarded against. The presence o moisture is generally due to per- spiration, or discharge from wound, bowels or blad- der. When the two latter are the causes pads made of oakum or jute placed in cheese-cloth or old muslin, put on the patient like a child's diaper, will save the bed linen. These must be changed as often as neces- sary, and the patient well washed with warm water and soap ; dusting with a little talcum, starch, or rice powder will help to keep the skin dry and soft and it will also prevent chapping. Crumbs and wrinkles must also be guarded against. By keeping the draw sheet tightly drawn and tucked far under the mattress the latter will be overcome ; the former must be looked for after every meal ; brushing them out with the hand is the most efficient way, but a small whisk-broom may be used. At least twice a day all parts likely to be affected, especially the back, should be washed with warm water and soap, rubbed with 50 per cent alcohol, and dusted with talcum. This not only helps to prevent bed- sores but is unspeakably refreshing to the weary in- valid. Avoid using too much powder or it will cake and do more harm than good. A preparation of equal parts collodion and castor oil painted over the surface will often prevent a break- down of the tissue, by forming an artificial skin. Avoid Moisture Artificial Skin 619 28 HOME CARE OF THE SICK Relieving Pressure Care of a Sore Frequent change of position is another important means in the prevention of bed-sores. Prop the pa- tient over on her side by putting a couple of pillows lengthwise behind her, one under her shoulders, the other under the lower part of her t>ack. Rings made of batting or sheet wadding wound with bandages are excellent mediums for relieving pressure. They should be made with the hole just large enough to permit of the bony prominence fitting into it. When the patient has to lie for some time on her back, often consider- able relief is given by flex- ing the knees. They can be supported either by a pillow doubled and tied to hold it so (the pointed side placed next the body), or a cylin- drical pillow made like the old-fashio-ned bolster, only smaller and stuffed with hair. Small pillows or hot water bags rilled with cool water, placed under the small of the back, will help to make a long continu- ance of the dorsal position bearable. All pillows should be shaken and turned frequently. If the skin should become broken, the resulting sore should be washed daily with bichloride of mercury 1-2000, and a dressing applied. Gauze soaked in balsam of Peru or an ointment made of castor oil and zinc oxide powder are generally found efficacious. Wadding Ring, to Relieve Pressure 620 CONVALESCENCE The most anxious moments in nursing are certainly when the disease is at its height, but by far the most trying are, as a rule, during the time of convalescence. It is then that the greatest exercise of tact, discern- ment, self-control and patience on the part of the at- tendant are necessary. Relapse, except in the germ diseases, is nearly al- ways due to over- feeding, over-exertion, or nervous excitement. The diet is a very impor- tant factor in the treatment of convalescents. Carry out the doctor's orders minute- ly regarding it. Have, so far as you can, things that Rubber Alr CusWon you know the patient likes. If she expresses a prefer- ence for a certain dish have it if allowable, but as a rule it is not wise to consult her on the subject. Always serve your patient's meals as daintily as pos- serving sible ; have the tray covered with a spotless table nap- of Meals kin or tray cover; use the prettiest china available; even one bright flower with a little green is a great attraction. But above all see that the food is properly cooked and properly served ; that all hot things are very hot, and cold ones really cold. ' More salt and less sugar will generally be wanted than when in 29 621 30 HOME CARE OF THE SICK health. Highly seasoned food is not advisable or often desired even by those who like it when well. It is better to set before the invalid too little than too much, for it is easy to get more, and the sight of too much food on the tray is apt to imbue anyone A Bedside Table Convenient for Serving Meals whose appetite is poor with a dislike for it. Besides, as the digestive functions are weakened during and after illness, it is better for a time to serve food in smaller quantities and oftener; for instance, give an egg nog, milk punch, egg lemonade, egg albumen, or other light, easily digested drink between breakfast 622 CONVALESCENCE 31 and the noonday meal, and again at three or four o'clock in the afternoon. A glass of hot milk given at bed-time will often induce sleep. Keeping the patient amused is another important item in the care of the convalescent. A few visitors (provided they do not stay too long, talk too much, or give any worrying or disagreeable news) will of- ten help to brighten up the patient. Playing cards or games, reading aloud to her, etc., will help to pass away the time and tire her less than talking. When people have been ill for some time the muscles of the eyes are apt to be weak and will be easily strained, so they ought not to be allowed to read much themselves, especially while they are in the recum- bent position. Those who are strong and well little realize the ex- ertion and excitement caused by the first sitting up, after being confined to the bed for some time. The period is usually limited to half an hour the first day, gradually increasing the time as the patient can stand it. Do not wait for her to complain of fatigue; on showing the first signs of it she should be put -to bed. Of course there are patients who think themselves a great deal worse than they really are, and who have to be encouraged to sit up' longer than they think they can. At such times the pulse is a good guide. Do not really dress the patient until she is well enough to walk around. Warm stockings, bed slip- Amusing the Patient Sitting Up for the First Time 623 32 HOME CARE OF THE SICK pers, a warm wrapper and blankets are all that are necessary. Lifting If the patient has been seriously ill she should not a ciair be allowed to stand or exert herself in the least when sitting up the first few times. If not too heavy she can be lifted by one person. The arms of the patient are locked about the neck of the attendant, who, plac- ing one arm under the thigh, the other under the back, lifts the patient into the chair, the back of which is parallel w'ith the foot of the bed. When two people are required to do the lifting they should stand at the same side of the bed, placing the hands, one under the shoulders and buttocks, the other under the thighs and ankles, and lifting in uni- son, turn and seat the patient gently in the chair. The chair should be made comfortable with pillows, and the patient kept warm with blankets. When possible the chair, should be carried carefully into an adjoining, well-aired room. The sick-room and bed should be well aired and made ready immediately for the patient's return, as it may be necessary for her to be put back to bed sooner than expected. CARE OF THE HAIR, MOUTH, TEETH While caring for the hair protect the pillow-case with a towel. When the hair is tangled always hold it between the tangle and the head to avoid pulling it. Rubbing a little vaseline into the scalp will help to get the snarls out more easily. To avoid tangles the 624 CARE OF THE HAIR, MOUTH, TEETH 33 hair should be brushed twice daily and braided in two plaits. If the scalp is kept clean by rubbing it occasionally with a little alcohol and water (equal parts) the hair always well brushed, and rubbed once in a while be- tween a damp wash-rag, it may not be necessary to wash it for quite a while. When it must be washed, protect the pillow and upper part of the bed with a rubber sheet covered with a bath towel. Pull the pillows down under the back so that the head extends somewhat beyond them and over a basin of water. Have a slop jar at hand in which to empty the water, and plenty of warm water to wash the soap out thoroughly. Support the head with one hand while you wash it. Dry the hair well after washing. A little alcohol or hair tonic con- taining it, well rubbed into the scalp, will lessen the chance of the patient taking cold. When the patient is unable to brush her own teeth it is often easier to do it for her with clean gauze wrapped around the index finger or the end of a piece of whalebone, than with a tooth-brush. In illness sordes (tartar) is apt to collect between the teeth un- less they are very frequently and carefully cleansed. Clean not only the teeth but also the gums, the roof of the mouth and the tongue. Whalebone and gauze are far better for this purpose than the brush. When a patient is on milk diet her tongue and mouth should be cleansed after each feeding. Washing the Hair Care of the Teeth Care of the Mouth 625 34 HOME CARE OF THE SICK Some good mouth washes arc : (1) Equal parts of listerine, boric acid 4 per cent, lemon juice and water. (2) Listerine, one ounce; peroxide of hydrogen, three drachms ; alboline, one drachm. (3) Tincture of myrrh, half a drachm; soda bi- carbonate, grains twenty ; aboline, one drachm. (4) Listerine and water, equal parts. BATHS AND BATHING Perhaps there is nothing that will give greater re- freshment to the invalid, obliged to lie in bed day 'after day, than a bath. Unless contrary to the physi- cian's orders, one should be given every day. If given in a warm room, without exposure, there is absolutely no danger of the patient taking cold. To make mat- ters doubly sure, before taking out of the bath blank- ets, rub the patient all over with 50 per cent alcohol. The Never give a bath until an hour after a meal. Be- f re beginning see that the room is not only warm but free from draughts, also that you have everything needed at hand. It is best to have the water in a foot tub ; it will keep warm longer than in a shallow basin. Have a pitcher of hot water to keep the bath the re- quired temperature. A large blanket, face and bath towels, wash cloths, alcohol and powder are the other necessary articles. Slip the blanket under the patient. If it is not wide enough to come well round her and also for the ends 626 BATHS AND BATHING 35 to overlap, use two. The blanket may be covered by a sheet if necessary but the wool next the body is de- sirable. Take off the night-gown and fold down the upper bed clothes the face and neck are washed first and well dried, then the arms and hands. Be particular about drying between the fingers, also around and in- side the ears. Especially while washing the face have a firm touch. Expose only one portion of the body at a time, and that not longer than necessary. Dry each part well before going on to the next; in order not to fatigue the patient, work as quickly as possible. It should be necessary to turn her only once. The towels should be warmed by wrapping them around a hot water bottle. It is well to give hot broth or milk soon after the bath. To give a foot bath, loosen the bed clothes at the bottom, protect the bed with a blanket, put the foot Foot Bath tub, half full of water lengthwise on the bed, flex the patient's knees, raise her feet with one hand while you draw the tub under them with the other; wrap a blanket round tub and knees. When mustard is desired, make a paste of the mustard about two tablespoonsful to a large foot tub. The feet remain in about twenty minutes, the bath being kept at the same temperature by the addi- tion of hot water from time to time. Be careful in adding the hot water not to pour it in near the feet. 627 "Brand" Treatment 36 HOME CARE OF THE SICK When the bath is over wrap the feet in the blanket for a few minutes, then dry. To give a bath for the reduction of temperature a large rubber (covered with a sheet) is necessary to protect the bed, as a considerable amount of water must be used. There are several different kinds of bed baths given for this purpose. Sometimes the patient is simply sponged off with cold water, at others a hot sponge comes first, followed by the cold which often consists of equal parts of alcohol and water, made colder at times by the addition of ice. The doctor always orders the temperature of the bath, and also the duration, which is generally from ten to twenty minutes. In giving these baths, use slow, long, curving, down- ward strokes, and plenty of water. Where there is a high temperature there is no danger of catching cold, and as eradiation of heat is the effect sought, the pa- tient should be exposed as much as possible. It is often desirable, when the sponging is over, to rub the patient with alcohol, and fan till dry. When possible, the "Brand" treatment is used for the reduction of temperature (especially in typhoid). For this, a portable tub, which can be wheeled to the bedside, is required. It would not be safe to give such a bath without the assistance of a doctor or trained nurse ; it is, therefore, not worth while going into de- tails, and, except in cases of long continued fever, the be4 bath is generally all that is necessary. 628 6 ATMS AND BATHING 37 When given a hot bath in a tub, fill the tub three- fourths full of water; the exact temperature will be ordered by the doctor, usually it is from 106 degrees F to no degrees F. The doctor also states how long he wishes the patient to remain in the bath. When giving a hot bath of any kind, for any purpose, al- ways apply cold cloths or an ice cap to the head. A hot drink given either while the patient is in the tub Hot Baths to Induce Perspiration, or Quiet the Nerves BATH THERMOMETER or after the return to bed will further induce perspira- tion. Mustard is sometimes added to these baths, just as it is to the foot bath. While in the tub the patient's pulse must be noted carefully, as such baths are sometimes very depressing to the heart. After the bath the patient must go to bed immediately, and remain there well covered, and care must be taken to have warm clothing going from the bath to the bed. These baths are also given to children in convulsions. The hot-pack, or sweat, is generally considered a bet- ter medium for inducing perspiration. To give this protect the bed with a rubber sheet or oil cloth, wring out two old blankets in water 130 degrees F, put one under the patient and around one arm and leg, the Precautions The Hot-pack or Sweat 629 38 HOME CARE OF THE SICK other over the patient, and around the other arm and GIVING A HOT-PACK leg; put an ice cap or cold compress on the head, a hot water bag at the feet, another over the heart, HOT-PACK COMPLETED others along the side, over all wrap a couple of dry blankets ; give a hot drink. The patient generally re- 630 BATHS AND BATHING 39 mains in the pack from twenty minutes to half an hour. The pulse should be taken every -five minutes, and as HOT WATER BOTTLES the hands are under the blankets it must be taken at the temporal artery. HOT WATER BOTTLE FOR THE SPINE After being taken out of the pack the patient should be rolled in a dry blanket and remain so for an hour. 631 40 HOME CARE OF THE SICK Except where a light weight is desirable, as over the heart and abdomen, a good substitute for the rub- ber hot water bag is a stone bottle ; even a glass one can be used, and if a wire a couple of inches longer than the bottle is put into it to act as a heat con- ductor, it can be filled with quite hot water without breaking. When using hot water bags or bottles of any kind, pre- cautions must be taken Water Bottle for the Throat to avo id burning the patient, which is very easily done, especially with old people, or where from any cause, the circulation of the blood is sluggish or the tissues in poor condition; therefore, see that the bottles are tightly corked, that they are well and securely covered (flannel bags slight- ly larger than the bottles make the best covering) ; never put them too near the patient, and remember that when the patient is restless the bags are apt to slip nearer than you intended them to be. Salt baths are given for their tonic effects. A bath sufficiently strong to redden the skin and have an ex- hilarating effect will require ten pounds of ordinary sea salt to a bath tub about half full of water. The average standard temperature for baths is as follows : 632 SICK ROOM METHODS 41 Cold 33-65 Fahr. Tepid.85- 92 Fahr. Cool 67-75 Fahr. Warm92- 98 Fahr. Temperate. 75-85 Fahr. Hot. .98-ii2 Fahr. The regular bath thermometer is encased in wood to protect it from hard usage, but the ordinary atmo- spheric thermometer will answer the purpose just as well. Mix the water well before taking the temper- ature. SICK BOOM METHODS Taking and Recording Temperature, Pulse and Respiration Observation and Recording of Symptoms The heat of the blood is ascertained by means of the clinical clinical thermometer. These thermometers are self Thermometer registering and vary in delicacy, the finest ones regis- tering in one minute, others in from three to five min- utes. The more expensive ones magnify the scale, and are therefore easier for the novice to read. Hick's thermometer is probably the best. The temperature is taken either in the mouth, rec- tum or armpit. Before using the thermometer the mercury must be shaken down to 95. Be careful not to shake it into the bulb, or the thermometer will be rendered useless and also be careful not to hit it against anything, as it will break very easily. While in constant use it is best kept in a glass containing a little boric acid or listerine, with some soft cotton in the bottom of the glass. 633 HOME CARE OF THE SICK Temperature by Mouth When taking the temperature by mouth be sure that the patient has not had anything to eat or drink recently. Place the end of the instrument containing the mercury under the tongue, on either side. See that the lips are tightly closed all the time the thermometer is in the mouth, and do not leave it in place longer than necessary. Never take the temperature of a de- lirious patient nor a child by the mouth ; they are likely to bite off the bulb and swallow the mercury. If this accident should occur give white of egg immediately and notify the physician. In such cases it is always safer to take the temperature by rectum and it is also expedient to take a rectal temperature when the patient is very ill, for this is the most accurate method. Before inserting the thermometer, the bulb should be oiled and precautions taken to have the rectum free from faeces. Five minutes should be allowed for registration. The temperature will be one degree higher than when taken by mouth. The axillary temperature will be from three-tenths to half a degree lower than the mouth. The armpit must be wiped thoroughly before taking ; the thermometer is then placed in the hollow, and kept in place by holding the arm close to the side and flex- Clinical Thermometer 634 SICK ROOM METHODS 43 ing the elbow so that the hand rests on the opposite shoulder. It will take ten minutes for the thermometer to register. The normal temperature of the human body is from 98 F. to 99 F. The temperature is apt to be high- est between 4 p. m. and 8 p. m. and it reaches the lowest ebb about 3 a. m. This fact makes it essential that special care be taken of the sick in the early hours of the morning, the lowering temperature indicating a lower vitality. Though a rise of temperature is always to be re- garded with suspicion it must be remembered that many causes (especially with children) may create a slight deviation from the normal, without anything serious being the matter. Constipation will often cause a rise of temperature, sometimes even a slight cold, attack of indigestion, or undue excitement will do the same, while profuse perspiration or diarrhoea is apt to cause a sub-normal temperature. A sub-normal temperature is far more dangerous than the same number of degrees above normal. If a patient's temperature drops to 97.5 or 97 she should be rolled in blankets, a hot water bag put at the feet, another over the heart, and a cup of hot coffee or milk given. If the temperature does not soon respond to this treatment the doctor should be notified. The following table gives the different variations pf temperature ; Normal Temperature High Temperature Sub-Normal Temperature 635 44 HOME CARE OF THE SICK The Pulse 98 97 Hyperpyrexia . . . .105 and over, extremely dangerous High Fever 103 105 Moderate Fever 101 103 Sub- febrile 99^ 101 Normal 98 Subnormal 97 Collapse 95 Algid Collapse Below 95, extremely dangerous A record of the temperature is of great value, not only in diagnosis, but also in watching the course of the disease ; it should therefore be charted every time it is taken. This can be done in figures, but the reg- ular clinical temperature chart conveys a clearer idea of how the temperature is running. The temperature should be taken at the same time each day ; when it does not deviate much from the normal twice a day, morning and evening, is sufficient ; otherwise it should be taken every three or four hours, according to the nature of the case. A thorough knowledge of the pulse can only be gained by constant study and practice. It takes many months of careful observation of the numerous cases in the hospital ward, before the medical student or nurse can readily discern between the various charac- teristics of the different pulses. It is, therefore, im- possible to go very deeply into the subject here. The three principal things to be learned are: (i) How to count it; (2)' to discern if it is regular or ir- regular; (3) if strong or weak. 636 SICK ROOM METHODS 45 To count the pulse place the index and middle fin- gers on^he wrist, on the thumb side, where the radial artery can easily be felt. Count it for a full minute, di- viding the minute into quarters, as you can then tell if the frequency of the pulse is regular or irregular. For instance, if you count fifteen beats in one quarter and twenty in another, you will know that the fre- quency of the pulse is irregular. If some beats are strong and others weak the qual- ity of the pulse is irregular. By careful considera- tion of the pulse every time you take it, it soon becomes possible to realize where there is a difference in the quality of the pulse ; that is, when it is stronger or weaker. The pulse can be taken at the temporal artery when for any reason it is impossible to take it at the wrist, it also can be felt in the groin. The average normal pulse is : In men from 60 to 70 beats per minute In women from 65 to 80 beats per minute In children from 90 to 100 beats per minute Just as the temperature, even in health, is affected by certain conditions, so is the pulse ; food, exercise, excitement, will all cause an increase in the pulse rate. The pulse .should always be taken and recorded at the same time as the temperature. The pulse is gen- erally written in figures. When there is any differ- ence in the quality, or if it is irregular this also should be recorded. To Count the Pulse Pulse by Temporal Artery 637 4 6 HOME CARE OF .THE SICK A record of the respiration is also often required. The respiration being more or less under the control of the patient it is never wise to let her know that you are taking it; therefore, keep hold of her wrist, as though you were still counting her pulse, and watch the rise and fall of the chest. If you find it hard to Keeping Records ******* l TEMPERATURE, PULSE, AND RESPIRATION CHART count by simply looking, hold the patient's hand on her chest, then you can feel the motion as well. This is generally the easier method for the beginner. Count it as you do the pulse, for a full minute in quarters. The inspiration and expiration count as one breath. Besides the temperature, pulse and respiration, a record must be kept of all medication given, and also of all changes in the patient's condition. If the pa- tient has pain note it, stating where the pain is and 638 SICK ROOM METHODS 47 if it be continuous or only in paroxysms. When medi- cine is given to relieve the pain state with what re- sult. When the patient is on liquid diet, the amount of fluids taken during the twenty-four hours should be charted every morning. Mark every movement of the bowels; observe the Wtow CJU..S v * BEDSIDE NOTES AS MADE IN A HOSPITAL, movements carefully to see if there is anything abnor- mal in their appearance. If so, not only describe it in your record, but save the movement for the doctor's inspection. The same thing should be done if the patient vomits. When there is not sufficient urine voided, report it ; also if there is anything untoward in its appearance. 639 48 HOME CARE OF THE SICK Forty ounces is the amount that should normally be voided in twenty-four hours. In fevers there is apt to be less, and what is passed will be highly colored. In nervous diseases, on the contrary, there is likely im ortant to ^ e a ^ ar " er amount of a pale color. Perspiration, a items chill or chilly feeling, coughing, expectoration, restless- ness, the amount of discharge from wounds, are all items of import of which the doctor must know the details to treat the patient understandingly. He never will fully know them unless they are clearly and con- cisely written down at the time they happen. The accompanying temperature chart and record is an example of hospital practice. THE GIVING OF MEDICINE A few rules to be remembered in giving medicines are: Rules : * Always give exactly what the doctor orders, neither more nor less. 2. Always give medicine on time if a dose is due at twelve, give it at twelve and not at half past. 3. Medicines intended to be taken before meals should be given twenty minutes before meal-time, those to be taken after eating, twenty minutes after the meal is finished. 4. Never give medicine without reading the label on the bottle twice; before and again after pouring it out. 640 GIVING OF MEDICINE 49 5. When pouring medicine always hold the label on the upper side, to avoid defacing it. 6. Do not use spoons for measuring for they are never accurate; small graduated glasses, which are infinitely better, can be bought at any drug store for about ten cents. 7. When pouring hold the mark of the quantity you require on a level with your eye. 8. Always shake the bottle before pouring out the medicine. 9. The bottle should always be recorked immedi- ately after use, for many medicines contain volatile substances and are apt to become either stronger or weaker than intended, if left uncorked. 10. Medicines containing iron shoulo be taken through a glass tube or straw, as they discolor the teeth. 11. Some medicines, notably several that are given for coughs, should be given undiluted, while others on account of their irritating properties should be very well diluted. Never dilute more than necessary, for the addition of a large quantity of water often renders a disagreeable dose still more unpleasant to take. 12. Holding a piece of ice in the mouth for a short time before taking medicine will often render a dis- agreeable flavor less noticeable ; a drink of seltzer aft- erward will help to "take away the taste." Castor oil given with lemon juice, a piece of ice small enough to Measuring To take away the Taste 641 Powders and Pills Injections So HOME CARE OF THE SICK swallow, seltzer added just before taking, and a drink of seltzer after, is not at all unpalatable. Holding the nose while taking medicine will also diminish the taste. 13. Insoluble powders such as calomel, bismuth and acetanilid should be placed far back on the tongue and washed down with a swallow of water. Those with a disagreeable taste can be given in jam or bread or encased in wafers or capsules which can be bought for the purpose. 14. Pills also can be made easier to swallow by giving in bread or jelly. Unless pills are freshly made, they should be pulverized, as they soon become so dry and hard that they will not readily dissolve in the stomach. 15. Never buy a large quantity of medicine at a time, there are very few kinds that will not deteriorate by keeping; and because a medicine is beneficial in one case, do not imagine that you can give it to every- one whom you may think has the same ailment. 1 6. Medicines should be kept in a cool, dry place and properly labeled. All poisons should be marked as such and kept under lock and key. Medicine is occasionally given by rectum, either when a local effect is desired or when the stomach is unable to retain it. When medicine is given by rectum it is generally or- dered well diluted. The water, added for this purpose, should be warm enough to make the injection about 642 GIVING OF MEDICINE 51 1 00 F. A rubber rectal tube, or a large size rubber catheter, connected by a glass connecting tube with a piece of rubber tubing about eighteen inches long, into the further end of which has been fitted a small glass funnel, are the best in giving medicinal enemata. Let warm water run through the tube to be sure that it is in working order ; this will also heat it and thus avoid cooling the med- Porceiain Feeding cup Ration. Grease the tube well, with oil or vaseline, and before inserting it fill the funnel with the solution, allow half of it to run GLASS DRINKING CUP through, back into the pitcher, pinch the rubber to pre- vent the rest running through. This is done to avoid getting air into the intestine. For sedative enemata (these generally consist of bromide or chloral) the tube is only inserted about six 643 Nutritive Enemata Suppositories 52 HOME CAKE OF THE SICK inches, but for stimulating enemata (brandy or whisky and salt solution) and nutritive enemata, the tube is in- serted about fourteen inches, and a small pillow placed beneath the hips to help the upward flow. When giv- ing these enemas have the patient lie on her back. Holding a folded towel to the anus, after the removal of the tube, will help the patient to retain the in- jection. Nutritive enemata generally consist of peptonized milk, white of egg, salt and one of the beef prepara- tions made especially for that purpose; but every doctor has his own formula and will specify how he wishes it prepared. When patients are having nutri- tive enemata constantly they must have a cleansing enema daily, and this must be given at least an hour before the next nutritive one is due, and not till two or three hours after the last one has been given. Starch and other emollient enemata are sometimes given in diarrhoeas and dysentery. To prepare the starch mix a teaspoonful of laundry starch in cold water, add a teacupful of hot water, let it come to the boil. A few drops of laudanum are sometimes added to this; when it is ordered, be very accurate in count- ing the drops. The suppository is another method of giving rectal medication. This is a conical shaped preparation of cocoa butter in which the required drug is incorpo- rated. It is oiled and gently inserted, pointed end fore- most, the patient lying on the left side. 644 GIVING OF MEDICINE 53 Medication for the throat is often given by means of the atomizer. When using this see that the pa- tient's tongue is held down sufficiently to allow the spray to reach the affected parts, and be careful not to let the end of the atomizer touch the back of the patient's throat, as this tends to induce vomiting. The -inhalation of vapor is another method of con- veying medication to the throat and also to the bron- chial tubes and lungs. Mix the medicine with boiling HYPODERMIC SYRINGE water and put in a small kettle over an alcohol lamp. With stiff brown paper, make a cone, one end to fit over the mouth and nose, the other over the spout of the kettle. When rapid absorption is necessary medicine is sometimes given hypodermically. The hypodermic is a graduated syringe to which a hollow needle is at- tached. As hypodermic injections are attended with great danger unless properly given, no one should at- tempt to administer medicine this way without being personally instructed by a physician or nurse. In giving medication hypodermically, the greatest clean- liness should be observed; the flesh, where the injec- Inhalations Hypodermic Injections 045 54 HOME CARE OF THE SICK tion is to be made, must be well washed with alcohol, the needles should be attached to the syringe and alco- hol drawn into the syringe and expelled several times before the medicine is drawn in. When the syringe is filled with the required amount, expel the air by point- ing the needle upward and gently pressing the piston till a drop appears at the point of the needle. Be care- ful not to let the needle touch anything after it has been cleaned if it should, hold it in the alcohol again for a minute before inserting. The injection may be given in the outer side of the arms, thighs or abdomen. Hold the flesh between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, plunge the needle in with one quick downward movement, inject the fluid slowly by gently pressing the piston. Draw the needle out quickly. Rub the spot where the injection was made for a few sec- onds to hasten absorption. Clean the instrument with alcohol before putting it away. PURGATIVE, ENEMATA, DOUCHES AND CATHETER- IZATION Cleansing The purgative, or as it is also called, cleansing en- ma ema, is given as its name indicates for the purpose of washing out the intestines. It is generally resorted to when cathartic medicine fails to act, when immediate catharsis is necessary, or when for any reason the pa- tient is unable to take a cathartic by mouth. The long rubber rectal tube is the best appliance for 646 ENEMAS 55 the giving of such enemata ; the water is injected higher into the bowel and there is a steadier flow than when any of the bulb syringes are used. This can be attached by means of a connecting tube to the tube of the ordinary fountain syringe bag. See that the stop cock is on the tube. The cleansing enema generally consists of a soap GLASS DOUCHE NOZZLES suds made with "ivory" or castile soap ; the froth of? which should be removed as it contains too much air ; the temperature should be about 98 F. Make the soap suds in a pitcher, pour it into the bag, let some run through the tube to warm it and expel the air, shut the stop cock, grease the rectal tube. Hang or hold the bag not more than three feet higher than the patient. The bed should always be protected with a rubber sheet and large towel, the patient lies on her left side\ with the knees well flexed. The tube should be in- Soap Enema 647 56 HOME CARE OF THE SICK serted very gently, never use force, let the water run in slowly. If much pain is given shut the water off occasionally, for a minute or two. When a sufficient quantity has been given (two to three pints for an adult, one for a child) remove the tube quickly, but ^gently, and press a folded towel to the anus. The fluid to do much good should be retained from fifteen to twenty minutes. After use the tube must be carefully cleansed, wash it in warm soap suds and water, afterward let a quan- tity of hot water run through it, hang it up lengthwise to drip till perfectly dry. When used for more than one person the tube should always be boiled for five minutes after use. vaginal Douches are given, as a rule, either for cleanliness Douches or to re ii eve inflammation. When used for the former purpose the solution should be of a temperature rang- ing from 100 F. to 110 F. When given to relieve in- flammation it is generally required very hot even 118 or 120 F., and great care must then be taken not to burn the patient by having it any hotter; mix the water well before you test it. Some disinfectant is often added, carbolic or bichloride being the ones most frequently used; they should, however, never be used without a doctor's order. In giving, the patient lies on her back, have the douche pan placed under her properly so that the return flow of the water will run into it. Put a pillow under the small of the back. Before inserting the nozzle let the water flow through 648 DOUCHES 57 the tube, to expel the air. Insert gently and move it around while in. The douche nozzle should always be boiled or washed in boric acid, or other disinfectant, after use. Glass douche nozzles are preferable to any other. They can be attached to the ordinary fountain syringe. Catheterization improperly performed is fraught catheterizatioi with so much danger to the patient that it must not be GLASS CATHETER attempted till further instruction than can be given in writing is obtained. Catheterization is necessary when the patient is un- able to void urine naturally, but there are many simple devices which should all be tried before this is resorted to ; for instance, put hot water in the bed pan, allow % : water to run from a faucet within hearing (if this is impossible pour water from one vessel to another), squeeze a sponge dipped in warm water over the lower part of the abdomen, or hot stupes can be applied, and, this failing, the stupes can be alternated with ice. 649 58 HOME CARE OF THE SICK In preparing to catheterize it is necessary to exer- cise not only the greatest cleanliness but asepsis. The catheter (glass ones are preferable for women) should be boiled for five minutes. Have at hand some small sterile swabs (see chapter on asepsis) in a solution of boric acid. Put the patient on the bed pan (leaving it further in front than for ordinary use), have the pa- tient's knees flexed and separated, drape a sheet around her legs, leaving the vulva exposed. Then wash the hands well with soap and hot water, soaking Care to them afterwards in a solution of bichloride of mer- be Taken cur ^ !_ IO oo. With the left hand separate the labia, and carefully wash all around the meatus (the open- ing to the urethra, the tube leading to the bladder) ; into this opening the catheter is then carefully intro- duced, it must not be forced forward if any obstruc- tion is met with, but withdrawn slightly and the course changed. When the bladder is very much distended it should not be emptied entirely at one time ; when a pint or a pint and a half has been withdrawn remove the catheter and insert it again four or five hours later. Before removing the catheter, the index finger is placed over the end ; this prevents drops of urine falling upon the bed. 650 HOME CARE OF THE SICK POULTICES AND FOMENTATIONS 59 Poultices and fomentations are applied for the relief of localized pain, when caused by inflammation. The") heat, by dilating the superficial blood vessels, draws* the blood from the congested area. The linseed poultice is the one most generally used. To make it, stir the meal slowly and evenly into water while it is boiling. When it is thick enough not to run, boil it a minute more ; remove from the fire and beat it briskly. When properly made it is perfectly smooth, and just stiff enough to drop away from the spoon. Spread it on a piece of muslin the required size and shape, leaving an inch margin all round to turn over. The side which is to go next to the patient is best covered with cheesecloth or gauze. This is cut slightly larger than the muslin, so as to turn back over it to keep the contents of the poultice in place. Few poultices should be more than half an inch ; thick. They should always be applied as hot as the patient can possibly stand them. To keep the poultice warm while taking it to the bedside it can be placed between two hot plates or rolled in a piece of hot flannel. The flannel can be left over it when applied if there is no oil muslin or oil paper to be obtained; these latter are preferable, however, as they are very light and keep in the heat and moisture better. The poultice is kept in place by a bandage. A muslin binder is the best means for keeping a chest poultice in place. Poultices should always be shaped to fit the Linseed Poultice Applying 651 Starch Poultice Sinapisms 6o HOME CARE OF THE SICK affected part. They should be changed at least every two hours. Starch poultices are used in certain skin diseases. The starch is mixed with a little cold water, then enough boiling water added to make a thick paste. It is boiled, spread and applied in the same manner as the flaxseed. The cotton jacket or ''dry poultice" is made by tacking a layer of non-absorbent cotton or wadding between two pieces of cheesecloth, shaped for the chest, and is excellent to keep on for a few days after other poultices have been discontinued. Sinapisms relieve pain through the agency of the mustard which, by irritating" the sensory nerves, causes the dilatation of the superficial blood vessels under the point of application and the consequent lessening of the congestion in the inflamed tissue. Sinapisms are made of flour, mustard, and tepid water, in vary- ing proportions. Those for a man are generally made one part mustard to four of flour; for a woman one part mustard to six of flour; for a child one part mustard to ten of flour. The water used should always be tepid; cold water feels uncomfortable to the pa- tient, while hot destroys the virtue of the mustard. The flour and mustard are first mixed well together, care being taken to crush all lumps of mustard ; enough water is then slowly added to make a thick paste, which is spread on muslin and covered with gauze. The sinapism is generally left on from fifteen to 652 FOMENTATIONS 61 twenty minutes, but it must be watched carefully, and removed as soon as the surface of the skin is well reddened, as otherwise it will blister. After the re- ( moval of the sinapism the skin must be washed, and\ if a little vaseline be rubbed on, this will allay the irritation. The usual method of applying fomentations is to Fomentations have two pieces of flannel in use, applying them alter- nately and changing every three minutes for twenty minutes. The easiest way is to have the water boiling over an alcohol or gas lamp near the bedside. Put two layers of coarse, soft flannel (an old blanket is good) in the center of a towel ; dip this into BOILING water, wring it out by twisting the ends of the towel, give the flannel a quick shake, and apply the flannel ; cover with oiled muslin or oiled paper. As hot applications promote suppuration there are conditions when their use is contra-indicated and cold applications are ordered. The most effectual way of applying continuous cold is by means of the ice cap. The pieces of ice put into the cap should be about the size of a walnut ; it should never be more than half filled, and the air should be expelled before putting on the cover. Salt is some- times mixed with the ice to intensify the cold. The cap should be tied in an old handkerchief or piece of gauze to prevent the rubber from coming next the skin, as the extreme cold is very irritating, and may even produce frost bites. Cold Applications 653 62 HOME CARE OF THE SICK ice Caps When ice caps are being- used all the ice must not be allowed to melt before the cap is refilled, as the reaction caused by the resulting change of temperature "is very injurious, especially if there is any inflamma- tion. ICE CAPS compresses For the application of cold to the head, old hand- kerchiefs or pieces of soft gauze can be used, folded so that they will come down well over the temples, but not touch the pillow. They must not be wide enough to wet the hair, or come far down over the eyes. Com- presses should not be made too wet. The best scheme is to have a piece of ice in a basin, and two compresses, then while one is on the forehead the other can remain rolled round the ice. Compresses for .the eye should be small and very light. If both eyes need the compresses two separate ones should be used. If only one eye is affected be careful that the compress on it does not touch the other, lest it should become infected. If gauze is used for compresses always turn the ends in, that the ravellings may not annoy the patient. 654 HOME CARE OF THE SICK. PART -I. Read Carefully, Place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that your in- structor may know that you understand the subject. Carry out the directions given in the text, if possible,, before answer- ing the questions. 1. What is expected of the nurse? 2. Give the period of incubation, first symptoms, and time required for isolation for: (a) Mumps, (b) Measles, (c) Smallpox, (d) Scarlet fever, (e) Diphtheria. 3. What are the causes of cholera infantttm? Symptoms? What are the symptoms of in- testinal obstruction ? 4. What are the most common causes of convul- sions in children ? What should be done ? 5. What are the primary symptoms of typhoid fever? Of pneumonia? Of meningitis? 6. What is the difference between false croup and true croup in symptoms, danger, and treat- ment ? 7. Describe the ideal sick room. 8. How should the sweeping and dusting be done? How prepare for the night? 9. Why is ventilation in the sick room important? Describe different methods. 10. Make the bed as explained in the lesson and then describe the process. 655 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 11. Endeavor to change the bedclothes with a per- son in bed and report your success. 12. The points suggested in the section on the "Care of the Patient" are all essential. What ones might you neglect if you had no experience ? 13. What must be guarded against in lifting and moving a helpless patient ? 14. How would you change a patient from one bed to another? 15. What are bed sores and how can they be guarded against ? 16. How would you wash the hair? 17. Describe the process of giving a bath in bed. 1 8. How can the heat of the blood be found? Why is it important? 19. How would you count the pulse? 20. Mention some of the points in a patient's condi- tion that should be noted and recorded? 21. What rules should be observed in giving medi- cines ? 22. What are the different kinds of enemata? How given ? 23. What devices can be tried before catheterization is attempted? 24. How is a linseed poultice made and applied ? 25. What is a sinapism? A fomentation? 26. How is cold applied to relieve pain? 27. Do you understand everything in this lesson ? What questions occur to you? NOTE. After completing the test sign your full name. 656 HOME CARE OF THE SICK PART II CONTAGION; DISINFECTION NUESING IN CONTA- GIOUS DISEASES We have learned in our study of Household Bac- teriology that nearly all diseases, especially those com- ing under the head of infectious and contagious, are caused by certain species of bacteria. If we would be immune from these diseases, then we must do everything in our power to exclude these germs. Cleanliness, plenty of sunlight and fresh air, are the first requisites for their exclusion ; and, when disease has entered, proper isolation and disinfection to prevent their spread. By disinfection we mean destruction of the bacteria by use of certain chemicals or heat. Heat, when it can be used, is always the surest and quickest method. The rules for disinfection, or sterilizing by heat, will be given under the head of "Surgical Operations at Home." The disinfectants most commonly used in illness are bichloride of mercury, i-iooo, for the hands and utensils, and carbolic acid, 1-20, for the clothes, instru- ments, etc. Bichloride is the stronger disinfectant, but as it discolors clothes and instruments it should not be used for them. 657 Bichloride of Mercury Carbolic Acid Infection and Contagion 64 HOME CARE OF THE SICK MAKING DISINFECTANT SOLUTIONS A bottle of blue bichloride tablets can be bought at any chemist's; this is the safest form to use it in the home, as the tablets make a blue solution. The bi- chloride is perfectly odorless, and if the clear, uncol- ored solution were used it might be mistaken for water. As this is a very strong poison the tablets should be kept always under lock and key, and out of the reach of children. It is well to have a bottle of tablets in the house at all times, to use in case of cuts, etc. They contain salt, which is always required in making bichloride solution. To make bichloride solution dissolve one tablet in a quart of hot water. When a large quantity of carbolic acid solution will be required continually, it is cheaper to buy the 95 per cent solution, which can be reduced as needed to the required strength. To make five pints of 1-20, mix four ounces of the 95 per cent carbolic with five pints of boiling water and shake the bottle well. As 95 per cent carbolic is not only a strong poison, but also very corrosive to the skin, so be careful not to spill even a drop on your hands, but if you should, wash the spot immediately with alcohol or warm water and soap. An infectious disease is not always a contagious one; that is, it cannot be contracted by being in the same room with the patient, but it is transmittable by some intermediate means of communication. 658 CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 65 Tuberculosis is not contracted by coming in contact with a patient suffering from that disease, but by inhaling dust containing the germs derived from the dried sputa of some consumptive person. The germs of typhoid fever are disseminated when the stools and other excreta of the patient are not properly disinfected by those in charge. It is not necessary to isolate patients suffering from diseases of this kind, but it is necessary to disinfect, according to the nature of the infection ; thus, know- ing that the germ of typhoid fever is in the stools, and to some extent in the urine, the stools and urine must always be disinfected by covering with bichloride, i-iooo, and letting stand half an hour before empty- ing. The bed pan must be well washed and disin- fected afterward. It is also a wise precaution to disinfect the bed-clothes by soaking in carbolic, 1-20, for twelve hours, and then boiling; also to keep uten- sils and dishes used for the patient separate, boiling them before they are again mixed with the household supply. Consumption, or tuberculosis of the lungs, is per- haps the most dreaded disease of the present day. There are more deaths from it than from any other, except in times of epidemic. The sputum of patients suffering from this disease contains many millions of the bacilli. If this is deposited in places where it is allowed to dry and become pulverized, it is a source of danger to others, The sputum must, therefore 3 b disinfected, Disinfection Without Isolation Consumption 66 HOME CARE OF THE SICK Patients suffering from this disease should be pro- vided with sanitary cups. The best for this purpose are made of prepared paper and are very cheap. These should be burnt after being in use for twelve hours at most. If these cannot be obtained, porcelain ones with covers may be used, but bichloride or carbolic must Sanitary Cup. alwayg rema j n in the cupj and it should be emptied and scalded frequently. The patient should not use ordinary handkerchiefs, but gauze or Japanese paper, which should be burnt. All clothing Paper Sanitary Cup. and bedding soiled by the sputa should be disinfected in the usual manner, and the sufferer should wash and disinfect the hands frequently. Perfect cleanliness, plenty of sunlight and fresh 66Q CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 6? air, and nourishing food are the most important points in the modern treatment of consumption. Special care should be taken by consumptives to smother every cough when close to other people. CONTAGIOUS DISEASES Measles, scarlet fever, smallpox and diphtheria are not only infectious but also contagious, and can be taken by touching the person or anything that has come in contact with the patient. Anyone who has been in the room with a patient suffering from any one of these diseases can scatter the germs far and wide; this must be remembered, especially by those who do the nursing. It is an abso- lute necessity for them to go out every day, but before doing so they should change all their clothes, and wash face and hands with bichloride, i-iooo. As it would be impossible to wash the hair every time, it should be covered by a cap, while on duty. Even when all these precautions have been taken, shops, theaters, and street cars should be avoided. The rules of isolation are these: (1) The patient should be removed to a room as remote as possible from the rest of the house. (2) No one should be allowed to enter the room except the physicians and attendants. (3) Long-sleeved aprons and caps which will cover the hair should be worn by physicians and attendants while in the- room. (These can be made of cheap muslin.) Rules of Isolation 661 68 HOME CARE OF THE SICK Disinfection of Clothes Dishes and Utensils (4) A solution of bichloride, i-iooo, should be kept by the wash basin for the disinfection of hands, and they should be disinfected every time after touch- ing or doing anything for the patient. For proper isolation there should be two rooms, the wash stand, gowns, disinfectants, etc., being kept in the outer room. (5) A foot tub or other receptacle containing car- bolic, i -20, should be placed near the bedside when the clothes are about to be changed, and they should be put immediately into this, remaining there well covered for twenty-four hours. They should, even then, be boiled before being washed. (6) The advice given earlier as to the furnishing and care of the sick-room is especially applicable in cases of contagious diseases. When dusting, the duster should be dampened in 1-40 carbolic. As bare floors are apt to be noisy, a small rug or two may be retained, but they should be old ones, as they ought to be burned at the termination of the disease. They must not be shaken, as at other times, but kept well dusted with the damp duster. (7) It is well to keep sheets, wrung out in car- bolic, i -20, both between the two rooms set apart for the nursing and at the entrance of the outer room. The door of the latter must be kept closed. (8) The dishes and utensils used by the patient and attendants must not be removed from the room; they must be washed there, the patient's always being fifi? CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 69 washed and kept separate. When food is brought it should be left at the door of the outer room. The attendant, first taking off her cap and apron and disin- fecting her hands, should remove the food from those dishes to the ones she has in the room ; the others should be removed immediately. (9) Whenever it can be managed the isolated rooms should be in close connection with a bath-room, which should be set apart for the use of the inmates of the sick-room. When this is impossible the attend- ant must, when it is necessary to go there, first remove her cap and apron and disinfect her hands. When her object is to empty the slop jar or bed pan they should be completely covered with a large towel wrung out in carbolic. (10) The bed pan should always have bichloride, i-iooo, in the bottom, and after use more of the same solution should be added. It should stand thus for half an hour before being emptied. When there is no separate bath-room a tightly covered box nailed on the outside window sill of the outer room will be found convenient to hold the bed pan, while its contents are being disinfected. Besides the general rules for disinfection there are in some contagious diseases special rules, incidental to the nature of the disease. In scarlet fever the greatest danger of infection lies in the dissemination of the skin, while it is peeling. To prevent this the patient should be rubbed all over, Separate Bath Roona Special Rules 663 70 HOME CARE OF THE SICK night and morning, with carbolized vaseline or boric ointment. In diphtheria the most virulent contagion is in the expectoration, especially when the membrane loosens. Soft gauze should be used instead of handkerchiefs, and if there is no grate in the room a pan must be at hand, in which these can be burnt immediately after use. Time of Quarantine DISINFECTION AT THE TERMINATION OF THE DISEASE Even after the fever has abated it is necessary to keep the patient isolated, or "in quarantine," as it is called, for some days. A rough estimate of the time required for quarantine in the different diseases is given in the table in the first section, but the doctor should always be the one to decide when it may be raised, as circumstances or complications may arise which might make it allowable to shorten or neces- sary to lengthen the time. When the doctor does allow the patient to be moved, a warm cleansing bath (including the washing of the hair) must be given. This is followed by a bichloride bath, i-iooo, and an alcohol rub. The patient is then wrapped in a clean sheet and taken to a different room, where fresh clothes which have not been in the sick-room are put on. Those who have done the nurs- ing must go through the same procedure. 664 CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION J\ THE DISINFECTION OF THE ROOM AND ITS CONTENTS The use of sulphur fumes as a disinfectant has been proved to be practically useless, and formaldehyde has almost entirely replaced it. The easiest form of using this is the "Pure Formaldehyde Gas" put up by Sea- bury & Johnson. It can be procured at most drug- gists. In appearance it looks like a stone, cone shaped. There are two sizes ; the smaller, 2 inches square, will disinfect a room 500 cubic feet, and the larger one, 1000 to 1500 cubic feet. Close the windows, pasting paper over all the cracks ; pull down the blinds ; open cupboards, drawers, bundles, etc., that everything may be exposed to the fumes of the gas; place the fumi- gator on the top of an inverted pail it must not be too near the floor, or it may scorch it set fire to the top of it, and leave the room ; lock the door and paste up the cracks and key hole. Leave the room thus for five or six hours, then open all the windows, if possible allowing them to remain open for twelve hours. Books and toys used in the sick-room should be burned, as they are hard to disinfect. Unless the mattress can be baked it should be opened, so that the formaldehyde can penetrate through to its center. In all large cities there are bake houses where such things may be sent for disinfection at comparatively small cost. They should be carefully wrapped up. Disinfecting with Formalde- hyde The Mattress 665 72 HOME CARE OF THE SICK PERSONAL PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN BY THOSE NURSING CONTAGIOUS DISEASES (1) Take sufficient sleep and rest; never in the patient's room. It is when the muscles are relaxed, as they are when resting, that the greatest danger of infection comes. (2) A daily walk in the fresh air is necessary. (3) A daily bath; change of all clothing at least three times a week. The clothing must be disinfected. (4) When working over the patient never stoop so that you inhale her breath. Never kiss your pa- tient. Personal (5) Never put your hands to your face, especially Disinfection vour mO uth or eyes, without first disinfecting them. (6) Disinfect your hands frequently in bichloride of mercury, i-iooo. Keep the nails short and scrupu- lously clean. When washing the hands wash the soap off before putting them into bichloride, or they will soon become sore. (7) Before meals wash and disinfect your hands well, rinse your mouth with boric acid solution or listerine. Never eat in the patient's room. (8) When irrigating a diphtheria patient's throat tie a handkerchief over your mouth, and wear glasses to protect the eyes. The nursing in infectious and contagious diseases is the same as in all other cases of fever. While the temperature is high the patient should be kept in the recumbent position to avoid strain upon the heart. 666 SURGICA1 OPERATIONS 73 In typhoid this position is particularly necessary, as hemorrhage from the intestines is liable to occur if it is not strictly adhered to. Nourishment and medication must be given exactly Nourishment as ordered. When the doctor orders fluids give noth- ing solid; many a life, especially after typhoid, has been lost by so doing. Except when the patient is nauseated, unless con- trary to orders, give plenty of water, every two hours at least. See that the patient drinks it slowly. Remember the rules already given about the care of the mouth, especially with typhoid patients. Vaseline applied to parched lips gives relief. In measles and scarlet fever the eyes are apt to be care of affected, so the room should be kept darker than in other cases, and the eyes should be washed with boric acid, always bathing from the inner angle outward. In all diseases where the skin is not working prop- erly, as in measles, scarlet and other eruptive fevers, be especially observant of the urine as various kidney complications are liable to ensue. There is little danger of the patient catching cold while the temperature is high, but when it begins to lower be doubly careful. SURGICAL OPERATIONS AT HOME * For twenty-four hours previous to operation the patient should be given broths every two hours, but neither milk nor solid food. A cathartic is given, if possible, thirty hours prior to operation, and repeated *This section is optional. 667 74 HOME CARE OF THE SICK in six hours ; a soap suds enema is given three hours after the first cathartic, and repeated twelve hours before operation. A bath is also given the afternoon before, and after the bath the field of operation is Pre aration ' snave d, then thoroughly cleansed with green soap, o elation anc * a com p ress wet wn " n S TQQn soa P solution, 25 per cent to 50 per cent, applied (the liquid green soap which is used for this purpose can be obtained at any druggist's) ; this is covered with a protector oil mus- lin or oil paper and left on from three to six hours, as the skin will bear. When removed, the surface is washed in the following order, with green soap, ether, alcohol, and solution bichloride of mercury, i-iooo; a compress wet in the latter is applied covered with a protector, and left on till an hour before operation, when the process is repeated and the fresh bichloride compress is left on till the doctor removes it on the operating table, after the patient is under the influ- ence of the anaesthetic; then he re-scrubs it, and the ether, alcohol, and bichloride must be ready for him to use. All these precautions are taken to kill or re- move every bacterium or spore. For a vaginal operation the rules for diet, catharsis, enemata and bathing are the same as for any other. In addition a green soap douche is given on the pre- ceding day, followed by one of bichloride of mercury, 1-5000. The vulva is then covered with a pad wet in solution of bichloride of mercury, i-iooo, until two hours before operation, when another bichloride douche 668 SURGICAL OPERATIONS 75 is given, the parts cleansed and a fresh bichloride pad applied. Just before the anaesthetic is given, the patient should void urine. If she has false teeth they should be removed. The Room. In the choice of the room the light is The Room one of the first considerations, a good light being a positive necessity. If possible the operation should take place in a different room from the one the patient is occupying beforehand. Remove rugs, carpets, all unnecessary furniture, curtains and draperies. A piece of cheesecloth tacked across the lower sash of the windows will keep the light from being too glaring and obstruct the view from outside. The. day before the operation the walls should be dusted, especially the cornices and mouldings ; the floor should be scrubbed if possible, or at least wiped with a damp cloth and it should be washed over again the morning of operation after the furniture is in place. If the patient is to remain in the room after the operation, have the bed as nearly in the position it is to occupy later as possible, but out of the way. Protect the floor under and around the operating table with several thicknesses of paper, covered with a sheet tacked down at the corners. A kitchen table covered with a couple of old blankets protected by a rubber pinned or tacked under the Table table will answer for the operating table. Three small 669 76 HOME CARE OF THE SICK tables should be at hand, protected with papers, cov- ered with large sterile towels. On one table, con- venient to his right hand, the surgeon will need his instruments. On the second table have three bowls which have been well washed first with soap and hot water, then bichloride, i-iooo. The inside of the bowls should not be dried. One bowl is intended to hold the solution for the disinfection of the surgeon's and his assistant's hands, the other two for washing the sponges. The third table is required for the dressings and sterile towels. The former, the doctor will provide or tell you where to get them. Very sterile ren ' a ble sterile dressings are now put up by Ellwood Dressings Lee, and can be procured at any drug store. They are really better than anything that can be prepared without a sterilizer. If it is impossible to obtain these, the dressings should be prepared in the same manner as the towels, namely, rolled in bundles not more than 9 inches square (or the heat will not penetrate) and steamed in the clothes boiler for at least one hour. If there is no tray to keep them out of the water a hammock of gauze will answer the purpose. They are then dried in the oven, which must not be hot enough to scorch them. At least a dozen and a half towels will be required. The surgeon will bring the instruments and anaesthetic. If chloroform is administered, some vaseline will be required to grease the patient's face. SURGICAL OPERATIONS 77 An ether cone can be made out of paper, covered with a towel. An irrigator or douche bag must be at hand for the irrigation. This should be sterilized by boiling for five minutes, as are also the surgical instruments. There must be plenty of sterilized water prepared, six gallons at least, two gallons of which must be boiled long enough beforehand to be cold. This must be kept tightly cov- ered after it is boiled, or it will not remain sterile. Water must boil at least thirty minutes to be properly sterilized. Bichloride, carbolic and salt solutions may be needed and ,1 , t j 11 Ether Cone, made from stiff lllUSt DC at hand, as well, as tWO paper, covered with sterile pitchers, a pus basin, a chair, a blanket or two to cover the patient, two rub- bers to protect the blanket, a slop jar, hypodermic syringe, and stimulants the doctor will give definite instructions regarding the last. The bed is made according to the directions already given for bedmaking, with the exception that no pillow will be required as the patient's head' must be kept low. Instead, a small rubber covered by a towel is desirable to protect the bed if the patient is nauseated. A blanket is put over the patient, before the upper sheet ; hot water bottles should be in the bed all the time she Sterilized "Water The Bed 671 After the Operation 78 HOME CARE OF THE SICK is on the table; a couple of towels and pus basin should be on a table near the bed in case of nausea, also small pieces of gauze to wipe the mucus out of the mouth, and a wedge-shaped piece of wood to put between the teeth if they become clenched. If necessary to assist the surgeon during the opera- tion, scrub the hands for ten minutes with hot water and soap, using a new stiff nail brush which has been PORCELAIN BED PAN soaked in carbolic, 1-20. Be particularly careful of the finger nails, which should be cut very short. After scrubbing, the hands should be soaked in bichloride, I-IOOO. Nobody, whose hands have not been so treated, must touch the dressings or instruments, and after washing nothing but the sterile things must be touched. When the operation is over, if the patient's night- gown is wet it must be changed. She is then covered with a warmed blanket, and put into bed. She should lie on her back without pillows and be kept very quiet. 672 SURGICAL OPERATIONS 79 If she vomits, hold her head on one side to prevent strangulation. Washing the mouth out, as previously directed, will help to relieve the thirst which is generally intense after an anaesthetic. After a few hours either crushed ice or very hot water, in teaspoon doses, may be given. Bed Pan, "Eureka" Pattern The pulse must be watched carefully, and if its rate increases should be reported to the doctor, as this, together with pallor, restlessness, longing for fresh air, sighing respiration, and fall of temperature is a sign of hemorrhage. As the hemorrhage does not always show through the dressing these signs must be watched for. For treatment of hemorrhage see the section on "Emergencies." As the after treatment depends alto- gether on the nature of the operation, and subsequent condition of the patient, no rules for it can be given here further than to emphasize the fact that the first requisite for success in surgical work is perfect clean- liness. The gauze used for dressing the wound after the operation, the instruments and the hands of those The Pulse Perfect Cleanliness 673 8o HOME CARE OF THE SICK touching these things, must always be as carefully sterilized for the dressing as for the operation. The diet, like the treatment, will depend upon cir- cumstances. For the first day or two the patient is generally on fluid diet, and care must be taken that it is given slowly and in small quantities, but as soon as possible plenty of nourishing food should be given to build up the system. OBSTETRICS The average duration of pregnancy is 28! days. The most accurate way of calculating the probable date of confinement is by counting back three months from the date of the cessation of the last menses and adding seven days. Preliminary The expectant mother should place herself under the doctor's care in the early stages of pregnancy, as not only her own but the infant's after health depends largely on the care the mother takes of herself at this time. The principal rules of hygiene to be followed are: 1. Daily exercise in the open air. 2. At least eight hours' sleep out of twenty-four. 3. A daily bath, a sponge bath if the tub bath is too exhausting. A brisk rub after the bath will cause a good reaction. 4. The bowels should be moved daily, with mild cathartics if necessary. 674 OBSTETRICS 81 5. The urine must be carefully watched and any abnormality reported to the doctor. Frequent speci- mens should also be sent him, as there may be danger of serious kidney troubles. 6. Freedom from excitement, worry, hurry, and too heavy manual labor. 7. The clothing should be worn loose enough to allow of free circulation. 8. A nourishing, but not too stimulating diet should be adhered to. 9. The nipples require attention, especially during the last two months, and should be washed twice daily with boric acid solution and treated with fresh cocoa butter or albolene. What to provide : For tho 1. Two large rubber sheets. Mother 2. If possible, a Kelly Pad, if not, make an obstet- rical pad, consisting of four thicknesses of cotton wad- ding, covered with a layer of absorbent cotton, the whole encased in absorbent gauze and tacked to keep the cotton in place. This pad should be three-quarters of a yard square. 3. Two dozen pads for dressings, half a yard long, ten inches wide and two inches thick, made of the same materials. 4. Two dozen smaller pads. 5. Five boxes of sterile gauze (each containing one yard of gauze), to be used both for the mother's dressing and to cover the baby's cord. 675 82 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 6. One roll of adhesive plaster. 7- Six abdominal binders of unbleached muslin. 8. Six breast binders of unbleached muslin. 9- One pair long stockings made of flannel or an old blanket. 10. Two dozen paper bags in which soiled dress- ings can be put and burnt. 11. At least two hot water bottles. KELLEY PAD. 12. Bed pan "Perfection" is the best. 13. Douche pan. 14. Douche can or new fountain syringe bag. 15. Two glass douche nozzles. 1 6. Two glass catheters. 17. One agate basin to boil nozzles and catheters in. 1 8. Two large agate pitchers in which water can be sterilized, solutions made, etc. 19. Clinical, room, and bath thermometers. 20. One bottle carbolic, 4 per cent. 21. One bottle Lvsol. 676 OBSTETRICS 83 22. One bottle bichloride tablets. 23. New nail brush and fresh cake of soap for the doctor's use. For the baby: For the 1. A tube of sterile tape. Baby 2. A rubber sheet, or, preferably, a nursery cloth to protect the crib mattress. 3. Talcum powder. 4. Sweet oil or sterile vaseline. 5. Pure castile soap (never use perfumed soap of any kind). 6. Bath tub good rubber ones are the best. 7. Old table linen makes excellent towels and wash cloths for the baby. 8. A large square of soft, thick flannel to roll baby in after it is greased. 9. Basket containing sewing materials and safety pins. 10. Crib and bedding. 11. Scales to weigh the baby in are very desirable. 12. A rubber or padded lap protector for the at- tendant to use while bathing the baby. 13. A large flannel apron for the same purpose. The latter is especially desirable as the baby can be rolled in it, when taken from the bath. 14. Baby's clothing.: Six flannel bands, not Clothin hemmed, 6 inches wide, three-quarters of a yard long, 'or Baby Four knitted or woven shirts. Six flannel petticoats. Six white petticoats ; these should all be made without 677 84 HOME CARE OF THE SICK bands, and the fastening on the shoulders, running- a draw tape through the hem of the flannel petticoat, will keep the baby's feet warm without confining them. Six slips for night wear. Six dresses. Diapers, two sizes, eighteen and twenty-two inches square. As in other cases of sickness, the room should be as large, light, and airy as possible, scrupulously clean, and have no superfluous furniture. The Bed ^ n ^ s mst ance the foot of the bed should be to- wards the light. It should be made as shown in the section on bed-making, with the addition of a second rubber covered with a clean sheet, and either a rubber Kelly pad or an obstetrical pad (made as already described). The furniture and floor should be protected in the same manner as they are for operations. Besides the bed a table for the doctor, wash stand, nurse's table, extra table or bureau and chair will be required. See that there is a hook on which to hang the douche bag. On the wash stand have hot and cold water, soap, nail brush, scissors, and nail cleaner, towels, and bowl of bichloride, i-iooo. Doctor's ^ n ^ e doctor's table, bowl of bichloride, 1-3000, Table w jth towels and sponges in it; bowl of lysol, sterile towels, sterile douche tip, also rubber and glass catheter. Nurse's n tne nurse's table have (for baby) sterile scis- Tabie sors an( j t ape wipes in boric acid (these consist of 678 OBSTETRICS 85 small squares of gauze), two large squares of gauze to put over the baby's mouth if necessary to blow into it, soft flannel square to wrap baby in, dressing for cord as ordered by the doctor. For the mother chloroform, mask, pus basin, ster- ile dressing and pads. Under the table the douche pan (which has been washed in bichloride and kept cov- ered with towel, wrung out in same), slop pail and basin, paper bags for soiled dressings and placenta, foot tub, hot and cold water. On the bureau room, bath and clinical thermom- eters; salt, vinegar, alcohol, whisky, hypodermic syringe, binders, pins, hot water bag, tray and alcohol lamp. The signs of beginning labor are pains in the lower First part of the abdomen and back, occurring at regular intervals, about once every half hour, and a discharge of mucus tinged with blood from the vagina. True pains can be distinguished from false by plac- ing the hand over the lower part of the abdomen ; in true pains the contractions of the uterus are to be readily felt through the abdominal wall. As the labor advances the pains grow more severe and the intervals shorter. The first stage of labor consists in the dila- tion of the uterus, and ends when the membranes have ruptured and the uterus is completely dilated. The second stage or stage of expulsion ends when the child is born. 679 86 HOME CARE OF THE SICK The third stage ends when the placenta is expressed and the uterus contracted to the size of a closed hand. At the beginning of the first stage, the patient should have a bath, and her hair braided in two braids. Her bowels are emptied by the giving of a soap suds enema. After this the external parts are washed with bichloride solution, 1-5000, and a pad wet .with bichloride solution, i-ioooo, or boric acid applied. She is as a rule allowed to walk around the room during the first stage, which may last from ten to twelve hours, and even longer. She is best clad at this time in a night gown, warm wrapper, and long stockings made of flannel or an old blanket, coming well up over the thigh. Milk and broths should be given every two hours ; alcohol and other stimulants must be withheld. The patient must be instructed not to bear down during the pains of this stage, and to sit or lie down when a pain occurs. The During the second stage the patient must be kept S sta"e str i c tb r in bed. The wrapper is removed and a short dressing sack put on in its place, the night gown is tied up under the arms, and with it a sheet, the end of which comes down over the legs covering the blanket stockings, which are left on ; it can be folded up in the center when necessary. The patient usually lies on her back. A strong band of muslin around the foot of the bed, with the ends so that she can hold them to pull on, will help the patient during pains. 680 OBSTETRICS 87 The attendant's hands must be well scrubbed and disinfected with bichloride, i-iooo, that she may be ready to help the doctor. If the doctor does not arrive in time, the attendant, taking all antiseptic precautions, must place her hand against the head as soon as it appears and hold it back during the pains, thus preventing too rapid descent. When the head is delivered insert the finger into the passage to see if the cord be around the neck, if so, pull it carefully over the head. The right hand supports the child as it comes, and the other is placed on the abdomen and pressed firmly but gently down- ward till the child is expelled. One hand must be held over the uterus from this time until at least half an hour after the placenta is expelled. Place the child on its right side between the mother's Care of thighs, wipe out its eyes and mouth with swabs wet the Chii<: in boric acid ; place gauze over the mouth and blow into it ; if it does not cry, slap it on the back and chest ; if the color does not improve the cord will have to be tied and cut immediately (it is generally better to wait five minutes before doing this) and the child plunged into a hot bath. It is rarely necessary to do this, how- ever. The cord should be tied tightly with the sterile tape about an inch and a half from the navel, and again an inch further on; it is then cut (with sterile scissors) between the two knots. The baby is rubbed with vaseline or olive oil, rolled in the flannel square, and a warmed blanket, then put in its crib with at least 681 HOME CARE OF THE SICK The Third Stage The Binder one hot water bottle until the mother is attended to. The placenta is generally expressed about fifteen or twenty minutes after the birth of the child ; but even if it take longer, the cord should not be pulled upon it is better to gently manipulate the abdomen above the uterus, and continue doing this very gently with one hand as the placenta comes out, while with the other hand twist slowly to aid its coming. Even after ENDS OP THE Y BREAST BINDER the placenta is expressed, the hand must remain pressed downward over the uterus until it feels hard and firm. An assistant can in the meantime be wash- ing the patient with bichloride, 1-2000, and removing the soiled linen. When the uterus is firm and hard a binder should be applied, a dressing of sterile gauze and a pad being first placed over the vulva; this is afterward pinned on to the binder to keep it in place. The binder is best made of unbleached muslin. One for a medium size woman should be a yard and a 682 OBSTETRICS 89 quarter long and half a yard wide. It should, when pinned in place, extend from the border of the ribs to below the prominence of the hips, and should be made to fit the contour of the body by taking in darts over the hips on the upper and lower edges. A binder is also used to make compression upon Y Breast the breasts. There are a variety of these, but the Y Binder Y BREAST BINDER (a) AND ABDOMINAL BINDER (b) IN PLACE breast binder originally used in the Boston Lying-in Hospital is perhaps the easiest one to manage, and has the advantage of leaving the nipples exposed. A bandage shaped like a T is made by folding muslin lengthwise and pinning it at right angles to another strip folded in the same way. The T is then made into a Y by making a diagonal fold in the middle of the cross piece and fastening the middle of the plait with safety pins. To apply, dust the surface of breasts with powder, draw base of Y beneath the patient's back until apex 683 90 HOME CARE OF THE SICK of the fork is external to the outer edge of breast. Lift breasts upward and toward each other. Draw lower arm of fork snugly across chest beneath breasts, the inferior border of this arm extending at least one inch below margin of breasts; the end of arm is pinned to end of strap, which has been passed beneath back; the lower border is pinned in the center to abdominal binder. The upper arm of fork is then drawn across chest above the breasts and pinned like the lower to the main strap. Hemorrhage Watch for the signs of hemorrhage already de- scribed. Should hemorrhage occur send for the doctor immediately; induce contractions of the uterus by grasping the fundus and employing a firm but gentle kneading (no doctor would leave the case in your charge without showing you exactly how to do this). Elevate the foot of the bed, and give a hot douche of sterile water, 120 F. Sometimes astringents such as vinegar are added to the douche, but unless the case is very urgent it is best not to use it without the doctor's order. The patient must be kept quiet and on her back for the first six or seven hours, afterward she can turn on her side but should not sit up for at least five days. She is generally allowed to sit up on fourteenth day, if all discharge has ceased. In no case should the usual routine of life be resumed under four weeks. The diet is usually liquid for the first twenty-four hours, after which all symptoms being normal, the patient is allowed almost any easily digested food. 684 CARE OF THE CHILD 91 The dressing and pad should be changed every two hours until the discharge diminishes, later every three to five, as the case demands. After the third day it is usually necessary to change it only after it has been removed for the requirements of the patient. These dressings must all be sterile and the hands disinfected before applying them. If douches are ordered, boil the douche nozzle for five minutes before and after use. The breasts must be washed with boric acid solution before and after nursing. THE CARE OF THE CHILD After its birth the child's eyes and mouth are cleansed with 2 per cent boric acid solution and its whole body greased with sweet oil or sterilized vase- line. It is then wrapped in warm flannel, put in a crib or basket, heated with hot water bags if necessary, and covered with a warmed blanket. It can then be left until the mother is cared for. Watch the cord care- fully as there is danger of hemorrhage. The first bath is often given at once, although some "doctors prefer to have the baby rubbed with oil only Bath for the first few days. Before beginning have every- thing necessary together a foot tub containing water, 100 F., bath thermometer, warm, soft towels, wash cloth, castile soap, dusting powder, a dressing for the cord, boric acid solution, small squares of gauze, a rubber lap protector, two diapers, flannel band, shirt, flannel petticoat, and a simple, soft white dress. 68 92 HOME CARE OF THE SICK The head is first washed, using very little soap, rinsed and thoroughly dried ; then wash behind the ears, the crevices of the neck, axilla, joints, and be- tween the buttocks and thighs carefully. Only the part being bathed should be exposed. The baby is now put down into the tub and rinsed, supporting the head and back firmly with the left hand and arm. Cover the lap protector with flannel apron or warm towel and when you lift the baby out, roll this around it. Dry by patting; use very little powder and only when it is necessary to prevent chafing. Some doctors consider it better not to put the baby in the tub until after the cord is off. Navel The navel is now dressed by cutting a hole with Dressing sterile scissors in a piece of sterile gauze, which is slipped over the cord and folded about it. The cord is laid toward the left side and a pad of sterile absorbent cotton put over it. A soft flannel binder holds the pad in place and must be put on firmly and smoothly, but not too tightly. It is best sewn on with a few large stitches. After the bath the baby should be rolled in warm flannel and laid on its right side in its crib. Nursing The Feeding. The first six weeks the baby should nurse every two hours during the day and every three hours at night ; afterward this may be changed to every three hours during the day and twice at night. These hours should be rigidly adhered to. If the baby seems thirsty between meals a little plain water may be given. The baby's mouth should be washed with 2 per cent boric acid solution before and after feeding and also the mother's nipples. 686 FOOD FOR THE SICK 93 When for any reason it is impossible for the mother to nurse the child, great care must be exercised in the preparation of its food. First the bottle and nipples must be thoroughly cleansed immediately after each feeding by rinsing in cold water, then washing in hot water and soap suds and rinsing in hot water. The bottle is kept turned upside down and the nipples in a 2 per cent solution of boric acid. Both bottle and nipples should be boiled for five minutes twice a day. Every doctor has his own formula for prepared milk, but whatever the preparation used it is best pasteurized if not above suspicion. FOOD FOB THE SICK In many diseases, especially those accompanied by fever, the powers of digestion are much impaired. For this, as well as other reasons, it is necessary that all food given should be in a liquid form. Milk, except under certain conditions, is at such times considered the best food, as it contains in a dilute form all the constituents of the solids, namely : albumen, fat, sugar, the inorganic salts of lime and potash, and water. If curds appear in the stools, or vomiting ensues, it shows that the milk is not being properly digested. This difficulty may often be overcome by diluting it with seltzer or other effervescent water, by the addi- tion of lime water or bicarbonate of soda (ten grains to a pint), or by peptonizing the milk. (The recipe for the latter will be found at the end of the section.) 687 Amount and Frequency Feeding Cups 94 HOME CARE OF THE SICK A good substitute for milk is white of egg, beaten to a froth, diluted with an equal quantity of water, and flavored with lemon juice. Beef tea and broths contain very little nourishment, and should, therefore, be given only occasionally, for a change. Patients on fluid diet should, as a rule, be given six ounces every two hours, or half the quantity every hour. Of course there are times as after operation, or when the patient is nauseated when less must be given. When a patient is on liquid diet it is especially im- perative to give her nourishment at stated times and regular intervals. In giving see that it is taken very slowly. As a rule, when a patient is sick enough to be on fluid diet it is necessary for her to maintain the re- cumbent position, even while drinking, and there are several devices to facilitate this. There is the old- fashioned feeder with the spout, but the drinking tube or "ideal glass" are preferable. When raising the head slip the arm under the pillow; take care not to throw the head forward, and by so doing make it difficult to swallow. Never bring a glass to the patient in your hand, but on a small tray or plate, and with it a napkin to fold under the patient's chin and pre- vent drops soiling the sheet. When a patient is on milk diet her mouth should be washed out after every feeding, with listerine or boric 688 FOOD FOR THE SICK 95 acid, otherwise it will soon become coated and sore. Directions for doing this were given in the section on the care of the teeth. A convalescent patient should be given solid food Solid only by degrees, beginning with the so-called soft diet, which includes broths, strained vegetable soups, soft cooked eggs, milk toast, junkets, custard, jellies, and raw beef sandwiches. Then comes "light diet," which means the addition to the "soft diet" of underdone steak, chops, chicken, baked potatoes, and farinaceous puddings. Pastry and all rich or highly seasoned food should be avoided until the patient has, in every respect, re- sumed her usual routine of life. In diseases such as rheumatism, Bright's disease, g ecial diabetes, dyspepsia, etc., where fever is not the most Diet important symptom, but where the effect of certain foods must be taken into account, a special diet is prescribed. As the patient's general condition must be considered in the prescribing of such, I think it wise to make only a few general remarks on the subject, as a great deal of harm is frequently done by following set rules for medication and food, by those who are unable to recognize symptoms contra-indi- cating their use. In many forms of febrile disease, as for instance tuberculosis, light diet can be given even while there is fever, nourishing food being a most important item in the treatment. 689 Dainty Serving 96 HOME CARE OF THE SICK In diabetes, sugar and starchy foods, most fruits, and alcoholic drinks must be avoided. Gluten bread should be used, and that not too fresh; saccharine should be used instead of sugar for sweetening not only tea and coffee, etc., but also in cooking. Fresh milk should not be taken, but buttermilk and koumyss are allowed. In rheumatism and gout, as in diabetes, all sweeten- ing should be done with saccharine, and sweets of all kinds are prohibited, also pastry, puddings, jellies, pork, veal, and all fried meats. Fruit except straw- berries and bananas, is allowed. TRAY WITH FEET Too great stress cannot be laid on the necessity for x a dainty serving of the patient's meals. They should be either very hot or perfectly cold, as the case re- quires. Have clean napkins, spotless china, and shin- ing silver and glass. Be careful in carrying the tray not to spill any of the fluids, and, as has been said before, do not have too much on the tray at a time. Furthermore, that the patient may thoroughly enjoy the meal, it is necessary that she should be perfectly 690 FOOD FOR THE SICK 97 comfortable. Therefore, before bringing in the tray, wash her face and hands, shake up the pillows, and decide where it is best to set the tray. If there is no bedside table or tray with feet, it "is a good plan to have two blocks of wood to put on each side of the patient. They should be about the width of the tray, and high enough to hold it off the patient's chest. Magazines will answer the purpose if the blocks can- not be obtained. Always protect the night-gown and bed clothes with a towel or table napkin. RECIPES Milk In warming milk for drinking never allow it to Ne y 6 r boil, and always keep it covered. It is the coagula- tion of the casein by boiling, and the evaporation of certain gases, that renders it indigestible. Brandy Milk with Egg Beat one egg with one tablespoonful of sugar; add two tablespoonfuls of brandy and a cup of cold milk. Koumyss I qt. perfectly fresh milk. i -5th of a 2-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast. i tablespoonful of sugar. Dissolve the yeast in a little water ; mix it with the Five sugar and milk. Put the mixture into strong bottles ; ^qui cork them with tightly fitting stoppers; tie down se- curely with stout twine. Shake the bottles for a full 691 98 HOME CARE OF THE SICK minute; place them on end in a refrigerator; at the end of three days lay them on their sides ; turn them occasionally. Five days will be required to perfect fermentation. Kept in the refrigerator and well corked koumyss will keep indefinitely. Milk Lemonade I tablespoonful sugar. I cup boiling water. 34 cup lemon juice. 54 cup sherry. I ;4 cups cold milk. Pour the boiling 1 water over the sugar; add the lemon juice and sherry. Stir it until the sugar dis- solves; add the cold milk; stir again until the milk curdles ; strain through muslin. Milk Punch Sweeten i cup of milk with I teaspoonful of sugar ; stir in 2 tablespoon fuls of brandy; beat with egg- beater ; pour into glass and grate nutmeg over the top. Milk Rennet Uge Stir I teaspoonful of rennet and 2 teaspoonfuls of D ciina snerrv together with I teaspoonful of sugar. Heat I pint of milk until it is exactly 100 F. ; pour into bowl containing rennet and wine; stir quickly and only enough to mix ingredients ; grate nutmeg over the top, and set on ice till solid. FOOD FOR THE SICK 99 Peptonized Milk Mix 5 grains of pancreatic extract and 15 of soda bicarbonate with cold milk; warm a pint of milk and add ; stir well and put on ice to cool. Barley Gruel Mix I tablespoonful of Robinson's barley-flour with GrueU half a teaspoonful of sugar; pour over this a cup of boiling water ; boil ten minutes ; add a cup of milk ; bring to boiling point ; serve very hot. Arrowroot Gruel Mix half a tablespoonful of arrowroot with I salt- cpoonful of salt, half a teaspoonful of sugar, wet with 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water ; pour on a cup of boil- ing water, stirring constantly. Boil for twenty min- utes ; add the milk, and bring to boiling point ; strain ; serve immediately. A little port wine -is often added. Oatmeal Gruel Mix 2 tablespoonfuls of oatmeal, half a teaspoonful of sugar and a saltspoonful of salt. Pour this slowly into boiling water; cook in a saucepan for thirty minutes, or, preferably, in a double boiler for two hours; strain; add the milk, and bring to boiling point. Cracker Gruel Mix 2 tablespoonfuls of cracker crumbs with half a saltspoonful of salt and half a teaspoonful of sugar. Pour over this a cup of boiling water, add one cup of milk and simmer for two minutes. 693 ioo HOME CARE OF THE SICK Beef Tea Cut two pounds of round steak into half-inch squares ; put into double boiler and add one quart of water ; let stand one hour, then place over fire and let simmer two hours ; flavor to taste. Chicken Broth Broths Cut up a fowl (which has been properly cleaned) into small pieces ; add a quart or a quart and a half of cold water, according to size of fowl. Let stand for one hour and simmer for two hours, then boil slightly for one. Strain it, remove fat, and flavor to taste. Mutton Broth Cut one pound of loin or neck of mutton into small pieces; put with one teaspoonful of chopped onion into one quart of water. Let stand one hour, and simmer three ; . strain ; let cool ; then remove the fat whith rises to the top. Heat when ready to serve ; season with salt and white pepper. Flaxseed Tea Drinks Boil one tablespoonful of flaxseed in a pint of water for one hour ; strain ; add one tablespoonful of lemon juice and one tablespoonful of sugar; serve either hot or cold. The loss by evaporation should be made good from time to time, so that at the end of the cooking there shall be one pint of tea. Coffee For every cup of water use a heaped tablespoonful of coffee. Soak the coffee for several hours in cold 694 FOOD FOR THE SICK 101 water; bring to boiling point and let simmer for a few minutes ; let stand on the back of the stove for a minute to settle before serving. Caudle To a cupful of thin oatmeal gruel add a tablespoonful of sherry, one egg well beaten, sugar to taste ; it can be served either hot or cold. Toast Water Toast till dry three slices of bread an inch thick; break into small pieces ; add a pint of cold water ; soak for an hour; strain, and squeeze the water out of the toast with the back of a spoon. Serve cold ; if desired a little cream and sugar may be added. Barley Water Boil one tablespoonful of barley flour, a teaspoonful of sugar, a saltspoonful of salt and a quart of water together for fifteen minutes ; strain ; it can be flavored either with lemon juice or port or sherry wine. Rice Water This is made in the same manner as barley water, except that two tablespoonfuls of rice will be required to a quart of water. Oyster Soup Heat a cup of milk; add two tablespoonfuls of cracker crumbs, a saltspoonful of salt, a sprinkle of pepper, a fourth of a teaspoonful of butter ; when this is warm through add a cup of fresh oysters and juice; 695 102 HOME CARE OF THE SICK allow to simmer for about two minutes, or till the gills of the oysters curl. Milk Toast Toast three slices of bread a delicate brown ; butter them and put them into a covered dish. Cover them with milk which has been brought almost to boiling point. Soft Custard Beat together the yolks of two eggs, a saltspoonful of salt, and two tablespoonfuls of sugar; add this slowly to a pint of milk which has been brought to boiling point ; boil three minutes. Flavor with vanilla or sherry wine; serve cold. Egg-nogr Egg Break one egg into a bowl ; add one saltspoon- ful of salt and two teaspoonfuls of sugar ; beat until light ; add one cup of milk, one or two tablespoon- fuls of good brandy or whisky ; serve immediately. Sherry and Egg Break an egg into a bowl ; add a teaspoonful of sugar; beat the two together until well mixed; add two tablespoonfuls of sherry wine and a fourth of a cup of cold water ; mix thoroughly ; strain, and serve immediately. Scrambled Eggs Beat two eggs, a saltspoonful of salt, a sprinkle of white pepper, with a Dover egg-beater, until quite light ; add four tablespoonfuls of sweet cream or milk ; 696 FOOD FOR THE SICK 103 turn the mixture into a double boiler; cook, stirring constantly until the albumen is coagulated. Foamy Omelet Separate the yolks from the whites of two eggs. To the yolks add a saltspoonful of salt and one-fourth of a saltspoonful of pepper. Beat with a Dover egg- beater until light; add two tablespoonfuls of milk. Beat the whites until fairly stiff, and fold them into the yolk ; pour the mixture into a hot buttered omelet pan ; cook for about two minutes ; put into the oven for one minute to cook the upper surface. Egg Cream Separate the yolks of two eggs from the whites ; add two tablespoonfuls of sugar to the yolks; beat until well mixed ; add the juice and grated rind of half a lemon ; place the bowl in a dish of boiling water on the fire ; stir slowly until the mixture begins to thicken ; add the beaten whites of eggs, and stir for two minutes. Serve cold. Poached Eggs Pour some boiling water into a small saucepan ; salt it and add half a teaspoonful of vinegar ; break a fresh egg gently into this. As soon as the white is firm lift out the egg with a skimmer, and put on crustless but- tered toast. Soft Cooked Eggs Never boil eggs for the sick. Boil enough water to cover the eggs ; put them in ; remove the saucepan to 697 io 4 HOME CARE OF THE SICK the back of the stove where the water will not lose its warmth too soon, and let them stand ten minutes. Jellies Jellies The or der for making nearly all jellies is as follows: The gelatine is hydrated, or softened, by soaking in the cold water for half an hour. The boiling water, sugar and flavoring are then added, in the given order. Strain and cool. Lemon Jelly Y^ box of gelatine. y\ cup of cold water. 1^4 cups of boiling water. ^2 cup of sugar. l /4 cup of lemon juice. I tablespoon ful of brandy. Orange Jelly *4 box of gelatine. % CU P f c ld water. l /2 cup of boiling water. y 2 cup of sugar. i cup of orange juice. Juice of half a lemon. As soon as the latter begins to stiffen it can be whipped till stiff, making orange sponge, which, served with custard, makes a very dainty dish. Velvet Cream Soak y^ box of gelatine in J4 CU P of c ld water for half an hour ; then pour in % cup of sherry wine ; set 698 FOOD FOR THE SICK 105 the bowl in a dish of boiling water over the fire. When the gelatine is dissolved add a teaspoonful of lemon juice and y 2 a cup of sugar; strain; set the bowl in a dish of ice and water to cool. As soon as it begins to thicken turn in the cream. Stir this until it also thick- ens; mould and put on ice. Serve with cream. Wine Jelly y\. box of gelatine. , . J4 cup of cold water. 1*4 cups of boiling water. y 2 cup of sugar. y> a square inch cinnamon. i clove. y 2 cup of sherry wine. Coffee Jelly l /4 box gelatine. y\ cup of cold water, i cup of boiling water. y 2 cup of strong coffee. y 2 a teaspoonful of vanilla. y 2 a cup of sugar. EMERGENCIES. FIRST AID TO THE INJURED In all emergencies one of the chief requisites is coolness. Do not get excited, or you will be perfectly useless. When the doctor's services are necessary send him a written statement of the case, that he may come prepared with the proper appliances. Severe injury 699 io6 HOME CARE OF THE SICK of any kind is apt to be followed by that complete prostration of the vital powers known as "shock." Therefore, after such, the patient should be put into a warm bed, and hot water bags applied to the feet and over the heart. Exclude Scalds and Burns. In the treatment of scalds and burns the first object is to allay the pain by excluding the air. This is done best by the application of clean, soft, white linen or cotton cloths wrung out in a solu- tion made by dissolving a tablespooriful of bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) in a pint of boiled water. This treatment can be continued for the first few days; afterwards boric acid ointment spread on lint or soft sterile cotton will be found healing. Do not try to treat a burn of any extent without a doctor's advice, as many complications are likely to ensue. In fact, in such cases, it is always best to send for the doctor immediately, as many people have died from shock after comparatively small burns. Frost Bites. Rub with snow, or cloths wrung out in ice-water. The rubbing must be very light at first, and the patient kept away from the heat. Syncope or Fainting. Place the head lower than the feet if possible; give plenty of fresh air. Ammonia may be given by inhalation, but it should not be very strong, as it is irritating to the bronchial tubes. If these measures are not successful treat as in case of shock. 700 EMERGENCIES 107 Shock. Put the patient into a warm bed; undress and roll in blankets ; apply heat to the extremities and over the heart; raise the foot of the bed, so that the patient's head will be considerably lower than the feet. If possible avoid giving stimulation till the doctor arrives ; if, however, he cannot be found, and the case is urgent, give a rectal injection of whisky I oz., water 5 ozs. (105 R), salt 5 grains. Coffee may be used instead of water and salt. Epilepsy. Loosen all clothing; put something be- tween the teeth to prevent the tongue being bitten; have the head on a level with the feet ; give plenty of fresh air but no stimulants. Drowning. In cases of drowning where a person is apparently lifeless, efforts to restore life should be commenced at once by loosening all tight clothing around neck, chest, and waist. Turn the patient over quickly on his face, raising the body slightly at the waist to allow any water in the throat or air passages to run out. Wrap a handkerchief or a towel around the forefinger and gently cleanse the mouth. All this should take only a minute or two. Place the person upon his back with a folded coat or a firm pad of any kind under his shoulders to raise them a little. Be careful that the tongue does not slip back and shut off the air from the trachea. If it shows any tendency to do so, have some one hold it out, or tie a hand- kerchief around it and then around the neck. 701 io8 HOME CARE OF THE SICK Artificial Respiration Now artificial respiration should be produced until the natural breathing is restored. To do this kneel ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION (First Movement) behind the patient and grasping his arms just below the elbows, draw them slowly upward above his head until they nearly touch. Give a firm pull for a mo- ment. This movement tends to fill the lungs with air by raising the ribs and increasing the chest cavity. ARTIFICIAL, RESPIRATION (Second Movement) Then carry the arms slowly back to the sides of the body and press them against the ribs. This movement forces out the air which was drawn into the lungs and makes artificially a complete respiration. These two 702 EMERGENCIES. 109 movements should be repeated slowly and steadily about sixteen times in a minute, until respiration takes place naturally. This may require an hour or more. Asphyxiation, Caused by Gas, Smoke, etc. Remove the patient into the fresh air, loosen the clothing, throw cold water in the face, neck, and chest; apply heat to the feet and over the heart. If respiration is EXPELLING THE AIR (Third Movement) shallow, artificial respiration should be performed, and, if necessary, treat as for shock. Contusions, or Bruises, are best treated by rest and cold applications. Wounds. When there is a cut, the first procedure, provided there is no hemorrhage, is to wash out the wound well with bichloride, 1-5000, and bind it up with sterile gauze. A wound will heal without the formation of pus if all bacteria are killed or kept out. When the cut is long, or the ends of the wound do not come together well, the doctor should be summoned, as putting in a few stitches may prevent an unsightly Guarding Against Blood Poisoning 703 i io HOME CARE OF THE SICK ' scar. (Having bichloride and sterile gauze always in the house would save many a case of blood poison, Toumi uet infected fingers, etc.) Collodion is useful in keeping bacteria out of small cuts and in applying absorbent cotton over wounds in places where bandages cannot be used. Hemorrhage. Elevate the affected part ; make com- pression over the wound by applying clean compresses and bandaging tightly. If this does not check it, and you do not know the course of the arteries well enough Manner of compressing ail artery with a handkerchief and stick. to make compression upon the required one, tie on a bandage very tightly above the wound. A pencil or a piece of wood stuck under this, and turned around, will act as a tourniquet. When possible, in addition to this it is always better to place a hard pad over the course of the artery. A doctor's aid must be sought immediately, for if the blood is shut off in this manner longer than an hour gangrene is likely to set in. 704 EMERGENCIES in Epistaxis (bleeding from the nose). Make the pa- tient stand or sit erect; throw the head back and elevate the arms, while you apply ice or ice-cold com- presses to the forehead and back of neck. If the bleeding still continues the nostrils should be syringed with salt and water, ice cold. Avoid blowing the nose, and so disturbing the formation of clots. Hemorrhage from the Lungs. Keep the patient quiet, give crushed ice, and put ice-cap on chest. Salt solution made by dissolving a teaspoonful of salt in a small cup of water may also be given. Sprains occur most frequently at the wrist and ankle joint. Soak the affected part in hot water, or apply hot compresses. The joint should then be supported by strapping, and given moderate use. A surgeon should do the strapping, for if it is not properly done serious trouble may result. Fractures. It is a mistaken impression that a frac- ture must be set immediately. It will do less harm for it to be left a day or two without splints than for them to be applied awkwardly. Handle the injured limb as little as possible, and keep the patient quiet until a competent surgeon can be obtained. Temporary splints made of pasteboard, shingles, etc., may be bound on to prevent the spasmodic twitching of the muscles; cold or hot compresses applied will keep down the swelling and relieve the pain. Dislocations should be reduced as soon as possible, but only a surgeon can do this properly. Cold Applications Strapping Fractures Need Not Be Set At Once 705 1 12 HUME LAKE f, 535 Classification of expenses, 458 value of. 413 Cleaning. 67, 102, 111 metal. 99 porcelain. lOn with gasoline, 146 woodwork, 98 Clothing, cost of, 430 Coal. 32. 327 anthracite, 33 nituminous, 33 distillation of. 113 fuel value of 36, 325 gas, 113. 130 tar products, 114 Coffee, making, 202, 376 Coke. 33 Coking coal, 33 Cold storage, 204 Colic, treatment for, 596 Collagen, 55 Collodion, 619 Color of beef. 530 (Ombustion, 28, 37 in body. 38 spontaneous. 160 Comparison, testing by, 131 Composition of air, 24, 30, 176 of butter, 226 of cheese, 229 Note. For page numbers, sec foot of pages. 725 INDEX Composition of fats, 52 of foods, table, 369 of gas, 158 of grains, 274 of milk, 219 of soap, 71 of sugar, 40 of water, 16 Compounds, 14 chemical, 69 washing, 73, 137, 173 Compresses, 654 Condiments, 313 Conservation of energy, 126 160 of matter, 31 principle of, 126 Constants in food, 317 Consumption, 659 definition of, 401 Contagion, 657 Contagious diseases, 594 661 Convalescence, 621 diet in, 621 Convulsions, 597 Cook books, use of. 340 Cookery, art of, 215'. 315, 343 fancy. 304 Cookies, 301, 389 Cooking, cereals. 45, 276 co-operative. 330 effects of, 59, 189 fats, 51 in milk, 222 in water, methods of, 196 object of, 59 soda, 105 temperature in, 199, 370 372 vegetables, 27O with water, 199 Cooking, free-hand. 367 Co operative cooking. 336 Corned beef. 542 Corn cake, 388 Corn meal. 369, 396 of building. 425 of food, 241. 318, 431, 577 of living, 417. 571 Cottage pudding. 301 Cotton cloth, brands of, 518 cloth, price of. 519 nbres. structure of 78 2s; ** 37 Cream of tartar. 107 Cream puffs. 245, 385 Croquettes. 308 Croup, 598 false, 598 membraneous, 598 Croutons, 392 Crystals, shape of, 14 water in, 165 Crumbs, 392 Custards, 380 Cuts, of beef, 533 of beef steak, 538 of mutton. 549 of pork, 550 of roast beef 5^7 of veal, 547 Cutting up beef, 533 Daily outline, 488 Damask, 520 Decay, 62 cause of, 62 Department stores, 505 Diet in convalescence 621 special, 691 Differing opinions, 569 of proteids, 59 of starch, 43, 170 of vegetables. 268 Note.~For page numbers, see foot of pages. 15 288 11 ^ 5n Diphtheria, 596 cause of, 596 Disadvantages of buying home 4*2 of domestic service 4S2 Diseases, children's 596 contagious, 594 ' not contagious, 596 Dishes, names of, 307 Dishwashing. 76, 149 194 machines, 77 Disinfectants, 657. 661 Disinfection, 63. 65. 07 657 659 of' SSS^'fe" "' ** of dishes. 662 of patient. 664 of room. 665 personal. 666 special rules for, 663 Dislocations, 705 Distillation. 10. 113 destructive, 33, 157 factional. 157 Distilled water. 10 Division of income, 415 517 of labor. 477 Doctor, province of. 593 Domestic service, 479 498 advantages of, 481 cost of. 428 disadvantages of 482 notes on. 582 objections to, 484 726 INDEX Domestic problem, solution of, 496 Double process bread, 286 Douches, 648 Doughnuts, 301, 390 Doughs, 281, 386. manner of mixing, 1^9, ^si quick, 386 yeast. 390 Draw sheets, 607 changing, 608, 611 Dress. 437 Dressing, mayonnaise, 400 Dried , foods, 209 Drip coffee, 202. 376 Drop cakes, 387 Dropped egg, 238 Drowning, 701 Dry steaming, 368 Dumplings. 387 Dusting, 603 Ear, foreign bodies in, 706 Economic position of women, 403 Economics, divisions in, 401 Economy, aims of. 40^ of food, 435, 577 true, 409, 57i " > <00,1S, 240 effect of heat on, 236 in doughs. 243 poached, 238 preserving, 239, 560 temperature for cooking, 237 testing, 560 timbals, 381 value of. 239 with cheese, 241 with starch, 238 with white sauce, . 241 Electric batteries, 123, 176 Electricity, 121 Elements, chemical, 30 table of. 128 Emergencies, 699 Employment agencies, 4V Emulsions, 71 Enema, cleansing, b4b soap, 647 Enemata. nutritive, 644 En c e onseVvatIon of, 126, 160 source of. 53 EnvSpe Method of accounts, 444 IpfstS 7 (ie bleed), 705 EstlbJished fandards of work 491 Estimate of kitchen utensils, 508 Estimation of values, 40b Evaporation, 198 Expenditure for clothing, 430 classification of, 414 division of household, 421 home, 409 legitimate, 423 record of, 414 Expense of help by hour, 492 operating, 426 Experience of students with servant problem. 584 Experiments with acids, 172 alkalis, 172 alum, 13 baking powder, 291 bluing, 174 bones. 61 breakfast food. 364 butter, 226 dishwashing, 77 eggs. 237 flame, 109 gluten, 57 hard water, 173 iron rust. 175 jelly, 196 manufacturing water, 167 meat, 58 potato, 264 pressure of air, 168 salts, 172 soap, 173 soda. 107. 290 starch, 170 taking temperature, 719 water, 1O. 197. 198, 718 Experiments, value of, 129 Explosions, cause of, 110 Explosive mixtures, 110 Extractives, 55 Extravagance, 418 Eves, care of, 667 Eyes, foreign bodies in, 706 Fainting, 700 Fancy cooking. 304 Fats, 51, 69, 217, 253, 369 composition of, 52 cooking of, 51 digestion of, 51 heat from, 53 to clarify, 393 use of, 356 Ferments, 44 Fertilizers, 125 Fever, scarlet, 596 typhoid, 597 Fibres, 78 chemical action on, 7w cotton, 78 linen, 78 silk, 79 structure of, 77 wool, 78 Note. For page numbers, see -foot of pages. 727 INDEX Fillet of beef, 538 Filling. 392 Filtering. 15 famil;r - 46S Freezing, 21 latent heat of. 21 French dressing, 400 Fire tests for kerosene, 36 Fireless cookers. .330 home made. 336 First aid to injured, 699 Fish balls, 395 baking, 554 boiling. 554 kinds of. 553 local varieties of, 554 loaf, 395 methods of cooking, 257 proper appearance of, 257 sauces with. 258 scalloped, 395 season of, 553 selecting. 553 shell, 555 Flank, use of, 540 Flash point, 36 Flavor, 61, 312, 375 blended, 314 Flavoring material. 313. 314 Floor of sick room. 603 Flour, kinds of. 284 Flowers in sick room, 601 Fomentation. G53 Fondant. 399 Food. 430-37 aesthetic demands for 433 air as, 38 canned, 211 choice of, 215 classification of, 216 cost per person, 316, 431 dried. 209 economy, 577 for the sick. 687 highly seasoned, 622 nitrogenous. 53 preserving. 208 proper, 430 starchy. 369 time of cooking, 372 uncooked. 208 use of, 37 varied with seasons 353 variety of. 304 waste of money in, 431 Foot brace. 614 Forequarter of beef. 534 Foreign bodies, in ear, 706 m eye, 706 in nose, 706 in throat, 706 m windpipe, 707 259, Fractures, 705 Free hand cooking, 367 Note.-For page numbers, sec foot of pages. Frost ings. 39$) Fruits, 208-39 conciliations, 309 dried, how to cook, 377 food value of, 39 stains, 89 Frying, 254, 368 Fuel, 179 comparative value of, 325 comparison of. 36 cost of, 36. 326 for sick room, 605 value, 36 Furnishings, kitchen, 337 sick room, 601 Garnish, 310 Gas, 113, 184, 327 asphyxiation, 703 acetylene, 115 burners, 184 coal, 113 composition of. 158 from candle. 108 gasoline, 117 meter. 1S6 natural, 115 stoves, 1S5 water, 114 Gasoline, cleaning with, 35, 146 stoves, 1S7 Gelatine, 310, 380 jellv. 196 Gelatinoids, 54 Gems, 388 German measles. 595 Get-rich-quick schemes, 441 Ginger bread, 389 Glucose, 40 Gluten. 54. 57, 170 Government Bulletins, free. 164, 322, o63 Gowns, short, 612 Grains, composition of, 274 Grape, sugar, 41 Graphite, 32 Grease spots, 87 Griddle cakes. 388 Groceries, brand of, 562 dry, 561 Haddock. 553 Hair, care of. 624 washing. 625 Hard coal. 18<) water, 15, 74, 142, 173 INDEX Hard water, cooking with, 75 water, with soap, 75 Hash. 307, 398 Hay box, 330 use of, 333 Health, value of, 474 Heat, 20 Heat, effect on foods. 360 effect of, on albumin. 360 effect of, on baking powder, 370 effect of, on celluloso. 360 effect of, on fats, 370 effect of, on food materials, 360 effect of, on gelatine. 370 effect of, on sugar, 370 effect of, on starch. 360 latent. 20, 152. 166 transmission of, 190 Help, by the hour. 490. 586 Hemorrhage (bleeding), 704 in child birth, 684 from lungs, 704 signs of, 673 High cost of food, 432 High temperature, 635 Higher life, 437 allowance for, 437 Hindquarter of beef. 537 Home, advantages of owning, 422 expenditures, 40!), 441 sanctity of. 495 soap making. 147 Home maker, education of, 406 Home making, business side of, 404 right spirit in, 408 Hot pack. 629 Hour work, 49O, 586 Household accounts, 432, 571 chemicals. 131 aid society, 498 Household expenses, classification of, 458 manager, expert. 563 Housekeeper's laboratory. 129 library, 162 Housekeeping, a profession. 405 on business-like basis. 407 Housewife, tests of good. 426 Housework helper, wages of, 428 Hydro-carbons, 33, 144 Hydrogen, 17 peroxide. 98 Hydraulic cement. 12O Hypodermic injections, 645 Ice, 204 caps, 653 cream, 382 cream freezer, 2O7 Ideals, realizing. 438 Ignorance of servants. 485 Immigrants' help. 480 Impurities in water, 141 Income, divisions of. 415, 511 regular. 415 Incubation, period of. 594 Indorsement of checks, 462 Industrial changes, 480 Infectious diseases, 658 Ingrain carpet, grades of, 522 Inhalations, 645 steam, 598 Initiative in the home, 405 Injections, 642 hypodermic, 645 Injuries, 699 Ink. 91 colored. 92 indelible, 90 on carpets, 92 removal of, 91 Insurance, lif*-, 440 Intentions, good. 412 Intestinal obstructions. 597 Investments, divisions for wise, 439 Iron cooking utensils, 513 Iron rust, removing, 92, 174 Isolation. 661 time of, 595 .Tavelle water. 96 Jellies, 211, 383 Judging meat, 249 poultry. 259 Junket, 220, 382 Keeping fire, 183 Kensington squares, cost of, 524 Kerosene, 34, 329 flash point of. 36, 169 lamps, 112. 329 stoves, 187 use in cleaning. 99, 134 washing with. 145 Kidneys, beef, 543 Kindling fires, 183 point, 28 Kisses, 395 Kitchen cabinet, 514 chairs, 515 floor covering. 512 furnishings, 337, 512 scales, 311 stove, 512 tables. 515 utensils, 507 Kneading. 288 Kromeskies, 308 Labor, cost of. 318 division of. 473 organization of. 473 Laboratory, acids for, 132 housekeeper's, 129 Note. For page numbers, sec foot of pages. 720 INDEX Lactose, 40 Lamb. 250, 548 chops, 549 Lamps, 112 kerosene, 112 safety. 112 Lard, 369 Latent heat, 20. 152, 166 Laundry, 78, 141 chemistry of, 78 equipment cost of, 510 establishment of, 495 work, 141, 174, 570 Laws of expenditure, Dr. Engel's, 419 Lead pipes, 15 Leaven, 47 Leaving materials, 373, 374 Leclance cell, 122 Ledger, use of, 448 Left-overs, use of, 318, 351 Legitimate bargains, 499 Legumes, 267 Legumin, 54 Lemon Ice, 382 Levulose, 41 Life insurance, 440 Life, standards of, 410 Lifting patient, 612, 615, 624 Lighting. 108 methods of, 282 of sick-room, 602 Lightning cake, 389 Lime, 118 quick. 119 slaked, 119 soap, 75 test. 136 water, 119 Linen, bed, 518 fibres, structure of, 78 table, 516 Litmus for testing, 68 Liver, beef, 542 Living, style of. 413 Location of cuts of beef, 533 Maltose, 41 Marketing, 527 Match, chemistry of, 29 Materials of kitchen utensils, 512 Matter, conservation of, 31 Mattresses, 601 changing, 617 protecting, 608 Mayonnaise dressing, 400 Meals, serving, 621 Measles, 595 German, 595 Measures, 367 Measuring glasses, 641 Meats, 57. 247, 256, 394 boiled, 393 Meats, braised, 252 choice of, 247 cost of, 248 effect of temperature on, 57, 369 judging, 249 left-overs, 309 loaf, 395 preparation of, 251 stew. 394 supply of, 528 timbals, 395 toughness of, 249 Medicines, giving of, 640 Meningitis, 598 Menu making, 346, 358, 575 Menus for special occasions, 358 planning. 321 Mercerization, 80 Meringues. 385 Mildew. 89 Milk. 218, 559 composition of, 219 concentrated, 223 cooking in, 222 skimmed, 224 sour, 220 sugar, 41 supply, source of, 560 use of, 218 Mineral matter, 60 water, 193 Molasses, 40 with soda, 292 Molecules, 127, 129 Money, use of, 404 Monthly budgets, 572 Mortar, 120 Mother, province of, 593 Mousse, or Par fa it. 382 Mouth, care of, 625 washes, 626 Muffins, 387 Mumps, 594 Muscle arrangement of beef, 531 Mushes, 275 corn meal, 396 Mustard plasters, 652 Mutton, 250. 548 cuts of, 549 Napkins, 521 Natural gas, 115 Neck, use of, 535 Needs vs. wants, 411 Neutralizing acidity of milk, 221 Night gown, changing, 610 Night nursing, 606 Nitric acid poisoning, 707 Nitrogen, 24 for plants, 126 properties of, 24 use of, 53 Note. For page numbers, see foot of pages. INDEX Nitrogenous foods, 53 foods, cooking of, 54 Noodles, 244 Norwegian cooking box, 189, 330 Nose bleed, 705 foreign bodies in. 706 Nurse, care of, 606 clothing of, 606 duties of, 593 night, .606 Nursing the baby, 686 Nuts, 369 as food, 210 Objections to domestic service, 484 Obstetrics, 674 Oil stoves, 35, 329 Oils, 69 Olive oil, 369 Omelets, 384 Operating room, 669 expenses, 426 table, 669 Operations at home, 667 precautions when over. 672 preparation for, 668 Opium poisoning, 708 Ordering by telephone, 351 time for, 351. 528 Order in housework, 473 Organizations of household labor, 473 Oriental rugs, 524 Oven, temperature of, 303, 372 thermometer, 302 Ovens, first, 178 Oxalic acid poisoning. 707 Oxide of calcium, 118 Oxides, 19 Oxygen in air, 18, 167 Paint, removal of, 90 Paraffin, 34 in washing, 144 Parfait, 382 Parsnips, 369 Pasteurization of milk, 221 Pastry, 297, 390 Patient, amusing, 623 care of, 605 lifting, 612, 624 Peas, 268, 369 Peat, 23 Peptones, 59 Perishable supplies, 503 Peroxide of hydrogen, 98 Personal expenses, classification, 458 freedom of maid, 489 Petroleum, 34 Phosphates, 36 Pies, 297 Pillows, 620 Pills, 642 Plain cakes, 299, 389 Planning meals, 319 menus, 331 work, 476 Plant fertilizers, 125 foods, 124 Plants, 124 house, 124 Plaster, 120 Pneumonia, 597 symptoms of, 597 Poached eggs, 338 Poisoning, blood, 703, 704 Poisons, 707 Popovers, 245 Pork, 550 Potash, 70 caustic, 70 Potatoes, 269, 369, 398 baked, 397 boiled. 269, 397 croquettes, 398 loss in preparing, 397 mashed, 397 riced. 397 stuffed, on half shell, 398 with meat, 270 Poultices, 651 applying, 651 linseed, 651 mustard, 652 starch, 652 Poultry, 259 care in selecting. 551 methods of plucking, 552 tests for, 552 Powders, giving, 642 Prepared food, 318 Preserve jars, 213 Preserving eggs, 239 food, 208 in sugar, 212 Pressure of air. 23, 168 relieving, 620 Prevention of bed sores, 617 Principle of contrast, 306 Production, definition of. 401 Profession of house keeping. 405 Program for class study, 16r>, 350, 360, 566 Promotion for helper. 483 Proportions, table of, 386, 390 Proteids. 54 digestion of, 59 Proteins, 216, 369 Ptyalin, 44 Pudding, cottage, 301 fruit, 380 snow, 380 Puffs, pastry, 296, 385 Pulse, 636 counting .the, 637 Note. For page numbers, see foot of pages. 731 10 INDEX Pulses or legumes, 267 Pump, 23 force, 24 suction, 25 Q Quarantine, 664 Quick lime, 119 Questions (see "test") Ragouts or stews, 307 Railroad securities, 440 Rain water. 121 Rancid butter, 229 Ranges, 181 Rarebit, Welsh, 378 Ration. 317 Raw foods, composition of, 369 Real estate loans, 441 Receipts, 376 Recipes, 691 Records, keeping. 638 Refrigerator. 205 care of. 206 Refuse, 317 Regular income, 415 Relapse, cause of, 621 Remnants, value of, 504 Rent, 421 Rental. 425 Reorganization of the home. 490 Respiration, or breathing, 638 artificial, 702 chart, 638 Rib roasts, 536 Ribs of beef, 535 use of, 535 Rice, 276, 396 croquettes, 396 Rinsing clothes, 81 Rissoles, 308 Roasts, small, 394, 540 Roasting, 190, 251, 368 Rochelle salt. 107 Rolls, 289, 391 Rosin soap, 147 Round, use of, 539 Routine, 476 Rubber air cushion, 621 sheet. 608 Rugs, 523 kinds of, 518 Pump, use of. 539 Rust, iron, 92, 174 Safe interest, 441 Safety lamps, 112 Salads. 274. 308 French dressing for, 400 Saleratus, 105 Salmis or stews, 307 Salt, 69, 172 common, 60 Rochelle, 107 Salt meats, 252 to develop flavor, 312 Saturated solution, 13 Sauce, brown, 227, 378 white, 226, 377 white fish. 215 Sausages, 551 Sauteing, 368 Saving, percentage in, 562 ways of. 439 Scalds, 700 Scales, kitchen, 311 Scallops, 308 Scarlet fever, 596 Schedule of work, 591 Scultelus bandages, 714 Seasons, food varied with, 353 Securities, railroad, 440 Selecting beef, 530 Self control, necessity for, 475 Servant problem. 584 Servant, ignorance of. 485 irresponsibility of. 485 Service, domestic, 479, 583 Serving. 357 dainty, 621. 690 Shank, use of, 540 Shaping dough, 2S9 Sheet, changing, 610 draw, 607 rubber. 608 size of, 518 Sheeting, kinds of, 518 Sherbet, 382 Shin. the. 537 Shock, 701 Shortcake, 387 Shortening, 296, 374 Short process bread, 286 Sick room, 601 airing. 604 care of, 601 choice of. 601 don'ts, 606 dusting, 603 floor of, 603 furnishing of, 601 lighting of. 602 methods, 633 sweeping. 603 temperature of, 605 ventilation of. 699 Silence cloth, 521 Silver polish. 101, 137 sulphide, 100 Sinapisms, mustard plaster, 652 Sirloin, location of, 538 Skin, artificial, 619 care of. 619 Slings, 705 Note. For page numbers, see foot of pages. 732 INDEX 11 Smallpox, 595 Small wastes, 429 Smoke. 34 asphyxiation, 703 nature of, 110 Smyrna rugs. 524 Soaking clothes, 80 Soap. 69, 172 action of, 71 composition of, 71 kinds of, 72 lime, 75 making. 146 rosin. 147 solution. 83 with hard water, 75 Soda. 105 ash. 73 caustic. 70 cooking. 1<5 washing. 73 with acids. 290 with cream o' tartar, 291 with molasses. 292 with sour milk, 292 Soft coal, 181 Softening water. 74, 143 Solubility of water, 13 Solution saturated, 13 Solvents, 134 Souffles, 308, 385 rfoup, 58, 307 names of. 250 stock. 256. 376 vegetable. 272 Sour milk with soda, 292 Specialty stores. 505 Spices. 313 Snonge cake. 242. 299, 385 Spongy mixtures, 240 Spontaneous combustion, 160 Sprains, 705 Stains. 82 bluing, 88 coffee, 89 fruit, 89 removal of. 87 vaseline, 89 Stale bread, use of, 391 Standards, differing, 412 of life. 41O of quality of goods. 403 of work, established, 487, 491 Starch. 41, 137 changed to sugar, 43 conversion of. 43 cooking of. 45. 309 digestion of. 43, 45 tests for. 137 source of, 42 uncooked, 80 arching clothes, 86 eaks, selection of, 898, 541 earn cooker, 188, 203 Steaming, 368 Sterilized water, 071 Sterilising dressings, 670 the hands, 672 Stewing. 200, 368 Stews, 307, 394 cut for, 542 Sticking piece, location of, 536 Still, 12 Storage, 500, 561 cold. 204 requirements. 502 Stoves, ancient, 177 gas. 185 gasoline, 187 kerosene, 187 modern, 181 Stubs of check book, 464 Stuffing. 262 Style of living, 413 Sucrose, 40 Sugar. 40 as flavoring, 303 brown, 40 cane. 40 digestion of, 43 fruit, 41 grape, 41 maple, 40 milk. 41 starch, 41 Sulphur candle, 97 dioxide. 96 Sulphurous acid gas, 133 Supper. 321 Supplies, buying, 499 lists of. 506 perishable. 503 Suppositories, 644 Surgical operations. 667 Sweeping. 603 Sweetbreads, 544 Symptoms of diseases. 594 Syncope or fainting, 700 Syrup. 399 caramel. 398 System of accounts, 444 of work, 590 value of, 319 Table, bedside, 603 Table linen, 516 examples of, 521 grades of. 519 kinds of, 520 price of, 521 size of. 521 Table of common substances, 130 of contagious diseases, 594 of elements. 128 of cuts of beef, 545 of proportions, doughs, 3,8Q, 3QO of temperatures, 3J8 For page numbers, see foot of 733 12 INDEX Table service, 357 time of cooking, 372 Tables, kitchen, 515 Tannic acid, 55 Tapestry carpets, 522 Tarnish, 100 Tea, making, 202. 376 Teeth, care for, 625 Telephone, use for buying, 527 Temperature, 635 for cooking eggs, 237 high, 635 in cooking. 199, 370, 371, 372 normal. 635 of boiling point, 20 of oven, 303 ' of sick room, 605 records. 636 sub-normal, 635 taking, the. 634 testing fat, 254 vital. 38 Tenderloin, 538 Test questions. 64. 103. 231. 278. 323 469. 525. 564, 655, 716 Tests, 135 for poultry. 552 sample. 138 Testing by comparison. 131 colors. 129 Theoretical division of income, 415 Thermometer, 20 bath, 629 clinical, 633 oven, 302 use of. 154 Thickening, methods of, 377 materials. 373 Timbales. 244 Time of cooking, 370 Time table for cooking, 372 Tongue, beef, 543 Tough meat. 251 Tourniquet (to stop bleeding), 704 Transmission of heat. 190 Tuberculosis, 659 Turning patient. 611 Turnips, composition of, 369 Typhoid fever, 597 Use of money, 404 Utensils, adaptability of, 311 aluminum. 513 buying, 504 choice of, 198 estimate of kitchen, 506 for canning, 213 Iron. 515 kitchen, 507 materials for kitchen, 512 Note. For page numbers, see foot of pages. Value of classification, 413 of individual home, 592 Values, estimate of, 406 real, 416 Vapor, water, 25 Variety in foods, 305 Varnish stains, 90 Vaselene, 34 Vaseline, 34 Stains. 89 Veal bob, 546 cuts of, 547 season of, 546 Vegetable left-overs, 309 soups, 272 Vegetables, 263. 396 classification of. 265 combinations of, 270 composition of, 263 cooking. 270 creamed. 273 digestibility of, 268, 272 dried, 265 how to cook, 377 mashed, 273 preparation of, 271 prices of. 557 quantity for serving, 558 season of, 556 selecting, 558 strongly flavored, 265 wilted, 267 young. 267 Ventilation, 23, 604 of sleeping rooms, 26 window, 604 Vital temperature, 38 Voltaic cell. 121 Vouchers, 466 W Wadding ring, 620 Waffles, 388 Wage of helper, 428 Wages of domestic helper. 483 Washing colored goods, 82 powders. 137, 173 soda, 73 soda, use of, 149 woolens, 82 Waste, 317 of money in food, 431 sources of, 432 Wastes, small, 429 Water. 8. 22. 141. 165 as temperature regulator, 21 boiling point of, 19 bread. 49 composition of, 16 distilled. 10 effect of freezing, 21 effect of heating, 19 714 INDEX 13 Water, effect on lead, 16 effect on metaTS, 14 filtered, 15 flavor of, 194 a as 114, 159 hard, 15, 74, .142, 173 heat, absorption of, 21 impurities in, 141 impurities in, 142 lime, 119 manufacturing, 167 mineral, 193 natural, 10 of crystallization, 10. 16o permanent hardness, 74 softening, 36, 73, 143 solubility of, 13 Wealth expander, office of. < Weights and measures, 367 Weight of beef, 534 Welsh rarebit, 378 Wheat flour, composition or, .<:-*, . White sauce, 226, 228, 373, 377 Whitewash, 121 Whiting, 101 _ A . Windpipe, foreign bodies in, 706 Wood as fuel, 179, 326 Wooden ware, 513 Wool fibres, structures of, 78 Work by hour, 429, 491, 586 schedule of, 491 standards of, 427 Worry, harm of, 427 Wounds, 703 Yeast, 47, 282 amount of, 286 cakes, 283 doughs, table of, 390 Note. For page numbers, see foot of pages. 735 COMPLETE COURSE IN HOME ECONOMICS This course covers, systematically, in an interesting and practical way, the new "Profession of Home- making" and "Art of Right Living." It is divided into forty lesson pamphlets of fifty to one hundred pages each. REGULAR ORDER IN WHICH THE LESSONS ARE TAKEN FOOD SUBJECTS (1) Chemistry of the Household Parts I, II, III. (3) Principles of Cookery Parts I, II, III, IV. (5) Food and Dietetics Parts I, II, III, IV. (7) Household Management Parts I, II, III, IV. HOUSEHOLD ART (9) The House Its Plan, Deco- ration and Care, I, II, III. (1O) Textiles and Clothing Parts I, II, III. PARTIAL LIST ISABEL BEVIER, Ph. M. Professor of Household Science, University of Illinois S. MARIA ELLIOTT Instructor in Home Economics, Simmons College, Boston BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. M. Professor of Home Economics, University of Vermont KATE HEINZ WATSON Formerly Instructor Lewis Insti- tute, Chicago MARGARET E. DODD, S. B. Graduate Mass. Inst. of Technology ANNA BARROWS Teacher of Cookery, Columbia University; Director Chautauqua School of Cookery HEALTH SUBJECTS (2) Household Bacteriology Parts I, II, III. (4) Household Hygiene Parts I, II, III. (6) Personal Hygiene Parts I, II, III, IV. (8) Home Care of the Sick Parts I, II, III. CHILDREN (11) Care of Children Parts I. II, III. (12) Study of Child Life Parts I, II, III. OF INSTRUCTORS ALFRED C. COTTON, A. M., M Professor Diseases of Childiv Rush Medical College, Univer~ ; of Chicago ALICE PELOUBET NORTON,* Assistant Professor of Homr nomics, University of Chica- MARION FOSTER WASHBUK Editor of "The Mothers' Magaz AMY ELIZABETH POPE Instructor in Nursing, Pre terian Hospital, N. Y. City CHARLOTTE M. GIBBS, A. B. Director of Household Art, T versity of Illinois MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B Director American School of H Economics, Chicago BOARD OF MRS. A. COURTENAY NEVILLE President of the Board; First Chair- man Home Economics Committee, G. F. W. C. MRS. ELLEN M. HENROTIN Organizer and Honorary President General Federation Women's Clubs MRS. FREDERIC W. SCHOFF President National Congress of Mothers MRS. LINDA HULL LARNED Past President National Household Economics Association Miss ALICE RAVENHILL Commissioner of the British Gov- ernment on Domestic Science in the United States TRUSTEES MRS. MARY HINMAN ABEL Editor "Journal of Home F' nomics" ; Author U.S. Governn: Bulletins Miss MARIA PARLOA Founder of the Original Cook. School in Boston; Author, etc. MRS. J. A. KIMBERLY Vice-President of National H- hold Economics Association MRS. JOHN HOODLESS Government Supt. of Dom* Science of the Province of On' MRS. WALTER McNAB MF-LE Chairman of the Food-Saniti Committee, G. F. W. C. 736 i THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. ^1 (WAR 1 OCT Id J332 COT 29 1934 1938 MAR 29 1941 M JAN 6 1943 1 Hov'49CS TlUG 1 6 LD 21-20m-6, / UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY *