A HANDBOOK 
 OF ORNAMENT 
 
 WITH THREE HUNDRED PLATES, CONTAINING 
 
 ABOUT THREE THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS OF 
 
 THE ELEMENTS, AND THE APPLICATION OF 
 
 DECORATION TO OBJECTS 
 
 By Franz Sales Meyer 
 
 Professor at the School of Applied Art 
 Karlsruhe 
 
 Fourth American Edition 
 
 Architectural Book Publishing Co., Inc. 
 
 10 8 West F o r t y - s i x t h Street, New York 
 
ARCH^TE^URE DCPT. 
 
 ,,,r( '^ '"\ 2 Lq-i 
 
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Introduction. 
 
 [The term "ORNA^rENT", in its limited sense, includes such of 
 the Elements of Decoratiou as are adapted, or developed, from Natural 
 Foliage. These differ from the Geometrical elements, inasmuch as 
 thev are organic i. e. possessing stems, leaves, flowers, d'C, vrhile the 
 latter are inorganic. 
 
 When merely dravrn on paper, &c., and unapplied — a foliated 
 element is considered in the abstract as "Ornament". When applied 
 to beautify an object — it becomes an "Element of Decoration". 
 
 The term "DECORATION" signifies the art or process of applying 
 the various Elements to beautify Objects. It is also used to denote 
 the completed result. Thus the artist, who is occupied in the "deco- 
 ration" of a vase, may represent ornament upon it; and the ornament 
 is then the "Decoration" of the vase. 
 
 The "Elements" of Decoration are: Geometrical-lines, Ornament, 
 Natural-foliage, Artificial Objects, Animals, and the Human Figure. 
 These may be considered as the "ingredients"; and they are mixod, 
 and applied, on various arrangements or "Features", according to certain 
 acknowledged "recipes" which are termed "Principles". 
 
 The "Pkenciples" of Decoration are not included in this Hand- 
 book, as the limits of it allow only a brief notice of such Elements 
 as have been in general use during the successive Historic-epochs.J 
 
 Wherever the hand of man has produced any Decoration, be it 
 
 v-^ 
 
 M 4667 
 
n INTRODUCTION. 
 
 original Invention, or only the arbitrary Variation of some familiar 
 fundamental idea, the following will invariably be the case: 
 
 (a) The decoration is produced by arranging and joining Dots 
 and Lines, or by combining and dividing Geometrical Figures, in 
 accordance v^^ith the laws of rhythm, regularity, symmetry, &c.; 
 
 (b) It arises from the attempt of the decorator to represent the 
 Objects of the external world. Nearest at hand for imitation, is or- 
 ganic Nature with the Plants, Animals, and Human form. But in- 
 organic Nature also offers models: e. g. the forms of Crystallisation 
 (snow-flakes), and the Phenomena of nature (clouds, waves, &c.). Rich 
 sources are also opened-up by the Artificial Objects which are fashioned 
 by man himself. 
 
 It is obvious that all kinds of Elements may be used in com- 
 bination: Geometrical may be united vnth Natural forms; and so on. 
 Moreover it was easy for human imagination to combine details taken 
 from nature into monstrous forms not found in nature, e. g. the 
 Sphinx, Centaur, Mermaid, &c.\ and Animal and Human bodies 
 with plant-like terminations. 
 
 If we collect, into groups, the bases or motives of decoration 
 omitting what is non-essential and detached, we arrive at the classi- 
 fication given in the following pages. 
 
 Decoration is applied to countless objects; and the style may be 
 very varied without being arbitrary; being determined, firstly, by the 
 aim and the material of the object to be decorated, and, secondly, by 
 the ideas ruling at different periods and among different nations. It 
 is therefore obvious that it has a comprehcDsive and important domain. 
 A knowledge of it is indispensable to artists; and it is an instructive and 
 sociologically interesting factor of general culture. 
 
 The peculiarities which arise from the reciprocal relation of 
 material, form, and aim, more or less modified by the ideas of the 
 Age and the natural characteristics of the Nation, are ternied the 
 "Style" of that Period and Nation. The mention, of the Century and 
 the Nation, gives a convenient method of labelling works of Art, 
 which is now well understood; e. g. — "17th century, Italian". 
 
 The majority of works on ornament, arrange their material 
 according to Periods and Nations; but the present Handbook, follow- 
 ing the principles laid down by Semper, Botticher and Jacobsthal, is 
 based on a system which is synthetic rather than analytic; and in- 
 tended more to construct and develope from the Elements than to 
 dissect and deduce. It contains three main divisions: 
 
 Division I treats of the "Elements of Decoration", or motives of 
 which it is formed. Geometrical motives formed by the rhythmical 
 arrangement of dots and lines, by the regular section of angles, by 
 the formation and division Of closed figures, are followed by the 
 forms of Nature which are offered for ornamental imitation by the 
 
INTRODUCTION. Hi 
 
 vegetable and animal kingdoms, and bj the human frame. These in 
 their turn are followed by Artificial Objects, or forms bon'owed from 
 .\rt, Technology, and Science, and usually met- with in the class of 
 trophies, symbols, &c. 
 
 Division II, "Ornament applied to Features", arranges them 
 according to their functions, and the reciprocal relation between the 
 construction of the object and the application of the ornament. The 
 division falls into five sub -divisions: A. Bands (bordering, framing 
 and connecting forms); B. Free Ornaments (forms whose construction 
 expresses a termination or cessation); C. Supports (types of ornament 
 which express the principle of weight-bearing); D. Enclosed Ornament 
 suitable for the enlivenment of a defined bordered field, (panels); 
 E. Repeating Ornament (the decoration of surfaces which, disregarding 
 the limits of space, are developed, on a geometrical or organic basis, 
 into "patterns"). 
 
 Division III, shows the application of decoration to vase- form, 
 metal objects, furniture, frames, jewelry, heraldry and writing, 
 printing, &c. 
 
 Further details, as to the groups and divisions, will be found in 
 the "Table of the Arrangement of the Handbook" which follows this 
 introduction. 
 
 The illustrations, numbering almost 3,000, and comprised on 300 
 full -page plates, represent the styles of the most various periods and 
 nations. A comparatively large share of attention has been devoted 
 to the Antique, because it is in that Period that form usually finds 
 its clearest and most beautiful expression. Next to that in impor- 
 tance is the Renascence with its wealth and freedom of form. The 
 space, devoted to the creations of the Middle Ages, is more limited. 
 From the styles of the Decadence, only a few examples have been 
 admitted, for the sake of comparison and characterisation. Modern 
 times, as a rule, have only been taken into account, where forms arose 
 which do not occur in the historic styles. 
 
 The illustrations have been partly taken direct from the originals; 
 and partly — as was almost unavoidable — reproduced from other Books; 
 for the leading idea of the present work is not to ofi"er anything Hew, 
 but to arrange what is already known, in a manner suitable both to 
 the subject and to the aim of a Handbook. Where the author was 
 acquainted with the source, which he regrets was not always the 
 case, the authority has been mentioned in the text. 
 
 Each division and sub-division is prefixed by a few remarks on 
 style and history, characteristics, motives, symbolism, aim, and appli- 
 cation. These are followed, so far as is necessary and practicable, 
 by notes on the places where the objects illustrated were discovered, 
 where they are now preserved, and on their material and size. Hints 
 
w 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 as 10 construction, are given only where the construction cannot at 
 once be inferred from the figure. 
 
 Readers -who use this book for purposes of tuition, will find in 
 the Author's " Ornament ale Foruienlehre"* the Plates on a scale of 
 2 1/2 times the size of this Handbook, together with the requisite hints 
 for the use of the work in schools. 
 
 * Franz Sales Meyer: Oniamcntale Fo)inenlehre; Three hundred folio 
 plates, in a portfolio. 
 
rJ.Gfe^ 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE ARRANGEI^IENT OF THE CHAPTERS AM) PLATES. 
 
 DIVISION I. 
 
 The Elements of Decoration. 
 
 ' A. Geometrical Elements. 
 
 1. Network. 
 2-4. Band Motives. 
 5-7. Diaper Patterns. 
 
 8. The Sector, Polygon, and Star. 
 9-10. The Square, and its Subdivision. 
 
 11. The Octagon, and its Sub- 
 division. 
 
 12. The Triangle, Hexagon, &c., 
 and their Subdivision. 
 
 13-16. The Oblong, and ita Sub- 
 division. 
 
 17. The Rhombus, and Trapezium, 
 and their Subdivision. 
 
 18. The Circle, ita Subivision, and 
 Intersections. 
 
 19. Gothic Tracery. 
 
 20. The Ell ipse, and its Subdivision. 
 
 B. Natural Forms. 
 a. The Organisms of Plants (The 
 Flora of Ornament). 
 
 21. The Akanthos Leaf. 
 22-23. The Artificial Leaf. 
 24-26. Artificial Foliage. 
 27-28. The Laurel, and Olive. 
 29-30. The Vine. 
 
 31. The Lotus, Papyrus, and Palm. 
 
 32. The Ivy. 
 
 33. The Com, and Convolvulus. 
 
 34. The Hop, and Bryony. 
 
 35. Various Leaves. 
 36-37. Various Flowers. 
 38-39. The Fruit Festoon. 
 
 40. The Leaf, and Flower Festoon- 
 
 b. Animal Organisms (The Fauna of 
 Ornament). 
 
 41-44. The Lion. 
 45-46. The Griffin, &c. 
 47-48. The Lion Head. 
 49-50. The Panther Head, >S:c 
 
 51 The Horse Head. &c. 
 52-54. The Eagle. 
 
 55. The Wing. 
 56-58. The Dolphin. 
 
 59. The Shell. 
 
 60. The Serpent, &c. 
 
 c. Human Organism. 
 
 61. The Mask. 
 
 62-64. The Grottesque Mask. 
 
 65. The Medusa Head. 
 
 66. The Grottesque. 
 67-68. The Half-Figure. 
 
 69. The Sphinx, and Centaur. 
 
 70. The Cherub-Head, «S:c. 
 
 G. Artificial Objects. 
 71-72. The Trophy. 
 73-77. The SymboL 
 78-79. The Ribbon. 
 
 80. Miscellaneous Objects. 
 
VI 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 DIVISION II. 
 Orxa.ment appued to Features. 
 
 A. Bands. 
 
 81-84. The Fret Band. 
 
 85. The Chain Band. 
 86-90. The Interlacement Band. 
 
 91. The Rosette Band. 
 
 92. The Paimette Band. 
 
 93. The Vertebrate Band. 
 94-96. The Undulate Band. 
 
 97. The Evolute-Spiral Band. 
 
 98. The Enrichment of the 
 Astragal. 
 
 99. TheEnrichmentoftheToru3. 
 100. The Enrichment of the Cyma. 
 
 and the Ovolo. 
 
 B. Free Ornaments. 
 
 101-103. The Link Border. 
 
 104. The Cresting Border. 
 105-108. The Akeroter, and Antefix. 
 
 107. The Stele Crest. 
 
 108. The Perforated Cresting. 
 109-110. The Cross. 
 
 111-112. The Finial. 
 
 113. The Finial-Knob, and Vase. 
 
 114. The Pendant-Knob. 
 
 115. The Rosette. 
 
 116. The Crocket, and Gargoyle. 
 
 117. The Hinge, &c. 
 
 118. The Tassel. 
 
 119. The Fringe, and Valence. 
 
 120. The Lace Border. 
 
 C. Supports. 
 The Foliated Shaft. 
 
 121 
 
 122. The Fluted Shaft 
 123-124. The Base. 
 
 125. The Decorated Shaft. 
 
 126. The Profiled Shaft. 
 127-130. The Capital. 
 
 131. The Pilaster Panel. 
 132-134. The Pilaster Capital. 
 
 135. The Candelabrum Base. 
 
 136. The Candelabrum Shaft. 
 
 137. The Candelabrum Capital. 
 
 138. The Balauster. 
 
 139. The Terminus. 
 
 140. The Parapet. 
 
 141. The Railing Post. 
 
 142. The Furniture Leg. 
 143-144. The Traoezophoron. 
 145-147. The Console. 
 
 148. The Bracket. 
 149-150. The Caryatid, Atlante, kc. 
 
 D. Enclc --(f ji'^i.^^if^nents, or Panels. 
 
 151-lf ..quare Panel. 
 
 If ihe Star-shape Panel. 
 157-lu -. TL Circular Panel. 
 161-164. The Oblong Panel. 
 
 165. The Elliptic Panel. 
 166-167. The Lunette, and Spr.nrail 
 Panel. 
 
 168. The Lozenge Panel. 
 169-170. Various Panels. 
 
 E. Repeating Ornaments, or Diapers. 
 
 171. The Square Diaper, &c. 
 
 172. The Circle Diaper, &c. 
 
 173. The Scale Diaper, &c. 
 174-175. The Circle Diaper, &c. 
 176-179. Various Diapers. 
 
 180. Various Grill Diapers. 
 
 DIVISION III. 
 Decorated Objects. 
 
 A. Vases, Sec. 
 
 181. Fundamental Vase-Forms. 
 Holders. 
 
 182. The Amphora 
 
 183. The Urn. 
 
 184. The Krater. 
 
 185. The Basin, and Di^h. 
 
 186. TheAmpulla,Alabastron.&c. 
 
 187. The Flower- Vase, &c. 
 
 188. Vase forms for varions 
 purposes. 
 
 189. The Jar, and Cist. 
 
 190. The Font, and Holy- Water 
 Stoup. 
 
TABLE. 
 
 VII 
 
 b. Dippers. 
 
 I'Jl. The Hvdria. 
 
 192. The Bucket, &c. 
 
 193. The Spoon, and Ladle. 
 
 c. Pourers. 
 
 194. The Prochoiis, Oinochoe, 
 Olpe, tSrc. 
 
 195. The Lekythus. 
 196-197. The Lip-spout Pitcher. 
 
 198. The Pipe-spout Pot. 
 109-200. The Bottle. 
 
 d. Drinking Vessels. 
 
 201. The Kvlis, Kantharos, &c. 
 
 202. The Rhvton. 
 
 203. The Cup, and Beaker. 
 
 204. The Chalice, and Goblet. 
 
 205. The Hanap. 
 
 206. The Rummer or Romer. 
 
 207. Various Drinking Vessels. 
 
 208. The Mu?. 
 
 209. The Tankard. 
 
 210. Modern Dri- '-^sses. 
 
 B. Metal Objrts. 
 
 a. Utensils for Illuminai.„a. 
 211-212. The Candelabrum. 
 
 213. The Antique Lamp. 
 214-215. The Candlestick. 
 
 216. The Hand-Candlestick 
 
 217. The Candle-Bracket. 
 
 218. The Pendant-Lamp. 
 
 219. The Chandelier. 
 
 220. Modern Lamps. 
 
 b. Religious Utensils. 
 
 221. The Altar. 
 
 222. The Tripod. 
 
 223. The Censer. 
 
 224. The Crucifix. 
 
 225. The Crozier, and Mon- 
 strance. 
 
 C. Utensils of War and Hunting; 
 Weapons. 
 
 226. The Shield. 
 
 227. The Helmet. 
 
 228. TheSword, and its Scabbard. 
 The : 
 bard. 
 
 230, The Halberd, &c. 
 
 d. Table Utensils. 
 
 231. The Spoon. 
 
 i 232. The Knife, and Fork, 
 
 i 233. The Paper-Knife. 
 
 i 234. The Scissors. 
 
 I 235. The Hand-Bell. 
 
 • e. Various Domestic Utensils, &c. 
 
 236. The Door-Knocker. 
 
 237. The Kev. 
 
 238. The Hand-Mirror. 
 
 239. The Fan. 
 
 240. Various Tools. 
 
 C. Furniture. 
 
 I a. Seats. 
 
 I 241-243. The Chair. 
 
 I 244-245. The Throne, and Arm-chair. 
 
 246. The Stall. 
 
 247. The Stool. 
 
 248. The Folding-Chair 
 
 249. The Bench. 
 
 250. The Sofa, and Couch. 
 
 b. Tables. 
 
 251. The Table 
 
 252. The Writing-Table. 
 
 c. Cabinets. 
 
 253. The Cabinet. 
 
 254. The Sideboard. 
 
 255. The Hanging-Cabinet. 
 
 256. The Chest. 
 
 d. Miscellaneous. 
 
 257. The Desk, and Easel. 
 
 258. The Clock- Case, and Toilet 
 Cabinet. 
 
 259-260. The Bedstead, and Cradle. 
 
 D. Frames, &c. 
 
 261-262. The Architectural Frame. 
 263-264. The Mirror-Frame, &c. 
 265-266. The Strap-work Frame. 
 267-268. The Typographical Frame. 
 
 269. The Strap-work Tablet. 
 
 270. The Strap-work Border, and 
 Margin. 
 
 E. Jewelry. 
 
 271. The Pin. 
 
 272. The Button- 
 
 273. The Ring. 
 
 274. The Chain. 
 
 275. The Necklace. 
 
 276. The Bracelet. 
 
VIII 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 277. The Girdle, Buckle, and 
 Clasp. 
 
 278. The Pendant. 
 
 279. The Ear-ring. 
 
 280. Miscellaneous Jewelry. 
 
 F. Seraldry. 
 
 281. Tinctures, and Divisions, of 
 the Shield. 
 
 282. Shapes of the Shield. 
 
 283. Ordinaries. 
 284-285. Charges. 
 
 286. Forms of the Helmet. 
 287-288. Helmet Trappings. 
 
 289. Crowns, Coronets, &c. 
 
 290. Heraldic Accessories. 
 
 G. Writing, Printing, &c. 
 
 291. Romanesque Letters. 
 292-293. Gothic Uncial Letters. 
 
 294. Old English Letters, &c. 
 
 295. Old German Letters. 
 
 296. Modem Texts. 
 
 297. Renaissance Letters. 
 
 298. Roman Initials. 
 
 299. Roman Letters. 
 
 300. Constructions, Numeral 
 Monograms. 
 
 
GEOMETRICAL ELEMENTS AND MOTIVES. 
 
 GeDmetrical Ornament is the primordial or oldest of the Elements 
 of Decoration. The implements of savages, and the tattooing of the 
 Indians, prove this. The seam, "wdth the thread running slant- wise 
 from one piece to the other, may have been the original for the 
 Zigzag line; and woven- work, of warp and woof of every kind, the 
 original for Reticulated patterns; and the plaited hair that of the 
 Plaited band. The revolutions of a fork-like instrument led to the dis- 
 covery of the Circle; the combination of dots, at regular intervals, to 
 the Polygon or Pointed - star. The gradual developement of these 
 original geometrical forms, rising from stage to stage with the growth 
 of culture and knowledge, led finally to geometrical artistic forms 
 such as we see in Moorish panelled ceilings, in Gothic tracery, in 
 guilloche-work, and the like. The developement of geometry into a 
 science, with its theorems and proofs, also came to the assistance 
 of art. As evidence of this, we need only refer to the construction 
 of the ellipse from given lengths of axes. 
 
 The majority of all geometrical ornaments may be divided into 
 three groups. They are either continuous and ribbon-like (bands), or 
 in enclosed spaces (panels), or in unlimited flat patterns. In every 
 case the foundation of the geometrical ornament will be a certain 
 division, a subsidiary construction, or a network. We will begin 
 with the last; and pass in turn to the ribbon motives, the flat patterns, 
 and the figure motives. 
 
4 Network. — Band Motive8. 
 
 Network. (Plate 1.) 
 
 The systems of subsidiary lines required in geometrical patterns, 
 e. g.: parquets, mosaics, window-glazing, &c., are termed Nets. The 
 name explains itself. They may be of very various kinds. The most 
 freqxient are quadrangular and triangular reticulations, combined of 
 single squares or equilateral triangles. A special network, resembling 
 the plait of a cane chair, is required for some Moorish patterns. 
 
 Plate 1. Network. 
 
 1. Ordinary quadrangular. Equal divisions are set off in one direc- 
 tion, parallels are drawn through the points of division, and 
 *he former cut by a line at an angle of 45^. The points, 
 where these diagonals cut the parallels, mark the divisions in 
 ^.Le Qppcsite direction. 
 
 2. Oblique quadrangular. The divisions are set-off on a vertical 
 line and the parallels are then drawn at an angle of 45" on 
 each side of the points of division. 
 
 3. Straight, with alternate divisions. Construction similar toNo. 1. 
 
 4. Oblique quadranguJar, with alternate divisions. Construction 
 similar to No. 2. 
 
 5. Moorish Diapers. 
 
 6. Enlarged detail to No. 5. 
 
 7. Triangular net. It is based on the constmction of the equi- 
 lateral triangle; and may be arranged in two attitudes, as shown 
 in figs. 8 and 9. 
 
 8 and 9. Enlarged details to fig. 7. 
 
 Band Motives. (Plates 2 — 4.) 
 
 Plates 2, 3 and 4 contain a number of band motives. These 
 are made by the joining of regularly-placed points: those in Plate 2 
 are joineH by straight lines; those in Plate 3 by arcs; and those in 
 Plate 4 by a combination of both. 
 
 Each of the plates contains, beneath the motives, specimens of 
 their application, taken from different styles. 
 
 Plate 2. Band Motives, in Straight lines. 
 
 1, 7, 8 and 14. Greek. 
 
 2. Zigzag lines. 
 
 15. Moorish plaited band. 
 6 and 16. These examples may be illustrated by folded strips of 
 paper. 
 
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GEOMETRICAL ELEMENTS. 
 
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 Band Motives. 
 
Baud Motivea. — Diaper Patterns, 9 
 
 71 and 19. Carvings in basrelief from the implements of savages 
 
 18. Greek vase painting, Motive: the seam, 
 
 20. Waves with lotus, Egyptian wall-painting, (Owen Jones). 
 
 Plate 3. Band Motives, in Arcs. 
 
 5 and 13. Undulate lines. 
 10. Motive of the "strung coin" pattern (coins threaded on a cord). 
 
 17. Romanesque ornament from an evangeliarium written for Charle- 
 
 magne, 8th ceUtury, Library of the Louvre, Paris. 
 
 18. Romanesque mural painting, Swedish church. 
 
 19. Chinese damaskeened ornament from a vase, (Racinet). 
 
 Plate 4. Band Moti\t:s, Mixed. 
 
 13. Romanesque glass painting, church of S. Urban, Troyes. 
 15. Frieze, house, Beaune, 17th century, (Racinet). 
 
 N. B. Where two area are joined: it is necessary, in order to avoid a 
 l^reak, that the two centres and the point of jiinction should be in the! 
 Bume straight line. 
 
 Diaper Patterns. (Plates 5—7.) 
 
 Plates 5, 6 and 7 give a selection for flat patterns. Almost all 
 the constructions may be referred to the quadrangular or the trian- 
 gular Net. The examples in Plate 5 show junctions in a straight 
 line; those in Plate 6 are composed of arcs; and in Plate 7 Ibo 
 regularly-placed points are joined by mixed lines. 
 
 The designs may be used as patterns for parquet flooring, window 
 glazing, and similar work, without further eurichmeut. They are at 
 the same time available as construction-lines for the further develope- 
 ment of richer patterns for mural and glass painting, carpets, tapestry, 
 ceilings, &c., as shown by the examples of application appended to 
 the simple motives. 
 
 Plate 5. Diaper Patterns, &c., witu Straight lines. 
 
 4 and 6. Roof-covering may be considered as the motive. 
 10. ^ The natural motive is the cell of the honey bee. 
 13 — 15. Designs for coffer ceiling, by Sebastian Serlio, IGtli century, 
 fPormenschatz). 
 
 Plate 6. Diaper Patterns, with Arcs. 
 
 1, 4 and 7. Scale motives. 
 10. Romanesque glass painting, Cathedral, Ilourges, (Racinet). 
 
10 
 
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GEOMETRICAL ELEMENTS. 
 
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GEOMETRICAL ELEMENTS 
 
 Plate 7. 
 
 Diaper Platterns, 
 
Diaper Patterns. — The Sector, Polygon, and Star. 13 
 
 11. Mural painting, Assisi, (Vorbilder fiir Fabrikanten nnd Hand- 
 werker). 
 
 12. Old Italian murar painting, San Francesco, Assisi, (Hessemer). 
 
 Plate 7. Diaper Patterns, wtth Mixed lines. 
 
 10. Old Italian mural painting San Francesco, Assisi, (Hessemer). 
 
 The Sector, The Polygon, and the Star. 
 
 Polygons and Stars are of frequent occurrence in ornamental 
 design. The Sector is the foundation of Rosettes. The Polygon and 
 the Star are often used as Frames to Ornaments. They also servo 
 as compartments in coffer Ceilings and composite ornamental designs. 
 In this case, they are frequently divided into smaller figures, as vnll 
 be seen in the following plates. 
 
 Plate 8 gives the shape, and construction of those w^hich most 
 frequently occur; followed by some examples of their application. 
 
 Plate 8. Radiating Figures, &c. 
 1 — 4. The Sector, produced by the regular division of circles. 
 
 5. The Square, described obliquely in a circle. 
 
 6. The Square formed by the juxtaposition of right angles and 
 cutting- off the lengths for the sides, 
 
 7. The regular Octagon, described obliquely in a, circle. 
 
 8. The regular Octagon, described in the square by measuring 
 half diagonals from its angles. 
 
 9. The regular Triangle and Hexagon, formed by measuring the 
 radius, as chords, six times round the circumference. 
 
 10. The regular Duodecagon, formed by applying the radius 
 
 to the circle from the ends of two diameters at right angles 
 to each other. 
 
 11 — 12. The regular Pentagon and Decagon, formed by a construc- 
 tion based on tho theorem of the "Golden Mean", as shown 
 in the figures. 
 
 13. The regular five-pointed Star, formed by joining the alter- 
 nate points of five points placed at equal distances in the 
 circumference of a circle. Known in the history of magic 
 and witchcraft as the Peiltagram or "Pentacle". 
 
 14. The regular six-pointed Star, formed by joining alternate 
 points placed at equal distances in the circumference of a 
 circle. 
 
14 The Sector, Polygon, and Star. — The Square, and its Subdivisions. 
 
 15 — 16. Regular eight-pointed Star, formed bj combining every 
 
 second or third of eight points placed at equal distances in 
 
 the circumference of a circle. 
 17 — 18. Regular ten-pointed Stars, formed by joining every second 
 
 or third of ten points placed at equal distances in the 
 
 circumference of a circle. 
 
 The pointed Stars may also be formed by producing to 
 
 a sufficient distance the sides of ordinary regular polygons; 
 
 and, conversely, each star contains a simpler star, as well 
 
 as the regular polygon of the same number of sides. 
 
 19. Star, formed by a suitable combination of con-esponding 
 points regularly placed on the circumferences of two con- 
 centric circles. 
 
 20. Uraniscus, the star-like decoration . of a Greek coffer ceiling. 
 From the Propylaea in Athens. Gold on a blue ground. 
 
 21. Back of a modem chair, carved in basrelief. 
 
 22. Ornamentation of a semi -regular pointed star. Arabic, 
 16th century, (Prisse d'Avennes). 
 
 The Square, and its Subdivisions. (Plates 9 and 10.) 
 
 The regular four-sided figure or Square, with its equal sides 
 and angles, is a fundamental form of frequent occurence. It may be 
 divided into compartments in various ways; the principal auxiliary 
 lines for this purpose being the Diagonals (or oblique lines con- 
 necting the angles), and the Diameters (or lines connecting the centre 
 of each side). Where the square is divided for a ceiling, floor or 
 similar object: a border is made round the enclosed space. In most 
 cases, a large central compartment is retained; and this may be a 
 square, either parallel or oblique to the other; or may be a circle, 
 an octagon, &c. 
 
 The Subdivisions of Plate 9 follow the richer divisions of 
 Plate 10. 
 
 Plate 9. The Square. 
 
 1 — 15. The simple Subdivisions. 
 
 Plate 10. The Square. 
 
 1—8. Richer and more complicated Subdivisions. 
 6. Panelling of Ceiling, inn, Nuremberg, Modern. 
 
 8. Panelling of ceiling, Massimi Palace, Rome, by Baldassare 
 
 Peruzzi, Italian Renascence, (Letarouilly). 
 
GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES. 
 
 The Sector, the Polygon, and the Star. Plate 8. 
 
riate 9. The Square, and its Subdivision. 
 
GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES. 
 
 17 
 
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 The Square, and its fcJubdivifiion. 
 'j^yet,' Haodbook of Ornament. 
 
 Plate 10. 
 
18 The Sabaivisions ol the Octagon, Triangle, andHexagon. — The Oblong, &c. 
 
 The Subdivision of the Octagon, Triangle, and 
 Hexagon. (Plates 11 and 12.) 
 
 Next to the square: the regular polygons most frequently occur- 
 ring in ornamentation are the Octagon and the Hexagon. The Triangle, 
 Pentagon, Decagon and Duodecagon are, for obvious reasons, less 
 common; while the other regular polygons are scarcely used at all. 
 Sometimes the semi-regular polygons also appear. These are formed 
 by cutting- oflf equal triangles from the angles of a regular polygon 
 in such a manner that the resulting figure has long and short sides 
 alternately, and the angles all lie on the circumference of a circle. 
 
 Diagonals and Diameters ^vith series of lines in the manner of 
 pointed stars, are the readiest auxiliaries for dividing regular and 
 semi-regular Polygons. 
 
 Plate 11. The Octagon. 
 
 1 — 8. The best-known Subdivisions. 
 
 Pi^TE 12. The Tkiangle, the Hexagon, &c. 
 
 1 — 5. Simple Subdivisions of the Equilateral triangle. 
 
 6 — 13. The best-known Subdivisions of the regular Hexagon. 
 
 14. Subdivisions of a regular Pentagon. 
 
 The Oblong, and its Subdivision. (Plates 13— IG) 
 
 The right-angled plane figure with unequal pairs of sides, 
 known as an Oblong, is the most usual of all fundamental forms. 
 Ceilings, floors, walls, doors, wainscoting, panels of fui'nitm-e, table- 
 tops, book-covers, and numbers of other objects, have an oblong 
 shape. The difference in the lengths of the sides adapts itself to all 
 possible conditions: the Oblong approaching the square on the one 
 hand and the Band or Border on the other; so that the divisions are 
 very various; as will be seen by a glance at the examples. As a 
 rule, the diagonal is not used as an auxiliary line, but is replaced 
 by the mitral-line of the angle, as this latter alone gives equal 
 breadths of the Border. When the Oblong approaches the Square, a 
 distorted square subdivision is sometimes resorted-to, (Compare PL 16, 
 fig. 2). 
 
 Plate 13. The Oblong. 
 1 — 6. The usual subdivisions. 
 
 Mosaic, flooring, Italian, 16th century, (Storci). 
 
GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES. 
 
 19 
 
 
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 The Octagon, and its Subdivision. Plate 11. 
 
 2' 
 
GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES 
 
 Plate 12. The Triangle, Hexagon, &c., and their Subdivision. 
 
The Oblong, and its Subdivision. — The Subdivision of the Rhombus, &c. 21 
 
 Plate 14. The Oblong. 
 
 1. Subdivision for Door panels, Sofits of arches, &c. 
 
 2. „ „ tablets, &c. 
 
 3. „ „ Borders for ceilings. 
 4 and 5. Modern Album -covers, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 Plate 15. The Oblong. 
 
 1. Ceiling, Quedlinburg, German, 1560, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 2. Ceiling, Massimi Palace, Rome, by Baldassare Feruzzi, (Leta- 
 rouilly). 
 
 3. CoflFer ceiling, Farnese Palace, Rome, by Barozzi da Vignola, 
 (Letarouilly). 
 
 Plate 16. The Oblong. 
 
 1. Ceiling, modern, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 2. Vaulted ceiling, S. Peter's, Rome, beginning of the 17th 
 century, (Italienisches Skizzenbuch). 
 
 The Subdivision of the Rhombus, and the Trapezium 
 
 (Plate 17.) 
 
 Rhombus or "Lozenge" is the name usually given to the equi- 
 lateral foursided figure with pairs of unequal angles. The principal 
 auxiliary lines of these figures are the diagonals. The subdivision 
 generally leaves an oblong or hexagonal panel in the centre. 
 
 The Trapezium is a four-sided figure with unequal sides. The 
 Parallel Trapezium has two parallel sides which are unequal and two 
 equal sides which are not parallel (PI. 17, figs. 5 to 8). The Sym- 
 metrical Trapezium has two pairs of adjacent equal sides (PI. 17, 
 figs. 9 and 10). Any other irregular four-sided rectilinear figure is 
 a Trapezoid. Some suitable subdivisions are given on Plate 17. 
 Definite directions for the Trapezoid can scarcely be given; its sub- 
 division is seldom easy, and varies with each particular case. The 
 general principle is: — Endeavour to cut-off projecting angles by means 
 of triangles in such a way as to leave a portion of the entire figure 
 regular or symmetrical. This is, however, a matter of artistic taste; 
 and more easily learnt than taught. 
 
 Among other applications of the symmetrical or parallel Tra- 
 pezium is that to Cupolas of Domes: the lines are indeed curves 
 on a bent surface; but this causes very little alteration in the sub- 
 division. 
 
22 
 
 GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES. 
 
 
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 The Oblong, aud its Subdivision. 
 
GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES. 
 
 23 
 
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 The ObloDg, and its Subdivisioji. 
 
 Plate U. 
 
24 
 
 GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES. 
 
 Plate 15. 
 
 The Oblong, and its Subdivision. 
 
GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES. 
 
 25 
 
 The Oblong, and its Subdivision. 
 
 Plate 1( 
 
GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES 
 
 Plate 17. The Ehombus, the Trapezium, and their Subdivision. 
 
Tbe'Subdivisionsof the Rhombus, &c. — TheCircle, &c. — GothicTracery. 27 
 
 Plate 17. The Rhombus, and the Tk.vpeziiuj. 
 
 1 — 4. Subdivision of the Fihombus, 
 
 5 — 8. ^ ,, „ „ Farallol Trapezium. 
 
 9 — 10- „ „ ,, Symmetrical Trapezium. 
 
 The Circle, its Subdivision, and Intersections. 
 (Plate 18.) 
 
 The Circle is often used in ornamcutatlon as a fundamental form. 
 No good result is produced (as a rule) by dividing it merely by 
 radii or other straight lines; and it is therefore usually divided by 
 means of curved lines or of a combination of arcs and straight lines. 
 By describing circles to cut each other: motives may be obtained, as 
 shown by figures 3 and 7, the latter of which is the basis of a 
 Roman mosaic pavement found in Pompeii (Figure 17). 
 
 That circles which cut each-other form of themselves an effec- 
 tive pattern — is shown by the engine-turned ornament, which is pro- 
 duced by machinery and applied to the decoration of Watch-cases, 
 and to the plates from which Bank notes, Share certificates, &c. are 
 printed. 
 
 Ornamentation by means of arcs plays a conspicuous part in 
 Gothic tracery, which will be treated-of in the following chapter. 
 
 Plate 18. The Circle. 
 
 1 — 12. Different divisions and intersections. 
 
 13 — 16. Tracery in the Gothic style. 
 
 17- Centre of a mosaic pavament, Pompeii, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 Gothic Tracery. (Plate 19.) 
 
 In the forms of Tracery, the Gothic style evolved and brought 
 to perfection a characteristic decoration by means of arcs of circles. 
 And although the results have something stiff and mechanical, when 
 compared with the ornaments taken direct from nature in other styles, 
 it cannot be denied that they possess a gi-eat originality, and richness 
 of form. 
 
 Tracery was chiefly applied to stone, and wood; in architecture, 
 and furniture; for galleries, windows, and panels, &c. 
 
 Well-known forms are the circles (figs. 13 — 16 of Plate 18 
 showing 2, 3, 4 and 6 foliations), the trefoil (Plate 19, figs. 3 and 4), 
 
GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES 
 
 Plate 18. 
 
 The Circle, and its Subdivision. 
 
GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES. 
 
 Gothic Tracery 
 
 Plate 19. 
 
30 Gothic Tracery. — The Ellipse. 
 
 the quatrefoil (in the centre of fig. 2), the cinquefoil, &c. The pro 
 jecting points are termed cusps, the voids between the cusps are 
 termed foils. 
 
 Plate 19. Tracery. 
 
 1 — 11. Gothic tracery, for panels and windows. The figures give 
 partly the fundamental construction, partly the fuiiher devo- 
 lopement. Thus figui-es 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 6 and 7, 8 anc 
 9, 10 and 11, belong together. 
 
 The Ellipse.- (Plate 20.) 
 
 The Ellipse is a figure, whose radius of curvation is continually 
 changing. It has the peculiar quality that, if any point on the 
 circumference be joined with the two foci, the sum of the two con- 
 necting lines is invariable, and always equal to the longitudinal axis. 
 
 The three-centred arch is an approximate construction to an 
 elliptic curve. It is composed of a number of arcs, which is not 
 possible in the case of the ellipse. As regards beauty of line it can 
 never be a substitute for the Ellipse; but its easier construction has, 
 notwithstanding, caused it to be used for many purposes. 
 
 The expression "Oval" for the ellipse, is erroneous. Oval is 
 derived from "ovum" {egg), and therefore means an egg-shape. 
 
 The Ellipse is of comparatively late appearance in art, the con- 
 struction presupposing a certain knowledge of Geometry, which was 
 not possessed by primitive peoples. Afterwards it became of common 
 application, as will be seen from many passages of this Handbook. 
 The Ellipse is a very popular shape for ceilings, panels, boxes, and 
 dishes. Figui-e 15 ailords hints as to the manner of subdividing it. 
 
 Pjate 20. The Ellipse, -ifcc. 
 
 1 — 2. Construction by means of 8 points. 
 
 When the square with its diagonals and transversals is projeo- 
 ted as an Oblong, the circle described in it becomes an Ellipse. 
 
 3. Construction from the Foci. 
 
 From the ends of the conjugate axis, describe circles with a 
 radius of one half the transvers^e axis; the points where these 
 circles cut each other will be the foci. Now divide the trans- 
 verse axis into two unequal parts, and from the foci as centres 
 describe circles liaving these unequal parts for their radii; the 
 points of intersection w ill be four points of the Ellipse. Another 
 division will give another four points, and so on. 
 
 4. CoTisiruction by means of Tangents. 
 
 Construct an Oblong with sides of the lengths of the transverse 
 and conjugate axes resjiectively; draw the transversals, that is. 
 
GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES 
 
 The Ellipse, and its SabdivisioD. 
 
 Plate 20. 
 
32 
 
 The ElliDse. 
 
 the transverse and conjugate axes; join the ends of the axes in 
 one of the quarters by a diagonal; and set-off a number of points 
 on this diagonal. Through these points draw straight lines from 
 the opposite angle, and also parallels to the longitudinal axis. 
 Now join the points thus obtained on the outside of the quarters 
 in the way shown in the figure; and transfer these lines to the 
 remaining three quarters; and a series of tangents will be obtained, 
 within which the ellipse can be drawn by hand. 
 
 5. Constructions by means of two Circles. 
 
 With the centre of the Ellipse as a centre describe two circles 
 passing tluough the ends of the transverse and conjugate axes 
 respectively; draw a number of diameters through two opposite 
 quadrants; where these diameters cut the smaller circle, draw 
 parallels to the longitudinal axis; and where they cut the greater 
 circle, parallels to the transverse axis (or vice versa); the points 
 of the parallels will then be points on the ellipse. The other 
 points required may be obtained by producing the parallels into 
 the remaining quadiants. This construction may be specially re- 
 commended for practical use. 
 
 6. Practical construction on a larger scale (centres, garden-beds, &c.). 
 
 Mark the two foci by nails, posts, &c.; place round them a 
 cord equal in length to the transverse axis plus the distance 
 between the foci, and tied at both ends; stretch the cord tense, 
 by means of a pencil, and let the latter run round the foci: the 
 resulting figure will be an Ellipse. 
 7—12 Several constructions for Ellipsoids. 
 
 In constructions 7-9 the length of the transverse axis has a 
 definite, invariable proportion to that of the conjugate axis, so 
 that when the one is given the other immediately follows. In 
 constructions 10 — 12 the length of each axis is variable. The 
 ])oiut of junction of two circles of different diameter must lie on 
 the same straight line as the centres of the two cucles. 
 
 7. Describe two circles each of which passes through the centre of 
 the other. Join the centres with the points of intersection of tho 
 circles: the straight lines so formed will mark-off the four arcs 
 of which, as the figure shows, the Ellipsoid is composed. The centre 
 ]-»oints are marked by small dots. 
 
 8. Describe two circles touching each other, and with the point of 
 contact as centre, describe a third circle of the same diameter. 
 These three circles cut each other in four points. Join these to 
 the external centres as shown on the figure; and the resulting 
 four straight lines will again mark-off the four arcs which are 
 then to be described from the points indicated by the small dots. 
 
 9. Construct two squares, having one side in common, and in them 
 describe the four diagonals; these will then mark-off the four arcs 
 which must then be drawn from the points denoted by small 
 dots. 
 
 10. Construct a rectangle with sides equal to the transverse and 
 
 longitudinal axes respectively; draw the two transversals (the 
 transverse and longitudinal axes) and join their ends in one of 
 tho quarters. Cut-oft' from this line, beginning from the point of 
 junction with the conjugate axis, the ditierence of half the triins- 
 vcrse and half the conjugate axis; on the centre point of the re- 
 maining piece di-aw a perpendicular and the three more similar 
 lines: these four lines will then show the limits of the arcs which 
 are then to be drawn from the uoints marked by small dots. 
 
The ElUipse, &c. — The three-centred Arch. 33 
 
 n. Construct an Oblong with sides e(5[ual to the transverse and 
 
 longitudinal axes respectively, and draw the two transversals. 
 Measure the half of the transverse axis upon half the longitudinal 
 axis, and ascertain the difference; halve this difference. This half 
 difference must now be taken four times along the transverse 
 axis trom the centre point of the Ellipsoid, and three times along 
 the longitudinal axis. The four required points will thus be ob- 
 tained. The straight lines connecting them will give the points 
 of junction of the arcs. 
 
 I'i Construction from eight centres. 
 
 Construct an Oblong whose sides are equal to the major and 
 minor axes respectively; draw the transversals, and join their ends 
 in one of the quarters. From the nearest angle, draw a perpen- 
 dicular to this diagonal; the points where this perpendicular cuts 
 the two axes will be two of the required centres. Two more are 
 obtained by symmetrical transference. From these four points 
 describe circles with a radius = ^/2 (CB-DA); the points where 
 they cut each other internally will give four more centres. If the 
 centres thus found be joined by means of straight lines, as shown 
 on the figure, the latter will mark the points where the eight 
 arcs will meet. 
 
 13—14. Construction of Ovals or egg-shaped figures. The construction of 
 such figures usually consists in combining a semi-circle with a 
 serai-ellipse. 
 
 13. Draw in a circle two diameters at right angles to each other, 
 and two intersecting chords of a quadrant; these when produced 
 will determine the points where the various arcs meet. The 
 centres of these latter lie on the ends of the diameters. 
 
 14. The construction of the lower half is the same as in fig. 7. The 
 centre of the upper lies in the intersection of tangents to the 
 lower and upper circles, 
 
 15. Example of the subdivision and decoration of an ellipse, (Storck'a 
 
 Zeichenvorlagen). 
 
 The Three -centred Arch. 
 
 The lliree-centred arch, which was often used in the Transition 
 period between the Gothic and the Kenascence, may be considered as a 
 semi-ellipsoid; and it may be described by one of the methods shown 
 on Plate 20 (see also the Head-piece to this Section, on page 3). 
 
 m 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of OrDatnent. 
 
34 
 
 B. 
 
 NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 a. TJie Organisms of Flants (Flora of Ornammt), 
 
 In nearly every style the plant-world has been used in patterns. 
 Leaves, sprays, flowers, and fruits, either singly or combined, have 
 been adapted in ornament. The direct imitation of nature, retaining 
 form and color as much as possible, leads to the naturalistic con- 
 ception; the construction of an ornament according to the rules of 
 rhythm and symmetry, with a stricter observance of regularity — is 
 known as the artificial method. 
 
 The -selection of the comparatively few plants from the luxuriant 
 field of the plant-world was partly determined by beauty of form (the 
 outline of the leaf, the delicacy of the spray, &c.) and partly by the 
 fact that they possess (or did at some . time possess) a symbolic 
 meaning. 
 
 The plates which illustrate this section will first exhibit the 
 Akanthos; and then such plant-forms as are less used or only found 
 in certain styles. They will first be presented as they exist in ^Nature; 
 and then as they were modified in the various styles. 
 
 The Akanthos Leaf. (Plates 21—23.) 
 
 Of all the ornamental designs which have been borrowed from 
 plants; the Akanthos is the most popular. Since its introduction by 
 the Greeks, it recurs again and again in every Western style. A 
 symbolical significance has never attached to the Akanthos; its frequent 
 
The Akauthoa Leaf, &c. 36 
 
 and varied application is due to the ornamental possibilities and 
 beautiful serration of its leaves. It gi'ows wild in the South of 
 Europe, but in more northern latitudes is only found in our botanical 
 gardens. There are many varieties of the plant, of which we may 
 mention the following: Akanthos mollis, with broad, blunt tips to 
 the leaves; Akantlios spinosus, with pointed lobes terminating in 
 spines, and comparatively narrow leaves. The conception and treat- 
 ment of the margin and shape of the leaf, is the principal characteristio 
 of the different styles. The Greek foliage has pointed leaf-edges;' in 
 the Rornan style, the tips of the leaves become rounder, broader, to 
 some extent with more vigorous curves; the Byzantine and Roma- 
 nesque styles, again, return to stiffer, less delicate forms. The Gothio 
 style, which used the foreign Akanthos in addition to a number of native 
 plants, adopted in the early period, round, bulbous forms; later Gothic, 
 0'^ the contrary, preferred bizarre, long -extended, thistle-like foliage: 
 in both cases the general conception is more or less naturalistic, but 
 the details are usually idealised beyond recognition. The Renascence, 
 which revived Antique ornament, developed the Akanthos, and parti- 
 cularly the Tendril, to the highest degree of perfection; in the follow- 
 ing styles formalism degenerates in this direction. Modern ornamental 
 art seeks its models in almost every style; and its creations have 
 generally no pronounced, specifically Modern character. 
 
 Plate 21. TnE Akanthos, and Artificial Leap. 
 
 1. Leaf of Akanthos Mollis, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 2. Akanthos calyx, the leaves and flower of Akanthos Mollis, natura- 
 listically treated, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 3. Leaf of Akanthos Mollis, (Raguenet). 
 
 4. Leaf of Akanthos Spinosus, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 5. Cup, corona of a Greek Stele, (Raguenet). 
 
 6. Overlap of leaf, Roman candelabmm, Vatican. 
 
 7. Greek leaf, displayed, (Jacobsthal). ,^_^ , ^^ 
 
 8. Roman leaf. Capital of a column ,^ Pantheon , Rome, the spoon- 
 like roundings of the points of the leaves, as well as the deep 
 incisions, are characteristic; and designed to look well at a distance. 
 
 Plate 22. The Artificial Leaf. 
 
 1. Leaf, Roman capital, (Raguenet). 
 
 2. Leaf displayed, as it is often used on Roman reliefs, e. g.: so- 
 mewhat more richly developed, on the so called Florentine Pilaster, 
 Uffizi, Florence, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 8. Byzantine leaf, Sta. Sofia, Constantinople, (Raguenet). 
 4. Romanesque leaf, St. Denis, (Li6vre). 
 
 3* 
 
IN AT URAL FORMS. 
 
 
 
 Plate 21. Ine Asanthos Leaf, and the Artificial Leaf. 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 The Artificial Leaf. 
 
 Plate 22. 
 
38 
 
 NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 Plate 23. 
 
 The Artificial Leaf. 
 
The Artificial Leaf. — Artificial Foliage. 39 
 
 5. Romanesque leaf, monastery of St. Trophimus, Aries, XU. century 
 (Raguenet). 
 
 6. Gothic leaf, (Li^vre). / 
 
 Plate 23. The Artificial Leap. 
 
 1. Leaf, French Renascence, St. Eustache, Paris. 
 
 2. Leaf, style of Louis XYI, (Raguenet). 
 
 3. Leaf, French Renascence, church, Epernay, (Li^vre). 
 
 4. Leaf, French Renascence, (Gropius). 
 
 5. Modern Leaf, Louvre, Paris, (F. A. M. Cours d'omement). 
 
 6. Modern Leaf, Theatre, Monte Carlo, Monaco, (Raguenet). 
 
 Artificial Foliage. (Plates 24—26.) 
 
 The Scroll is a purely artistic invention, the natural plant having 
 no tendrils. Flowers and calices, such as frequently occur in artificial 
 foliage, are usually developed with serrated edges, composed to recall 
 natural models, (Comp. Plate 25, figs. 2 und 3). Artificial foliage is 
 often combined with forms from plants, e. g.: laurel, oak, ivy, ears 
 of wheat, &c., (Comp. Plate 26, figs. 2 and 4). What was said above 
 of the Akanthos leaf, holds good here too, for' the difi'erences of exe- 
 cution in the various styles. The greatest luxuriance and the highest 
 elegance were attained by the Italian Renascence, (Comp. Plate 25, 
 fig. 5). It is characteristic of the Louis XVI. epoch that the lines 
 which form the scroll are somestimes flattened, and, so to speak, make 
 elliptic spirals, (Comp. Plate 26, fig. 4). 
 
 Plate 24. Artificial Foliage. 
 
 1. Ornament, summit of the monument of Lysikrates, Athens. 
 
 2. Cup, Roman. 
 
 8. Roman ornament, the so called "Medicean Pilaster", (Artificial fo- 
 liage of a large size). 
 4. Fragment of a Greek relief, (F. A. M., Cours d'omement). 
 
 Plate 25. Artificial Foliage. 
 
 1. Roman ornament, marble Biga, from the 'style of the ornament 
 it must have been an imitation of an original in bronze. 
 
 2. Roman ornament, from the so called "Florentine Pilaster", a richly 
 decorated marble relief in the Uffizi, Florence, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 8. Romanesque frieze, St. Denis, (Lifevre). 
 
 4. Early Gothic, Notre Dame, Paris, (Li6vre). 
 
 5. Renascence ornament, relief on the tomb of Hieronimo Basso, Sta, 
 Maria del Popolo, Rome, by Sansovino, (Gropius). 
 
NATURAL FORMS 
 
 Flate 24. 
 
 Artificial Foliage. 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 Artilicihl Folias-e. 
 
 Plate .25. 
 
42 
 
 NATL) UAL FORMS. 
 
 Plate 2d. 
 
 Artificial Foliage. 
 
Artificial Foliage. — The Laurel, the Olive, and the Vine. 43 
 
 Pi^TE 26. AimnciAL Foliage. 
 
 1 — 3. Details from a relief on the lectern, cathedral, Limoges, (Lifevre). 
 
 4. Ornament, Louis XVI. style, (F. A. M., Cours d'ornement). 
 
 5. Modern French ornament, (F. A. M.). 
 
 The Laurel, and the Olive: (Plates 27, 28.) 
 
 The Laurel and the Olive owe their introduction into omamen 
 tat I on to their symbolical significance. Both played a conspicuous 
 part in the tree worship of the ancient Greeks. The Laurel was 
 sacred to Apollo. It was the symbol of atonement; singers and con- 
 quering heroes were crowned with it; and in a similar sense it is 
 sttU used as a symbol of glory. 
 
 The Olive was sacred to Athene; Olive branches were the prize 
 of victory et the Olympian games. In Rome the victorious. Laurel- 
 crowned heroes were met on their return home by slaves bearing 
 wreaths of Olive boughs. The Olive branch is the symbol of peace. 
 
 Plate 27. Thje Laurel, &c. from Nature. 
 
 1 Laurel (Laurns nohili^). Evergreen; blossoms yellowish white; 
 
 fruit ball or egg shaped, blue black. 
 2. Olive (Olea europea). Evergreen; blossoms small, white; fruit oval, 
 
 greenish, or black. 
 
 Plate 28. The Laurel, &c. 
 
 1 — 2. Branches, Greek vase, conventional painting, (Owen Jones). 
 8. Branches, beaker, in the silver treasure, Hildesheim, Roman, 
 
 Original of chased silver, museum, Berlin. 
 
 4. Fragment, Roman marble relief. 
 
 5. Branch, intarsia panel, Palazzo Ducale, Mantua, (Meurer). 
 
 6. Branch, spauraD, Louis XVI. style, (Li^vre) 
 
 7. Hand, French Renascence. 
 
 The Vine. (Plates 29, 30.) 
 
 Althoagh the Vine does not occm frequently, it is not an on- 
 popular element ol artistic decoration. The Antique and Medieval 
 styles, in particular, show a certain preference for the vine. 
 
 In Antiquity the Vine (Vitis vinifera) is the attribute of Bac- 
 chus. Vine leaves and lyy, sometimes in connection with Laurel, 
 encircle the brows of Bacchantes, and adorn their drinking -vessels 
 and atensils, the thyrsus, kantharos, &c. 
 
NATURAL FORMS 
 
 Plate 27. 
 
 The Laurel, and the Olive. 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 45 
 
 The Laurel, the Bay, and the Olive. 
 
 Plate 28. 
 
46 
 
 NATURAL FOKMS. 
 
 •Plate 29. 
 
 The Vine: Natural. 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 47 
 
 The Vine: Artificial. 
 
 Plate 30. 
 
48 The Vine; the Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. 
 
 The ecclesiastical art of the Middle Ages adopted the Vine, toge- 
 ther with ears of Corn, as the symbol of Christ. 
 
 Later styles, and Modern art, have adopted the Vine in both the 
 antique and medieval senses. 
 
 Plate 29. The Vine. 
 1. Natural branch, 
 
 Plate 50. The Vine. 
 
 1. Scroll ornament, Roman relief. 
 
 2. Roman ornament, vertical Border. 
 
 3. Early Gothic ornament, Notre Dame, Paris, (Lifevre). 
 
 4. Renascence ornament, Italian pilaster. 
 
 5. Renascence ornament, frieze, Venice, IGth century, (Griiner). 
 
 The Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. (Plate 31.) 
 
 The Lotus and the Papyrus are plants of ancient oriental civi- 
 lisation; and play an important part in the social life, of the Egyptians^ 
 Hindoos, Assyrians, and other nations. The dried stalks of these -water 
 plants were used as fuel, or made into mats and other plaited arti- 
 cles; their roots served as food; the pith as wicks for lamps. The 
 paper of the ancients was made of Papyrus. TTiis explain sits appear- 
 ance in the ornamental art of these nations, and its special luxuriance, 
 in Egyptian style. Spoons and other utensils were decorated with Lotus 
 flowers and calices; the capitals of Columns imitate the flowers or 
 buds of the Lotus: the shaft resemples a bound group of stalks; the 
 base reminds- us of the root leaves of these water plants; their mural 
 Painting shows Lotus and Papyrus motives in the most comprehensive 
 manner. The Lotus was sacred to Osiris and Isis, and was the sym- 
 bol of the recurring fertilisation of the land by the Nile, and, in a 
 higher sense, of immortality. 
 
 The Palm, of which a few varieties exist in "the East and South 
 'of Europe, is also used in ornamental art. Palm leaves or branches were 
 used at the entry of kings into Jerusalem, at the feasts of Osiris in 
 Egypt, at the" Olympian games in Greece, and in the triumphal pro- 
 cessions of anciont Rome. They were the symbol of victory, and of 
 peace. In this latter sense they have been received into the ritual 
 of the Christian church. The late Renascence and following styles 
 down to the present day have made a decorative use of palm leaves. 
 The symbolic significance in a higher sense, as the token of eternal 
 peace, has secured for the Palm leaf a place in Modern art on tombs 
 aad .sirailar monoments. The decorative effect, of dried palm fronds 
 
NATUEAL FORMS. 
 
 49 
 
 The Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 
 
 Plate 31. 
 
 4 
 
50 
 
 NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 Plate 32. 
 
 The Ivy: Natural, and Artificial. 
 
The Lotus, the Papyms, and the Palm. — The Ivy. 51 
 
 along with tufts of grasses and the like, has brought them into fashion 
 as a finish to the artistic adornment of rooms. 
 
 Plate 31. The Lotus, &c., from Nature. 
 
 1. Lotus flower (Nijmphaea Nelmnho — Indian water lily). 
 
 2 and 3. Lower end and half-opened bud of the Papyrus plant (Cy- 
 
 perus Papyrus L. — Papyms antiquorum Willd). 
 
 4. Idealised Lotus and Papyrus, Egyptian mural painting, 
 (Owen Jones). 
 
 5. Frond of an Areca Palra (Areca rubra — in Asia as a 
 tree, the so called Pinang). The species Chamaedorea and 
 Phoenix have similar fronds. 
 
 6. Leaf of a Fan "Palm (Corypha australis). The species 
 Lalania, Chamaerops, Borassus, &c., have a leaf of similar 
 
 shape. 
 
 The Ivy. (Plate 32.) 
 
 The Ivy (Jiedera helix) is indigenous to the East, North Africa, 
 South and Central Europe, and England. It is an evergreen climbing 
 shrub which develops into a tree under favourable circumstances. In 
 ancient times it was sacred to Bacchus. Beakers for filtering wine 
 were made of ivy wood. As an attribute of Bacchus it is found 
 twined round the thyrsus which the bacchantes flourished in their 
 Lands in processions and dances. The Ivy is a common decorative 
 ornament on ancient vases. It was also the symbol of friendship, 
 especially of the weaker with the stronger. Ivy leaves are of very 
 various shapes. Usually broad and five-lobed, they appear at the ends 
 ■of young shoots in long pointed, lance-like forms. Flowering twigs 
 have leaves }vithout indentations, heart-shaped, with elliptic or oval 
 tapering. The latter forms in particular were adopted by Antique art 
 
 Pu^TE 32. The Ivy. 
 
 1. Spray with bfoad-lobed leaves, from Nature. 
 
 2. Spray with elliptic tapering leaves, after blooming,^ from Nature. 
 8. Spray with lanceolate leaves, from Nature. 
 
 4. Decoration of the neck of a Greek Hydria, Campana coUection 
 (L'art pour tous). 
 
 5. Upper part of a pilaster like -panel. Antique. 
 
 6. Fragment of decoration, Roman column, Vatican, Rome. 
 
52 The Corn, ^c. — Various Leavea. 
 
 The Corn, the Hop, the Convolvulus, and the Bryony. 
 (Plates 33, 84.) 
 
 Seeing how impoi-tant agriculture has been in all ages, it was 
 impossible that decorative art should neglect the ears of WTieat, 
 although their comparatively scanty ornamental possibilities prevented 
 ftny very extensive application. Combined with other motives, ears 
 of Corn have been made use of in various styles. In ecclesiastical 
 art they have a symbolical significance (See what was said of the Vine). 
 
 The Hop (Ilunudus lupulus) is a well known indigenous plant 
 of civilisation, and also occurs wild in marshy woods. Its picturesque 
 qualities indicate it as well adapted for ornamental use. In combina- 
 tion with ears of Barley, it is applied in Modern art to the decoration 
 of Beer-mugs, the walls of Inns, &c. 
 
 The Convolvulus (Convolvulus), an indigenous climbing plant of 
 ornamental appearance, is frequently used in Modern art. 
 
 The Bryony (Bryonia) has delicate tendrils and beautifully in- 
 dented leaves, which afford a fertile motive, so that it is astonishing 
 that this, and other allied plants have hitherto found comparatively 
 little favor in decorative art. 
 
 Plate 33. The Corn, &c. 
 
 1. Ears of Oats (Avena sativa). 
 
 2. Ears of Rye (Secale cerenle). 
 
 3. Ears of Wheat (Triticum vulgar e). 
 
 4. Ears of Spelt (Triticum spelta). 
 
 5. Ears of the common Barley (Hordeum disticlium). 
 
 6. Ears of the battledore Barley (Hordeum zeokriton). 
 
 7. Field Convonvulus (Convolvulus arvensis) with red flowers. The 
 hedge Convolvulus (Convolvulus sepium) has a similar habit and 
 white flowers. (The group has been sketched freely from a cast 
 from nature, by Bofinger of Stuttgart.) 
 
 Plate 34. The Hop, &c. 
 
 Hops and Bryony (drawn from pressed plants). 
 
 Various Leaves. (Plate 35.) 
 
 Plate 35 presents a series of various leaves, whose general orna- 
 mental possibilities have either secured or deserve to secure for them 
 a place in art. 
 
 The Oak, the king of our indigenous trees, the symbol of power 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 53 
 
 The Corj], and the Convolvulus. Plate 33. 
 
54 
 
 NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 PUte 34. 
 
 The Hop, and the BryoDy. 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 55 
 
 Various Leiives. 
 
 Plate 35. 
 
66 Various Leaves, and Flowers. 
 
 and strength, in antiquity the tree of Jupiter, has from time to time 
 been used in every western style. Oak foliage, and perhaps almost 
 as frequently the leaves of the Maple, are often used in early Gothic, 
 where we meet them on friezes, cornices, and columns. The fre- 
 quent recurrence of oak leaves, in certain works of the Italian Rena- 
 scence, is due to the fact that the Oak was the crest of the family of 
 della Rovere {Rovere = winter oak; two members of which family 
 ascended the papal chair, as Sixtus TV. and Julius 11.). Oak, someti- 
 mes alternating with laurel, is 9, usual ornament of medals and coins. 
 
 Plate 85. Oak Leaves, <S:c. 
 
 1. Leaf of the winter Oak (Quercus sessiliflora), 
 
 2. Spray of the bitter Oak (Quercus cerris). 
 8. Leaf Of the Maple (Acer campestre). 
 
 4. Spray of the sugar Maple (Acer plantanoides). 
 
 5. Leaf of a species of Ranunculus. 
 
 6. Leaf of the oriental Amber tree (Liquidamher orientale). 
 
 7. Leaf of the Amencan Amber tree (Liquidamher Styraciflua). 
 (This tree furnishes the Storax or Styrax, a kind of resin.) 
 
 8. Leaf of the Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera). 
 
 9. Leaf of the climbing Mikania (Mikania scandens). 
 10. Leaf of the Liverwort (Hcpatica triloba). 
 
 Various Flowers. (Plates 3G, 37.) 
 
 It need scarcely be said that flowers, these most beautiful pro- 
 ducts of the plant world, have in all ages been exceedingly popular 
 in orn^n)ental art. In fiat as well as in relief ornament they are 
 used in the most manifold forms, as bouquets, garlands, wreaths, &e 
 Flower-painting for decorative purposes (fans, tapestry, &c.) has de- 
 veloped into a distinct branch of art. Flowers, with their natural 
 developement from a centre, are the most obvious models for the for- 
 mation of Rosettes (rosette = /ittle rose). The Rosettes on the well- 
 known sarcophagus of Scipio, the rosette Bosses on the doors of the 
 Antique and the Italian Renascence, are striking examples of this. 
 
 The realm of Flowers *is* so extensive that we must confine our- 
 selves to a few examples. 
 
 Plate 36 gives a variety of single flowers (drawn from casts 
 from nature by J. G. Bofinger of Stuttgart); Plate 37 shows a bou- 
 quet of flowers. 
 
 Plate 36. Various Flo wees. 
 1. Alpine Rose (Rhododendron). 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 57 
 
 Various Flowers. 
 
 Plate 36. 
 
NATURAL FORMS 
 
 Plate 37, 
 
 Various Flowers. 
 
Various Flowers. — The Festoon. 59 
 
 2. Chrysanthemum. 
 
 3. White Lily (Lilium candiilum). 
 
 4. Hellebore (Hdleborus). 
 
 5. Wild Rose (Rosa canina). 
 
 6. Blue-bell (Campanula). 
 
 7. Wild Rose, seen from the bact. 
 
 Plate 37. Various Flowers. 
 
 Bouquet, carving, Louis XVI. style, (F. A. M., Cours d'ornement). 
 
 TuE Fruit Festoon. (Plates 38—40.) 
 
 Fruit, tied in a bunch with leaves and flowers, was a popular 
 decorative motive of the Roman, Renascence, and later styles. We 
 may mention the hanging clusters as a decoration of pilaster and 
 similar panels; and the clusters hanging in a curve and known as 
 Festoons. In these cases: flowing ribbons fill up the empty spaces. 
 The plates give examples of both kinds. 
 
 Festoons of fruits hanging in deep curves between rosettes, can- 
 delabra, skulls of animals, &c., are common in the Roman style. The 
 origin of this style of decoration is to be sought in the circumstance 
 that Festoons of real finit were hung as a decoration on the friezes 
 of the temples, alternating with the real Skulls of slaughtered sacri- 
 ficial animals, in connection with the Candelabra, Tripods, and other 
 sacrificial Instruments. This style of decoration was then transferred 
 from sacred to secular architecture, revived by the Renascence in more 
 or less altered forms, and has remained in use to the present time. 
 In the Roman style the empty space above the centre of the curve 
 is often filled by Rosettes, Masks, and Figures. These features were 
 usually replaced by heads of Angels on the ecclesiatical buildings 
 and tombs of the Italian Renascence. 
 
 Plate 38. The Fiiurr Festoon. 
 
 1. Cluster, Libreria, Cathedral, Siena, Italian Renascence. 
 
 2. Cluster, tomb of Louis XIL St. Denis, French Renascence. 
 
 3. Cluster, Modern. 
 
 4. Festoon, tomb of Cardinal della Rovere, St. Maria del Popolo, 
 Rome, Italian llenascence. 
 
 Plate 39. The Fkuit Festoon 
 
 1. Festoon, between skulls, Roman. 
 
 2. Festoon, Roman mortuary tablet, Vatican 
 
6U 
 
 NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 Plate 38. 
 
 The Fruit Festoon. 
 
NAT UK A L FORMS 
 
 The Fruit Festoon. 
 
 Plate 39. 
 
62 
 
 NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 Plate 40. 
 
 The Leaf, and Flower Festoon. 
 
The Fcstoou. — Animal Organisms, 63 
 
 Plate 40. The Leaf Festoox, &c. 
 ] Festoon between skulls, Roman. 
 
 2. Festoon, tomb of Beatrice and Lavinia Ponzetti, Sta. Maria della 
 Pace, Rome, Renascence, bj Baldassare Peruzzi. 
 
 3. Festoon, Louis XVI. style. 
 
 4. Festoon, Modern, Paris, (Ragueuet). 
 
 h. Animal Organisms (The Fauna of Ornament). 
 
 By the side of the Flora, stand the Fauna of ornament. The 
 use of Animals, in natural or idealised forms, is considerable, 
 but, compared with that of Plant-forms, it is less extensive. The 
 reason of this is obvious: that greater difficulties stood in the way 
 of the adaptation of animal forms than in the use of plant motives. 
 The absence of Animals in the Mahometan styles is due to religious 
 maxims which forbade or limited the use of representations" of living 
 Beings. 
 
 Following the same direction as was taken in the Flora, we shall 
 find that the principal representations from the Fauna are not, as 
 might be supposed, those of domestic animals such as the horse, the 
 dog and the like, but that the selection was guided first by the sym- 
 bolic character, and next by the ornamental possibilities of each. 
 
 If we disregard the more accidental naturalistic use of animals, 
 such as enliven scroll ornaments in the shape of butterflies, birds, 
 reptiles, and other animals, and confine our attention to those inde- 
 pendent forms of animal ornament which have become typical; they 
 will be found to diminish to a comparatively small number, the most 
 important of which will here be treated in detail. Of the mammalia 
 we have first to mention the Lion, Tiger and Panther, the Ox, the 
 Horse, and the Goat; the Delphin also finds a place. The Eagle 
 is the only bird which has been generally used. Then come the 
 fantastic forms of fabulous animals: the Griffin, the double headed 
 Elide. &c. 
 
 The Lion. (Plates 41 — 44.) 
 
 The Lion (Felis leo) holds the first rank in ornamental fauna, 
 [lis strength, bis courage, and his nobility, have assured him from the 
 earliest times the Title of "King of Beasts". His majestic stature, his 
 compact, proportionate build, his striking muscles, offer grateful pro- 
 blems to art. Lying, walking*, sitting, fighting, conquering or con- 
 quered, he is an often-used motive. 
 
 Lion scenes and lion hunts are common subjects on the palaces 
 of the Assyrian kings. Characteristic, nalnral .movements, and a 
 
64 The Lion. 
 
 distinctive rendering of the muscles, give these idealised representations 
 a peculiar charm and a certain grandeur. 
 
 The Lion was used in the Egyptian religion. The fact that the 
 annual overflow of the Nile, so fertilising and of such immense im- 
 portance for the land, occurred at the time when the sun entered tlie 
 sign of the Lion, brought the animal into relation with water; and led 
 to representations on pails and other vessels for water, &o. Egyptian 
 art usually idealises the Lion till he is unrecognisable; it represents 
 him at rest; and the simple, severe treatment of the mane (not unlike 
 a stiff ruff) gives him somewhat of the appearance of the Lioness, 
 which does not posses one. 
 
 Among the Greeks and Romans the Lion was considered as the 
 guardian of springs, of gates, and temples- hence his appearance at 
 fountains, on flights of steps, over gates, and on monuments. The 
 sleeping Lion is the symbol of the fallen hero. (The lion of the 
 Piraeus, the tomb of Leonidas, and the tombs of Halicamassus , may 
 be quoted as evidence.) 
 
 In Christian art: the symbolism of the Lion is various: as the 
 emblem of the Redeemer (the Lion of the Tribe of Judah), as the 
 emblem of the evil principle and of the enemies of the church as 
 well as of the Devil Jhimself (the enemy who goeth about as a roaring 
 lion, seeking whom he may devour), as the attribute of the evange- 
 list St. Mark, and of other saints. Hence his frequent appearance on 
 the vessels, and other articles of religious use^ &c. 
 
 In consequence of the crusades in the 12th century, he was in- 
 troduced into Heraldry, in which he became the most popular animal 
 figure. As a heraldic creature he was severely idealised, (see 
 Division III, under Heraldry). 
 
 In the Renascence period, the Lion is represented in all of the 
 foregoing uses. 
 
 In the Rococo period, there was little skill, and little understan- 
 ding, for the figure of the Lion. 
 
 Modern art follow^ the example of the Antique and the Renas- 
 cence; and thus it comes that in the present day the Lion enjoys the 
 lion's share in decoration. 
 
 It is remarkable that in all ages, when representing the Lion, Ar- 
 tists have given to his countenance something of a human type, by using 
 the oval eye of man, instead of the round Cat-like eye, (Compare, 
 Plate 47, fig. !).♦ 
 
 Plates 41-— 43 show the Lion in naturalistic treatment, and also 
 fhe conventional treatments of the various epochs; Plate 44 is devo- 
 ted to heraldic treatments. 
 
 * An exhaustive article, entitled "Der L6we in der Kunst," by Const. 
 UIiuc, Tvill be found in iiiC "Cowcrbchalle," 187^. pp. 81 et seqq. 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 65 
 
 The Lion. 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornamcpt 
 
 Plate 41. 
 5 
 
66 
 
 NATUKAL FORMS. 
 
 Plate 42. 
 
 The Lion. 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 67 
 
 The Lion. 
 
 Plate 43. 
 
6S 
 
 NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 Plate 44. 
 
 The Liuu. 
 
The Lion. 69 
 
 Plate 41. The Lion. 
 
 1. Walking Lion, from Nature, (Munchener Bilderbogen). 
 
 2. Egyptian Lion, relief with sunken outlines, temple, Dacbel, (Ra- 
 guenet). 
 
 3. Egyptian Lion, Capitol, Rome, (Raguenet). 
 
 4. Assyrian Lion, glazed clay slabs, royal palace, Khorsabad, 6th cen- 
 tury B. C. 
 
 ^. Heads of slaughtered lions, Assyrian bas-relief, British Museum, 
 
 Plate 42. The Lion. 
 
 1. Lion supporting a shield (called "il Marzocco"), by Donatello, Na- 
 tional Museum, Florence, Italian, 15th century. 
 
 2. Lion, front of the Louvre, Paris, Modern, by Barye, (Baldus, Ea- 
 guenet). 
 
 8. Lion, Tuileries, Paris, Modern, (Baldus, Raguenpt). 
 4 and 5. Lion, in front of the palace of the Cortes, Madrid, Mo- 
 dern, (Raguenet). 
 6. Lion supporting a shield. Modern, (Raguenet). 
 
 Plate 43. The Lion. 
 
 1. Sleeping Lion, monument to Pope Clement XIIL, St. Peter's, Rome, 
 by Canova. 
 
 2. Wounded Lion, Kriegerdenkmal, Hannover, by Professor Volz, of 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 3. Head of the Companion of the above. 
 
 4. Walking Lion, Modern, French. 
 
 Plate 44. The Lion. 
 
 1. Lion, in pavement, town hall, Liineburg. 
 
 2. Lion, shield of Johanu of Heringen, register of the university of 
 Erfurt, 1487, (Heraldische Meisterwerke). 
 
 3. Lion, coat of arms, Inlaid marble work, Sta. Croce, Florence. 
 Italian Renascence, (Teirich, Eingelegte Marmorornamenle) 
 
 4. Lion, coat of arms, Intarsia panel, Sta. Maria Novella, Florence, 
 Italian Renascence, (Meurer, Flachornamente). 
 
 5. Lion, tomb in Wertheim, German, IGth century, by Johann of 
 Trarbach. 
 
 6. Lion supporting a shield, mural decoration. Modern, (Heral- 
 dische Meisterwerke). 
 
 7 — 8. Heraldic Lions, Albrecht Diirer. 
 
70 The GriffiQ, &c. — The Lion Head. 
 
 The Griffin, and the Chimaera. (Plates 45 and 40.) 
 
 iDTaddition to the imitations of natural animals there have been, 
 from the earlist times, various fabulous Monsters, which were composed 
 of parts of several different animals. 
 
 Centaurs, Sphinxes, the Assyrian human Lions, Lion and Eagle 
 men, combine the human and the animal body. The combination, of 
 different animal -forms with one another, leads to Monsters, the chief 
 representatives of which are the Griffin, and the Chimaera. The Griffin 
 is the union of a Lion's body with the head and wings of an Eagle. 
 The fore extremities may belong either to the Lion or the Eagle. As 
 the Lion with water, so the Griffin is associated in Antiquity with 
 fire; hence his frequent appearance with Candelabra on friezes, &c. In 
 Heraldry the Griffin is the symbol of wisdom, and watchfulness. 
 
 There are other combinations; e. g. the Chimaera, the Hippo- 
 griff, the Ichthyogriff, &c., which may be seen in Pompejan decoration. 
 
 Plate 45. The Griffin. 
 
 1. Greek Griffin, Fragment, Museum, Naples. 
 
 2. Roman Griffin, Fragment. 
 
 3. Griffin, Renascence. 
 
 Pi^\TE 46. TiiE Griffin, «S:c. 
 
 1. Head of an Assyrian eagle-headed Personafje, 1 ,-,•.• , -.c 
 oTijf A- Ti iir» } British Museum. 
 
 2. Head of an Assyrian lion-headed Personage, J 
 
 3. Roman Chimaera, Vatican. 
 
 4. Sitting Griffin, support of a seat, Castle of Gaillon, French Renas- 
 cence, (F. A, M,, Cours d'ornement). 
 
 5. Winged Lion, tomb of Loys de Bresz6, Rouen cathedral, 1585 — 
 1544. 
 
 6. Winged Lioness, as supporter, Louvre, Paris, Modern, (Baldus). 
 
 7. Sitting winged Lioness, Casa S. Isidora, Santiago, Chili, Modern, 
 French, (Raguenet). 
 
 The Lion Head. (Plates 47, 48.) 
 
 The Lion head has been still more extensively applied than the 
 entire figure of the Lion. It is found in countless examples: — as a 
 Gargoyle on the temples of the Antique, as a Spout on vessels, with 
 a ring in the jaw as a Handle and Knocker on the doors of the por- 
 tals of the Middle Ages and the Renascence; and as a purely deco- 
 rative element like Bosses and Rosettes. The Antique created a 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 71 
 
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 S^^^S^f km 
 
 T^'-^eo^ I 
 
 ^ i 
 
 //i ^ i 
 
 /JSi 
 
 J 
 
 ?<^lc\t 
 
 ^4& 
 
 W^i\^mmmr-.:'''^^'-mmmmmwm^u. 
 
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 The Griftiu. 
 
 Plate 45. 
 
72 
 
 NATURAL FORMS 
 
 Plate 46 
 
 The Griffin, &c 
 
The Lion Head, &.c. — The Goat Head, dc. 73 
 
 remarkable form by the direct union of the Lion head \vith one 
 leg, to form the support of a Table, (See Division II, Supports, 
 Plates 143 and 144). 
 
 Plate 47. The Lion Head 
 
 1. Head, prospectus of Dr. Schubert's Naturgeschichto. 
 
 2. Head, painting by Paul Meyerheim, 
 
 3. Gargoyle, Metapontum, Greek, (Gropius, Ai-chiv.). 
 4.. Gargoyle, terracotta, Athens, (Gropius). 
 
 5. Gargoyle, Parthenon, Athens. 
 
 6 and 7. Front and side view of an antique head, Vatican. 
 
 Plate 48. The Lion Head. 
 1. Door knocker. Cathedral, Mainz, Romanesque. 
 
 2 — 3. Heads, in basrelief, by Ghiberti, Medallions inside the bronze 
 doors, Baptistry, Florence, Italian Renascence, (Gropius). 
 
 4. Head, fountain of the sacristy, San Lorenzo, Florence, Ita- 
 lian Renascence. 
 
 5. Head, in medallion, Italian Renascence. 
 
 6. Head, Heidelberg castle, German Renascence. 
 
 7. Gargoyle, Opera House, Paris, Modern, French, Aicliitect 
 Garnier, (Raguenet). 
 
 8. Head, Modern, French, Architect Garnier, (Raguenet). 
 
 9. Head, in profile. Modern, French, by the sculptor Cain of 
 Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 10. Head, by Lienard, Modern, French. 
 
 11. Head, by Prof. Volz, of Carlsruhe. 
 
 The Lion Head, Goat Head, &c. (Plates 49, 50.) 
 
 The Tiger (Felis tigris) and the Panther (Fells pardus) are 
 sometimes found in antique works. Amorini, Bacchantes, and. Maenads, 
 gambol about on them or drive in carriages drawn by these crea- 
 tures; and decorate themselves and their utensils with their skins. 
 
 Panther and Tiger heads, as well as the head of the Lynx (Fells 
 lynx), find from time to time similar application to the Lion head. 
 Ram heads are a favourite form of corner ornament for the cornices 
 of altars, and tripods; or serve, like the skulls of Oxen, as objects 
 from which to hang festoons. The decorative use in both cases is 
 connected with the use of the Ram as a sacrificial animal, (Cora- 
 pare p. 71). 
 
 Instead of real animal heads we sometimes meet with fantastic 
 forms which may be described as Chimaera heads. 
 
74 
 
 NATURAL FORMS 
 
 Plate 4' 
 
 The Lion Head 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 rtio l>ioa Head 
 
 riate 4S. 
 
76 Heads of Various Animals- 
 
 Plate 49. The Panther Head, &c. 
 
 1 and 2 Front and side view of Panther head. Modern, Ffpnch. 
 
 8 and 4. Front and side view of Tiger head, fioni Nature 
 
 5 and 6. Front and side view of Lynx head, Antique Gargoyle, 
 
 Vatican. 
 
 Plate 50 The Ram Head, &c 
 
 1 and 2. Front and side view of Chimaera head, Corner of antique 
 three -sided altar. 
 
 3. liam head, Roman altar. 
 
 4. Ditto. 
 
 5. Ditto. 
 
 6 and 7. Front and side view of Ram head, Late Renascence. 
 
 Heads of Various Animals. (Plate 51.) 
 
 The Horse (Equus) oflfers certain difficulties in the way of 
 artistic imitation. The legs, for example, are too thin for rendering 
 in Statues, except in Metal. This circumstance presents less hin- 
 drance to representations in bas-relief. As an isolated figure the 
 Horse seldom occurs; he is more frequent in groups forming teams 
 of two, three, and more (higa, iriga, quadriga)^ intended to be 
 the crowning feature of monumental edifices (San Marco, Venice; 
 Brandenburger Thor, Altes Museum, Berlin, Propylaea, Munich) mostly 
 along with the figure of the man who leads him (Horse-tamers on 
 the Monte Cavallo, Rome) or rides him (Statue of the Condottiere 
 Bartolommeo Colleoni 1476, Venice, the colossal statues in the Burg- 
 hof at Vienna; the Grosser Kurfiirst, the Alter Fritz, the battle scenes 
 by Kiss and Wolff on the staircases of the Museum at Berlin). In 
 bas-relief the horse is, almost without exception, represented only in 
 profile (hunting scenes from the ancient Assyrian royal palaces, the 
 frieze of the Parthenon) In grottesque Painting he furnishes the 
 fore parts of various monsters, the hinder parts being formed by 
 fish tails, or in some other way The use of the horse head as a 
 medallion, on Stables, Riding schools. Prize-cups, and numerous objects 
 connected with sport, is common in Modern art In Heraldry the 
 Horse occurs in a few cases (Shield of Stuttgart). In Japan: the 
 Horse is symbolical, and is connected with the hours. 
 
 Still less adapted to ornamental purposes is the Ox; and repre- 
 sentations are therefore exceedingly rare The same is true of the 
 Dog, the Pig, the Fox, the Stag, the Hare, &c., whose forms, either 
 entire or as heads, are only used symbolically, on such objects a-s 
 have some connection with Hunting (hunting weapons, powder boras, 
 targets). 
 
NATURAL FORM^ 
 
 The Panther Head, &c. 
 
 Plate 49. 
 
78 
 
 NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 Plate 50. 
 
 The Ram Head, &c 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 79 
 
 The Horae Head. Sic. 
 
 Plate 51. 
 
80 Heads of Various Animals. — The Ea^le. 
 
 Plate 51. TuE Horse Head, &c. 
 
 1 Horse head, Parthenon, Athens. 
 
 2 Horse head, Assyrian basrelief, British Muse am. 
 3—4. Antique Horse head. 
 
 5. Horse head, Modern, Germun, 
 
 ti Head of a hunting Dog, \ 
 
 7 Head of a Fox, i rr i i :> f %a- i 
 
 8 Head of a Boar, [ ^^ Habenschad.o, of Mnnch^n. 
 
 9. Head of an Ox, J 
 
 The Eagle. (Plates 52=-54.) 
 
 Like the lion among quadrupeds, the E;igle (Aqnila, Falco 
 fulvus) is the most important representative of tlie feathered tribes. 
 His size and strength, his majestic flight, his keen vision, distinguish 
 him above all other birds. He has been used in decorative art since 
 the earliest times, e. g. in the Persian, Assyrian, and Egyptian styles. 
 
 With the Greeks: he was the companion of Zeus, whose thunder- 
 bolts he keeps and guards; he carried off Ganymede on his wings 
 The Romans used him in the apotheoses of their emperors; and 
 chose him for- the standards of their legions. Napoleon I., imitating 
 Roman caesarism, granted his armies the French Eagle in 1S04 
 Hence the frequent appearance of the Eagle on trophies, and emblems 
 of war 
 
 In ecclesiastical art: the Eagle is the symbol of the evangelist 
 S. John, whom he either accompanies, or symbolises independently 
 
 The Eagle appears in Heraldry at a very early period, about 
 the time of Charlemagne. Next to the Lion he is the most-used 
 heraldic creature (e. g. the United States, Germany, Austria, Prussia, and 
 bVance under the second empire, all possess the Eagle). His heraldic 
 forms vary considerably from the natural one. Blue excepted, he 
 appears in all the tinctures The double-headed Eagle is a Byzantine 
 invention. The hecaldic eagle is a highly ornamental figure, so that, 
 from the middle ages up to the present time, he has been employed 
 not only for heraldic, but also for purely decorative purposes: he is 
 seen in manifold forms in intarsia, cut or etched in metal, cut in 
 leather, embroidered, woven, and painted; on weapons and tools, furni- 
 ture, ceilings, and walls, (See the Heraldic treatment in Division III, 
 Heraldry). 
 
 Our figures show him, natural as well as idealised, m various 
 positions and conceptions; plate 53 shows bis heraldic forms, (Comp. 
 plate 284). 
 
The Eagle. — The Wing. 81 
 
 Plate 52. Tile Eagle. 
 
 1. Young Eagle, in a scutella (dish), Roman. 
 
 2. Roman Eagle, pedestal of Trajan's column, Rome, (Raguenet). 
 
 3. Roman Eagle, Vatican, Rome, (Raguenet). 
 
 4. Roman Eagle in an oak garland. Bas-relief originally in Trajan's 
 Forura, now in SS. Apostoli, Rome, (De Vico, Trenta tavole, &c.). 
 
 5. Sitting Eagle, modern, (Gerlach, Das Gewerbemonogramm). 
 
 Plate 53. The Heraldic Eagle. 
 
 1. Romanesque Eagle, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg. 
 
 2. Eagle, Gothic style, Viollet-le-Duc, (Dictionnaire de I'architec- 
 ture). 
 
 3. Eagle, Gothic style, oil painting, Germanisches Museum, Nurem- 
 berg. 
 
 4. Eagle, Gothic style, by Albrecht Diirer, (Hirth, Formenschatz). 
 
 5. Eagle, Renascence, by Albrecht Diirer, (Hirth). 
 
 6. Eagle, Renascence, (Hirth). 
 
 7. Eagle, Renascence, by Wenderlin Dietterlin, (Hirth). 
 
 8. Eagle, Modern, German, (Heraldische Meisterwerke). 
 
 Plate 54. The Eagle. 
 
 1. Eagle, as Akroter, Flora paviUion, Louvre, Paris, Architect 
 Lefuel, (Baldus). 
 
 2. Eagle, in a laurel garland. Modem, German, by Ranch. 
 
 3. Eagle, with olive branch, in medallion. Louvre, Paris, (Baldus). 
 
 4. Eagle, high relief, by Rauch, on monument, Berlin. 
 
 5. French Eagle, Modern, new Opera House, Paris, Architect Garnier, 
 (Raguenet). 
 
 6. Flying Eagle, from Nature, (Raguenet). 
 
 7. Eagle, from nature. 
 
 The Wing. (Plate 55.). 
 
 As the small scale of the preceding plates does not admit of 
 the details of the Wing being fully shown; and as draughtsmen, as 
 well as modellers, are often called-upon to design winged shapes (be-^ 
 sides the Eagle, Angels, Amorini, Genii, Grottesques, the Caduceus of 
 Mercury, the symbolic Wheel of the railroad, &c,: we have thought it 
 advisable to add a plate showing the details of the Wings on a 
 somewhat larger scale. They are taken from Dature; but will be 
 found helpful for idealised renderings. 
 
 Plate 55. The Wing. 
 
 i. Wing of a duck. 
 
 2. Wing of a wild goose. 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornameut. ^ 
 
82 
 
 INATUllAL KOKMS 
 
 Plate 
 
 The Eagle. 
 
NATUBAL FORMS. 
 
 83 
 
 The Eagle. 
 
 Plate 53. 
 6* 
 
84 
 
 NATUKAL FOBMS. 
 
 Plate 54. 
 
 The Eagle. 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 85 
 
 The WiDg. 
 
86 The Dolphin. 
 
 The Dolphin. (Plates 56—58.) 
 
 The Dolphin (Belpliinus delphis, French, dauphin) has enjoyed 
 an unusual share of attention. This sea mainmal, which has some- 
 times been erroneously classed among the fishes, lives in the seas of 
 the northern hemisphere, swarms round ships, s^^ims in shoals, and 
 is fond of sport. In ancient times the Dolphin enjoyed, and enjoys 
 even now in some parts, a kind of -feneration which protects hiiu 
 from persecution. We meet him occasionally on Antique coins, on 
 Graeco-italic terracottas, on Pompeian mural pajntiugs, on furniture 
 and utensils, and in the architecture of the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Giugo rV. of Viennois (1140) took to himself the title of 
 "Dauphin", and the Dolphin as crest. One of his successors, Humbert II., 
 surrendered the Dauphiny in 1349 to Charles of Valois, in exchange 
 for a legacy and on the condition that the heir to the throne should 
 always bear the title "Dauphin"; which condition was faithfully kept. 
 This is the explanation of the frequent appearance of the Dolphin in 
 French decoration; but its frequent appearance in Italian decoration, 
 is due to its artistic capabilities. The Dolphin is often used in 
 pilasters, panels, in intarsias, in ceilings and mural paintings, 
 in enamel, in niello work, and in typographical ornaments. In 
 modern styles the Dolphin often masks the spouts of fountains. In 
 symbolic representations he is the companion of Nymphs, Nereids, 
 and Tritons, and of Arion, Aphrodite, and Neptune, with whose 
 trident he is often combined in ornament. 
 
 Plate 56. The Dolphin. 
 
 1. Portion of frieze, Graeco Italic, Campana collection, Paris. 
 
 2. Shield of the French kings, 15th century, (Raguenet). 
 
 3. Castle at Blois, French Renascence, (Raguenet). 
 4.* Italian Renascence, Louvre, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 5. Head, from a relief, French, by Clodion (1738 — 1814). 
 
 6. Pair of Dolphins, by Schinkel, (Vorbilder fiir Fabrikanten und 
 Handwerker). 
 
 7. Head, as spout, by Barbezat, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 8 — 9. Heads, as spouts, face and profile, (Hauptmann, Modeme Orna-: 
 mentale Werke im Stile der Italienischen Renascence). 
 
 Plate 57. The Doi^phin. 
 
 1. Frieze, Sta. Maria dell' Anima, Rome (1500 to 1514), Italian, 
 (Raguenet). 
 
 2. Panel ornament, French Renascence. 
 
 3. Choir seats, Certosa near Pavia, Italian Renascence, (Teirich,^ 
 Meurer). 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 87 
 
 The Dolphin. 
 
 Plate 56. 
 
NATURAL FOKMS 
 
 Plate 57. 
 
 The Dolphin. 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 89 
 
 The Dolphin. 
 
 Plate 5S. 
 
flO The Dolphin, — The SheU. — The Serpent 
 
 4. Part of Frieze, Rome, Arco della chiesa nuova, Italian Re- 
 
 nascence, (Weissbach nnd Lottermoser, Architektonische Motive). 
 
 5 — 6. Heads. 
 
 7 — 8. Parts of Address by German aiiists, to king Humbert of Italy, 
 by Director Gotz. 
 
 Plate 58. The Dolphin. 
 
 1. Panel, Venetian Renascence. 
 
 2. Lower part of panel. Ducal Palace, Venice, Italian Renascence. 
 
 3. Part of frieze, Sta. Maria della Pace, Rome, by Bramante, 1501, 
 Italian. 
 
 4. Part of Majolica Tile,. Sta. Caterina, Siena, Italian Renascence. 
 
 5. Head, cathedral, Limoges, French Renascence. 
 
 6. Handle of a vessel, pilaster, by Benedetto da Majano, Italian Re- 
 nascence. 
 
 7. Pen drawing, by Lucas von- Leyden (1527). 
 
 The Shell. (Plate 59.) 
 
 Among molluscs: the Nautilus (Nautilus Pompilius) and various 
 shells, principally of the family of the Trochoidae, are placed on foot; 
 and, elegantly mounted in metal, serve as Drinking-vessels. 
 
 The Scallop shell is used as the top of cylindrical niches, as a. 
 waterbasin in the form of a shallow dish, and as a decorative back- 
 ground for vases and busts. It was extensively employed for thcs'. 
 purposes in the later Renascence. 
 
 Plate 59. The Shell. 
 
 1. Nautilus, from nature. 
 
 2. Snail (Turho marmoratus), from a Renascence drinking-veFsel. 
 
 '3. Exterior of the Scallop (Ostrea Jacobaea — Feden Jacobaeus), 
 from nature. 
 
 4. Interior of the Scallop, after Jost Amman, (Hirth, Formenschatz). 
 
 5. Scallop design, Louis XVI. style, lower end of a panel. 
 
 6. Scallop design, by the sculptor Lehr, of Berlin. 
 
 7. Scallop design, for the decoration of a niche. 
 
 The Serpent. (Plate 60.) 
 
 The Serpent is occasionally used for symbolic and decorative 
 purposes. It is developed ints an antique Bracelet, and to a Handle 
 for vessels, a pair twine round the Staff of Mercury (the Caduceus, 
 
NATURAL FORMS 
 
 91 
 
 The Shell. 
 
 Plate 59, 
 
92 
 
 NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 JPlate 60. 
 
 The Serpent, &c. 
 
The Serpent. — Huma/i Orgaoiism. 93 
 
 comp. plate 76), and a single one round the staff of Esculap?ius. 
 Coiled in a circle with tail in mouth it is the symbol of Eternity oa 
 tombs, it is used in mythology, and is an indispensable accompani- 
 ment of the symbols of Envy and Dissension; and the hair of Medusa 
 is represented as composed of Serpents (Plate 65). 
 
 In ecclesiastical art: the Serpent is the symbol of Wickedness, 
 Sin, and Temptation (the scene in Paradise); it appears under the feet 
 of the Virgin Mary with an appM in its mouth. In Heraldry: it is 
 represented devoui'ing a child, on the shield of the Visconti, of Milano. 
 
 Plate 60. The Serpent. 
 
 1. Cast from life of a Viper (Vipera herus — Pelias herus) with 
 a Lizard (Lacerta viridis — Lacerta agilis), by J. Eberhari 
 of Heilbronn. 
 
 2. Cast from life of a Viper, by J. Eberhard of Heilbronn. 
 
 3. Antique bracelet in the form of a Viper, Pompeii. 
 
 4. The Snake as the symbol of Eternity, (Gerlach, Allegorien uud 
 Embleme). 
 
 c. Human Organism, 
 
 The human form has been, and is destined to be a favoured 
 object of representation in art. The desire, to depict for contemporaries 
 and to transmit to posterity, the great Deeds of individuals and the 
 epoch-making Achievements and fate of whole races and nations, is 
 universal among mankind; as also the attempt to reproduce the 
 Portraits of celebrated Persons. Even the supernatural powers, his 
 Gods, man represents in the form of men. The "Lord of creation" 
 can give to the beings he venerates no more ideal form than his 
 own, which he holds to be the most developed*. The Christian 
 conception has arrived at the same result by the reverse process: 
 "God created man in his own image." Virtues, Vices, Passions, Sci- 
 ences and Arts, Ager, Seasons and Hours, Elements, Rivers, Countries, 
 Hemispheres, and many other things receive symbolic expression; 
 and are pictorially rendered by human figures. And the human body 
 is often represented, without any meaning, and solely (decoratively) 
 
 * Mortals, however, opine that the Gods had an origin man-like; 
 Feel and have voices like men, like men have a bodily fashion 
 Oxen and lions, no doubt, if they had but hands and a chisel, 
 Pencils as well, to depict the figure divine, would do likewise: 
 God for the horse were a horse, and God for the oxen were ox-like, 
 Each would think God like himself and give to his God bia own 
 
 image. 
 Xenophanes of Colophon. 600 B. 0. 
 
94 The Human Figure. — The Mask. 
 
 on account of its beauty of form. All these delineations, which fall 
 within the domain of high art, lie beyond the scope of this work. 
 We have only to deal with the human figure so far as it has been 
 received into decoration: we have only to occupy ourselves with 
 "conventionalised" man. This includes the applications of the human 
 face, more or less true to nature or with arbitrary accessions; masks 
 and caricatures; grottesques, those strange combinations of human 
 with animal or plant elements; and also the applications of the upper 
 half of the human body as the starting-point of ornament; half-lengths 
 as commencements of ornaments; those mixtures of human and animal 
 shapes in which the upper half falls to the share of man, e. g.: — 
 sphinxes, centaurs, &c. 
 
 The Mask. (Plate 61.) 
 
 The Mask, strictly so-called, is an artificial, hollow face, intended 
 to be placed in front of, and to conceal the human countenance so 
 as to make the wearer unrecognisable, or to characterize him in some 
 special way. The use of the Mask dates back to the popular Harvest 
 games of ths earliest Greek period. From these games the mask is 
 believed to have been transferred to the ancient Theatre, in which the 
 actors all appeared masked. Different classes of Masks were recognised: 
 tragic, comic, &c. Definite types of Masks were connected vnih. .de- 
 finite characters and "persons". The mouth-openings of these Masks 
 were nnnaturally large and sliaped like a bell-mouth, so as to reinforce 
 the voice of the speaker; in Latin the mask is termed "persona" (from 
 personare = to sound through). From theatrical, the Masks passed 
 to artistic use, e. g. in the mural paintings of theatres and secular 
 edifices (Pompeian decorations), on Bacchic vessels and other utensils 
 (various beakers in the silver treasure of Hildesheim). The Renascence 
 and the following styles have at times used Masks in decoration, 
 altering and exaggerating the forms. In particular the Mask is often 
 used for the decoration of the keystones of door and window arches. 
 We may also mention the beautiful, freely-treated Heads of dying 
 R-arriors by Schluter on the arsenal at Berlin; and the Masks in 
 Antique style on the new Opera House in Paris, by Gamier. 
 
 Plate 61. The Mask. 
 
 1. Bacchus, Graeco Italic, fragment of a vessel or utensil. 
 
 2 — 3. Heads, goblet (Hildesheim treasure), Roman, Berlin Museum. 
 
 4. Keystone, Graeco Italic, terracotta, Campana collection. 
 
 5. Part of Frieze, Gra'eco Italic, Campana collection. 
 
 6. Silenus, handle of Etruscan vessel. 
 7 — 8. Decoration, Pompeii. 
 
The Mask. — The Grottesque Mask. 95 
 
 9. Satyr, Italian Renascence, by Sansovino, over a Pestoon in 
 Sta. Maria del Popolo, Rome. 
 10. Dying warrior, by Schliiter, Berlin arsenal, 1697. 
 
 The Grottesque Mask. (Plates 62—64.') 
 
 Masks and Caricatures pass into each other, so that it is diffi- 
 cult to draw a strict line between them. The French language ex- 
 presses this connection clearly, by using the related words "masque" 
 and "mascaron." 
 
 Under Masks are usually classed the delineations of beautiful 
 countenances, either true to nature or idealising it. Caricatures are 
 faces gunning, deformed, distorted by accessories, or terminating in 
 foliage. 
 
 The Antique, which had no love whatever for the depicting of 
 the ugly and bizarre, only used Caricatures in its oldest periods, in 
 the so-called Archaic style. 
 
 The Middle Ages frequently employed Caricatures. 
 
 The Renascence and Barocco styles, as well as our most Modem, 
 art, often apply Caricatures to keystones, to consoles, as spouts and 
 , handles, on shields and cartouches, in capitals and panels, on the 
 backs of chairs, and in general on carved furniture, on stove -tiles, &c. 
 We possess a number of excellent Caricatures from the hand of the 
 youthful Michelangelo, who treated this form with predilection, and 
 with the breadth characteristic of his genius. 
 
 Plate 62. The Grottesque Mask. 
 
 1. Etruscan, terracotta, Campana collection, (P. A. M., Cours 
 d'ornement). 
 
 2. Grottesque, Italian Renascence, Venice. 
 
 8. Grottesque, tomb of the cardinal Sforza, Sta. Maria del Popolo. 
 
 Rome, Italian Renascence, by Sansovino. 
 
 4. Single Grottesque, from frieze, Italian Renascence, by Michel- 
 
 angelo, San Lorenzo, Florence. 
 
 6. Part of capital of pilaster, French Renascence, tomb of Louis XII, 
 St. Denis. 
 
 6 — 7. Modern French Grottesques. 
 
 Plate 63. The Grottesque Mask. 
 
 1. Carved bench, Italian Renascence, Bargello, Florence. 
 
 2 — 3. Female, metal shields, German Renascence. 
 
 4. Akroter, Tribunal de Commerce, Paris. 
 
 5. Grottesque, Louvre, Paris, (Baldus). 
 
96 
 
 NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 Plate 61 
 
 The Mask, &c. 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 97 
 
 The Grottesque Mask. 
 
 lleyer, Handbook of Ornament 
 
 Plate 62. 
 
 7 
 
98 
 
 NATURAL FORMS 
 
 Plate 63. 
 
 The Grottesque Mask, 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 99 
 
 The CroUcaque Mask. 
 
 7* 
 
inO The Grottesque Mask. — The Medusa Head. — The Grottesque. 
 
 6. Modern French, Theatre de Bellecour, Lyons, Architect Chatron, 
 (Ragnenet). 
 
 7. Modern French, Ministry of War, Paris, Architect Boushot, 
 (Raguenet). 
 
 Plate 64. The Grottesque Mask. 
 
 1. Grottesque, by Michelangelo, Italian Renascence, (Raguenet). 
 
 2. Grottesque, castle of Ecouen, French, 1538, (Raguenet). 
 
 3. German, 16th century, (Lessing). 
 
 4. Grottesque, German Renascence, Gemanisches Museum, Nuremberg. 
 
 5. Grottesque, pedestal of a column, tomb in Pforzheim, German 
 Renascence, by Hans von Trarbach. 
 
 6. From the spout of a can, German Renascence. 
 
 7. Grottesque, escutcheon of a lock, German Renascence. 
 
 8. Grottesque, modern panel. Sculptor Hauptmann. 
 
 The Medusa Head. (Plate 65.) 
 
 Unique among the masks is the head of Medusa. Medusa, in 
 mythological tradition one of the three Gorgons, whose Head Perseus 
 cut-off, to present it to Athene as an ornament for her shield. It is 
 employed in ancient art as a decoration for breastplates and shields, 
 on and above doors and gates, and on the ground of paterae and 
 dishes. The expression is that of the rigidity of death; its look is 
 meant to petrify; the hair is interlaced with serpents; serpents wind 
 themselves in knots beneath her chin; and small wings are often added. 
 
 The Archaic art represented the Gorgon as ugly, terrible, and 
 disgusting; the later Greek conception, under Praxiteles, was of stern, 
 grand, beauty, (the so called Rondanine Medusa in the Glyptothek 
 at Munich). 
 
 In the Modern and Renascence styles, the head of Medusa is only 
 decorative; and it is seldom employed. 
 
 Plate 65. The Medusa Head. 
 
 1. The Farnese dish (Onyx Patera), Museum, Naples, Roman. 
 
 2. Centre of antique Patera, Roman. 
 
 3. Medallion, probably modem, French. 
 
 4. Tympanum, Tuileries, Paris, (Baldus). 
 
 The Grottesque. (Plate 6G.) 
 
 Grottesques (from grotto) are fantastic, often really ugly monsters, 
 produced by the combination of human, animal, and plant organisms 
 
The Grottesque. — The Half-Figure. 101 
 
 in the freest and most arbitrary manner. Squatting. Ain^ed feria'e 
 figures without arms; human bodies with fishtails, with endlessly loiig, 
 winding necks, with extremities terminating in foliage, are types of 
 this style of ornamentation. The origin of the Grottesque must be 
 sought in the decorative painting of the Romans. Pompeii offers 
 copious material. Various painters of the Italian Renascence, among 
 them Rafael, revived and used the antique Grottesque painting 
 (Rafael's loggie), after the discovery of the grottesque painting in the 
 thermae of Titus at Rome, (from these' vaults or Grottoes is derived 
 the name grottesque). 
 
 The Grottesques are a striking example of the playful and artistic 
 feeling of the Ancients; and stand in great contrast to the coarse 
 attempts at the comic to be found in Medieval art. From decorative 
 painting the grottesques passed to the plastic art of the Renascence. 
 The revival of Italian decorative painting in modem art has led to 
 the retention of these forms also. 
 
 Plate 66. The Grottesque. 
 
 1. Part of pilaster, Italian Renascence, by Benedetto da Majano. 
 
 2. Part of pilaster, tomb of Louis XII., St. Denis, French Re- 
 nascence. 
 
 3. Part of pilaster, Palazzo magnifico, Siena, Italian Renascence, 
 by Barile. 
 
 4 — 5. Parts of ornamental columns, Palazzo Guadagni, Florence, 
 (Schiitz). 
 
 6. Italian majolica pavement, Siena, Italian Renascence, (L'art 
 pour tous). 
 
 7. Stall in San Severino, Naples, Italian Renascence, by Barto- 
 lommeo Chiarini and Bernadino Torelli da Brescia, (Schiitz). 
 
 8. Stall, San Agostino, Perugia, Italian Renascence. 
 
 The Half-Figure. (Plates 67—68.) 
 
 From Antique times up to the present day. Half- figures have 
 been popular as startings for ornaments. The upper part of the 
 human body undergoes little variation from its natural forms. 
 Below the breast or the stomach, often defined by a girdle, there is 
 developed a sort of inverted foliage -cup, from which the scroll orna- 
 ment grows. Half-figures are found not only in the flat and in bas- 
 relief, but also in round plastic art, in this latter case as brackets for 
 lamps, torchholders, doorknockers, &c. 
 
 Plate 67. The Half-Figure. 
 
 1—2. Panels, Roman Altar. 
 3. Part of a l\0!nan relief. 
 
102 
 
 NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 Plate 6: 
 
 The Medusa Head. 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 103 
 
 J'-ATAmmmT A-A^A^i 
 
 txvxvxvxt:?^. 
 
 The GrottesqAift 
 
 Plate 66. 
 
104 
 
 I^ATURAL FORMS. 
 
 Plate 67. 
 
 The Half-Figure. 
 
NATUJRAL FORMS. 
 
 105 
 
 The Half-Figure. 
 
 PJate 68. 
 
106 The Half-Figure. — The Sphinx, and the Centaur. 
 
 4. Socle of Alt^r, cathedral of Orvieto, Italian Renascence, (Ge- 
 werbehalie). 
 
 5. Part of relief, Italian Renascence. 
 
 Plate 68. The Half-Figure. 
 
 1. Bracket, 1750, Italian, South Kensington Museum, London, (Arundel 
 Society, Objects of art). 
 
 2. Decoration on ceiling, Castle of S. Angelo, Rome, Italian Re- 
 nascence. 
 
 3. Sketch, by Polidore da Caravaggio, 16th century, Italian, Louvre, 
 Paris. 
 
 4. Centre of a relief, lectern, cathedral, Limoges, French Renascence, 
 
 5. From basrelief, by J. Verch^re, Modern, French. 
 
 The Sphinx, and the Centaur. (Plate 69.) 
 
 The Sphinx is an imaginary combination of the Human bust 
 with the body of the Lion. It was originally an Egyptian invention. 
 The colossal Sphinx of Memphis was begun under Cheops; it is hewn 
 from the living rock, partly supplemented by masonry, and is more 
 than 150 feet long. The bust is generally a Woman's; but in some 
 cases it is a Ram head. The Sphinx is the guardian of temples and 
 tombs, in front of which it is frequently ranged in avenues. In the 
 Roman period: wings are added, probably through Assyrian influence; 
 and the crouching position is sometimes exchanged for the half- erect. 
 The Renascence uses Sphinxes in painting (as double sphinx also, with 
 a single head and double body), and in free shapes as fire dogs, &c. 
 The Barocco period adorns gardens and portals with crouching Sphinxes, 
 (the castle garden at Schwetzingen contains a considerable number). 
 
 Centaurs are imaginary wild monsters, with the fore part of a Man 
 and the hinder part of a Horse. Among the Greeks, the Centaur ori- 
 ginally symbolised the Thessalian race of equestrian renown. Mytho- 
 logy recounts their struggles with the Lapithae. Later delineations, 
 such as the mural paintings of Pompeii, depict the Centaurs less 
 "vs-ild, tamed to the service of Dionysos, and sporting with Amorini and 
 Bacchantes. The decorative capabilities of these fantastic figures has 
 ensured them renewed application in later styles; and they are some- 
 times used in modem decoration. 
 
 Plate 69. The Sphinx, and the Centaur 
 
 1. Crouching Sphinx, Egyptian, Louvre, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 2. Crouching Sphinx with ram head, Egyptian, (Raguenet). 
 
 3. Lower comer of an antique cardelabrum, Roman, 
 
NATUKAL FORMS. 
 
 107 
 
 The Sphinx, and the Centaur. 
 
 Plate 69. 
 
NATURAL FORMS. 
 
 Plate 70. 
 
 The Cherub Head, &c. 
 
Miscellaneous Heads. 109 
 
 4. Sitting Sphinx, Modern, French, Andiron, bj the sculptor 
 Piat, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 5. Crouching Sphinx, modern. 
 
 6 — 7. Centaurs and Bacchante?, Mural paintings, Pompeii, (Chofe 
 d'oeuvre de Tart antique). 
 
 Miscellaneous Heads. (Plate 70.) 
 
 Angel-faces, winged, youthful heads, with a circular or disc-like 
 halo, are first met- with in the Byzantine style, as a result of the 
 activity of ecclesiastical artists. In the early Italian Renascence, the 
 rendering is charmingly naive (Lucca della Robbia may be specially 
 mentioned)', they adorn friezes and arches, fill medalKons, and are 
 found in borders. They occur often on Tombs; and they are also 
 much used in Modem ecclesiastical decoration. 
 
 The profiles of Min«rva, Mars, Apollo, frequently occur in me- 
 dallions. 
 
 The Skull or Death's head, the gruesome grinning relic of de- 
 parted life, and emblem of Decay and Death, finds its place in the 
 Dances of Death, at one time so popular; also on the shield of Death 
 (Albrecht Diirer), on Monuments, Tombs, &c. It is generally represented 
 in front view, and often over two crossed bones. 
 
 Plate 70. The Cherub Head, &c. 
 
 1. Cherub, Early Italian Renascence. 
 
 2. Cherub, candelabrum, Certosa near Pavia, Italian Renascence. 
 
 3. Frame, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg. 
 
 4. Column of the Plague, Vienna, Barocco. 
 
 5. Modern, medallion, by Prof. Heer, Carlsruhe. 
 
 6. Minerva, Berlin MusQum, Modern. 
 
 7. Minerva, Modem. 
 
 8. Warrior, Louvre, Paris, (Baldus). 
 
 9. Mars, from Li^vre, Les Arts Decoratifs. 
 10. Skull, from nature. 
 
 ^ii? 
 
110 
 
 ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS. 
 
 Besides Geometrical elements, and those copied from organic 
 Nature: ornamental art avails itself of Artificial objects, either alone 
 or in combination with the two first-named classes. But this does 
 not include the accidental use of all kinds of articles in symbolic 
 work, and the still-life painting, but only the vessels, tools weapons, 
 instruments, shields, knots, ribbons, &c., which are used as decora- 
 tion, or blended with it. 
 
 It is easy to understand how the vessels of religious rites passed 
 into the decoration of religious edifices, temples, and churches. In 
 the Antique style: the altars, tripods, candelabra, sacrificial axes, 
 sprinklers, &c.; in the Christian styles: the symbol of the cross, marks 
 of priestly dignity, the instruments of the Passion, &c., decorate 
 fi-iezos, walls, and panels, (Comp. Plate 75, figs. 2 and 6). 
 
 Decorative groups of hunting and warlike implements and of 
 tools, &c., are termed Trophies: the devices of guilds and companies 
 are Symbols. 
 
 The following chapters will treat of these things in detail, along 
 with other designs, of somewhat rarer occurrence, which also belong 
 to this section. 
 
 The Trophy. (Plates 71 and 72.) 
 
 It was the custom of the Greeks to hang on the trunks of 
 trees, the weapons which the flying enemy had left behind on the 
 
The Trophy. — The Symbol 111 
 
 field of battle. These tokens of victory, or Trophies, have also found 
 a place in decoration. The Romans erected artificial, symbolical 
 Trophies of stone or bronze in the form of columns, pyramids, and 
 similar architectural structures. Since their time Trophies have been 
 used not only to decorate all monuments connected with war and 
 victory, e. g. arsenals, the offices of the ministry of war, guard-houses, 
 barracks, and weapons, especially shields; but they have been used 
 up to the present time for purely decorative purposes, as elegantly- 
 arranged and prettily-grouped weapons of war, in the architecture of 
 the pilasters of castles, town-halls and tombs, in the intarsias of the 
 Renascence, on woven fabrics and tapestries, as vignettes; and, above 
 all, in plastic ornament. 
 
 It was also natural that Trophies should also be formed of hunt- 
 ing-weapons, which have much similarity with weapons of war, and 
 also of objects connected with the navy. The original meaning of 
 the word {zgoTtaiov = token of victory, from rgOTtri, turning, flight) 
 has, it must be admitted, been lost sight of in these applications. 
 
 Plate 71. The Trophy. 
 
 1 — 6. Decoration of chased metal dish. Renascence. 
 
 7 — 8. Decoration of clock panel, French Renascence, Louis XUI 
 style, (Li^vre). 
 
 9 — 10. Panels of door, Otto-Heinrich portion of the Castle, Heidel- 
 berg, German Renascence, (Pfnor). 
 
 Plate 72. The Trophy. 
 
 1. Panel, tomb of Galeazzo Pandono, San Domenico maggiore, 
 Naples, Italian Renascence, (Schiitz). 
 
 2. Part of Panel, Italian Renascence. 
 
 3. Part of Panel of a stall, Dordtrecht, Dutch Renascence, 
 
 4. Pedestal of monument to a Margrave, Pforzheim, by Hans 
 von Trarbach, German Renascence. 
 
 5 — 6. Panels, Quay front, Tuileries, Paris, (Baldus). 
 
 7. Part of design for a monument, by J. Ch. Delafosse. 
 
 The ^Symbol. (Plates 73— 77.1 
 
 The grouping of tools and instruments, to symbolise some special 
 idea, leads to the design of Symbols. Thus we find, disregarding 
 those of war and hunting, which we have treated of as trophies, 
 Symbols of art, both of Art in general and of the special arts; 
 Music, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, &c.; Symbols of Science, 
 
112 
 
 ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS. 
 
 Plate 71 
 
 The Trophy. 
 
ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS. 
 
 ii: 
 
 The Trophy. 
 
 Jieyer, Handbook of Ornament. 
 
 Plate 72. 
 8 
 
114 The Symbol. 
 
 either as a whole or for individual sciences: Mathematics, Astronomy, 
 Chemistry, &c.; of Cnnimorco, of Technical Science, and finally of 
 Handicrafts and Trades. 
 
 Singing, for example, is symbolised by a lyre with or without 
 sheets of music: Music by violins, flutes, horns. Pan's pipes, &c.; 
 Dancing by the tambourine and castagnettes; Acting by masks; Paint- 
 ing by brush and palette; Sculpture by the hammer, chisel, and 
 works of sculpture, busts, torsi; Ai'chitecture by square, straight-edge 
 and compassos, usually in combination with capitals. The Railroad 
 and Steam are symbolised by a winged wheel, the Telegraph by coils of 
 wire, which radiate lightning. Trade is represented by casks and bales 
 of goods on which the caduceus (a staff round which winged serpents 
 are twining — the attribute of Mercury) is resting; Agriculture has 
 the plough, the sickle, the scythe, &c., Vine culture the vine press. 
 
 The different Trades have chosen their Symbols partly from their 
 tools, partly from their finished products. The Guilds and Companies 
 of past centuries introduced a certain system into these outward and 
 visible signs; a large number of guild pictures, some of them very 
 beautiful and ingenious, are preserved in the industrial art museums 
 of modern times. 
 
 A far more detailed and extensive treatment of Symbols than can 
 be given in the present work will be found in Gerjach's Allegorien 
 und Emhleme, to which we are indebted for a number of illustrations. 
 
 I'LATE 73. The Symbol. 
 
 1. Angle ornament, hall of the Ministry ot State, Louvre, Paris, 
 (Baldus). 
 
 2. Louvre, Paris, (Baldus). 
 
 8. Symbol of the violin makers' guild, Klingenthal, 1716, (Gerlach, 
 
 AJlegorien und Embleme). 
 4 — 5. Pilaster panels, by the sculptor Fomilini of Florence, Modern. 
 6 — 9. Medallions, by the sculptor Lehr of Berlin, Modem. 
 
 Plate 74. The Syi^ibol. 
 
 1. Carved wood Door-head, French, 18th century, (L'art pour tons). 
 2 — 3. Symbols of sculpture and painting, by the sculptor Hauptraann, 
 Dresden, Modern. 
 
 4. Part of Exhibition-programme, Miinchen, 1876, by R. Seitz. 
 
 5. Address- card of an ink factory, by Prof Hammer of Carlsruhe. 
 
 6. Title to an edition of Goethe's works, by Dir. Gotz of Carlsruhe. 
 
 Plate 75. The Symbol. 
 
 1. Part of Panel, court of Ducal palace, Venice, Italian Renascence, 
 (Schutz). 
 
AETIFICIAL OBJECTS. 
 
 115 
 
 The Symbol. 
 
 Plate 73. 
 
116 
 
 ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS. 
 
 Plate 74. 
 
 The Symbol. 
 
ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS. 
 
 The Symbol. 
 
 Plate 75. 
 
118 
 
 AKTIFICIAL OBJECTS. 
 
 riate ?'o. 
 
 The Symbol. 
 
ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS. 
 
 119 
 
 The Symbol. 
 
 Plate 77. 
 
120 The Symbol 
 
 2. Ecclesiastical art, 1 
 
 3. Architecture and Sculpture, I 
 
 4. Painting, [ In Pilasters, by the sculptoi 
 
 5. Antique art, TT^..,.i^r.^r, \^r.A^^r. ofo^^^oco , 
 
 6. Christian art, 
 
 7. Art, 
 
 8. Sculpture, 
 
 Hauptmann, Modern, staircase of 
 Museum, Dresden. 
 
 Plate 76. The Symbol. 
 
 1. Banner, of the architectural school of the Polytechnicum, Carla- 
 ruhe. 
 
 2. Chemistry. 
 
 3. Mathematics. 
 
 4. Mechanical Engineering. 
 
 5. Civil Engineering. 
 6! Forestry. 
 
 7. Post and Commerce, Polytechnicum at Carlsruhe, Designed by 
 G. Kachel. 
 
 8. Mechanical Engineering, j 
 
 9. The Mechanic, !■ (Gerlach, Allegorien und Embleme). 
 
 10. Smithery, | 
 
 11. Navigation and Commerce, Tuileries, Paris, (Baldus). 
 
 Plate 77. The Symbol. 
 
 1 . Navigation, \ 
 
 3* Musicl^^'^^' [ ^^^ ^^°^^ °^ ^^® Tuileries, Paris, (Baldus). 
 4. Farming, i 
 
 5 — 6. War, Border of a copper plate engraving, by Heinrich 
 Goltzius (1558—1617). 
 
 7. Hunting and Fishing, by Stuck of Munich, (Gerlach, Alle- 
 gorien und Embleme). 
 
 8. Forestry, | 
 
 9. Sword-making, 
 
 10. . Musketry, } (Gerlach) 
 
 11. Farriery, 
 
 12. Smithery. 
 
 The Ribbon. (Plates 78—79.) 
 
 Eibbons are not used alone, but are frequently employed && a 
 decoration of garlands and festoons (comp. plates 88, 39, 40), of sym- 
 bols (comp. plates 71—77), or they are Labels to bear some motto 
 (comp. plate 78). The Ribbons of the Antique are simple, often ter- 
 minating in a ball or acorn like knob; the Middle Ages, particularly 
 
ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS. 
 
 The lubbon, and (he Label 
 
 Plate 78. 
 
122 
 
 ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS. 
 
 Plate 79. 
 
 The Ribbon. 
 
ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS. 
 
 123 
 
 Miscellaneous objects. 
 
 Plate 80. 
 
124 The Kibbon. — Miscellaneous objects. 
 
 the Gothic, make them curled and quaint"; in the Renascence they are 
 developed in various free and elegant styles, often divided at the ends 
 like a pennon. In the Louis XVI. style they ar6 often peculiarly 
 crinkled, but in spite of Ihis mannerism they are not without a cer- 
 tain decorative charm, (Comp. plates 78 and 79). 
 
 Plate 78. The Ribbon, and the Label. 
 
 1. Label for motto, on the seal of the town of Schiltach, Gothic, 
 Inscription on the scroll: "S. opidi schilttach", 
 
 2. Ribbon, from Jost Amman's Wappen- und Stammbuch, German 
 Renascence. 
 
 3. Ribbon, painting by B. Zeitblom, Carlsruhe gallery, Gothic. 
 
 4. Label for motto, old Germain painting. School of Cologne, Carls- 
 ruhe gallery. 
 
 5. Label for motto, triumphal car, by Hans Burgkmair, 1473 — 1530, 
 German, (Hirth). 
 
 6. Label for motto, Albrecht Diirer's "Der Eiilen seyndt alle Vogel 
 neydig und gram," German Renascence, (Hirth). 
 
 Plate 79. The Ribbon. 
 
 1. Ribbon and knot. After Daniel Mignot, German Renascence. 
 
 2. Ribbon and knot, the Louis XVI. style, (Lifevre). 
 
 8. Ribbon and knot for a bunch of fruit, after Prof. Sturm of Vienna, 
 
 (Storck's Zeichenvorlagen). 
 4. Drapery Festoon, (Raguenet). 
 
 Miscellaneous objects. (Plate 80). 
 
 Finally, among the artificial objects which are used in decora- 
 tion, especially of pilasters, we may mention those forms like cande- 
 labra and vases, from which ornaments, like growing plants, usually 
 rise, (Comp. plates 80 and 131). 
 
 Cornucopias, Torches, small inscription Tablets, and many other 
 objects, are introduced. 
 
 Plate 80. Miscellaneous objects. 
 
 1. Vase, window pilaster of ' the Cancelleria, Rome, by Bramante, Ita- 
 lian Renascence, (De Vico). 
 
 2. Vase, pilaster of a door, San Angostino, Rome, (De Vico\ 
 
 3. Vase, lower part of a panel, Italian Renascence. 
 
 4. Vase, tomb of Louis XIL, St. Denis, French Renascence. 
 
 5. Vase, Louis XVI. style, (F. A. M., Cours d'ornement). 
 
 6. Crossed Torches, upper part of pilaster, by Benedetto da Majano, 
 Italian Renascence. 
 
 7. Crossed Torches, Renascence. 
 
126 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 The second division of the Handbook deals with ornament as 
 applied in decorative Features. They will be arranged according to 
 their function, and treated in accordance with the mutual relations of 
 the decorative form and its application. 
 
 Every one acquainted with Decoration, must have been struck 
 by the fact that on certain Objects and on certain parts of them the 
 decoration invariably appears to have been modelled on the same 
 principle, no matter how much the selected motives may vary from 
 each other or belong to special styles. In decoration, as elsewhere, 
 there is a right and a wrong use for everything; each object, even 
 the very smallest, requires its own proper Form and Decoration, and 
 the artist who understands style will give these, though in many cases 
 unconsciously; artistic instinct guiding one man where another must 
 study laboriously. 
 
 Be this as it may, the relations are there. A socle ornament 
 cannot be reversed and used as a frieze without modification; a 
 column, which looks beautiful and even delicate on monumental archi- 
 tecture, may produce a clumsy effect if reduced and applied to furni- 
 ture; no one finds fault with the 20 or 24 flutings of it in archi- 
 tecture, but half of them would more than suffice for the smaller 
 Cabinet. And so on. The achievements of those periods, in which 
 the intimate connection between form, aim and material was either 
 unknown or forgotten, are what might be expected. The Empire 
 Style, which copied the Antiqne at the instance of an august per- 
 sonage; and, in so doing, produced work which is classical in respect 
 of its mannerisms; is an example. A Greek temple and an arm chair 
 are two difi'erent things; each has its own peculiarities; and must be 
 fashioned and decorated in accordance therewith. 
 
 It were an insoluble problem to give a formula for each case; 
 and to attempt to do so lies beyond the scope of this Handbook. 
 But we will attempt to bring together some important groups from 
 the entire field; and by means of them to illustrate the principles 
 of design. 
 
127 
 
 A. 
 BANDS. 
 
 The group of Bands includes all those ornamental forms which 
 are used to give expression to the ideas of bordering, framing, and 
 connecting. 
 
 The motives are partly geometrical, partly organic, chiefly plant- 
 forms; artificial forms being more rarely used. 
 
 The Band has no "up" or "down"; but Only an onward or an 
 outward tendency. It has no limitation in regard to length; but is 
 generally a narrow, ribbon-like ornament. 
 
 The proper application of* Bands is to the enclosing of ceilings, 
 walls, floors, panels, on certain architectural constructions, on the 
 abacus and the plinth of columns, and as a running ornament round 
 the shaft of the latter. They are further used as the hem or border 
 of garments, carpets and other textiles; as borders in typography, on 
 the rims of plates or dishes, or to separate the ground from the 
 rim, &c. 
 
 The principal ornaments in this group are: the Fret; Chain and 
 Interlaced patterns (Guilloche); Foliated bands in the various forma 
 of Rosette, Palmette, Flower, Leaf, and Scroll bands, &c. 
 
 The Evolute Spiral band (Plate 97) stands to a certain extent 
 on the borderline between Bands and Free ornaments. 
 
 Leaf patterns, and the Egg-and-tongue which has been devel- 
 oped from them, aie not Bands at all, in the strict sense of the word. 
 They express the mediation between the support and the weight, for 
 which reason they are used as the enrichment of Mouldings. They 
 are here included among bands in order to avoid an independent 
 group for the sake of the one plate. As a matter of fact, they do 
 often appear as bands (the Egg-and-tongue as a decoration of plate 
 niedallions, &c). 
 
128 The Fret Band. 
 
 The Fret Band. (Plates 81 — 84.) 
 
 Tbo Greek Fret (or Meander border) is, as it name indicates, a 
 specifically Greek ornament, and no doubt of textile origin. Its 
 accomodation to the rectangular network suggests this. 
 
 The name "meander" is said to be derived from a river of Asia 
 Minor, the Maeandros, now the Menderes, which flows in sinuous 
 curves. Although the forerunners of the Greek border are to be 
 found in the Assyrian and Egyptian styles, it was Greek vase-painting 
 and architecture which gave rise to the variations of the pattern; 
 architecture also employed it plastically. Among other applications 
 in the Eoman style it was used for mosaics on floors and often — 
 contrary to the principles of style of flat ornaments — in those 
 parallel perspective representations in which it seems as if it were a 
 plastic ornament, (Plate 83. 8). 
 
 The Middle Ages seldom used the Fret (one example will be 
 found on Plate 83. 9); but similar forms are common in the Chinese 
 and Japanese styles (Plate 84. 7). 
 
 The Renascence revived the Fret in its ancient application; made 
 new combinations; and sometimes^ interlaced it with plant motives 
 (Plate 83. 10). Although very conunonplace, the fret still has a good 
 effect when it is applied in the proper manner. 
 
 Its construction is very simple. In general — although not always — 
 the breadth of the broad lines or ornament is equal to the distance 
 between them; we therefore draw a square network as shown on 
 Plate 1, fig. 1, then draw all the horizontal lines (the measure- 
 ment of the lengths and the observance of the rhythmic regularity 
 peculiar to each Greek pattern are the only difficulties), and then jom 
 their ends by means of perpendiculars, (Plates 81 and 82). 
 
 Centres are formed by arranging the axis at a suitable place, and 
 reversing the pattern, (Plate 84. 6 and 10). 
 
 Angle junctions may be similarly arranged by cutting the pattern 
 diagonally to the square net at a suitable place, and reversmg aa 
 before, (Plate 84. 3, 4 and 6). The angle-treatment of Current Frets 
 is more difficult (Plate 84: figs. 1, 2, and 5). 
 
 The end of a Fret with only one row may be formed by cutting 
 the pattern short at a suitable spot; where two or more rows run 
 parallel to or cross each other, they may be combined bo as to form 
 proper endings (Plate 84. 11). 
 
 The pattern is sometimes carried round a circle; but this ia an 
 arrangement which is quite out of accordance with its character. 
 
 The square network is not always applicable to cases in which the 
 Fret has to be repeated within a given length. In this case the divi- 
 sions of length are either elongated or compressed by drawing the 
 auxiliary lines at a greater or less angle than 450 (this is shown on 
 Plates 81 and 82). 
 
The Fret Band. — The Chain Band. 129 
 
 Plate 81. Unsymmetkical ob Cuerent frets: Greek vase 
 
 paintings. 
 1 — 4. Ordinary, simple patterns. 
 
 5. Elongated pattern. 
 
 6. Raking pattern. 
 
 9 — 10. Patterns which are interrupted bj rosettes, stars, &c. 
 8 — 9. Abnormal pattern, formed by fragments, instead of a contin- 
 nous line. 
 
 Plate 82. Reciprocating Frets. 
 1 — 4. Ordinary, simple patterns. 
 
 5. Double pattern, Greek. 
 
 6. Intersecting pattern, Louvre, Paris. 
 
 7 and 10. Fragmentary pattern, Greek, and modern. 
 7 and 9. Symmetrical double pattern, Greek. 
 7 — 10. Ornamented patterns. 
 
 Plate 83. Intersecting Frets, &c. 
 
 1 — 6. Ordinary patterns, Greek vase paintings. 
 
 7.. Abnormal pattern, Japanese metal vessel. 
 
 8. Pattern in parallel perspective, Roman mosaic pavement. 
 
 9. Mediaeval folded-tape pattern, resembling the Fret, (Racinet). 
 
 10. Pattern ornamented with laurel, Louvre, Paris. 
 
 Plate 84. Ends, Angles, and Centres, of Frets. 
 
 1, 2 and 5. Free, unsymmetrical angle treatment. 
 
 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8. Symmetrical angles. 
 
 9 and 10. Centre treatments. 
 
 11 — 14. Ends of patterns. 
 
 Antique motives, except No. 7 (Chinese), and No. 8 (Modem). 
 
 The Chain Band. (Plate 85.) . 
 
 The basis of the design is the Chain. The Chain Band is there- 
 fore cemposed of circular, elliptical, square, or lozenge shaped links, 
 which are either represented all in front view (as in 1, 2, 4 and 8), 
 or^^ alternately in profile (as in 3, 5, 6, and 7). 
 
 The Chain pattern probably occurs sporadically in every style. 
 
 That Chain-bands have not been more frequently used, although 
 they are a simple and effective mode of decoration, may be due to 
 the fact that the chain appeared to a certain degree to be too force- 
 ful, too vigorous in its effect. At any rate, delicacies of artistic feel- 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament, * 
 
130 
 
 BANDS. 
 
 Plate 81. 
 
 The Fret Band. 
 
BANDS. 
 
 131 
 
 iMMnXr^ 
 
 Mm 
 
 u 
 
 n 
 
 [ 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
 o^^-ir^o 
 
 ^ 
 
 m 
 
 o^-J-^o 
 
 m 
 
 The Fret Band 
 
 Plate 82. 
 9* 
 
132 
 
 BANDS. 
 
 Plate 83. 
 
 The Piet Band. 
 
BANDS. 
 
 The Fret Band. 
 
 Plate 84. 
 
134 
 
 BANDS. 
 
 c 
 
 <^ 
 
 ^ L J U 
 
 1 L 
 
 D n 1 D 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^i-z4^ar^aLf^^^f^ 
 
 ) I I ', ... • 1 c 
 
 3 1. , ■ , I f 
 
 CI 
 
 Plate 8^ 
 
 The Chain Band. 
 
The Chain Band. — The Interlacemeut Band. 135 
 
 ing, which have found expression elsewhere, and often unconsciously, 
 seem to point to this conclusion. 
 
 The construction of such bands is simple; and in the case of 
 those illustrated may be understood from the plate itself. 
 
 Plate 85. The Chain Band. 
 
 1 — 5. Modern decorative painting. 
 
 6 — 8. Carved wooden ceiling, Townhall, Jever, German, Renascence. 
 
 TnE Interlacement Band. (Plates 86 — 90.) 
 
 The Interlacement Band includes all those bands which are for- 
 med of a number of lines interlaced or plaited together. They are 
 usually symmetrical to the longitudinal axis; and may be produced 
 indefinitely. The principle is that the interlacing broad lines shall 
 pass over and under one-another alternately. 
 
 Rope patterns are used as borders in painting, in textiles, in 
 pottery, intarsia, and the ornamentation of manuscripts; in architect- 
 ure on the under sides of stays and beams, on archivolts (the arches 
 of doors and windows), in the soffits of arches, sometimes in a frieze, 
 and often as the enrichment of the torus moulding. 
 
 Interlacement patterns are used in all styles, though in some they 
 are more popular than in others. And in this ornament the indivi- 
 duality of each style is very strongly marked. 
 
 In the Antique: the ornament consist of wavy interlacing bands 
 round regularly-placed knobs or eyes. The wavy lines are composed 
 of arcs or of arcs and straight lines, in which latter case the arcs 
 make tangential junctions with the straight lines (Plate 86). In flat 
 ornament the interlacing lines are distinguished from each-other by 
 shading or by colour; in plastic ornamentation they are fluted or 
 channelled. 
 
 The Interlacement patterns of the Middle Ages — chiefly of the 
 Byzantine and Romanesque periods — make use of Antique forms; 
 adding to them the angular bend (Plate 87. 1 — 3). 
 
 In the so called Northern styles — Celtic, Anglo-saxon, Norman, 
 Scandinavian, and Old Prankish: it is the most conspicuous ornament. 
 Here we meet extremely complicated and richly combined interlacings, 
 mostly freely drawn, without the aid of the compasses. It is cha- 
 racteristic, and remarkable in regard to these styles, that the same 
 band appears in sections of difi"erent colours in their ornament. The 
 works of Owen Jones and Racinet contain numerous examples, mostly 
 from old illuminated manuscripts: our Plate 87 (4 — 8) reproduces 
 some of the simplest (reconstructed with the compasses). '^ 
 
136 rho Interlacement Band. 
 
 The Moorish style favours a peculiar interiacement It is cha- 
 racteristic that the bands, which are alvrays straight, make angles of 
 90*^ or 135 0, and are adapted to a network as shown on Plate 1, 
 fig. 5. Here, too, we find the alternate colouring of the single bands. 
 Numerous examples will be found in Owen Jones, Racinet, and Prisse 
 d' Avenues, "L Art Arahe", a selection from these being given in 
 Plate 88, figs. 1—6. 
 
 ' The other Oriental styles exhibit greater variety in this respect; 
 and also employ round forms, (Plate 88. 7 und 8). 
 
 The Renascence developed great variety. Besides the traditional 
 forms of the Antique, peculiar constructions appear, chiefly to be 
 met-with in the arts of inlaying, on book-cover decoration, in pewter 
 chasing, and typographical borders, (Plate 89). 
 
 Modem art borrows from all styles; and, as was also the case 
 in the Middle Ages and the Renascence, intersperses its patterns with 
 foliage, (Plate 90). 
 
 Plate 86. The iNTEHLACEivrENT Band. 
 
 1 — 3. Ordinary antique patterns, single, double, and triple. 
 
 4 — 6. Elongated antique patterns, single, double, and triple. 
 
 7. Antique pattern, doubly interlaced, with unequal waves. 
 
 8. Antique pattern with two rows, terracotta painting. 
 
 Construction: First mark the centres of the eyes: in 2 and 3 these lie 
 on the points cf intersection of a triangular net; in 5 and 6 on those 
 of a diagonal square net. The rest will be understood from the 
 figure. 
 
 Plate 87. The Interlacement Band. 
 
 1. Romanesque patterns, decoration of archivolt, Segovia. 
 
 3. Byzantine pattern, Sta. Sofia, Constantinople. 
 
 4 — 7. Northern patterns, Manuscript ornaments of the 8th and 9th 
 century, (Racinet.) 
 
 Plate 88. The Interlacement Band. 
 
 1 — 6. Simple Moorish patterns, Alhambra, Granada. 
 
 7. Persian pattern, metal vessel, (Racinet). 
 
 8. Russian Oriental pattern, (Viollet le Due, "L'Ai't Russe"), 
 
 Plate 89. The Interlacement Band. 
 
 1 — 3. Patterns, wood and ivory inlaid work, Italian Renascence. 
 
 4. Pattern, by Domenico de Fossi, of Florence, IGth century, 
 (Raguenet). 
 
 5. Intarsia pattern, Sta. Maria in Organo, Verona; in the original 
 the interstices are enriched by plant sprays. 
 
BANDS. 
 
 The Interlacement Band. 
 
 Plate 
 
lo8 
 
 i;.\Ni)s 
 
 Plate 87. 
 
 Tho Interlacement Band. 
 
BANDS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 If^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 \ Y^^"^ "n; '^^ ^i; '^^ — 
 
 P^ 
 
 ^w^M 
 
 z 
 
 ^W 
 
 
 i 
 
 The Interlacement Band. 
 
 Plate 88. 
 
140 
 
 BANDS. 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V^A^^^^^^^^ 
 
 _ 
 
 <J 
 
 ^ 
 
 _ 
 
 h_ 
 
 % 
 
 ^ 5^<^ ^ 
 
 - 
 
 f^ 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 \^^^^^^^ , 
 
 - 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ?^5^ 
 
 X 
 
 ^^^' 
 
 
 
 
 /^ A A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Plate 89. 
 
 The Interlacement Band. 
 
BANDS. 
 
 141 
 
 The Interlacement Band. 
 
 Plate 90. 
 
142 The Interlacement Band. — The Rosette Band. 
 
 6. Title border of a mathematical work, printed in Paris, Oronce 
 Fine, 1544, (Hirth). 
 
 7. Soffit ornament, entrance of the Otto Heinrich building, Hei- 
 delberg, 1556 to 1559, (Musteromamente). 
 
 Plate 90. The Interi.acement Band. 
 
 1 — 6. Angles of Border, Modern French, (Raguenet). 
 
 7. Edge of a modem Damask border, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 8 — 9. Modem borders, (Botticher, "Omamentenbuch"). 
 
 10. Modem wood intarsia, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 The Kosette Band. (Plate 91.) 
 
 The term "Rosette Band" is a general name for rosette, spray 
 and other bands, when the rosette is the leading characteristic. The 
 single rosettes, which are similar to conventional roses seen in front- 
 view, are either in immediate juxtaposition (Plate 91. 1 and 3), or 
 divided by channels (Plate 91. 2), by calices (Plate 91. 5, 7, 12), 
 or by stalks and sprays (Plate 91. 4, 6, 10, 11). The Rosette bands 
 are either current, that is, they have a definitive direction sideways; 
 or they are entirely without direction, that is, they are symmetrical, 
 not only from top to bottom but also from right to left. By allow- 
 ing the rosettes to overlap we get a band more or less identical 
 with the so called Strung-coin, or "money-moulding", (Plate 91. 
 13 and 14). 
 
 Rosette bands are especially common in the Assyrian style, in 
 Antique vase painting, in the Medieval enamels (Cologne enamel), 
 in the Indian style, in the Renascence, and in the Modern styles. 
 
 Plate 91. The Eosette Band. 
 
 1. Antique vase painting. 
 
 2. Modern decorative pattern. 
 
 3 Antique bronze shield. 
 
 4 and 6. Antique patterns, after Jacobsthal. 
 5. Neck of a Greek hydria. 
 
 7. Latin Evangeliarum, written by Godescald for Charlemagne, 
 8th century, (Racinet). 
 
 8. Enamel ornament, the great reliquary, Aachen. (Racinet). 
 
 9. Indian enamel border, (Prisse d'Avennes). 
 
 10. Indian carving, (Owen Jones). 
 
 11. Intarsia border, Sta. Maria in Orgauo, Verona, 1499, (Muster- 
 omamente). 
 
 12. Popular Renascence pattern. 
 
 13. Pattern, Persepolis. 
 
 14. Plastic border, Louis XVI. style, (Raguenet"). 
 
BANDS. 
 
 143 
 
 n R n n n^ _ 
 
 mm 
 
 The Rosette Band. 
 
 Plate 91. 
 
144 
 
 BANDS. 
 
 I .# A M d wWf^fi 
 
 pmm 
 
 WiWWK W^^-'Ssr^^.M 
 
 jjy Xiw "'•'" 
 
 pj^mm 
 
 Plate 92. 
 
 The Palmette Baud. 
 
The Palmette Band. - The Vertebrate Band. 145 
 
 The Paliviette Band. (Plate 92.) 
 
 The Palmette is a specifically Greek kind of ornament. Like the fin- 
 gers of an outspread band (jpalma, the palm of the band) a group, 
 odd in number, of narrow, entire leaves is combined into a symmet- 
 rical ornament. The centre leaf is the largest; and the leaves diminish 
 gradually as they approach the sides. The tips of the leaves lie on 
 a regular curve. The lower ends of the leaves are disconnected, divi- 
 ded from each other by slight intervals, and usually spring from a 
 tongue-shaped leaf. The delicate sensitiveness of Greek artistic feeling 
 finds a striking expression in this ornament. It is appliad in mani- 
 fold ways, e. g: as Antefixes' and Akroters, as Cornice -decoration 
 (comp. the group of Free ornaments), and as Palmette borders. In rare 
 cases the Palmette ornaments are in juxtaposition without anything 
 between them — this is usually the case on the Lekythos (a Greek 
 vessel for Oil, &c.) Plate 92. 3 — in the majority of cases the palm- 
 ettes are connected or bordered by spiral bands (Plate 92. 1. 2 &c.). 
 
 Palmette ornaments are of frequent occurrence on Greek vessels, 
 and on the friezes of their architecture. Where they occur in later 
 styles: it is only sporadically; and the severe classical beauty is not 
 retained. 
 
 Plate 92. The Palmette Band. 
 
 1. 2, 3 and 5. Paintings, Greek, terracotta vessels. 
 
 4. 6 and 7. Greek, friezes. 
 
 8. Intarsia, Italian Renascence. 
 
 9, Modern, vn-ought iron trellis. 
 
 The Vertebrate Band, &c. (Plates 93—96.) 
 
 Leaf bands are generally numerous in all styles; and as varied 
 as are the modes of their application. The leaved stalk, with or 
 without flowers, fruits, &c., is the simplest natural motive. The 
 various plants are used as a basis,' partly with, partly without, 
 symbolical reference. The Antique chiefly availed itself of the laurel, 
 olive, and ivy; the Middle Ages used the vine, clover, thistle, and maple; 
 the Renascence shows the Artificial leaf. To these traditional patterns: 
 Modern art has added some others which are specially adapted for 
 naturalistic repres6ntation, such as the convolvulus, the passion-flower, 
 the hop, &c. 
 
 Thus we find in the Antique: a succession of buds (Plate 93. 1); 
 straight stalks with leaves, either attached or free (Plate 93. 2, 3); 
 or undulating stalks, with leaves, fruit, or flowers (Plate 93. 4, 5, 6). 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of OrDament. 10 
 
146 The Vertebrate Baud, & the Undulate Band. 
 
 The latter mode was retained in the Medieval style; in the Roman- 
 esque style the stalks are more compressed, and the lobes of the 
 leaves fully rounded (Plate 93. 7, 8); in the Gothic style the former 
 are thin and extended, the latter slit and pointed. Extremely common 
 are the two forms depicted on Plate 94. 7 and 8. Characteristic of 
 the late Gothic is the example 13, Plate 94; this kind of ornament- 
 ation is excellently adapted for simple wood -carving and stamped 
 leather-work. 
 
 The Oriental conception, in textile fabrics and by the engraved 
 and inlaid metal- work, is shown (Plate 94. 1 — 4). 
 
 Intarsia, technique, leather-stamping, weaving, and the ornamenta- 
 tion of manuscripts offered the Renascence opportunity to make use 
 of, and to vary the floral border with' advantage (Plate 95). Inter- 
 lacement and floral patterns are frequently combined in the same 
 example (Plate 95. 5 and 6). 
 
 As examples of Modern art, the naturalistic borders figured on 
 Plate 96. 9—11. are given. 
 
 When the main-stem runs longitudinally along the centre of the 
 Band; like the vertebral- column in the skeletons of animals, then the 
 arrangement is termed Vertebrate. AVlien the paain-stem oscillates 
 from side to side (as in Plate 93. 4, 5, & 8), then the arrangement 
 is termed Undulate. 
 
 Plate 93. The Vertebrate Band, &c. 
 
 1 — 6. Paintings, Greek, terracotta vessels. 
 
 7 — 8. French, mural paintings, 13th century, (Racinet). 
 
 9. Glass window, Cathedral, Bourges, 14th century, (Racinet). 
 
 10. Medieval." 
 
 11. Intarsia, Sta. Maria in Organo, Verona, 1499. 
 
 12. Modem, plate-border. 
 
 Plate 94. The Undulate Band. 
 
 1 — 3. Persian, metal vessels, (Racinet). 
 
 4. Indian. 
 
 5. Byzantine, glass mosaic, San Marco, Venice, (Musterornaraente). 
 
 6. Portion of Romanesque initial, 1 3th century, Berlin Museum. 
 
 7. Romanesque, portal of cathedral, Lucca, (Musterornamente). 
 
 8. Gothic flat carving, end of 15th century, (Musterornamente). 
 
 9. Medieval, mural painting, Swedish church. 
 
 10. French, mural painting, 13th century, (Racinet). 
 
 11. Early Gothic, French. 
 
 12. Gothic, manuscript ornamentation. 
 
 13. Late Gothic, flat carving, 15th c&ntury, (^^usterornamente). 
 
BANDS. 
 
 147 
 
 The Vertebrate Band, &c 
 
 rJate 93. 
 
148 
 
 BANDS. 
 
 
 
 ^fy^ 
 
 ^v^^% 
 
 ^p^ 
 
 p^p 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Plate 94. 
 
 The Undulate Band. 
 
BANDS. 
 
 149 
 
 m 
 
 ^^0 
 
 5kJ 
 
 I • I 
 
 
 
 ?^\^v^ 
 
 ¥- 
 
 ^^s 
 
 ^^d^^ 
 
 h 
 
 1 
 
 The Undulate Band, &c. 
 
 Plate 95 
 
BANDS. 
 
 Plate 96. 
 
 The Undulate Band, &c 
 
The Undulate Band. — The Evolute-Spiral Band. 151 
 
 Plate 95. The Undulate Band, &c. 
 1 — 2. Leather stamping, 16th century, Schwabisch Hall, (Muster- 
 omamente). 
 
 3. Terracotta frieze, castle of Schalahurg, Lower Au.stria, (Wiener 
 Bauhiitte). 
 
 4. Intarsia frieze, from the same castle. 
 
 5 — 6. Borders of robes, tombs in Niederstetten and Lensiedel, 16th 
 
 century, (Musteromamente). 
 7. Renascence, manuscript ornament. 
 
 8 — 9. German Renascence, (Hirth, Formenschatz). 
 
 10. Archivolt of door, Otto-Heinrich building Heidelberg castle, 
 German Renascence. 
 
 11. French, Renascence. 
 
 Plate 96. The Undulate Band, &c. 
 
 1. Border, picture by Domenico Zampieri, 16th century, (MiTster- 
 omamente). 
 
 2. Border, half -columns, Sta. Trinita, Florence, Italian Re 
 nascence. 
 
 3. Intarsia frieze, stalls, San Domenico, Bologna, Italian Re- 
 nascence. 
 
 4. Wrought -iron trellis of balcony, Milan, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 5. Frieze, Italian Renascence. 
 
 6. Modern, (Cesar Daly). 
 
 7. Modern. 
 
 8 — 9. Laurel and oak borders, (Gewerbehalle). 
 10 — 11. Modern Borders, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 The Evolute-Spiral Band. (Plate 97.) 
 
 The wave of the sea has been suggested as the motive of this 
 "wave" pattern; but its origin is purely geometrical. The line of the 
 Evolute- spiral pattern divides the surface of the border. into two 
 parts, which in flat ornament are coloured differently. In plastic work, 
 for which the pattern is also suitable, the lower part projects. In 
 wrought- iron -work: the curved lino runs freely between two bars. 
 This pattern is adapted for borders of robes, shields, and plates; for 
 use on vessels, friezes, cornices, and tablets in architecture; and also 
 as borders, for tapestries, and mural-paintings. 
 
 A rosette is often placed at the volute-centres (Plate 97. 
 2 and 4); the interstices between the lines are sometimes decorated 
 with leaves and flower -buds (Plate 97. 9 — 12). This occurs chiefly 
 in the Renascence period, when the Antique seemed too simple. How 
 
152 The Evolute-Spiral Band. — The Enrichment of the Bead Moulding. 
 
 far this may be carried, in some cases, in shown by fig. 14, in which 
 the evolute-spiral line is nothing more than the skeleton of the orna- 
 ment. The Middle Ages did not use this form at all. 
 
 Angles, and centres are arranged as shown on figs. 4 — 7. This 
 band is excellently adapted for the framing round circular panels. 
 
 Plate 97. The Evolute - Spiral. 
 
 1 — 4 Paintings, antique vessels. 
 
 5 — 6 Angles. 
 
 7 Central junction. 
 
 8. Pattern round a circular panel. 
 
 9. Painting of a stove tile, German Renascence, Germanisches 
 ^Museum, Nuremberg. 
 
 10. Modem borders. 
 
 11 Border, by Sebastian Serlio, 16th century 
 
 12 Frieze, Otto-Heinrich building of Heidelberg castle. 
 
 13 Wrought-iron trellis, temple of Apollo in the garden of the 
 castle at Schwetzingen. 
 
 14. Painting, Palazzo ducale, Mantua, Italian Renascence. 
 
 The Enrichment of the Bead Moulding. (Plate 98.) 
 
 Bead, or Astragal, is the name given to those small half-round 
 Mouldings, which are often enriched by ornaments like Pearls, strung 
 together, &c., or as turned bands and cords. Generally thi-y are 
 only used in plastic art, and as a i-ule not alone; but below the Egg- 
 and-leaf ornaments, and similar cornice profiles (Plate 100). They 
 also occur as intermediate members between the shaft and the capital 
 of columns. 
 
 Beads are enriched with balls, discs, or ovals, in rather more 
 than half relief. The simplest bead-enrichment is formed of round 
 pearls, either close together or permitting the representation of the 
 thread to show between them. Disc and oval enrichments are seldom 
 used alone, but arranged alternately, as shown in figs. 1 to 7 
 
 In addition to the simple examples of the Antique, the Renas- 
 cence uses richer forms, the single members being again ornamented, 
 profiled and more arbitrarily fashioned (Plate 98. 8 and 12), or 
 finished-off with small leaf calices (Plate 98. 9 and 10). Wood 
 carving avails itself of strung discs seen in perpcctlvo (Plato 98. 11). 
 
 The enrichments may also suggest torsion. After the moulding 
 is made, it is set-out like a screw, as indicated by the auxiliary 
 constructions in figs. 13 — 17. Leaves or pearls sometimes lie in the 
 hollows and follow the thread of the screw (Plate 98. 17). 
 
BANDS 
 
 The Evolute-Spiral Band. 
 
 Plate 97. 
 
154 
 
 M0ULD1NC;^S. 
 
 ■ 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 pi 
 
 EZX' 
 
 W^^3^/K^ 
 
 ) 
 
 ::i 
 
 k: 
 
 ^g=r:::^»<l 
 
 Plate 98. The Enrichment of the Bead Moulding. 
 
The Enrichment of the Astragal, the Torus, and other Mouldings. 155 
 
 Here also must be grouped those ribbons rolled spirally round 
 rods, such as we find in the art of the Middle Ages and the Re- 
 nascence (fig. 18). Corners are generally covered with a small leaf. 
 
 Plate 98. The Enrichment of the Bead ^Ioulding. 
 
 1 — 7. Simple enrichments, Antique. 
 
 8 — 12. Richer enrichments. Renascence. 
 
 13 — 17. Beads enriched like twisted ropes. 
 
 18. Spiral-ribbon enrichment, Louvre, Paris. 
 
 The Enrichment of the Torus Moulding. (Plate 99.) 
 
 Torus is the name given to those larger mouldings of semi- 
 circular or semi -elliptic section, such as are specially used in Archi- 
 tecture on the bases of columns and pilasters, on socles, on Mediaeval 
 door and window arches, and on the ceiling mouldings of the Renascence 
 and Modern times. While the smaller beads are ornamented with 
 pearls and twisted cords, these more important mouldings are dec- 
 orated by enrichments which resemble a bundle of rods round which 
 ribbons are twisted at suitable places (figs. 1 and 2); by surrounding 
 them with plaited or net work (figs. 3, 4, 7); by clothing them with 
 foliage (figs. 6, 9, 10); or by combining the various systems (figs. 8 
 and 11). In modern times the Torus is enriched by bound clusters 
 of fruit. Water -leaves, artificial leaves with serrated margins, laurel, 
 oak, ivy, &c. are most in use for the leaf ornaments. As in the case 
 of fruit clusters: ribbons are twined spirally at suitable placed round 
 the fruit or foliage (figs. 5, 6 and 12). 
 
 All these examples are drawn by first marking-off the divisions on the 
 profile, as indicated on the figures. 
 
 Plate 99. The Enrichment of the Torus Moulding. 
 
 1 — 2. Modem. 
 
 3 — 4. Antique. 
 
 5 — 6. Antique, decorated with laurel and oak, 
 
 7. Mediaeval. 
 
 8. Mediaeval, decoration of an archivolt, Gelnhausen, 1 3th centui y. 
 
 9. Temple of Jupiter, Rome. 
 
 10 — 12. Louvre, Paris, French Renascence, (Baldus). 
 
 The Enrichment of other Mouldings. (Plate 100.) 
 
 The Egg-and-tongue enriches, in architecture, the ovolo moulding 
 of capitals, and the lower members of cornices, &c. 
 
MOULDINGS. 
 
 Plate 99. The EuricLmeut of the Torus Moulding. 
 
MOULDINGS. 
 
 157 
 
 
 
 ^^^^^-^--^ 
 
 
 k 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 
 The Enrichment of the Cymn, nnd Ovolo Rlouldings. Plate lUU. 
 
158 The Enricbment of Mouldings. 
 
 In these cases it barmonises the support aod the weight; and 
 has also a decorative purpose as a bordering member. 
 
 The Leaf enrichment may be explained in the following way: a 
 row of leaves, growing upwards, supports the* weight, and is bent 
 outwards by its pressure (fig. 1). If this only occurs partially, we 
 have the Doric form (fig. 2). If the leaves are bent -down tow- 
 ards their lower ends (fig. 3), we obtain forms like the so-called 
 "Lesbian cymatium." 
 
 A false conception, which regarded the leaf-shape merely as a 
 geometrical element, afterwards gave rise to the corrupt forms of the 
 late Greek and Roman styles (figs. 5 a, 6 a, and 6 b). 
 
 If the simple waterleaf be replaced by more richly serrated 
 ones like the Artificial leaf, we obtain examples 'like fig. 7. 
 
 Figure 8 shows the egg pattern, from which all the more or 
 less misunderstood varieties have, in course of time, been derived. 
 The dart-shaped intermediate leaves have often been developed into 
 actual darts; and the eggs or curved surfaces of the leaves have also 
 been covered with independent ornamentation, in complete defiance of 
 their origin (figs. 10 and 14). 
 
 The corner is treated, either by freely carrying the pattern over 
 into a palmette anthemion (figs. 15 and 16), or by covering it with 
 independent leaves. 
 
 Further details on the subject of this chapter will be found in 
 Botticher's Tektonik der Hellenen. 
 
 Plate 100. The Enrichment of th£) C^-ma and Ovolo 
 Mouldings. 
 1 and 3. Drawings to illustrate the origin of the pattern. 
 2. Graeco-Doric, painted. 
 
 4. Leaf, Erechtheum, Athens. 
 
 5 and 6. Corrupt leaf, (Botticher). 
 
 7. Roman leaf, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 8. Greek egg-and-tonguQ, Erechtheum, Athfens. 
 
 9. Campana egg-and-tongue, Graeco-Italic, Campana collection. 
 
 10. Colossal egg-and-leaf, temple of Jupiter Tonans, Rome. 
 
 11. Roman egg-and-dart, Aries cathedral, (Raguenet). 
 12 — 13. Renascence egg-and-dart, (Raguenet). 
 
 14. Modern egg-and-dart, (Raguenet), 
 
FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Those ornaments, which are applied to suggest the end or finish 
 of an object, may be classed in a group which, following an ex- 
 pression already introduced, are termed "free ornaments", the word 
 "free" implying not a severely-enclosed Baud or Panel, but a freely- 
 treated Edge-ornament. 
 
 The Edging may be arranged to grow in an upward, downward, 
 or lateral direction; the character of the ornamentation will be depen- 
 dent on these conditions. Endings with an upward direction are most 
 numerous; and as plants, with their natural, upward gro^v-th, are 
 adapted for this purpose, foliated ornament is the usual decoration of 
 Akroters, Antefixes, Steles, Ridges, and Finials. 
 
 Crosses, Knobs, Rosettes, and Pendants, are independant Free- 
 ornaments, which are generally geometrical in their treatment. 
 
 In Tassels and Fringes, which form endings in a downward 
 direction, the organic plant motive is, of course, excluded; while Lace 
 (woven, pillow, i^c.) avails itself of both motives, either singly or 
 combined. 
 
 Crockets arc foliated excrescences which are popular in the 
 Gothic style as an ornament of the edges, and ribs of buildings 
 
 Gargoyles (as are termed the Rain spouts which occur so fre- 
 quently in the architecture of the Middle Ages and the Renascence) 
 are also Free ornaments willi a lateral direction; they have often the 
 form of fijnires, less often tlioso of decorated channels. 
 
160 The Link Border. 
 
 The Link Border. (Plates 101—102.) 
 
 Link Borders nre so termed because the transversely -growing 
 foliage is connected together by Scrolls which serve this purpose, 
 like the "Links" of a chain. Of this class are much decoration of 
 cornices, crestings in architecture, and fringes in textile art. Besides 
 these, Link borders, which may be enlarged at will, and have a de- 
 finite direction upwards or downwards, are used in a similiar manner 
 as Borders as edgings for carpets, plates, and panels; as borders for 
 walls, floors, and ceilings (in which case the edging almost invariably 
 grows outwards); on the neck, body, and feet of vessels; and fre- 
 quently in architectural friezes. 
 
 Palmette leaves, connected by circles or by links, are adapted 
 for edgings. The typical form is found on Antique vessels and 
 friezes; its forerunner is seen in the connected lily and pomegranate 
 of the Assyrian style. 
 
 The Link -border is found in every subsequent style, both flat, 
 and in relief. 
 
 It is generally composed of identical details, symmetrically re- 
 peated. Unsymmetrical and naturalistic forms are rarer, (Plate 101,10). 
 
 Plate 101. The Link Border. 
 
 1. Assyrian, painted bas-relief, Khorsabud. 
 
 2. External margin, Greek kylix, (Lau). 
 
 3. Greek hydria, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 4. Greek, cyma. 
 
 5. Mosaic ornament, San !Marco, Venice, Byzantine, (Musteroma- 
 mente). 
 
 6. Medieval, mm-al painting, Swedish church, (Racinet) 
 
 7. Old embroidery, Eisleben, (Vorbilder fiir Fabrikanten und ITand- 
 werker). 
 
 8. Painted, Cathedral, Brandenburg, (Vorbilder fiir Fabrikanten und 
 Handwerker). 
 
 9. Illumination of a Koran, tomb of the Sultan El-Ghury, IGth cen 
 tury, (Prisse d'Avennes). 
 
 10. Majolica dish, Germanisches .I^hiseum, Nui'emberg. 
 
 11. Majolica dish, 16th century, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 12. Modern, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 Plate 102. The Link Boi:der. 
 
 1. Greek, carved frieze, Erechtheum, Athens. 
 
 2. Koman, frieze, - (Fragments de Tarchitecture antique). 
 
 3. Romanesque, frieze, 13th century, (iMusterornainente). 
 
The Link Border. — on Mouldings. — The Cresting 161 
 
 4. Arabic, mosque of the Sultan Hassan, Cairo, 14th century, 
 
 5. Italian Renascence, Marble frieze, tomb of the Conte Ugone, 
 Badia, Florence, (Weissbach und Lottermoser). 
 
 6. Italian Renascence, Intarsia frieze, (Meurer). 
 
 7. Modem decoration, (Kolb und Hogg, Vorbilder fur das Orna- 
 mentenzeichnen). 
 
 The Link Border on Mouldings. (Plate 103.). 
 
 The cyma iu architecture is the topmost or concluding member 
 of a cornice. It is frequently used as a gutter. The section is some- 
 times a concave or convex quadrant, but in most cases consists of 
 two arcs curving inwards and outwards respectively, (fig. 3). 
 
 The ornamentation was merely painted in the earlier periods; 
 but afterwards received a plastic form. It is cliiefly composed of 
 palmetto leaves, either unconnected (fig. 1 and 2) or connected (figs. 8, 
 5 and 6), with Lily cups between. Artificial leaves, pointing up- 
 wards and lying close on the profile with calices or water-leaves peep- 
 ing out between them (fig. 4) are also used. 
 
 The Middle Ages used both systems, especially the latter, with the 
 latter, with the modifications required by the changed forms of the 
 leaves, (figs. 7 and 8). 
 
 Both the Renascence and Modem art follow the tradition of 
 the Antique; but give the Palmetto ornament a richer form, (figs. 
 8~12). 
 
 Plate 103. Tpte Link-border Enrichment of ^Iouldingb. 
 
 1—4. Antique, (Botticher). 
 
 5. Roman altar. 
 
 6. Graeco-Italic terracotta ornament, (Li^vre). 
 
 7. Romanesque cornice, house, Metz, 12th century, (Raguenet). 
 
 8. Cornice, Notre Dame, Paris, 13tb century, (Mustcrornamente). 
 9 — 10. Cornice, Louvi-e, Paris, French Renascence. 
 
 11. Marble frieze, tomb in Sta. Maria sopra Minerva, Rome, Italian 
 Renascence. 
 
 12. Modern, (Arch. Skizzenbuch). 
 
 The Cresting Border. (Plate 104.) 
 
 Crestings are intended to ornament the ridge or top of the roof. 
 Such ornaments have been especially popular iu France from Gothic 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornatrxnt. 11 
 
162 
 
 FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Plate 101. 
 
 The Link Border. 
 
FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 163 
 
 The Link Border. 
 
 Plate 102. 
 11* 
 
1G4 
 
 FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 
 rr^^=^wm'^' 
 
 
 
 ^,0 
 
 <1N /Th ar .HIT 
 
 Plate 1U3. The Link-lorder Enrichment of Mouldings. 
 
FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 165 
 
 The Cresting Border. 
 
 Plate 104. 
 
166 The Cresting. — The Akroter, &c. 
 
 times to the present day. They are mostly of perforated work, and 
 the top has usually a varied mass-shape. The materials used are stone, 
 lead wrouo-ht-iron, and^ in modern times, zinc. Similar ornaments 
 are also found as Finals of entablatures and attics, as well as on the 
 Balaustra^es of galleries. 
 
 Cresting ornaments appear on Gothic Altars, Shrines, Chim- 
 neypieces, &c., and in cast-iron on our modern Stoves, Railings, &c. 
 
 The Antique made no use of this form, although similar forms 
 occur, as, for example, on the entablature of the well-known monu- 
 ment of Lysikrates. On the other hand, we must mention those 
 Valence-like borders which are seen on the terracotta reliefs of the 
 Campana collection, represented on figs. 6 and 7. In most cases, 
 these latter ornaments, if reversed, may be used as crestings. 
 
 Plate 104. The CrestdsQ Border 
 
 1. Gothic, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 2. Modern Gothic, cast-iron. 
 
 3. Modem French, castle of Pierrefonds, restored by VioUet-le 
 Duc,^ (Raguenet). 
 
 4. Modern French, Cour de Cassation, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 5. Modern German, by Gropius of Berlin, (Arch. Skizzenbuch). 
 6 — 7. Graeco-Italic borders, downward growth. 
 
 The Akroter, &c. (Plates 105 — 106.) 
 
 The Akroter is the feature which serves as on ornamental finish 
 to the apex of a gable. Antique temples bear this decoration in a 
 great variety of materials: stone, terracotta, painted, plastic, and 
 cast in metal. Groups of figures, griffins, &c., were sometimes used 
 for this purpose; but the usual features were slabs of Marble, bearing 
 a palmette ornament, the central decoration of which is sometimes a 
 mask, (Plate 105. 5). Smaller ornaments of a similar kind are found 
 ranged along the lower roof line, in front of the Imbrices; and these 
 are termed Antefixes. 
 
 The Middle Ages and the Renascence make no general use of 
 the Antefix, but it occurs on Modern monumental buildings in the 
 Antique style. 
 
 The corner Akroter which isusually found at the lower ends 
 of the gable lines, consists of half the motive of the central one, 
 (Plate 105. 6). 
 
 Plate 105. The Akroter, and the Antefix. 
 
 1. Greek Akroter, painted, temple of Wingless Victory, Athens. 
 
 2. Greek Akroter, painted. Acropolis, Athens. 
 
The Akroter. — The Stele Crest. 167 
 
 3. Greek Antefix, Parthenon, Athens. 
 
 4. Greek sepulchral Stele-crest, in the form of an Akroter. 
 
 5. Graeco- Italic Akroter, terracotta. Museum, Pemgia. 
 
 6 — 7. Front and side view of a corner Akroter, (Botticher). 
 
 Plate 106. The Akroter, &c. 
 
 1. Greek Antefix, Propjlaea, Athens, (Eaguenet). 
 
 2. Roman Antefix, temple of Jupiter Stator, Rome. 
 
 3. Modern French Antefix, Theatre des Celestines, Lyons, Archi- 
 tect Renaud, (Raguenet). 
 
 4. Modern French Akroter, house in Paris, Architect Renaud, 
 (Raguenet). 
 
 5. Modern French Akroter, Orleans railway station, Paris, Ai'chi- 
 tect Renaud, (Raguenet). 
 
 6 — 7. Akroter and Corner- akroter, fountain in the Certosa near Flo- 
 rence, Italian Renascence. 
 
 The Stele Crest. (Plate 107.) 
 
 The Stele is the Greek tomb-stone. It usually takes the form 
 of an upright tablet, sometimes tapering towards the top; and bears 
 an inscription. It is sometimes decorated with rosettes, garlands and 
 figures. At the top is a plain cornice, on which an ornament, similar 
 to the Akroter, forms the crowning finish. Although the Akroter and 
 the Stele-crest often have a perfectly identical form (Plate 105. 4 
 shows a crest which might just as well have been an Antefix), still 
 the style of the crest is as a rule more severe; and it is characteristic 
 of a great number of Steles that they have not the striking , palm- 
 etto Centre, which the Akroter always possesses, (figs. 2 and 3). 
 Very often, too, the crest is so designed that the sides are extended, 
 to make a larger feature, (figs. 1 and 4). 
 
 These Monuments, dedicated to the memory of the dead, show 
 better than almost anything else the special individuality and beauty 
 of Greek ornament. 
 
 Plate 107. The Stele- crest. 
 
 1. Stele -crest, (Stuart and Revett, Vulliamy, Jacobsthal). 
 
 2. „ „ (Jacobsthal). 
 
 3. „ „ ("L'art pour tous"). 
 
 4. „ „ (Li6vre). 
 
168 
 
 FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Plate 10; 
 
 The Akroter, and the Antefix. 
 
FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 169 
 
 The Akroter, &c. 
 
 Plate J 06. 
 
170 
 
 FREE ORNAMENTS, 
 
 Plate 107. 
 
 The Stele Crest. 
 
FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 171 
 
 The Perforated Cresting. 
 
 Plate 108. 
 
172 The Perforated Cresting. — The Cross. 
 
 The Perforated Cresting. (Plate 108.) 
 
 In modern wood buldln^s, the dressings, intended to form an 
 ornamental finish to the construction, are often perforated. 
 
 The Gable is decorated by a Finial,; smaller corner -ornaments 
 are attached to the lower ends of the lines of the gable; the pro- 
 jecting ends of the gable -rafters are also provided with Barge-boards, 
 both for decorative effect, and also, no doubt, to serve as a protection 
 against the weather. The Finials are fashioned as Kncbs of varied 
 profile, with a direction downwards. The oblique lines of the Gable 
 and the horizontal lines of the Roof are also covered with Barge- 
 boards. 
 
 The material requires a special treatment; as the ornamentation 
 must be large and broad ^ and have as many points of connection in 
 itself as possible. 
 
 Wooden ornaments of this kind are found on Pavilions, watchmen's 
 Huts, Farm-houses of richer construction; country Villas in the Swiss 
 cottage style, &c. 
 
 Among architectural works which deal with wood buildings and 
 especially with the decoration of them: we may mention the works of 
 H. Bethke (Details fur dekorativen Holzbau), from which the majority 
 of the figures on Plate 108 have been taken. 
 
 Plate 108. The Perforated Cresting. 
 
 1. Top ornament of a gable, by the architect Eisenlohr, of Carls- 
 
 ruhe. 
 2 — 7. Various Barge-boards, (Bethke). 
 
 The Cross. (Plate 109.) 
 
 The Cross (Latin crux, French croix) is the most important 
 symbol of Christian art. It symbolises the person of Christ, Christ- 
 ianity and Sacrifice. Its decorative applications are innumerable, and 
 of great variety. 
 
 Various fundamental forms of the cross have been distinguished 
 and are known by different names. The Greek (or St. George's) cross 
 consists of two arms of equal length, bisecting each -other at right 
 angles. In the Latin cross the lower limb is lengthened. These two 
 forms are those most often used. In the St. Andrew's cross the 
 arms cross each -other diagonally. St. Anthony's (the Egyptian or 
 Old Testament Cross) is a Latin Cross without the upper limb. 
 
 Omitting from consideration the Crucifix, which represents the 
 crucifixion of Christ, we shall find the Cross in the utmost variety 
 
FREE ORNAMENTS 
 
 The Cross. 
 
 Plate 109. 
 
174 
 
 FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 
 Plate 110. 
 
 The Cross. 
 
The Cross. — The Finial 175 
 
 of form on Uteusils and Vessels, on Robes and Garments, on Carpets 
 and Banners dedicated to religious uses; in Heraldry, and as a Free 
 ornament to form the upper ornamental finial of Architecture. In 
 Christian architecture: the Cross is used as a finial on Steeples and 
 Gables, on Tombs, Pulpits, &g. Often it is employed alone, as a 
 monument, (Tomb, wayside and votive crosses). 
 
 Pi ATE 109. TiTE Cross: in Stone. 
 
 1. Modern French, Charterhouse Glandier, (Raguenet). 
 
 2. Modern. 
 
 3. Modern French, with the Monogram of Christ, Genouilleux, (Ra- 
 guenet). 
 
 4. Gable of a church, St. Urban's, Unterlimburg, Schwabisch-Hall, 
 
 5. Tomb, churchyard, Baret, 11th century. 
 
 6. Modem French, P6re-Lachaise, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 7. Steeple, St. Pierre, Montrouge, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 8. Tomb, St. Lazare, Montpellier, (Raguenet). 
 
 9. Granite, Tomb, Becon, (Raguenet). 
 
 The Cross in Metal. (Plate 110.) 
 
 Wrought-iron, and, in late years, cast-iron and zinc, are sometimes 
 used as a material for st-eeple and gable Crosses, as well as for monu- 
 mental Crosses. The ductile natui-e of wrought-iron admits of a rich, 
 delicate execution of these objects. The German Renascence, in parti - 
 ticular, ofi'ers a wealth of forms in this respect. 
 
 The framework usually consists of strong bar-iron; the orna- 
 mental decoration is in flat or round iron, fastened to the frame by 
 clamps or rivets. Hammered foliage is sometimes added. In many 
 cases the point of the steeple Cross is decorated with a Cock as 
 weather-vane. 
 
 The centre of monumental Crosses is often occupied by a plate 
 of metal, to contain the Inscription. 
 
 Plate 110. The Cross: in Metal. 
 
 1 — 3. -Mediaeval steeple Crosses, Franconia, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 4. Modern steeple Cross, (Bad. Gewerbezeitung). 
 
 5. Steeple Cross, St. Ambroise, Paris, Architect Ballu, (Raguenet). 
 G—7. Wrought-iron tomb Crosses, Thiengen, 18th century. 
 
 The Finial. (Plate 111.) 
 
 While the ordinary Cross rises as a Free-ornament in a vertical 
 pla^ne, the final makes a Cross, in plan. It extends its arms not only 
 
176 The Fiiiial in Stone, and in Metal. 
 
 sideways, but also regularly to the front and back. Crocket-like ad- 
 ditions (comp. plate 116) clothe the stem, which usually takes the 
 form of an elongated four or eight-sided shaft. There may be one 
 or more tiers of crockets. 
 
 The Finial serves to decorate Spires, Pinnacles, Baldachins, 
 Tombs, &c., and is a specifically Gothic ornament. The most beautiful 
 forms are furnished by French Gothic, from which most of the il- 
 lustrations of our plate are taken. 
 
 Plate 111. The Finial: in Stone. 
 
 1. Modern Gothic. 
 
 2. Early Gothic, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 3. French Gothic, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 4. Early Gothic, cathedral, Chartres, 13th century, (Musterorua- 
 mente). 
 
 5--6. Modem, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 7. Modern, (Bosc). 
 
 The Finial in Metal. (Plate 112.) 
 
 In the artistic wrought-iron work of the Middle Ages, the Re- 
 nascence, and Modern times, we find charming Finials in the shape 
 of idealised flowers. Theste decorations are found on the tops of 
 Balaustrades, on the Gables over Doors, on Brackets and Chandeliers, 
 on the supports of Rain-spouts, on Wall-anchors, &c. 
 
 Leaves, volute-like spirals, bell-flowers, and ears, are arranged 
 round a central axis of iron; in many cases the centre is formed by 
 spindle-shaped spirals of wire. 
 
 Plate 112. The Finial: in Metal. 
 
 1. Corner of a Mediaeval Grill, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 2. Part of a Grill, Toulouse cathedral, 15th century, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 3. Termination of a Fountain, Cluny museum, Paris, 15th century, 
 (L'art pour tons). 
 
 4. Part of a Spanish Trellis Gate, 14th century, (L'art pour tons). 
 
 5. Part of a Chancel Screen, minster, Freiburg, 16th century, (Schau- 
 insland). 
 
 6. Wrought-iron, 16th century, (Guichard). 
 
 7. Terminal, Bruges, 17th century, (Ysendyck, Documents classes 
 de l'art). 
 
 8. Modern, wrought-iron, Ihne & Stegraiiller, Berlin. 
 
 9. Modern, Post, by Ende & Boeckmann, Berlin, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 10. Wrought-iron Coronal, Limburg on the Lahn, 17th century, 
 (Kachel, Kunstgewerbliche Vorbilder). 
 
 11. Coronal, modern Gate, C. Zaar, Berlin. 
 
FEEE ORNAMENT\S. 
 
 177 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 
 
 The Finial. 
 
 Plate 111. 
 
 12 
 
178 
 
 FREE 0RNAM£N1\«^ 
 
 Plate 112. 
 
 The Fiuial, &c. 
 
The Finial Knob, and Vase. — The Pendant Knob. 179 
 
 The Finial Knob, and Yase. (Plate 118.) 
 
 Knob is the term applied to ornamental terminations in the 
 fonn of profiled bodies of revolution, naturalistic buds, fir-cones, &c. 
 
 Knobs are small features used as the tenninations in architecture 
 and furniture. They are also used on Flag- staffs, Bosses of Shields, 
 Centre-pieces of rosettes, &c. The material, whether stone, wood, 
 stucco, metal, &c., depends on the use to which they are to be applied. 
 
 Vases form another class of Finials. They are preferentially 
 used on Tombs, Doorposts, in the centre of divided Pediments, on the 
 Attics of ornamental Architecture, and instead of Antefixes. 
 
 Plate 113. The Finial Knob, and Vase. 
 
 1 — 2. Stone, Milan Cathedral, Italian Gothic, (Raguenet). 
 
 3. Modern. 
 
 4. Modern Fir-cone. 
 
 5. Modern Vase, (Bosc). 
 
 6. Modern French, Ministry of War, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 7 — 8. Modern French, house in the Park Monceau, Architect Tronquois, 
 
 (Raguenet). 
 9. Lower end of a Flag-staff or Lightning-rod, (Li6nard) 
 
 The Pendant Knob. (Plate 114.) 
 
 Pendants are hanging terminations; reversed Knobs, so to speak. 
 In some cases, but not in all, the former may replace the latter. 
 These Pendants are more or less elongated bodies of revolution. The 
 decoration is produced by the addition of leaves, scales, headings, 
 nulls, <tc. These being specially suitable to convex profiles, while 
 the channelled treatment is better adapted to concave profiles. 
 
 Pendants, in stone, wood, stucco, or metal, are used as Brackets 
 for lamps (hence their French name: cul- de-lamp e)-, and as the lower 
 terminations of Oriel-windows, Pulpits, &c. In the latter case the 
 Pendants are generally only in half or three-quarter relief from 
 the wall. 
 
 Plate 114. The Pendant Knob. 
 
 1_2. Part of Tripod, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 3. Part of Lantern, Dijon, French Renarcpnce, (L'art pour tous) 
 
 4. Lower end of a Chandelier, 17th century, (L'art pour tous). 
 6. Bracket under a Piscina, French, 16th century, Church, Moret, 
 
 (L'art pour tous). 
 
 6. Modern, stucco-work. 
 
 7. Modern, wood. 
 
 12» 
 
180 
 
 FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Plate 113. 
 
 The Finial Knob, and Vase. 
 
FREE ORNAI^IENTS. 
 
 181 
 
 The Pendant Knob. 
 
 Plate 114. 
 
182 The Kosette. 
 
 The Rosette. (Plate 115.) 
 
 The Rosette, strictly so called, is an artificial Rose. In a -vvidcr 
 sense any ornament of a circular shape, which radiates from a centre, 
 may be termed a Rosette. According to its execution and use: the 
 Rosette may be considered either as a Free -ornament, or a Panel- 
 ornament. In the first case, it must always be plastic, project pro- 
 minently and have some resemblance to the Knob or Pendant. la 
 the latter case, it may be in low relief or be a flat ornament. Here 
 we have only to deal with the Rosette as a Free-ornament. 
 
 Considering the Rosette from this point of view: its most im- 
 portant application is as the Boss in the centre of Romanesque and 
 Gothic ribbed Vaultings; and as the centre-piece of Ceilings, of which 
 we find numerous examples in the temples of the Antique, the palaces 
 of the Italian Renascence, and the vaulted Cupolas of ecclesiastical 
 and secular architecture. "Besides this, Rosettes are found on Fur- 
 niture, Gates and Doors (the Italian Renascence makes the most lavish 
 use of them in this capacity), and as the centre-pieces of modern 
 Ceilings, &c. In these cases, however, their quality as Free-ornaments 
 is less prominent. 
 
 As regards the formal plan of Rosettes: 11 e Flower motive is tlie 
 commonest; geometrical motives are rarer, and motives from figures 
 rarer still. The arrangement is usually in a series of zones; the 
 growth is from the centre, outwards; and in the majority of cases is 
 radial, that is at right angles to the bordering circle: \mi sometimes 
 the leaves are curved. 
 
 The Rosette may have any number of divisions; but 3, 4, 5, 6, 
 8, 10, 12, or 16 divisions arc the rule; divisions into 7, 9, 11, &c., 
 are as rare as divisions exceeding the number 16. 
 
 The Divisions may vary in the separate zones; but generally 
 only so that the same divis'ons interlock, that is to say, the points 
 of the leaves of one zone fall on the intervals between tlie leaves 
 of the next. 
 
 Pl.\te 115. The Rosette. 
 
 1. Antique, of four divisions. 
 
 2. Roman, of five divisions. 
 
 3. Naturalistic, of six divisions. 
 
 4. Romanesque Boss, of four divisions, chapter-hall of the monastrry 
 of Heiligenkreuz near Vienna, 13th century, (Musterornamente). 
 
 5. Early Gothic Boss, of three di\nsions, Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, 1240 
 
 6. French, of four divisions, Louis XIII, (1 GIG— 1643), (Muster- 
 ornamente). 
 
 7. Italian, of five divisions, the door of the baptistery, Parma, Re 
 nascence, (Musterornamente). 
 
 8. Modern French, ceiling-ilower, stucco. 
 
FHEE Ol^NAMENTS. 
 
 183 
 
 /\\ 
 
 The Pcosette, 
 
 Plate 11' 
 
184 
 
 FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Plate 116. 
 
 The Crocket, and the Gargoyle. 
 
The Crocket, and the Gargoyle. 185 
 
 TuK Crocket, and tbe Gargoyle. (Plate IIG). 
 
 Crocket is the desigaation applied to those excrescences which 
 appear on the edges of Spires, and Pinnacles, and on the raking lines of 
 Gables, in the richer Gothic styles. Occurring at regular intervals, 
 they form an ornamental interruption to the bald architectonic lines. 
 
 At first of a rather naturalistic character (figs. 3 and 4), they 
 evolved during the decay of the style a more artificial character, as- 
 suming bulbous forms (fig. 5), which have their own special peculiar- 
 ities in England, France, and Germany. 
 
 Crocket - ornamentation has more or less been copied from 
 stone Architecture in Furniture, Choir-stalls, &c. The arms of the 
 latter (figs. G — 10), and the miserere-seats, are often foliated like a 
 Crocket. 
 
 Metal, and particularly wrought- iron work, frequently makes 
 use of Crockets, in forms suited to the nature of the material, 
 (figs. 11-12). 
 
 Contrary to the modern method, by which the water that collects 
 on the roofs of buildings is conveyed to earth through Pipes, the 
 builders of th^ Middle Ages and the Renascence discharged the rain, 
 clear of the wall, by means of long projecting Spouts. The spout 
 vvTis used in the Antique style in the form of lion heads, <S:c. In the 
 ecclesiastical and monumental architecture of the Middle Ages they 
 are termed Gargoyles; and are mostly of stone. In dwelling houses 
 they are of sheet- metal; and thfty are either architectonically decorated 
 (fig. 14), or human, animal, or fantastic figures, treated in a comic 
 manner, the water flowing through the mouth or other orifices of 
 the body. 
 
 Copious material on tho subject of crockets and gargoyles will be 
 found in Raguenet's "Materiaux et Documents de I'Architecture". 
 
 Plate IIG. The Croci-cet, and the Gargoyle. 
 1 — 2. Front and side view of a plain Gothic Crocket, Ajniens 
 cathedral, restored by Viollet-le-Duc, (Raguenet). 
 
 3. Gothic Crocket, 14 th century, 
 
 4. Modem Gothic Crocket, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 5. Gothic Crocket Milan cathedral, (Raguenet). 
 
 6. Arm of a Stall, Salisbury cathedral, (Raguenet). 
 7 — 10. Arms of Stalls, monastery, Maulbronn. 
 
 11 — 12. Wrought-iron, Gothic, Augsburg. 
 
 13. Gargoyle, Viollet-le-Duc, Eglise d'Eu, (Raguenet). 
 
 14. Gargoyle, bell-tower, St. Sernin, Toulouse, restored by Viollet- 
 le-Duc, (Raguenet). 
 
 15. Gargoyle, Meaux cathedral, (Raguenet). 
 IG — 17. Gargoyle, St. Eustache, Paris. (Raguenet). 
 
186 Tho Decorated Ilingc, &c. 
 
 Tde Decorated Hinge, &c. (Plate 117.) 
 
 The Middle Ages, and after them the Renascence, brought the 
 developenieut of wrought metal-work to the highest state of perfection. 
 Here we have to consider tho different kinds of bands, technically 
 known, according to their shape, as Hinge, Strap, &c. 
 
 Although these bands were originally intended only to bind-to- 
 gether the underlying wood construction of gates, doors, caskets, 
 chests, &c., the bald, practical form was soon made decorative; and 
 this the more readily that the Gothic principle of wood construction, 
 with its narrow stave-like or matched strips of wood, offered only 
 scanty opportunities of artistic decoration. 
 
 Delicate series of lines, designed as Free-ornaments, start from 
 the Hinge and terminate as leaves and flowers. The heads of the 
 necessary rivets and screws, themselves shaped as rosettes in the 
 richer examples, give a pleasing relief. Gothic usually applies the 
 extended Strap-hinge (figs. 7 — 8); while the Renascence, in accord- 
 ance with its principle of bordering in wood constructions, prefers the 
 shorter Butt-hinge (figs. 11 — 12). In the latter epoch the surface 
 of the metal received further decoration trough the arts of etching, 
 engraving, niello-work, &c. Book-mounts, in particular, offered a 
 wide field for the application of these arts. 
 
 Modern times have with justice devoted increased attention to 
 these objects; and have restored them to the domain of art from which 
 various causes had excluded them for almost a century. 
 
 The plate gives a- small selection from the copious iDaterial to 
 he found in museums and publications. 
 
 Plate 117. The Decorated Hinge, «S:c. 
 1. Gothic hinge, church-door, Viersen near Cologne, 15th century. 
 
 2 — 3. Plain terminations of hinges, Hefner- Alteneck collection, 
 
 16th century. 
 4 — 5. Terminations of hinges, Tov^Ti-hall, Miinster. 
 
 6. Termination of hinge, Prie-dieu, Gelnhauscn, 15th century, 
 (Musterornamente). 
 
 7. Gothic hinge. Door of a cabinet, Town-hall, Zwolle. 
 
 8. Gothic hinge. 
 
 9. Renascence hinge, old Kaufhaus, on the Limmat, Zurich, 1618. 
 
 10. Renascence hinge, Town-hall, Augsburg, 17th century, (Muster- 
 ornamente). 
 
 11. Renascence hinge, Door in Ettlingen, United collections, Carls- 
 ruhe. 
 
 12. Door-hinge, German, 1580, Free imitation by Prof. Storck, 
 (Zeichenvorlagen). 
 
FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 187 
 
 The Decorated Hinge, .&c. 
 
 Plate 117. 
 
188 The Tassel. — The Fringe, and the Valtcce, 
 
 The Tassel. (Plate 118.) 
 
 The chief contributions of textile art to the group of Free-orna- 
 ments are Tassels, Fringes, and Laces. The two latter are current 
 edgings, the first, on the contrary, are the termination of the lower 
 end of cords or of shaped draperies. Thus we find Tassels used on 
 Girdles, Bell-pulls, and Curtain -holders; as pendants from Flags, 
 Standards, Valences, Cushions, Table-covers, Palls, and Tent-covers; 
 also on Pouches, Hoods, Caps, Harness, &c. 
 
 The Tassel consists of a tuft of threads or cords, hanging straight 
 down from a core of wood, turned in various profiles, and decorated 
 with twisted threads. The original may be assumed to have been 
 the cord T\dth a simple knot, the knot being intended to keep 
 the cord from ravelling-out. The Tassel is undoubtedly of great 
 antiquity. The reliefs found in Khorsabad, Niniveh, and elsewhere, 
 show that the Assyrians were great admirers of such kinds of trimming. 
 And, although such a lavish use does not occur again; there would 
 probably -be little difficulty in finding examples of tassels from all 
 periods of Art. 
 
 Not only form but also colour- contributes to the effect of Tassels, 
 so that the examples in our plate really only give half the effect. 
 An exhaustive study of Trimmings, by Jacob Falke, will be found in 
 Teirich's "Blatter fiir Kuustgewerbe" 1875. 
 
 Plate 118. Tpie Tassel. 
 1. French lady's girdle, 12th century, (Viollet-le-Duc) 
 
 2—3. Tassels, Holbein, (Teirich). 
 
 4. Tassels, Turkish harness, 17th century, United collections, 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 5. Tassel, old standard. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 6. Tassel, Tunisian pistol, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 7. Leather tassel, lady's bag, German Renascence. 
 8 — 10. Modern tassels, by Aug. Topfer, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 11. Modern tassel, by A. Seder, Munich. 
 
 The Fringe, and the Valence. (Plate 119.) 
 
 If, at the end of a- piece Of material, the weft -threads (parallel 
 to the end) be drawn-out, the remaining warp-threads will form a 
 simple Fringe. If we give the end greater security, by knotting or 
 tieing the threads together in tufts, we get the ordinary Fringe. The 
 Fringe, however, is not always made of the material; it is often 
 manufactured independently, and sewed -on to the edge of the material. 
 In this case the Fringe is combined with a woven heading-band (gimp). 
 
FEEE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 189 
 
 The Tassel. 
 
 Plate 118. 
 
19 The Frmj^^e, the Valence, and the Lace Border. 
 
 Richer types of Fringes may be produced either by variety^ of 
 the edge, so that tufts of unequal lengths form rh}i:hmically alternating 
 groups" (fig. 2), or by using several thicknesses of Fringe, lying one 
 behind the other, (fig. 4). 
 
 The Fringe is always applied long, when a pendant terminatioi] 
 is required. In other cases as, for example, where the fringed- ma- 
 terial is to lie horizontally, like small Table-covers, Napkins, &c., it is 
 advisable to keep the fringe short. 
 
 Fringes have been in use from the very earliest periods; but it 
 is again the Orientals, and especially the Assyrians, who show a pre- 
 ference for this form. Fringes occur perpetually in various national 
 costumes, and in the toilet of our modern ladies. 
 
 The Renascence adopted the Fringe as a trimming for furniture, 
 and specially for chairs; although not always with true artistic feeling. 
 
 The Valence is a hanging textile termination; the lower edge is 
 ornamentally cut, and is often ornamented with cords, tassels, em- 
 broidery, &c. The upper edge of the Valence is generally fixed to 
 a moulding. 
 
 Valences occur as the -interior furnishing of "Windows, on 
 four-post Beds, Baldachins. Canopies, Tents, Marquees, &c.; of late 
 years, they have been used on Awnings, and Outside-blinds. 
 
 Plate 119. The Valence. 
 
 1. Tomb of the Incas, Ancon, Peru, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 2. Indian -Mexican pouch, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 3. Egyptian, (Ebers). 
 
 4. Renascence, (Storck). 
 
 5. Mediaeval maniple, (Telrich). 
 
 6. Turkish saddle-cloth, 1690, United colkctions, Carlsruhe. 
 
 7. Renascence, silver. 
 
 8 — 9. Modern designs, by Prignot. 
 
 The Lace Border. (Plate 120.) 
 
 Of all products of the textile art. Lace is the most interesting. 
 There is something poetical about it, like flowers. The combination 
 of the conventional treatment with those accidental features which 
 hand-work confers upon the delicate, light material, gives them a 
 peculiar charrn. Who invented lace manufacture, and in what year, 
 cannot now be determined. Lace is one of those things which the 
 Renascence has handed down to us without having inherited it from 
 the Antique. The stimulus, to the invention of lace and the basis of 
 its manufacture, is probably to be found in the textile band-work of 
 the Middle Ages, such as was practised, particularly in convents, for 
 ecclesiastical purposes. 
 
FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 191 
 
 The Fringe, and the Valence. 
 
 Plate 119. 
 
192 
 
 FREE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 Plate 120. 
 
 The Lace Border. 
 
The Lace Border. 193 
 
 Lace belongs in most cases to the Free -ornaments. More rarely 
 it is manufactured as an Insertion, with the character of a ribbon, or 
 for independent use as a Shawl or Wrap. Compared with Fringe, the 
 applications of Lace are freer and more varied, and by no means con 
 fined to the character of a pendant termination. The reader may be 
 assumed to be acquainted with the various uses of lace. 
 
 If we exclude the allied Crochet-work as not strictly belonging 
 to this section, we shall find that the manufacture of Lace may be 
 divided into two groups: (1) sewed or Point lace; and (2) bobbin or 
 Pillow lace. The former method has chiefly been practised in Italy, 
 Spain, Ireland, and France; the latter in England, France, the Nether- 
 lands, Schleswig, Switzerland, -and Saxony. The chief centres of the 
 lace industry were and to some extent still are: Venice, Genoa, Milan, 
 Ragusa, Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Ireland, Alencon, Valenciennes, 
 Brussels, Mechlin, Binche, Tondern, Annaberg, &c. 
 
 As in other branches, the cheap Machine-made article has nowa- 
 days reduced the manufacture of the dearer but far more valuable 
 Hand-made lace to very modest limits. See Eeports on Lace, by 
 Alan S. Cole (Department of Science and Art). 
 
 Among the numerous kinds of Lace for which no generally re- 
 cognised terminology as yet exists, we have selected some, principally 
 of older date, among which the best patterns are to be found: 
 
 Point coup6 (punto tagliato). The linen ground is cut-out and 
 
 the edges worked with the needle. 
 Point tir6 (punto a maglia quadra). Single compartments of a 
 
 quadrangular knotted or woven net are filled-up. 
 Point tir6 (punto tirato). The threads of the linen fabric are 
 partially pulled-out, the others connected together and sewed 
 round. 
 Point coup6- (punto a reticella). Groups of threads stretched 
 lengthwise and crosswise like a net, are spun round and 
 connected. 
 Point nou6 (punto a groppo). Produced by plaiting and knotting 
 
 the threads. 
 Point lace. The threads are sewed together, follov/ing the pattern, 
 and joined together by "brides". This is almost the only kind 
 of lace which can now be found on ladies' work-tables. 
 
 Plate 120. The Lace Border. 
 
 1. Venetian guipure, old pattern-book. 
 
 2. Point noue, end of the 15th century. 
 3—4. Old, point. 
 
 5 — 8. Modem, pillow, old patterns. 
 
 9. Modern, knotted, with fringe, (Macrame lace). 
 
 iq 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. '■^^ 
 
194 
 
 4:-^ 
 
 t 'Z-^ 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 All those elements of ornamental art which express the idea of 
 supporting or bearing, are here gathered into a special group to 
 which is given the name "Supports". 
 
 Supports, in the strict sense of the word, are piers or columns. 
 But it does not fall within the scope of this work to treat these 
 forms from the architectural point of view, or to enter into the details 
 and proportions of the so-called "Orders of Architecture". All that is 
 required on this point may be gained from the works of architectural 
 specialists: Botticher, Tektonik der Hellenen; Mauch and Lohde, Die 
 Architektonischen Ordnungen; R. Phene Spiers, Tlie Orders of Archi- 
 tecture; Vignola; Durm and others. We will therefore disregard the 
 undecorated forms, and discuss only the decorative details of these 
 supports. 
 
 Like a tree which consists of root, trunk, and crown. Piers and 
 Columns necessarily have a base, a shaft, and a capital. (The Doric 
 Column is an exception as it has no base.) The natural model 
 for the Pier and the Column is the trunk of a tree hewn into a 
 cylindrical or prismatic form. The motive of the channellings and 
 flutings of the shaft of a support is to be found in the channels and 
 flutings of Endogeneons Plants. 
 
 Supports which, like piers and columns, are intended to bear 
 a considerable weight, usually have a strong cylindrical or prismatic 
 structure, generally tapering towards the top; the fundamental forms 
 of the Candelabrum, which is meant to bear only an inconsiderable 
 weight, like Lamps, <&c., are freer, have more variety, and offer a 
 wider field for decoration than the forms of the former group. The 
 Candelabnim is also divided into foot, shaft, and crown. The shaft, 
 
Supports. — The Foliated Shaft. 195 
 
 again, ls frequently composed of several distinct parts. The cande- 
 hibrum as a whole will receive a more detailed consideration in 
 Division III, (Utensils). 
 
 Small Pillars, shaped like a pier, column, or candelabrum, are 
 also used for the construction of balaustrades ; in which case tliey 
 have to support only a Rail. 
 
 The small Pillars have thick, compact forms; Balausters, on the 
 contrary, are slender bodies of revolution, with great variety in the profile. 
 
 Very peculiar forms of support are the antique Trapezophors or 
 table-legs; the Legs of modern furniture bear more resemblance to 
 balauster pillars. 
 
 Terminus is the name given to supports which widen out in an 
 upward direction like an inverted Obelisk, and terminate in a bust 
 or capital. 
 
 Beside the geometrical and plant elements, the human form is 
 also used as a motive of supports. Male forms thus used are termed 
 Atlantes; and female forms Caryatids. 
 
 The various forms of Consoles are included in the group of Supports, 
 
 The Foliated Shaft. (Plate 121.) 
 
 We have already mentioned that the Plant-world furnishes the 
 motive for the forms of Supports. Reeds, Canes, Tree-trunks with 
 knots, &c., were copied in the Antique. 
 
 The mural paintings of Pompeii show lofty airy constructions 
 with extremely slender, foliated supports. The bronze Candelabra 
 and Lampadaria, intended to hold lamps, are often direct imitations 
 of plant stems, while the Roman State- Candelabra are often decorated- 
 with Artificial foliage. Later epochs have made little change in this 
 respect; it may be said in general that, as regards delicacy of 
 feeling, and moderation in the application of natural forms, they 
 have seldom reached and still more seldom surpassed the Antique 
 models. 
 
 Plate 121. The Foliated Shaft. 
 
 1. Finial of the choragic monument of Lysikrates, Athens, (in- 
 tended for the reception of a bronze tripod), Greek. 
 
 2. Part of the shaft of a Roman State - candelabrum , marble, 
 Vatican museum, Rome. 
 
 3—4. Supports, mural paintings, Pompeii, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 5. Graeco-Italic, Lamp-stand, bronze. 
 
 6. Upper part of shaft, Graeco-Italic candelabrum, Brondsted collec- 
 tion, (Vulliamy). 
 
.196 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 Plate 121. 
 
 The Foliated Shaft 
 
The Fluted Shaft. — The Base. x97 
 
 The Fluted Shaft. (Plato 122.) 
 
 Columns, Piers, Candelabra, and similar Supports frequently have 
 channellings or flutings. The object of these is to give aaimatiou to 
 the smooth shaft, and- to emphasize the expression of the principle of 
 weight-bearing. This latter is specially true of the channellings. 
 
 In the Doric style the Flutings are shallow without any intervd, only 
 divided from each other by a sharp edge, (figs. 1 and 2). The Ionic 
 and Corinthian shafts, have deeper flutings (figs. 3 and 4), separated 
 from each other by 611ets -formed of the untouched suiface of the 
 shaft. The channellings terminate upwards like small niches, with 
 semicircular or elliptical heads, (fig. 5). Leaf-like terminations, like 
 that on fig. 13 are rarer! The termination downwards is similar to 
 those shown on figs. 6 — 8. 
 
 The number of channellings on a shaft varies from 18 to 24 
 On smaller constructions, such as Furnitui-e, Balausters, &c., the 
 number is reduced; but seldom less than 8. The Channellings taper 
 proportionately with the shaft. Pilasters are also channelled to match 
 the Columns. In strict Architecture, rich and composite channellings 
 and flutings are rather injurious than otherwise (figs. 7 — 11); but 
 on Candelabra, and Mouldings they often produce a good effect. Wliea 
 applied to the Torus and the Cavetto: the former (convex) should 
 be decorated by Nurls; and the latter (concave) should have Flutes. 
 
 Plate 122. Tiie Fluted Shaft. 
 
 1 — 2. Sections of Doric Fluting. 
 
 3 — 4. Sections of Ionic and Corinthian Fluting. 
 
 5 — 6. Construction of the terminations of Fluting on cylindrical 
 
 shafts. 
 7 — 11. Composite !Fluting, with sections, and terminations. 
 
 12. Part of an Antique Candelabrum, with tapered Fluting. 
 
 13. Termination of the Fluting, monument of Lysikrates, Athens. 
 (The construction is clearly indicated on the drawings.) 
 
 The Base. (Plate 123—124.) 
 
 It is unquestionably more beautiful when something in the 
 shape of a Base is interposed between the shaft of a column and 
 the substructure on which it rests, than when, as in the Doric stylo, 
 the column rises without any such base. Bases suggested by the 
 radical leaves of plants, are common in Oriental styles. Plate 124, 
 fig. 1 gives an Egyptian example of this kind. Decorations of this 
 6ort are, however, oftener applied to the lower end of the shaft than 
 
198 
 
 SUPPOETS. 
 
 s 
 
 rf^- 
 
 
 W 
 
 =5:t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 6. 
 
 Plate 122. 
 
 The Fluted Shaft. 
 
The Base. 199 
 
 to the Base itself. This natural method of decoration is also met- 
 with on richly decorated examples of Roman style, where a row of 
 Artificial leaves encircle the shaft, (Plate 123. 3). Antique Bases are 
 composed of a square foundation slab (the plinth); and some mouldings 
 which follow the circular plan of the shaft. The well-known and 
 oft-used Attic Base, consists, beginning from below, of a plinth, a 
 great torus, fillet, scotia, fillet, upper torus, fillet and apophyge. The 
 last, as a quarter-hollow forms the transition between fillet and shaft. 
 When the plinth is decorated, which is the case only in very rich 
 examples, the motive is either a band or a scroll. The tori are de- 
 corated with braided work, as shown on Plate 99, the hollow or 
 "scotia" is sometimes decorated with leaves, the smaller tori may be 
 treated as astragals; and so on. Plate 123 shows three rich Roman 
 examples. Others will be found in Botticher's TeMonik der Hellenen. 
 
 The Byzantine and Romanesque periods follow the Antique in 
 the treatment of Bases. The spaces which remain on the upper sur- 
 face of the square plinth are, however, filled up with ornament (Plate 
 124. 3, 7, 8, 10), or with small animal figures, (Plate 124. 9).^ In 
 the later Gothic style the torus overlaps the sides of the plinth, 
 which reduces these spaces; the corners of the plinth are also some- 
 times finished as shown on Plate 124. 6. 
 
 The Gothic period prefers geometrical to organic form; and se- 
 cures good effects by a variety of profiles placed high up on com- 
 posite clustered columns, (plate 124. 11) gives an example of this. 
 Remark the similarity with the Chinese example, fig. 2, which would 
 seem to have been suggested by a cluster of juxtaposed shafts. 
 
 The Renascence and modern styles resort to direct copying from 
 the Antique; but, as a rule, do not use ornamented mouldings. 
 
 The treatment of the Bases of piers and pilasters is usually 
 identical with that of columns; so that there is no necessity for 
 dealing with these separately. 
 
 Plate 123. The Base: Roman. 
 
 1. Capitoline Museum, Rome, (De Vico). 
 
 2. Temple of Concord, Rome, (De Vico). 
 
 8. Baptistery of Constantino, Rome, (Vorbilder fiir Fabrikanten uod 
 Handworker). 
 
 Pi ATE 124. The Base: Romanesque, &c. 
 
 1. Egyptian, Temple of Tutmes III, Karnak, (Raguenct). 
 
 2. Chinese, (Raguenet). 
 
 3. Romanesque, coupled, Schwarzach. 
 4 — 6. Mediaeval. 
 
 7. Romanesque. 
 
200 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 ^ 
 
 :2^ 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 ^H4 
 
 
 
 I : mmm::iiMijmmmmmj> 
 
 Plate 123. 
 
 The Base. 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 201 
 
 The Base. 
 
 Plate 12i. 
 
202 The Base. — The Oruamented Shaft 
 
 8. Romanesque, St. Remy, Reims, (Raguenet). 
 
 9. Romanesque, Cistercian monastery, Maulbronn. 
 
 10. Romanesque, Abbey "des Dames", Caen, (Raguenet). 
 
 11. Gothic, church, Brou-Asn, (Raguenet). 
 
 The Ornamented Shaft. (Plates 125 — 126.) 
 
 The simplest, most natural and perhaps the most beautiful de- 
 coration of a Shaft is fluting, beyond which the Antique very seldom 
 goes. Where it does: it clothes the stem in naturalistic fashion with 
 plant-forms, (Plate 125. 4). 
 
 In the Byzantine, Romanesque, and Scandinavian styles: we often 
 find the shaft covered with a geometrical network, and ornamented in 
 a corresponding style, (Plate 125. 2 — 3). The Gothic style prefers 
 to leave the slender shafts smooth. 
 
 The Renascence is not satisfied with the simple flute especially 
 on small architectural work like Altars, IMonuments, &c. The craving 
 to give the Column a decoration commensurate with that of the other 
 parts of the architecture became irresistible. It is raised on a pedestal; 
 the shaft is banded, being divided into parts by projecting Cinctures, 
 generally two, the lower at about one-third, the upper at about two- 
 thirds of the height. On the lower part are suspended festoons, 
 weapons, trophies, cartouches, &c., the upper part is channelled or 
 decorated with Artificial foliage (Plate 125. 1); finally, festoons of fruit 
 or drapery are suspended from the capital. 
 
 Where the Columns are not large, especially in Furniture, the 
 cylindrical shaft is replaced by the richer profiling of a more candelabrum- 
 like form, (Plate 126. 5). Flat ornamentation is also used, as well 
 as plastic decoration, by means of painting, incrustation, or inlaying, 
 (Plate 125. 5). 
 
 All these methods of application are more or less in agreement 
 with the object and principle of construction of the Column, but the 
 same cannot be said of the Renascence and the following styles of the 
 Decadence, which build up their Columns of large and small drums, 
 alternately ornamented and plain, or even give the Shaft a spiral 
 tvrist and decorate it with spiral flu tings. 
 
 Plate 125. The Decorated Shaft. 
 
 1. Italian Renascence, Tomb in Sta. Maria del Popolo, Rome, by 
 Sansovino. 
 
 2. Romanesque. 
 
 3. Shaft, church, Tournus, (Raguenet). 
 
 4. Roman, marble. 
 
 5. Column, with intarsia decoration, German Renascence, (Hirth). 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 203 
 
 ? \ 
 
 
 The Decorated Shaft. 
 
 Plate 125. 
 
204 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 Plate 126. 
 
 The Profiled Shaft, 
 
The Ornamented Shaft — The Capital. 205 
 
 Plate 126. The Profiled Shaft. 
 
 1. Candelabrum-like column, tester-bed, French Renascence. 
 
 2. Lower part of a column, Mayence cathedral. 
 
 3. Lower part of column, Palais du Commerce, Lyons, (Raguenet). 
 
 4. Column, diploma. Modern. 
 
 5. Column, Modern, (Gerlach). 
 
 The Capital. (Plates 127—130.) 
 
 The upper termination of the column is the Capital. The Capital 
 forms the transition from the supporting Shaft to the superincumbent 
 Weight. This transition may assume either geometrical or organic 
 forms. Very frequently both systems are combined; so that, strictly 
 speaking, we can only say that one system or the other predominates. 
 
 The Egyptian -capital is suggested by the cinctured bundle of 
 Papyrus stems with buds (Plate 127. 4, 5), or with opened Papyrus 
 or Lotus flowers, (Plate 127. 2, 3). 
 
 Abnormal capitals are found in the Old Persian style. Plate 
 127. 1, gives an example from Persepolis, composed of the fore-parts 
 of Bulls. 
 
 As examples of Oriental forms: two Moorish capitals from the 
 Alhambra in Granada are given on figs. 6 and 7 of the same plate. 
 
 Antique art adopts three general types of Capitals: Doric, Ionic 
 and Corinthian. 
 
 The Doric Capital consists of the abacus, which is square in plan, 
 and the echinos, v/hich is circular. The transition to the shaft is effec- 
 ted by hollow mouldings and astragals. The Graeco-Doric Capital was 
 painted. Where the sides of the abacus are decorated: a Fret pattern 
 is employed (Plate 127. 8). The echinos is a member of conflict, 
 and is ornamented accordingly. In the Roman and Renascence styles 
 plastic ornamentation takes the place of painting. The band of leaves 
 becomes an egg-aad-dart ornament (Plate 127. 10). Leaves pointing 
 upward are sometimes used (Plate 127. 9). At the top of the abacus 
 a small moulding is used. A necking, generally decorated with 
 rosettes, is interposed between Capital and Shaft. Similar rosettes 
 decorate the spaces on the under side of the abacus (Plate 127. 
 9—10). 
 
 The lonro Capital replaces the square abacus by a scroll rolled- 
 1d on both sides, in great volutes. The intervals, between the egg 
 band and the scroll, are marked by palraettes. A neck may bo added 
 as in the Doric Capital, and it is freqncutly decorated with a pal- 
 metto ornament (Plate 128. 4—5). The side view of the scroll 
 shows plain profilings as on Plato 128. 1, decorated with leaves or 
 scalps ''- the richer examples. Tbn "Ionic Copiial has two faces, and 
 
206 The Capital. 
 
 two si(5es. For this reason it is of only limited application, as, 
 when the capital is applied to the corner column of two adjacent 
 sides of a building, it is impossible to avoid a bad effect from the 
 two reentering volutes on the inner faces. 
 
 The fundamental form of the Corinthian Capital is" the calix. 
 The decoration may be designed on two methods. Firstly a row of 
 leaves, or two rows arranged alternately one above the other, clothe 
 the lower cylindrical part of the capital, and plain broad waterleaves 
 form the transition to the square abacus. To this class belongs the 
 capital of the Tower of the Winds in Athens, and a capital found 
 on the island of Melos, which is shown on Plate 128. 7. Or, secondly: 
 volutes rise from the rows of leaves and unite in pairs under the 
 corners of the abacus, which are then extended, so that the sides are 
 rendered concave in plan. The centre of each sides of the abacus is 
 decorated with a palmette or rosette (Plate 128. 8 — 9). 
 
 The fusion of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals produced the 
 Composite capita]; whose appearance is more interesting than beautiful 
 (Plate 128. 10). 
 
 Early Christian, and, to a certain extent, Byzantine and Roma- 
 nesque art, models the forms of capital on those of the Antique. 
 The Corinthian Capital is the one mostly followed. The details are 
 made correspondingly simpler and ruder (Plate 129. 6 — 11). But 
 along side of these reminiscences of the Antique, new and independent 
 forms appear. The antagonism between the cylindrical under part 
 and the square upper termination is adjusted by geometrical construc- 
 tions. Thus originated the Cushion and the Trapeziform Capital. 
 The Cushion capital is specifically Romanesque. A half sphere is cut 
 by planes below and on the four sides. Its simplest form is given 
 on Plate 129. 1. The decoration is sometimes geometrical (Plate 129. 
 2 and 12), and sometimes contains foliage and figures (Plate 129. 5). 
 Th^ Double-cushion Capital is a variant of the Cushion capital (Plate 
 129. 4). The Trapeziform capital is specifically Byzantine. In this 
 style: the cylindrical shaft is continued to the square abacus, which 
 causes each side of the Capital to assume a Trapeziform shape (Plate 
 129. 3). Very often these Capitals are richly decorated v/ith figures. 
 
 The arrangement of clustered -shafts, so popular in the Middle 
 Ages, led to the Coupled- capital, which appears sometimes as con- 
 joined capitals (Plate 129. 10), and sometimes as the juxtaposition of 
 two ordinary capitals with a conjoined abacus. 
 
 In the Gothic style, particularly in its later period, the abacus 
 becomes octagonal. Crocket-like knots of leaves are loosely attached 
 to the caliz-formed core. The vigourous projections of these leaf 
 ornaments give the Capital the appearance of an inverted bell (bell 
 capitals, Plate 129. 13—14). 
 
 The Renascence adopts the Doric and Ionic Capitals, and more 
 
The Capital. 207 
 
 usnally the Corinthian Capital directly borrowed from the Antique; 
 but the forms become freer and more varied; and, compared with 
 the overcharged Roman examples, simpler. The volutes at the corners 
 develope into independent forms, and are often replaced by dolphins, 
 cornucopias, and other fantastic forms, scattered instances of which 
 may, however, be found even in the Antique. Modern architecture, 
 like the Renascence, also follows these traditions. 
 
 Plate 127. The Capital. 
 
 1. Ancient Persian, Persepolis. 
 
 2. Egyptian, Kom-Ombo. 
 
 3. , Philae. 
 
 4. , Memnonium Thebes. 
 
 5. , Luxor, (Owen Jones). 
 
 6 — 7. Moorish capitals, Aihambra, Hall of the two sisters, (Raguenet). 
 
 8. Graeco-Doric. 
 
 9. Roman-Doric, thermae of Diocletian, (Mauch and Lohde). 
 10. Doric, Italian Renascence, by Barozzi da Vignola. 
 
 Plate 128. The Capital. 
 
 1. Graeco-Ionic, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 2. Tonic, Bassae, (Cockerell). 
 
 3. Ionic, Pompeii. 
 
 4. Roman-Ionic, (Musterornamente). 
 
 5. Graeco-Ionic, Erechtheum, Athens. 
 
 6. Ionic, Louvre, Paris. 
 
 7. Antique Corinthian, found in Melos, O^orbilder fiir Fabrikanten 
 und Handwerker). 
 
 8. Greek -Corinthian, monument of Lysikrates, Athens. 
 
 9. Roman-Corinthian, palaces of the emperors Rome. 
 10. Roman Composite, Louvre, Paris. 
 
 Plate 129. The Capital. 
 
 1. Rom^anesque Cushion -capital, St. Gereon, Cologne, (Otte). 
 
 2. , , » the abbey church, Laach, (Otte). 
 
 3. Byzantine, Sta. Sofia, Constantinople. 
 
 4. Romanesque Double-cushion-capital, Rosheim church, XI. cen- 
 tury. 
 
 5. Romanesque Double-cushion-capital. 
 
 6. Romanesque Cushion-capital, Freiburg. 
 
 7 — 9. Romanesque, former cloisters of the church, Schwarzacb. 
 
 10. Romanesque Coupled -capital. 
 
 11. Romanesque. 
 
208 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 Plate 12; 
 
 The Capital. 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 209 
 
 'S.MJ'kJMWU^ ^ 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 
 
 The Capital. 
 
 Plate 128. 
 14 
 
210 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 Plate 129. 
 
 The Capital. 
 
surroRTs. 
 
 211 
 
 The Capital. 
 
 Plate 130. 
 
212 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 1 
 
 ffl 
 
 § 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 /// 
 
 1 
 
 
 M 
 
 tfi^''"'' 
 
 K 
 
 W 
 
 M 
 
 5. 'Ti-. 
 
 Plate 131. 
 
 The Pilaster Panel. 
 
The Capital. — The Pilaster Panel. 213 
 
 12. Romanesque Cushion-capital, monastery, Lippoldsberg. 
 
 13 14. Late Gothic, triforium of the choir, minster Freiburg. 
 
 Plate 130. The Capital. 
 
 1. Renascence, drawing by Holbein, (Guichard). 
 
 2 — 3. Renascence, designs by Heinrich Voigtherr, (Hirth). 
 
 4. Composite, Italian. 
 
 5. Renascence, Palazzo Scrofa, Ferrara, Italian. 
 
 6. Renascence, Tomb in Sta. Mviria del Popolo, Rome, by San- 
 sovino. 
 
 7. Renascence, Italian, Palazzo Zorzi, Venice. 
 
 8. Modern, municipal baths, Carlsnihe, Architect Durra, 
 
 9. Modern French, Vaudeville theatre, Paris, Architect Magne. 
 
 The Pilaster Panel. (Plate 131.) 
 
 In many cases the Pilaster or wall-pier shaft is devoid of orna- 
 ment. Unlike the column, the Pilaster does not, as a rule, taper up- 
 vards; and if the Pilaster is ornamented with fluting the tapering 
 is never permissible. The Pilaster frequently has cinctures, generally 
 two, the lower at '/j, the upper at ^j^ of its height. The ornamental 
 decoration, when present, takes the form of an elongated, sunk panel 
 bordered by a moulding. The ornamentation may be of three kinds: 
 firstly: an ascending plant motive may be used, rising symmetrically 
 or in the form of a wavy line from calices, vases, &c., animal and 
 human figures being not infrequent accessories; secondly, the decora- 
 tion may consist of festoons of flowers, fruits, trophies, shields, &c., 
 varied by knots and ribbons, the points of suspension being rosettes, 
 rings, lion heads, &c.; thirdly, the panel may be decorated with flat 
 strapwork, as in the Elizabethan manner. 
 
 Of these three kinds of decoration the first is the most used; 
 and the most suitable. Few Antique examples have come down to 
 us; the Middle Ages make scarcely any use of the Pilaster; but 
 the Renascence is much richer in such examplos. Stalls, Altars, 
 Sepulchral -monuments are scarcely to be found -without Pilasters. 
 Plate 131 offers a small selection from the copious material; all the 
 panels show the first of the three kinds of decoration. 
 
 Plate 131. The Pilaster Panel 
 
 1. Italian Renascence. 
 
 2 — 5. Italian Renascence, Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice. 
 
 6 — 7. Italian Renascence, by Benedetto da Majano. 
 
 8 — 9. Modem Panels, in the style of the Italian Renascence. 
 
214 The Pilaster Capital. 
 
 The Pilaster Capital. (Plates 132—134.) 
 
 Generally speaking, the structure of the Capital of the pilaster 
 follows that of the Column; and, to a certain extent, translates the 
 forms of the latter from the round to the flat. This observation is 
 true in the Renascence period; but not in the Antique. 
 
 In Pilaster-capitals in the Doric style one or more leaf or egg- 
 and-dart mouldings run under the abacus, and are covered at the 
 corners with palmettes or leaves. Beneath this proper part of the 
 Capital a neck more or less high is usually found, decorated with 
 rosettes or with other ornaments (Plate 132. 1). On modern Capitals 
 of this class the neck may even be fluted (Plate 134. 7); not infre- 
 quently the centre of the Capital is still further decorated by the 
 addition of masks, symbols, &c. (Plate 134. 7 and 8). 
 
 While the Renascence adopted the form of the Ionic Capital 
 with scarcely any change for its pilasters (Plate 134. 4), the Antique 
 possessed a special form of pilaster Capital of this order (Plate 132. 2). 
 
 The most numerous, varied and beautiful Capitals of pilasters 
 are in the Corinthian order. The profile and general arrangement are 
 the same as with the columns; generally, however, the pilaster is 
 broader in proportion to its height. The lower part is encircled by 
 Ai-tificial leaves which sometimes dwindle to the two corner leaves 
 supporting the volutes. The volutes are of the most varied descrip- 
 tions, sometimes replaced by cornucopias, dolphins, chimeras, and 
 other figures (Plates 132. 8 and 133. 5). Leaf- ornaments, vases, 
 garlands, calices of flowers, &c., are arranged at the centres (Plate 132. 
 4 — 8), also masks (Plate 133, 4, 5 and 8). Neckings are rare on 
 Corinthian capitals (Plate 133. 7). The egg -and -dart mouldings, 
 which run alo;ig the bottom of Antique examples (Plate 132. 4 — 5), 
 are reminiscences of the Doric style, so that these forms may also 
 be regarded as a kind of transition Capital. 
 
 Plate 132. The Pilaster Capital. 
 
 1. Greek-Doric anta, Erechtheum, Athens. 
 
 2. Greek-Ionic anta. 
 
 3. Greek -Corinthian. 
 
 4 — 6. Roman -Corinthian, (B5tticher). 
 
 7. Roman- Corinthian, Pantheon, Rome. 
 
 8. . Roman- Corinthian, Temple of Mars Ultor, Rome, (De Vico). 
 
 Plate 133. The Pilaster Capital. 
 
 1. Corinthian, Italian Renascence, Court of the Scala dei Giganti, 
 
 Venice, (Wiener Bauhiitte).. 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 215 
 
 
 The Pilaster Capital. 
 
 Plate 132. 
 
216 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 "^MMwmmA^M^mwJLim^ 
 
 Plate 13; 
 
 The Pilaster Capital. 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 217 
 
 The Pilaster Capital. 
 
 Plate 134. 
 
218 The Pilaster Capital — The Candelabra Base. 
 
 2. Corinthian, Italian Keaascence, Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice. 
 
 3. Corinthian, Italian Kenascence, Certosa, Florence. 
 
 4. Corinthian, Italian Renascence, Scuola di San Marco, Venice, 
 by Pietro Lombardo; 
 
 5 — 6. Corinthian, Italian Renascence, Chapel of the Palazzo Vecchio^ 
 
 Florence, (Musteromamente). 
 7 Corinthian, Italian Renascence. 
 
 8. Corinthian, French Renascence', Tomb of Louis XII, St. Denis. 
 
 [Plate 134. The Pilaster Capital. 
 
 1. Corinthian, Italian Renascence, Portal of San Michele, Venice. 
 
 2_3. Corinthian, Italian Renascence, Palace of the Doges, Venice. 
 
 4. Ionic, French Renascence, (Lifevre). 
 
 6. Wrought-iron, castle at Athis-Mons, French, 17th century. 
 
 6. Wrought-iron, by Jean Berain, French, 17th century, (Raguenet). 
 
 7. Modern Doric, Architects Kayser and v. Grossheim. 
 
 8. Modem Doric, new Opera House, Paris, Architect Gamier. 
 
 9. Modem Ionic, Rue Dieu, Paris, Architect Sedille. 
 
 10. Modem Corinthian, atelier of a painter, Paris, Sculptor Blocbe. 
 
 The Candelabrum Foot. (Plate 135.) 
 
 For lighting, the Candelabrum played an important part in the 
 domestic and religious life of the Ancients. In the House, they 
 mostly employed slender, delicate bronze Candelebra; and for Religion, 
 the great State-candelabra of marble. The Candelabnim, like the 
 column, consists of three parts: the base, the shaft, and the capital. 
 
 To afford the necessary steadiness, the base of the Candelabrum 
 is planned on a comparatively large scale, and divided into three legs, 
 which stretch-out, towards the points of an equilateral triangle. For 
 the foot, the claw of an animal, and in particular the claw of the 
 Lion, is used. Not infrequently the claws rest on balls or discs 
 (Plate 135. 6). The transition to the shaft is designed with a double 
 calix, the upper leaves of which rise and encircle the shaft, and the 
 lower leaves descend and mask the junction of the three legs 
 (Plate 135. 1 and 5). A delicate anthemion may be perceived 
 between each pair of feet on richer examples (Plate 135. 2 and 3). 
 In exceptional cases the leg appears to grow from the mouth of an 
 animal (Plate 135. 6). Occasionally a circular, profiled and decorated 
 disc is used instead of the double calyx and anthemion. Sometimes, 
 too, the shaft is prolonged downwards beneath the disc in the form 
 of a knob, but does not touch the ground. 
 
The Candelabrum Base, & Shaft. 219 
 
 It is obvious that the delicate forms and the division into legs, 
 whica was so suitable for a material like bronze, could not be trans- 
 ferred directly to the construction in marble; but reminiscences of it 
 may be seen in the retention of the triangular ground-plan, the re- 
 duced claws, the double calyx, &c. (Plate 135. 8). 
 
 Plate 135. The Candelabrum Base. 
 
 1. Antique, bronze, Museum, Naples, (Botticher). 
 
 2. „ „ (Botticher). 
 
 3. „ „ Studj publici, Florence, (Weissbach and Lotter- 
 moser). 
 
 4 — 5. Antique, bronze, Museum, Naples. 
 
 6 — 7. Legs from antique candelabra: the former found in the ruins 
 of Paestum; the other in the Museum, Naples. 
 
 8. Roman, State- candelabrum. 
 
 9. Renascence candelabrum, Collection of drawings, Uffizi, Florence. 
 
 The Candelabrum Shaft. (Plate 136.) 
 
 The decoration of the Shaft of the* antique bronze domestic 
 Candelabrum is simple; and consists of flutings or channellings, some- 
 times of naturalistic buds and leaves. 
 
 Far richer is the ornamentation of the Antique State-candelab- 
 rum. It is divided into zones (Plate 136. 2), or the shaft sweDs 
 and diminishes alternately, giving a richer profile (Plate 136. 1). 
 Smooth *and fluted parts with contrast with foliage and figure; and 
 the ascending decoration is varied by trophies and festoons. The 
 effect depends on the propriety of the division. The repetition of 
 similar masses or similar forms becomes tedious. 
 
 The Antique and also the Renascence, particularly in Italy, has 
 transmitted to us a number of standard forms of Candelabra; of 
 which a few examples are reproduced Plate 136. 
 
 Plate 136. The Candelabrum Shaft. 
 
 1. Roman, marble. 
 
 2. Roman, marble. 
 
 3. Antique, (Botticher). 
 
 4. Mast -socket. Piazza of S. Mark, Venice, bronze, Italian Renas- 
 cence. 
 
 5. Candelabrum- like foot of a holy water-stoup, Pisa cathedral, Italiaa 
 Renascence. 
 
 6. Italian Renascence, Badia near Florence. 
 
220 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 Plate 135. 
 
 The Candelabrum Base. 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 221 
 
 The Candelabrum Shaft. 
 
 Plate 136. 
 
222 The Candelabrum Capital. — The Balauster. 
 
 The Candelabrum Capital. (Plate 137.) 
 
 The Capital of a Candelabrum has a plate or cnp-like form, 
 according as it is destined to receive a lamp, or a candle. The tops 
 of the Antique bronze Candelabra, as a rule, are profiled like the 
 so-called Krater (figs. 1 — 5). 
 
 The profiles, and ornamentation already given, may be re- 
 garded as standards. The insertion of real capitals, or of figures, as 
 bearers (fig. 6) is rarer. The marble Candelabra of the Antique 
 usually terminate in a plate or table (fig. 7); and this is also the 
 case with the Renascence Candelabra intended to receive candles. 
 These vrere not placed in a cylindrical socket but stuck on a co- 
 nical pricket. 
 
 On the decoration of Candelabra the reader may compare the 
 plates dealing with this subject in Division III, (Group of Utensils). 
 
 Plate 137. The Candelabrum Capital. 
 1—6. Antique, Museum, Naples. 
 
 7. Roman. 
 
 8. Renascence, drawing in the Uffizi, Florence. 
 
 The Balauster. (Plate 138.) 
 
 Balausters are small squat columns of circular or square plan. 
 Sometimes they are only symmetrical around their axis, sometimes 
 however they are also symmetrical in an upward and downward direc- 
 tion. In most cases their construction is that of the candelabrum. 
 They may be divided into base, shaft, and capital. 
 
 Ranged side-by -side in a row, balausters are employed by the 
 Renascence and modem art in Parapets, Balconies, Attics, and Stair- 
 cases. When the Balausters are placed on a Stair-case: the bases 
 and capitals are either slanting, or the • horizontals of the Balausters 
 follow the slanting lines of the stair-case. The latter method was 
 adopted in the Decadence of the Renascence, but is unjustifiable; and 
 can, in any case, only be adopted with Balausters of a square or 
 oblong plan. A rich variety may be obtained by the use of square 
 and cylindrical forms in the same Balauster (fig. 6). The Balauster 
 is occasionally used as a support for Stalls, and on Furniture. Ra- 
 guenet's "Documents et Materiaux" contains a large number of Ba- 
 lausters; from which we have selected some examples. 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 223 
 
 The Candelabium Capital. 
 
 Plate 13' 
 
224 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 Plate 138. 
 
 The BalKuster. 
 
The Balauster. — The Terminus. 225 
 
 Platc 138. TiiE Balauster. 
 
 1. Square plan, Italian Kenasccncb, Sta. Maria della Salute, 
 Venice. 
 
 2. A system of square Balausters, Palazzo Pesaro, Venice. 
 8. Circular plan, Modern Italian. 
 
 4. Wood, Italian Renascence, stalls in Sta. Maria Novella, Flo- 
 rence. 
 
 5. Modem French, Architect Roux, Paris. 
 
 (3 — 7. Square wooden, (Bothke: "Der decorative Holzbauer"). 
 8 — 9. Modern, terracotta. 
 
 The Terminus. (Plate 139.) 
 
 The Terminus is a pilaster -like support, the fundamental form 
 of which is characterized by tapering downwards in a manner re- 
 calling an inverted Obelisk. The name is derived from the fact that 
 si miliar constructions were used in the Antique as milestones and to 
 mark the Terminations of fields, &c. The Terminus consists of the 
 profiled base, not infrequently supported on a special pedestal (figs. 3 
 and 7); the shaft tapering downwards and usually ornamented with 
 festoons (figs. 3, 4, 5, 10); and the capital, which is often re- 
 placed by a bust or half- figure (figs. 4, 5, 9). In this latter 
 case, it assumes the appearance of a caryatid; and, as the bust is 
 that of Hermes (the God of letters), this application is often termed 
 a "Hermes". Standing isolated, it serves as a Pedestal for busts and 
 lamps, as a Post for railings, and in gardens and terraces. The last 
 was exceedingly popular in the Rococo period. Joined to the wall, 
 the Term:nus°often takes the place of the pilaster. This is especially 
 true of the furniture and small architectural constructions of the 
 Renascence period. It is also not uncommon on Utensils, e. g. tri 
 pods, handles of pokers, seals, &c. 
 
 PijVTE 139. The Terminus. 
 
 1. Upper part, antique, silver treasure of Hildeshelm, Berlin 
 Museum, (obviously from a Roman tripod). 
 
 2. Stone Terminus bust, Italian Renascence, Villa i^Iassimi, Rome, 
 (Raguenet). 
 
 3. Stone Terminus bust, German Renascence, mantel-piece, town- 
 hall, Liibeck. 
 
 4. Stone Terminus bust, German Renascence, Otto Heinrich build- 
 ing, Heidelberg Castle. 
 
 6. Stone Terminus bust, German Renascence, monument, church 
 
 of the castle, Pforzheim. 
 
 Moy*"'- TTanHbook of Ornament " 
 
226 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 r - 
 
 -A 
 
 
 3n:is 
 
 
 ^51ffiffiS 
 
 CT5^ 
 
 Plate 139. 
 
 The Terminus. 
 
The Terminus. — The Parapet — The Railing Post. 227 
 
 6 — 8. Wooden Terminus, Renascence. 
 
 9. Small Terminus figure, German Renascence, National Mnsemn, 
 Munich. 
 10. Terminus with mask, modem chimney-piece, (Grewerbehalle). 
 
 The Parapet. (Plate 140.) 
 
 Besides the Parapets which are formed by rows of balausters, 
 there are others which are arrangements of pierced or perforated 
 tsone or wood, and cast or wrought iron. The Gothic style prefers 
 Tracery, the Renascence prefers Scrolls for stone parapets (figs. 1 
 and 8). Parapets of perforated wood, which are typical of Swiss 
 architecture, are composed of strips of boards, \vith shapes more or 
 less rich, care being taken that the intervening spaces also form 
 pleasing shapes. 
 
 To construct Parapets in the form of bi-axial trellises, was a popular 
 custom of the Renascence; and it has continued so to the present 
 day. But the function of the supports is only fully shown when 
 the pattern has an \;pward direction. This, however, does not ex- 
 clude the use of other treatments, e. g. panels. Raguenet has nume- 
 rous examples. 
 
 Plate 140. The Parapet. 
 
 1. Modern Gothic, stone, Viollet-le-Duc, (Raguenet). 
 
 2. Modern Gothic, stone, Viollet-le-Duc, Castle of Pien-efonds, 
 (Raguenet). 
 
 3. Stone, German Renascence, ^Dagobert tower, new Castle, Baden- 
 Baden. 
 
 4—5. Trellis, "Schinkel, (Vorb. f. Fabr. u. Handw). 
 
 6. Modern French, Hotel Mirabeau, Paris, Architect Magne, 
 (Raguenet). 
 
 7. Trellis, Barocco, wi-ought-irou; French. 
 
 Railing Post. (Plate 141.) 
 
 staircase railings, are formed of rows of upright Posts. These 
 are of slender, delicate form; and take the place of the stouter 
 balauster. 
 
 The usual materials for balausters are stone, terracotta, and 
 wood; the Railings, on the other hand, are of metal, or, in their 
 simpler forms, of wood. In the last decades, cast-iron was the ma- 
 
 15* 
 
'>28 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 Plate 140. 
 
 The Parapet. 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 229 
 
 The Railing Post. 
 
 Plate 141. 
 
230 The Hailing Post. — The Furniture Leg. 
 
 terial most often used; but lately a return has been made to 
 the more plastic wrought - iron. The ornamentation depends on 
 the material selected. Wrought - iron Posts are decorated with 
 scrolls and tendrils, while cast-iron uprights are decorated in 
 bas-reliefl 
 
 If the Railing-post has to stand on a horizontal plane, it is ad- 
 visable to construct the foot in the manner -shown in figs. 3, 4, 
 and 5; if it is to be affixed to the sides of the treads of a staircase, 
 arrangements similar to those in figs. 2, 7, and 8, are necessary. Where 
 the upper end has to support the hand-rail, independent terminations, 
 like figs. 2 and 5, may be adopted. Spherical heads may be applied 
 to all angles (fig. 4). 
 
 Plate 141. The Raiung Post. 
 
 1. Modern Post, cast-metal. Architect v. Leins, Stuttgart, (Ge- 
 werbehalle). 
 
 2. Modem Post, cast-metal, Architect v. Hoven, Frankfurt, (Ge- 
 werbehalle). 
 
 3. Modern Post, wrought-iron, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 4. „ „ cast-metal. 
 
 5. „ „ " architects Gropius and Schmieden. 
 
 6. Plain wooden Post. 
 
 7 — 8. Modern Posts, cast-metal. Architect v. Hoven, Frankfurt. 
 
 . The Furnituee Leg. (Plate 142.) 
 
 The Legs of wood furniture may be divided into two classes 
 according to their height. Tables and chairs have high Legs; low 
 Legs or Feet serve as supports for all kinds of cabinet and box-like 
 articles. 
 
 The general plan is that of a balauster - like body of revolution 
 as turned on the lathe. Angular forms, however, are also used. 
 
 High Legs are frequently decorated with carved ornaments; low 
 Legs are usually left plain; and this would seem to be in accordance 
 with their character. 
 
 Metal Feet are sometimes used for small pieces of furniture like 
 caskets. 
 
 Where the Legs have to stand on the floor: it is advisable to 
 taper them downwards (figs. 5 — 10); where they have to stand on 
 raised platforms and seldom require to be moved: it is better to 
 furnish them with a pedestal (fig. 1). It has lately become fashion- 
 able to apply metal casters to pianos, heavy chairs, couches, &c. 
 
The Fumituro Log. — Tbe Trapezoiihurou, ?^ 
 
 Plate 142. The FiUwNiTUitE Leo. 
 
 1. > Modem. 
 
 2. Modorn. 
 
 3. Modorn. 
 
 4. ATodern. 
 
 5 — 10. Various old designs. 
 
 The Trapezopltoron. (Plates 143 — 144.) 
 
 "Trapezophoron" is tho name given to the support of the Antique 
 table. They were usually of marble, the top itself was of wood or 
 stone, sometimes ornamented ^vath mosaic. 
 
 We may distinguish two principal classes of Antique tables: the 
 circular table with three legs (compare Plate 143. 1); and the oblong 
 table, resting on two end -supports (compare 143. 2 and 144. 6). 
 The lower part, of the support of the round table, consists of a great 
 leg which generally passes into a foliated calyx with a small head of 
 a lion, lynx, panther, or other animal growing out of it (143. 5 — 10). 
 The heads are sometimes human (144. 5) or human half- figures, such 
 as the genius bearing a bowl on Plate 144. 2 — 3. In the early 
 period of Antique art we find forms of more architectonic character 
 like Plate 144, fig I. The end-support for the oblong table is a 
 symmetrical duplication of the motive of the single leg already men- 
 tioned, vdth the addition of wings, and with the space between the 
 animal forms filled either by figures or ornaments (Plate 143. 2 — 4 
 and 144. 6). Very striking in both classes of support is the differ- 
 ence in scale of the various elements (a phenomenon which also 
 appears elsewhere in Roman art). 
 
 On Antique table-legs the reader may also consult Division III, 
 (Furniture). 
 
 Plate 143. The Trapezophoron. 
 
 1. Three-legged table, Roman, Legs of marble, table -top of 
 
 mosaic. 
 
 2 — 3. Front and side view of the Support of a Roman table, found 
 in the atrium of the house of Cornelius Rufus in Pompeii, 
 (Fragments de I'architecture). 
 
 4. Support of antique table. 
 
 5 — 6. Marble support of Roman table, Lynx head and claw, Museum, 
 Naples. 
 
 7 — 8. Marble support of Roman table, Panther head and claw, Bri- 
 tish Museum. 
 
 9 — 10. Marble support of Roman table. Lion head and claw, Vatican, 
 Rome. 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 Plate 142 
 
 The Furniture Leg 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 233 
 
 The TrapezophoroD. 
 
 Plate 143. 
 
234 
 
 SUFi^ORTS, 
 
 Plate 144 
 
 The Trapezophoron. 
 
The Trapezophoron. — The Console. 235 
 
 Plate 144. The Trapezophoron. 
 
 1. Marble support of antique table, Museum, Naples (judging trom 
 
 the symbolism of the orDamentation, the leg is probably from 
 
 a table sacred to Zeus), (L'art pour tous). 
 2 — 3. Front and side view of a small Roman table-support, marble, 
 
 Naples Museum, Panther claw, Eros garbed with the nebris. 
 
 4. Roman table -support, marble, British Museum. 
 
 5. ,, „ „ , Head of Hercules and lion claw, 
 Vatican. 
 
 6. Antique Support, marble, (Vulliamy). 
 
 The Console. (Plates 145—147.) 
 
 Tbe form of the Console is extremely varied; as are its uses 
 and applications. It is determined by the function, and the material 
 of which it is made, as well as by the style of the period. 
 
 Architectural members of the character of Consoles are early 
 found in the Chinese and Indian, as also in the Assyrian style; but 
 in the Egyptian style they are wanting. 
 
 Volute Consoles, very beautifully developed, are found sporadi- 
 cally in the Greek style; but the Roman style was the first to make 
 an extensive use of these forms. 
 
 The decorated ends of Beams are probably to be regarded as 
 the original model for Consoles. The S-shaped double volute, with h 
 large and a small spiral, is the standard form. In this Console, the 
 line of construction and the space for the actual decoration are given 
 in the side-view, while the front, which is subordinate, is ornamented 
 by scale motives, and leaves, which adapt themselves in graceful curves 
 to the standard forms. 
 
 When the Console is used in the Console-band of a Cornice, or 
 as the bracket of- a Balcony, its attitude is recumbent. When it sup- 
 ports the Cornices of doors and windows, its attitude is erect, ^'o 
 other application is known in the Antique. A beautiful example 
 occurs on the North door of the Erechtheum at Athens (Plate 145. 
 1 — 2). Some examples of recumbent Consoles, of Roman style, are 
 given in figs. 3—8, of the same plate. The example 3 — 4, of the 
 I>ate Roman epoch, shows decorative accessories of Swans. The bend 
 of the cnrve of the volute here departs from the normal example, 
 and approaches a more convex curve, which is demanded by tbe static 
 calculation for these supports. 
 
 The Early Christian and Romanesque art adopted coarse copies 
 of the Antique, and also created new ones suited to the new require- 
 ments. Thus early, we find those modillion forms which become 
 typical for the wooden architecture of the Middle ages, being chiefly 
 
236 The Console. 
 
 ased beneath mouldings, and in corners of doors between the jambs 
 and the lintel. The example on Plate 146. 11 may be taken as 
 representative of this kind of support. Another class of Suppoi-fe 
 exhibits a central core', tapered do\vnwards , like Pendants with a 
 polygonal or round plan (Plate 147. 1 and 2). This latter form is 
 also used in Gothic ai-t as a Bracket for the Statues of the saints, 
 which were applied to piers and the arches of portals. 
 
 The Renascense remodels the last-named console in its own way, 
 but recurs by preference to the Antique form (Plate 146. 3), some 
 times reversing the volutes (Plate 146. 1—2), and giving the front 
 a richer and more independent ornamentation (Plate 146. 6). The 
 combination of several smaller consoles to form a Composite -con- 
 sole, is shown on Plate 146. fig. 5. Just as the Pendant-consoles 
 of the Gothic style imitate the calyx capital, so too does the Rena- 
 scense remodel the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian capitals for Consoles 
 (Plate 147. 4 — 6). In wood architecture, we meet with Consoles 
 which have the form of richly -decorated struts (Plate 146. 4). 
 
 The Barocco style, which followed the Renascence, also made 
 essential additions to the richness of the forms. The strict line of 
 the volute is abandoned and frequently broken by straight lines 
 (Plate 146. 7 — 10). The Console is shaped in front-view like a pen- 
 dant Triangle, or typographical Tail-piece (Plate 147. 3 and 8). An- 
 other invention of this period is the Triglyph-console (Plate 147. 7). 
 
 The Rococo period abandons the traditional standards, and sacri- 
 fices construction to picturesque license. Shell-work, and unsymme- 
 trical scrolls, serve as supports. 
 
 Modern art recasts the elements of former styles, without adding 
 anything essentially new, unless we regard as a novelty the custom 
 of placing busts, clocks, and knicknacks, on independent Consoles 
 which are used as Brackets. 
 
 Finally: we may mention that in almost every style, Consoles in 
 the various forms have been used as the Keystones of door and 
 window lintels, in which case they are, generally speaking, not 
 Supports, as they have nothing to support. 
 
 It should be considered inadmissible to apply distorted Consoles i. e. 
 those which have vertical sides though they are on the raking sofits 
 of pediments, as was done in the Late Roman period, and in imitation 
 thereof by the Renascence in some examples. 
 
 Examples, of all periods, will be found in Raguenct's work; and 
 an exhaustive essay on the Console by Dr. P. F. Krell in the Ge- 
 werhehalle, 1870, No. 10. 
 
 Plate 145. The Console. 
 1—2. Front and side view, Greek, North door, Erechtheum, Athens. 
 3 — 4. Front and side view. Roman, Vatican. 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 i37 
 
 Th? Console. 
 
 Plate 145. 
 
238 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 Plate 146. 
 
 The Console. 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 239 
 
 The Console. 
 
 Plate 147 
 
240 
 
 SUPPORTS 
 
 Piate US 
 
 The Bracket. 
 
The Console. — The Bracket. 241 
 
 5—6. Roman, Kiout and side view, temple of Jupiter Stator, Rome 
 
 Vatican. 
 7™8. Komau, Frout and side view, Vatican. 
 
 Plate 146. Thje Consoi^. 
 
 1—2.. Renascence, Side views, Vatican. 
 
 3. Renascence, Hotel d Assezat, Toulouse, (Raguenet). 
 
 4. Renascence, Wooden, French, Hotel d'Assezet, Toulouse, (Ea 
 guenet). 
 
 5. Renascence, Istrian limestone, Venetian, Hamburg, Museum. 
 
 6. Renascence, Marble, Italian, Sta. Maria de' Miracoli, Venice, 
 (Gropius). 
 
 7—8. Modern, French, Axchitect Roux, Paris. 
 
 "~"~1"- »7 V H " » 
 
 11. Mediaeval, church, Alhis, France. 
 
 PijkTE 147 The Console. 
 
 1. Romanesque, Noyon catlicidral, 12th century, (Raguenet). 
 
 2. Gothic, St. Pierre sous Vez61ay, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 3. Renascence, French, castle, Blois. 
 
 4.«„5. Renascence, German, new Castle, Baden-Baden, (Gmelin). 
 
 6. Reilascence, German, Heidelberg castle. 
 
 7. Renascence, Triglyph-console, Late French. 
 
 8. Modern, French, library. Louvre, Architect Lefuel, (Raguenet), 
 
 9. Modem, French, (Raguenet). 
 
 10. Modern, French, New casino, Lyons, Architect Porte, (Raguenet). 
 
 The Bracket. (Plate 148) 
 
 A special class of Supports is formed by those wrought-iron 
 bearers which the Middle Ages, the Renascence, and Modern times, 
 buve produced in the shape of Brackets. The uses of Brackets are 
 vei7 various, e. g. in supporting Shop-signs, Conduit- pipes. Gargoyles, 
 Candles, Lamps, Hats, Coats, &c. 
 
 In form, they vary with the style and richness of the work 
 manship. Square, flat and round iron, enriched by chasing and other 
 methods of decoration, are used. They are frequently fastened to the 
 wall by the aid of nbbon like strips of metal, which may themselves 
 be decorated with scrolls and curls. 
 
 The plate shows a number of such supports, of ancient and mo- 
 dem date, destined for a variety of purposes 
 
 Mpyar, Handbook of Omainenf ^ 
 
242 Tiie bracket. -- The Car^-tiLid, and fhe Atlaute. 
 
 Plate 148. Tite Bracket. 
 
 1 — 2. Part of Reading-desk, S. Benedetto, near Mantua, Italian Re- 
 nascence, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 8. Wrought-iron, Sign, Regensburg, German Renascence, (Mustcr- 
 ornamente). 
 
 4. Wrought-iron bearer of conduit-pipe, Kloster Lichtenthal near- 
 Baden, German Renascence, (Gmelin). 
 
 5. Wrought-iron bearer of water-stoup, sepulchral cross in ceme- 
 tery, Kirchzartcn, German Renascence, (Schauinsland). 
 
 g__7, Wrought-iron supports, for Gargoyles, German Renascence. 
 
 8. Wrought-iron, Sign, Modern, Architect Crecelius, Mainz. 
 
 9. Modern wrought-iron bracket, (Badische Gewerbezeitung). 
 
 The Caryatid, and the Atlante. (Plates 149 and 150.) 
 
 The freest and the richest motive for supports, is the Human 
 figure. As early as Egyptian and Persian architecture, we find human 
 figures as bearers of beams and roofs. 
 
 The Greek and Roman styles also make use of this motive. The 
 modern names for such supports are derived from the Antique. Accord- 
 icg to Greek mythology. Atlas supports the vault of heaven at the 
 ends of the earth. Hence is derived the name "Atlantes" for these 
 male supporters. They are also sometimes termed "Telamons". Tlie 
 name "Caryatids", for female supporting figures, is derived from the 
 town of Caryse in the Peloponnesus. According to another version the 
 Caryatids are imitations of the virgins who danced in the temple at 
 Caryse at the feast of Diana. According to Vitruvius, their intro- 
 duction into architecture is ovnng to the fact that ladies of Caryai, 
 as a punishment for the support they rendered to the Persians, were 
 carried into captivity and compelled to serve as carriers of burdens. 
 The Caryatids are termed "Canephorae" (basket bearers), when capitiils 
 in shape like a basket are interposed between their heads and the 
 superincumbent burden. Aonong well-known examples in the Antique 
 are the Atlantes in the temple of Jupiter at Agrigentum, and the 
 Caryatids of the Erechtheum at Athens. 
 
 The Middle Ages made little use of Atlantes and Caryatids; the 
 Renascence and the following stylos, on the contrary, used them freely. 
 
 Atlantes and Caryatids occur isolated, and connected with walls; 
 and in both high and bas-relief Sometimes the whole length of the 
 figure is emi)loyed, sometimes only the upper half in coDjunction wiih 
 a Console (Plate 149. 4 — 7), or with terminus-like bases (Plato 150. 
 4 — 5). Composite bearers in the form of double Caryatids are also 
 a popular motive, as shown by the example on Plate 150, from the 
 Louvre at Paris. 
 
SUPPORTS. 
 
 243 
 
 The Caryatid, the Atlante, &c. 
 
 Plate 149. 
 16* 
 
244 
 
 SUPPORTS. 
 
 Plate 150 
 
 The Caryatid, &c. 
 
The Caryatid, the Atlante, &c. 
 
 245 
 
 Plate 149. The Caeyatid, the Att^ante, &c. 
 
 1. Greek Caryatid, Erechtheum, Athens, (Vorbilder fiir Fabrikanten 
 nnd Handwerker). 
 
 2, Antique Caryatid, Villa Mattel, after Piranesi, (Vorbilder fiir 
 Fabrikanten und Handwerker). 
 
 3 Modem French Atlante, house in Paris, Sculptor Caille, (Ra- 
 guenet). 
 
 4 — 7 Modem, Front and side views of Half- figure ConBoles, Ziegler 
 and Weber, Carlsruhe. 
 
 Plate 150. The CARYATm, &c. 
 
 1. Modem, Double Caryatid, Louvre, Paris, (Baldus). 
 
 2 — 3 Modem, Caryatids, Conservatoire des arts et metiers, PariSj 
 Sculptor E. Robert, (Raguenet). 
 
 4 — 5. Modem, Caryatids, Director C. Hammer, Nuremberg. 
 6 — 7. Modern, Caryatids, Director C. Hammer, Nuremberg. 
 
246 
 
 i^^mc-r^n-MS:^ 
 
 
 P*k({cp« 
 
 ^KESjJAia^j 
 
 V"^ 
 
 ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 (PANELS.) 
 
 Tbat Method of treatment, which has for its object to decoratfl 
 a plane snrface, and to cover it with ornament, &c., bj means of 
 painting, inlaying, engraving, etching, &c., we term flat decoration- 
 
 This falls into two classes. Firstly the ornament may be de- 
 signed for a definite, bounded space, such as an oblong, according to 
 artistic rules, so that it fits exactly intp this space alone: in wh:cb 
 case it is a discontinuous or "Panel" ornament. Or, secondly, the 
 ornament may extend itself in every direction, repeating its det-iils 
 without regard to any definite boundary: in which case it is a con 
 tinuous or "Diaper" ornament, such as a wall-paper 
 
 Turning our attention first to discontinuous or runel-omaraent. 
 we shall find, in addition to objects whose boxmdaries are arbitrary 
 and to be fixed at will, that we have principally to consid(?r the 
 following shapes: the Square, the other regular polygons, the Circle, 
 the Oblong, the Ellipse, the Lunette, the various forms of the Span- 
 mil, the Lozenge and the Triangle. 
 
 Geometrical, natui'al, and artificial elements, either singly or 
 combined, are used. The character of the ornament may be Natura 
 listic, or it may be Aj-tificial, and adapted to some pre-arranged 
 leading-lines of the Shape. This book does not treat of examples of 
 the former character Those of the latter character, i. e. Artificial 
 ornament, will doj^end on the attitude of the Panel with regard to 
 the Horizon, 
 
Enclosed Ornament — The Square Panel, 247 
 
 When the panel is inon-axial, i. e. it is symmetrical on both 
 Bides of one axis: then the panel-ornament is suitable to a vertical 
 surface. When it is developed regularly in all directions from 
 the centre of the figure, and is symmetrical to two or more 
 axes: then the panel-ornament is suitable to a horizontal surface. The 
 central feature of a horizontal panel is not infrequently emphasized 
 by a rosette ornament, while the decoration of the remaining surface 
 is kept in low-relief. Trifling variations, from absolute symmetry 
 and regularity, are often met- with; but they are confined to the 
 details, the impression of symmetry and regularity being preserved 
 in the general efi'ect. 
 
 These remarks, as well as some further relations arising out of 
 the nature of the subject, we now proceed to illustrate in detail in 
 the following chapters and plates. For the most part we shall con- 
 fine ourselves to the best known and most frequent figures; and 
 shall only offer some few examples of abnormal panels. 
 
 The Square Panel. (Plates 151 — 155.) 
 
 The lines, on which the decoration of the Square may naturally 
 be based, are the two Diagonals, and the two Diameters which join 
 the centre of the opposite sides. These lines cut each-other in a 
 coromon point, the centre of the shape; and form an eight-rayed star 
 with rays of alternately unequal lengths. They divide the figure 
 into 8 equal spaces, which are usually decorated with repeated orna- 
 ment, and are therefore suitable to the horizontal attitude, (compare 
 Plate 151, figs. 2 — 6 and others). Numerically this mode of deco- 
 ration is predominant. Rarer are the cases in which the angle is 
 once more bisected and the square consequently divided into 16 tri- 
 angles, (compare Plate 154, fig. 7). The simplest decoration is the 
 many-rayed star, which is termed the Uraniscus, in the coffers oi 
 Greek ceilings (comp. Plate 151, fig. 1). The centre of the figure is 
 generally accentuated by the addition of a rosette, and the direction 
 of growth, like plant-motives, is from the centre outwards (Plate 151, 
 fig. 2, 3, 5, 6 and others); or alternately from the centre outwards 
 and inwards (comp. Plate 151. 4). Slight variations from strict 
 symmetry and regularity are partly caused by the use of the geo- 
 metrical interlaced band (Plate 153. 3 and 4), and are partly the 
 deliberate result of artistic freedom of conception (Plate 152. 2. and 
 151. 7). The latter example is highly remarkable in this respect; 
 and its originality may serve as a model. The example is also one 
 of the rare cases in .which the ornamentation is symmetrical to the 
 Diagonals, and not to the Diameters, 
 
248 The Square Panel 
 
 Another kind of Square decoration is that in which it la sub- 
 divided into separate spaces, each of which receives an independent 
 ornanientiition. Plates 9 and 10 of the Handbook give a number of 
 such divisions of Squares; a similar mode of decoration will be 
 found on Plate 151, fig. 8, Plate 153, figs. 6 and 7, and elsewhere. 
 The decoration of the Square in an upright attitude, with synametry 
 to one axis, belongs to the same category as the ObloDg; and we 
 may therefore refer to what will be said below with reference to 
 tliis latter figure. 
 
 Square panel are to be found in all styles; we have taken some 
 sinking examples from the cofi'er - ceilings of the Antique and the 
 Eenascence, from the pavement-tiles of the Middle Ages, and from 
 the metal-work of the Renascence and Modern times. 
 
 Plate 151. The Square Panel. 
 
 1. Greek, Uraniscus, coffer of ceiling, Propylaea, Athens. 
 
 2. Roman, bas-relief, found during the rectification of the Tiber 
 near the Farnesiua, Rome, in 1879, Museo Tiberino. 
 
 3 Assyrian pavement, Kouyunjik, (Owen Jones). 
 
 1 — 6. Greek, Cofi"ers of ceilings, Propylaea, Athens. 
 
 6 „ „ „ „ , Athens. 
 
 7 „ „ „ „ , Parthenon. 
 
 8. Roman, mosaic pavement, Pompeii, (Owen Jones). 
 
 9. Byzantine, bas-relief, San Marco, Venice, (Owen Joues). 
 
 Plate 152 The Square Panel 
 
 1 Decoration, of a book, 10th century, Library of the Duke of 
 Devonshire, (Racinet). 
 
 2 Scandinavian bas-relief, Celtic stone cross, churchyard, Meigle, 
 Angus, (Owen Jones). 
 
 3 Bas-relief, tomb of "Pierre Is Venerable", Cluny mu^etun, 
 12 th century, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 4 — 7 Mediaeval, tiles, (Owen Jones, Racinet &c.). 
 
 8 Tiles, Cistercian monastery, Bebenhausen. 
 
 9 Moorish Tiles. 
 
 10 Gothic, tiles, Bloxham church, England, 15th century. 
 
 PiA'n: 153. The Square Panel. 
 
 land 3. Inlaid work, 14th or 15th century, Sauvageot collection, 
 
 (Racmet). 
 2. Arabian mosaic, (Prisse d'Avennes). 
 
 4. Moorish, Alhambra, 14th centui-y 
 
 6. Arabian, wood door, 16th century, (L'art pour tous). 
 
The Square Panel. — The Star-shape Panel. 249 
 
 6. Renascence, Intarsia, German (Hirth, Formenschatz). 
 
 7. Modern. 
 
 8 — 9. Renascence, Intarsia, Sta. Maria gloriosa ai Frari, Venice, 
 15th century, (Musterornaraente). 
 
 Fi ATE 154. The Square Panel. 
 
 1. Renascence, Motive from a Robe in the Sacristy, Sta. Croce, 
 Florence, Italian 
 
 2. Renascence, Tiles, Collection of the Count d'Yvon, (Racinei). 
 
 3. Renascence, Motive after Peter Flotner, German. 
 
 4. Renascence, Mosaic flooring, cathedral, Spoleto, (Jacobstbal; 
 the centre altered). 
 
 5. Renascence, Intarsia, stalls, Certosa near Pavia, Italian. 
 
 6. Renascence, Majolica Tiles, Sta. Caterina, Siena, Italian. 
 
 7. Renascence, Intarsia, door of the Cambio, Perugia, by Antonio 
 Mercatello, 1500, Italian. 
 
 8 — 10. Renascence, Door of the Madonna di Galliera, Bologna, Italian, 
 (^lusteromamente). 
 
 Plate 155. The Square Panel. 
 
 1 and 3. Wrought-iron, French, 17th century, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 2 and 4. Wrought-iron, German Renascence, (Hirth, Formenschatz). 
 5. Wrought-iron, Oxford, 1713, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 6 — 7 Wrought-iron, Modern. 
 
 8 and 10. Wrought-iron, Modern, cemetery, Carlsruhe. 
 
 9 Wrought-iron, by Georg Klain, Salzburg, 17tb cpntorj. 
 
 The Star -Shape Panel. (Plate 156.) 
 
 The decoration of polygonal Stars is generally based on radiat- 
 ing axes. Exceptions, in favor of symmetry to one or two axes, are 
 comparatively scarce (fig. 3). 
 
 Where there is no Sub-division into independent panels, accord- 
 ing to Plates 11 and 12 of the Handbook (fig. 7): the ornament 
 follows the natural lines of division furnished by the diagonals. In 
 this case the number of the single, similar triangles of division 
 depends on the number of sides (fig. 6). 
 
 Decorated Star- shaped panels are extremely common in the Arabian 
 and Moorish styles, where the ornament is often of such a character 
 that it would very well suit a simple polygon, and ouly fills cut 
 accidentally (so to speak) the star angles (figs. 4, and 5). 
 
250 
 
 ENCLOSED OENAMENT. 
 
 
 
 D^ 
 
 \ \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^te 
 
 f-f- 
 
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 ifn^^ 
 
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 Plate 151. 
 
 The Square Panel. 
 
ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 251 
 
 
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 fT' 7^^^ 
 
 
 
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 10. ^ 
 
 The Square Panel, 
 
 Plate 152. 
 
ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 p 
 
 r% 
 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
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 W: 
 
 ■m' 
 
 f- 
 
 
 X 
 
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 >L 
 
 Xa\ 
 
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 Plate l.')3 
 
 Tl.e Sqiuire Tunel. 
 
ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 253 
 
 The Square Panel, 
 
 Plate 154. 
 
254 
 
 ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 r- 
 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 -^1^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 M 
 
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 "^ 
 
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 161 
 
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 Plate 155. 
 
 The Square Panel. 
 
ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 255 
 
 The Star-shape Panel. 
 
 Plate 156. 
 
256 The Star-shape Panel. — The Ciicular Panel 
 
 Plate 156. The Star-shape Panel. 
 
 1. Mural painting, S. Francesco, Assisi, (Hessemer). 
 
 2. Decoration of Arabic koran, 17th century, (Prisse d'Avennes). 
 8. Arabian architecture, (Prisse d'Avennes). 
 
 4~5. Arabian ceiling paintings, (Prisse d'Avennes). 
 6. Etched ornament, armoiir, National Museum, Munich, 16th cen- 
 tury, (Gewerbehalle). 
 7—8. Arabian ceiling paintings, 18th century, (Piisse d'Avennes). 
 
 The Circular Panel. (Plates 157—160.) 
 
 The Circle may be regarded as a polygon of an infijiite numbo? 
 of sides. As it is impossible to take this infinite number into account, 
 it is usual, when working on radial axes to divide the Circle into 
 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 16, similar parts, as indicated in tho 
 figures. 
 
 Another principle of frec^uent application is that of division into 
 Zones; each ring-like band b'feing ornamented independently. This 
 principle predominates in the so-called archaic styles, e. g. on Eti-uscaa 
 and Assyrian shields (Plate 157. 2, 4, and 5). This principle is ex- 
 cellently adapted to the decoration of dishes and plates, the profiling 
 of which naturally points to a zonal division. The centre of the 
 Circle, which is sometimes decorated by a rosette, may also be filled 
 by some feature which is symmetrical to one axis or is unsym- 
 metrical (Plate 157. 4). The latter mode of decoration has also been 
 adopted, although in comparatively rarer cases, for the decoration of 
 the Circle as a whole. 
 
 Geometrical sub-division of the circle, by the insertion of poly- 
 gons, or arcs, is common, not only in Gothic tracery, which is specially 
 dependent on these processes, but in every other style (comp. tho 
 tracery panels 7 and 8 on Plate 158, and the niello ornaments 7 
 and 8 on Plate 159). In many cases, the circular panel is decorated 
 by an ornament which is merely an enlarged Rosette or Cieling- 
 flower, so that no clear line can be drawn between the two classes, 
 (compare what lias been said of the Rosette on p. 191). 
 
 Plate 157. The Circular Panel. 
 
 1. Assyrian, pavement, Nimrud, (Owen Jones). 
 
 2. Assyrian shield, Khorsabad, (Owen Jones). 
 
 3. Old Prankish panel, Sacramentarium, Rheims. 
 4 — 5- Greek, paintings on Vases, (Lau). 
 
The Cireular Panel. 257 
 
 6- Celtic stone cross, Chtirchjard, St. Vigeans, Angus, (Owen 
 
 Jonos). 
 7—- 8. Paintings on Greek, Vases, (Lau). 
 
 I 'late 158 TriE rrRcin.AR PajvEL. 
 
 1. RoraanesquG, manuscript, 12th century, (Racinet). 
 
 2. Modern, Early Gothic, (Ungewitter, Stadt- und Land 
 kirchen). 
 
 3. Byzantine, Sta. Sofia, Constantinople, 6th centuiT. 
 
 4. Mediaeval stone slab, 1 4th century, Museum, Rouen, (Racinet). 
 
 5. Ditto, Laon cathedral, (Racinet). 
 
 6 Ditto, wTOught-iron key handle. 
 
 7 Gothic Boss, 16th century, St Benoit, Paris, (Racinet). 
 
 8 Gothic, old cabinet. United collections, Carlsiuhe. 
 
 ami 1 1 Gothic, Chip-car\ang, old cabinet, (Gevverbehalle). 
 
 10. Mediaeval glass-painting, Soissons cathedral, (Racinet). 
 
 Plate 159 Tite Circular Panel. 
 
 1. Arabian flat ornament. Mosque Kaonam ed din, (Prisse 
 d'Avennes). 
 
 2. Romanesque, minster, Basel 
 
 3 Arabian bas relief, door, Cairo, 14th century, (Prisse d'Avennes). 
 
 4 As No 1 
 
 5. Arabian bas-relief, 16th century, (L'art pour tons) 
 
 0. Arabian, Sunk decoration, metal plaque, (Prisse d'Avennes). 
 
 7—8 Niello, Baltasar Silvius, 16th century, (Ysendyck). 
 
 9 Marble mosaic, floor, S Vitale, Ravenna, (Hessemer). 
 
 10 Romanesque, portal, S. Lam-ence, Segovia, 12th century. 
 
 11 Arabian, Decoration of koran, 16th centuiy, (Prisse d'Avennes). 
 
 Plate 160 The Circular Panel. 
 
 1 Renascence, Bas relief, Vendramini tomb, SS. Giovanni e 
 Paolo, Venice, Italian, (Meurer). 
 
 2 and 4 Renascence, Majolica Tiles, Sta. Caterina, Siena, Italian 
 
 3 Renascence, Wrought iron panel, San Salvator, Prague, German, 
 (Gewerbehallc). 
 
 5. Renascence, Church, Kamenz, German, (Gewcrbehalle). 
 
 6. Renascence, Peter Flotner, German. 
 
 7. Modern, Centre of a Silver plaqtie, by Ihne and Stegmiiller 
 of Berlin, (Gevverbehalle). 
 
 8. ^Modern, ceiling of staircase, villa Croissy, Seine et Oise, 
 French, (Cesar Daly). 
 
 Mnyer, Handbook of Ornament • 
 
258 
 
 ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 Plate 157. 
 
 The Circular Panel. 
 
ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 259 
 
 The Circular Panel. 
 
 Plate 158. 
 17*. 
 
260 
 
 ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 Plate 159, 
 
 The Circul Panel 
 
ENCLOSED OKNAMENT. 
 
 261 
 
 The Circular Paoel. 
 
 Plate 160. 
 
262 The Oblong Panel 
 
 The Oblong Panel. (Plates 161 — 164.) 
 
 The shape of the Oblong is particnlarly adapted to receive both 
 a bi- axial and a mon-axial treatment; and as it is by far the most fre- 
 ^aently-used shape: numerous examples of the two treatments are to 
 l;e found in all styles. 
 
 When the Oblong is not sub-divided (as shown on Plates 13 to 
 IG), the natural axes, around .which the ornament is grouped are, 
 for the bi-axial treatment, the two diameters, which join, the centres 
 of the opposite sides. These lines divide the figure into 4 smaller 
 oblongs, each of which receives an identical decoration (com p. 
 Plate 161, figs. 1—3, and Plate 162, figs. 1—5). To use the 
 diagonals as lines of symmetry, as is the rule with the square, pro- 
 duces an unfavourable effect; because the 8 triangles thus formed, 
 although similar to each other, do not present the same angle to the 
 centre (corap. Plate 161. 4). This panel differs from the usual rule, 
 as the organic growth of the ornament is not from the centre out- 
 wards, but from the 4 angles inwards. 
 
 The strict Greek pahnette ornamentation, which has such an 
 excellent effect in the Square, is less suitable for the Oblong (Plate 
 161, figs. 1 and 2) than the freer decorations of the Koman period 
 (Plate 161. 3) and the Renascence (Plate 162. 1—5). 
 
 On vertical surfaces: the attitude of the Oblong panel may be 
 either "figure-wise", or "landscape-wise". Examples of the former 
 attitude are figs. 2 and 3; and of the latter are, figs. 1 and 5 on 
 Plate 164. The vertical line through the centre is the axis of these. 
 The ornament is seldom geometrical; organic or artificial motives are 
 mostly used. The mon-axial treatment is most properly employed 
 where it is applied in a really vertical plane, e. g. on Pilasters- (comp. 
 p. 225, shafts of pilasters), on Walls, Doors, S:c. The poly-axial treat- 
 ment is best adapted for the decoration of horizontal planes, such as 
 Floors, Ceilings, &c. 
 
 Copious material is furnished by the inlaid-work, bas-reliefs, and 
 metal-work, of the Renascence. 
 
 Plate 161. Tile Oblong Pa:^iel. 
 
 1_2. Greek, Painted coffers of ceilings, Propylaea, Athens, (Owen 
 Jones). 
 
 3. Roman. 
 
 4. Roman, under-side of the arohitrave. Temple of Yesparian, Rome. 
 
 5. Renascence, Church, Kamenit, German, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 Plate 162. The Oblong Paki:l. 
 
 1. Renascence, Intarsia, Cabinet, Perugia, Italian, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 2. Renascence, Palazzo vecchio, }f^ itua, Italian, (Jacobsthal). 
 
ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 263 
 
 The ObloDg Panel. 
 
 Plate 161. 
 
264 
 
 ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 Plate 162. 
 
 The Obloug Panel. 
 
ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 The Oblong Panel. 
 
 Plate 163. 
 
266 
 
 ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 Plate 1G4. 
 
 The Oblong Panel. 
 
The Oblong Panel. — The Elliptic Panel. 267 
 
 3. Kenascence, Marzuppini tomb, Sta. Croce, Florence, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 4. Renascence, Tomb, Stiftskirche, Stuttgart, German, (Mustei'ornamente), 
 
 5. Renascence, S. Michael's, Schwabisch-Hall, German, (Musterorna- 
 mente). 
 
 Plate 163. The Oblong Panel. 
 
 1. Renascence, Wrought-iron Grill, Italian, (Gewerbchalle). 
 
 2. Wrought-iron Grill, Choir of S. Blasius, Miiblhausen, Thuringia, 
 17th century, (Musterornamente). 
 
 3—4. Ivory inlays, by Hans Schieferstein, 16th century, Museum, 
 Dresden. 
 
 5. Wrought-iron, house, Freiburg, S\vitzerland, 17th century, 
 (L'art pour tous). 
 
 6. Ornament, over picture of saint, by Bartbel Beham, Carlsruhe, 
 German Renascence. 
 
 7 — 8. Stalls of the Lauren tian Library, Florence, Italian Renascence. 
 
 Plate 1G4. The Oblong Panel. 
 
 I. Grill, Schlettstadt, 1649, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 2 — 3. Intarsia, S. Petronio, Bologna, 1495, (Musterornamente). 
 
 4. Wrought-iron balaustrade, 18th century. 
 
 5. Wrought-iron, French, 18th century. 
 
 6. Wrought-iron, Stift Strahov, Prague, German, Renascence. 
 
 The Elliptic Panel. (Plate 165.) 
 
 As regards the principle of decoration, the Ellipse bears the same 
 relation to the Circle that the Oblong does to the Square. When not 
 sub- divided (see Plate 20, fig. 15), it is treated either mon-axially, 
 with the ornament symmetrical to one of the axes (fig. 1); or it is 
 treated bi-axially, with the ornament symmetrical to both (figs. 2 
 to 8). 
 
 The Elliptic panel was not often used in decoration during tlie 
 best periods. In the 17th and 18th centuries, it was used as the form 
 for snuff-boxes, sweet-boxes, &c., the decoration being carried-out in 
 niello, and similar metal work. It was also in use during the same 
 period in centre-ornaments for the covers of books. From such examples, 
 most of the figures on the Plate have been taken. 
 
 Plate 165. The Elliptic Panel. 
 1 — 2. Renascence, German, (Formenschatz). 
 
 8, Centre of a book-cover, gold blocking on vellum, German 
 16th century, (Storck). 
 
268 The Elliptic Panel. — The Lunette, and the Spanrail Panels, 
 
 4—7. Renascence, Book cover blocks. Germaniscbos Museum, Nurem 
 
 berg. German, (MiTsterornamente) 
 8 Renascence, Pavement, tomb of Princess Johanna Elisabeth, 
 
 Stiftskirche, Stuttgart. 
 
 The Lunette, and the Spanrail Panels. 
 (Plates 166 — 167.) 
 
 The Semicircle scarcely admits of any entirely satisfactory sub- 
 division. The best method is to describe a circle in the semicircle 
 so that the circle touches the centre of- the semicircle above and the 
 centre of its chord below; this arrangement is especially useful when 
 a medallion or a clock is to be placed in it. There are two methods 
 of decorating the Lunette: either an upright panel - ornament is de- 
 signed symmetrical to one axis, an arrangement which is the best, as 
 the semicircle, in the majority of cases, is used on vertical planes 
 (Plate 167. 1 and 3); or the Semicircle is divided, like a fan, into a 
 number of sectors, which receive an identical decoration, an arrange- 
 ment which is chiefly adopted for Door-heads (Plate 166. 2). In 
 such cases a central semicircle is usually inserted; and the small 
 panel, thus formed, is decorated independently. The object of this 
 is to obviate the inelegant and difficult accumulation of radii at the 
 centre. 
 
 In consequence of an optical illusion, the semicircle gives the 
 impression of being really less than the half of the whole circle; and 
 for this reason it is sometimes "stilted", that is the centre of the arc 
 does not lie on the springing-line, but is shifted a little higher. 
 
 The name "spanrail" is given to the spaces of various shape 
 which remain after circular shapes are taken-away from quadrangular 
 ones. The commonest figure of this kind is the Trianguloid, which 
 is formed on either side of a semicircle when this latter is described 
 in an oblong Frame. The same shape results when a circle is inscribed 
 in a square, which frequently occurs in the decoration of ceilings. Some- 
 times the decoration of the Trianguloid consists of a rosette in \ts 
 centre; or laurel, palm, and oak sprays, circular wreaths, and waving 
 ribbons, trophies, figures in relief, and similar motives, in a more or less 
 naturalistic style, are employed. In severer decoration, the axis of 
 symmetry is the line of bisection of the right angle. The motives are 
 sometimes geometrical (Plate 166. 5—6); but more frequently organic 
 (Plate 167. 4 — 5); and, among artificial forms, varieties of strapwork 
 are used (Plate 167. 6—9). 
 
 When a series of arcs has a common bounding straight line, the 
 spanrail is shaped as shown by fig. 4, Plate 166. This figui-e is the 
 
ENCLOSED OKNAMENT. 
 
 269 
 
 The Elliptic Panel. 
 
 Plate 165, 
 
ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 Plate 166 The Lunette, and the Spanrail Panels. 
 
ENCLOSED ORNAMENT 
 
 The Lunette, and the Spanrail Panels. Plate 167, 
 
272 The Lunette, and the Spanrail Paneld. — Various Panels. 
 
 y 
 
 same as two conjoined Trianguloids. It lias a vertical central axi^ 
 Another well-known shape results when two smaller semicircles 
 are taken-away from a larger, as when, for instance, two round-headed 
 windown lights are enclosed by a common arch. Finally we may 
 mention the Quadrant, which is not infrequently used in the angles 
 of ceilings (figures 7 and 8 of Plate 166). 
 
 Plate 166. The Lunette, and the Spanrail Panels. 
 
 1. Roman, (Vulliamy), 
 
 2. Italian Renascence, (Gew^erbehalle). 
 
 3. Arabian, (Prisse d' Avenues). 
 
 4. Early Gothic Spanrail, Stone Church, England. 
 5 — 6. Arabian, mosaic Spanrail, (Prisse d'Avennes). 
 7—8. Modern. 
 
 Plate 167. The Lunette, and the Spakrail Panel. 
 
 1. Renascence, intarsia, Sta. Maria in Organo, Verona, Italian. 
 
 2. Wrought-iron Grill. 
 
 3. Renascence, Wrougth-iron Grill, German. 
 
 4. Renascence, plinth of a column, St. Antonio, Padua, (Meurer) 
 
 5. Modern, Vaudeville theatre, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 G-— 9. Renascence, by Vrederaan de Vries. 
 
 The Lozenge Panel. (Plate 168.) 
 
 The Lozenge in decorative art includes the Rhombus, and the 
 Square when one of its diagonals is vertical. The Lozenge is treated 
 either as an upright panel, symmetrical to one axis (figs. 2, 4, and 
 5)7 or the two diagonals are the axes of symmetry for a bi- axial 
 pattern (figs. 1, and 3). In the former case, the ornament consists of 
 two; and in the latter case of four, similar parts. The Lozenge is 
 not often employed. Occasionally it finds a place as a panel in 
 Lattices, Doors, Dadoes, Ceilings, &c. 
 
 Plate 168. The Lozenge Panel. 
 
 1. Door, Nordlingen church, 17 th century. 
 
 2 — 3. Grill, Townhall, Wiirzburg, German Renascence. 
 
 4 — 5. Modern decorative painting. 
 
 Various Panels. (Plates 16 9-— 170.) 
 
 Plate 169 and 170 give a number of incidental Panel-shapes, 
 of which there is a great variety. The principle of decoration must 
 
ENCLOSED ORNAMENT, 
 
 273 
 
 The Lozengp Panel, 
 
 Ideyer, Handbook of Ornament. 
 
274 
 
 ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 Plate 169. 
 
 Various Tanels. 
 
ENCLOSED ORNAMENT. 
 
 275 
 
 Various Panels. 
 
 Plate 170, 
 18* 
 
276 Various Panels. 
 
 be adapted to each case; and should follow the analogy of the prin 
 ciples enunciated above. Thus, for example, regular polygons with 
 convex or concave sides (Plate 170. 1 and 2); are treated similarly 
 to polygons with straight sides. 
 
 Figures like those on Plate 169. 7 and 8, are decorated in the 
 manner of an Oblong or an Ellipse. The ornament of Plate 169. 1, 
 recalls the decoration of the Lunette. 
 
 The Trapezoid is treated either as an upright panel, the central 
 axis being perpendicular to the two parallels; or the ornamentation 
 approaches that of a bi-axial Oblong panel; but it will be somewhat 
 modified, to fit the angles (Plate 170. 4 and 5). This latter cir- 
 cumstance has also to be taken into consideration in the case of a 
 right-angled Triangle of unequal sides, when the line of bisection of 
 the right-angle is used as the axis of symmetry (Plate 170. 6); an 
 unsymmetrical arrangement is best in this case, see figures 7 to 9 on 
 the same plate. This latter free style of design, which is not bound 
 by axial lines-, may also be recommended for the Raking Parallelo- 
 grams which occur on staircases. 
 
 Plate 169. Various Panels. 
 
 1. Wrought-iron Grill, Townball, Villingeu, late German Ee- 
 nascence. 
 
 2—3. Balaustrade of staircase, Frankfort on the Main, German 16tb 
 centuxy, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 4—5. Grill, Pulpit-steps, Thann, German 16th century, (Gewerbe- 
 halle). 
 
 6. Grill, Padua, Italian Renascence. 
 
 7. Detail of Lattice, late German Renascence. 
 
 8. GriU, late German Renascence. 
 
 Plate 170. Various Panels. 
 
 1. Trefoil tracery, Gothic, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 2. Mural painting, Swedish, Romanesque, (Racinet). 
 
 3. Louvre, Paris. 
 
 4—5. Marble inlaid-work, Pulpit, Cathedral^ Sayona, Italian Renascence, 
 
 (^leurer). 
 6 — 9. Triangular panels. Stalls of the Laurentian Library, Florence, 
 
 ascribed to Michel Angelo. 
 
E. 
 
 REPEATING ORNAMENT. 
 
 (DIAPERS.) 
 
 It is the essence, of repeated ornament^, that it may be ex- 
 tended on all sides at discretion, the component parts of the design 
 (i. e. the pattern) admitting of uninterrupted repetition. The ele- 
 ments are either geometrical, organic, or, as in the majority of cases, 
 geometrical are combined with organic elements, sometimes with the 
 addition of figures and artificial accessories. Diaper ornament has 
 either a poly-axial or a bi-axial character. In the former case, the 
 decoration expands regularly on all sides; the basis is a system of inter- 
 secting axes of symmetry, as shown in the square or triangular Nets on 
 Plate 1. In the second case, the decoration consists of growth in an up- 
 ward direction, the repetition on each side being secured by "turning 
 the pattern over" symmetrically, or by juxtaposition (in the usual sense 
 of the word). Here, also, combination frequently occurs to this 
 extent that many patterns have a poly-axial basis while single panels 
 and medallions have upright decoration. 
 
 Growth in a downward direction, or in an oblique upward di- 
 rection, &c., must be classed as exceptions to the rule. 
 
 When Diaper patterns are applied to circumscribed surfaces, e. 
 g. on Walls: they are either cut-off abruptly, as in Wall-papers, or 
 are stopped-short of the limits, and a Border is applied. There is 
 seldom much difficulty in the case of geometrical patterns; but with 
 organic designs the sides of the upright patterns usually terminate 
 at the axis of symmetry. 
 
 Diaper ornament is applied to many purposes. Mosaic, Parquetry, 
 Marquetry, using geometrical patterns; the Textile, Wall-paper, and 
 
278 The Square Diaper, Circle Diaper, &c. 
 
 Wall-painting crafts using the organic elements; and Floor -cover- 
 ings, Glass-painting, Inlaying, and similar Metal -decorations, using 
 both. The treatment of large Grills sometimes demands a repeated 
 pattern, that may be expanded at will, so that we may add this 
 branch to the others. 
 
 The Square Diaper. (Parquetry.) (Plate 171.) 
 
 Parquetry is the term applied to the overlaying of flooring with 
 mosaic of hard woods. The patterns are almost exclusively geo- 
 metrical; the basis is the quadrangular or triangular Net. The single 
 parts are first put together to form square or regular hexagonal 
 figures, which are then tongued and grooved, and fixed to the boards. 
 The Plate shows a number of modern Parquet-patterns: figures 2, 8, 
 9 and 10 being based on the triangular; and the others on the qua 
 drangular Net, Parquet-patterns which are so designed that the floor 
 has the efi'ect of projections and hollows, are inadmissible because 
 they are unsuited to a Floor, which is intended to be walked on, 
 and should, therefore, be flat in design as well as in reality. 
 
 Plate 171. The Squaee Diaper, &c. 
 1 — 10. Modem Parquet-patterns. 
 
 The Circle Diaper. (]\Iosaic.) (Plate 172.) 
 
 Mosaic (opus musivum) is, in its wider sense, the designing and 
 inlaying of pieces of stone, wood, glass, leather, straw, <fcc., to make 
 a picture or pattern. More strictly: Mosaic means pictures and 
 patterns composed of pieces of stone, pottery, pearl, and glass, the 
 last being coloured or underlaid vnth metal-foil. 
 
 There are two principal classes of such Mosaic. The opus tesse- 
 latum is composed of small pieces, mostly cubes, held together by 
 being inlaid in a kind of cement. The optus sectile is composed of 
 little slabs, varying in shape according to the object to be repre- 
 sented. Mosaic work is very ancient; ajid is mentioned as early as 
 the Book of Esther. A large number of Roman mosaic pavements, in 
 opus tesselatum, have been preserved to us. Early Christian art also 
 decorated walls and piers with geometrical mosaic (opus Orecanicum), 
 numerous examples of which are to be found in Ravenna, Palermo, 
 Venice, and elsewhere. All kinds of mosaic have been practised in 
 Italy down to the present day, less, it is true, for the decoration of 
 walls and pavements than for Ornaments, Pictures, Table-tops, Ac. 
 
REPEATING ORNAMENT 
 
 279 
 
 \tVjV 
 
 M 
 
 
 M 
 
 The Square Diaper, &c. 
 
 Plate 171. 
 
280 
 
 REPEATING ORNAMENT 
 
 
 I^S^H 
 
 
 (]Ky _f 
 
 Flate 172. 
 
 The Circle Diaper, &c. 
 
The Circle Diaper, Scale Diaper, &c. 281 
 
 In the AralDian and the Moorish styles, incrustations of Mosaics in 
 stone and glazed terracotta were a popular method of wall -decoration. 
 The art of mosaic has never acquired a firm footing in northern 
 countries. 
 
 Plate 172. The Circle Dlu'er, <fec. 
 
 1. Mosaic, cathedral, Monreale, Sicily 
 
 2. Arabian mosaic, stucco on stone, (Prisse d'Avennes). 
 
 3. Roman mosaic. 
 
 4. Marble mosaic, windows, cathedral, Florence, (Hessemer). 
 
 5. Geometrical pattern, Sta. Croce, Florence. 
 
 6. Marble mosaic, San Vitale, Ravenna, (Hessemer). 
 
 7. Modem tesselated mosaic, Sorrento. 
 
 8 and 10. Moorish mosaic, Ambassadors' Hall, Alhambia, Granada, 
 
 (Owen Jones). 
 9. Ai-abian mosaic, stucco on stone, (Prisse d'Avennes), 
 
 The Scale Diaper. &c. (Enaliel.) (Plate 173.) 
 
 "Where the surfaces of metal utensils and vessels are to receive 
 a flat decoration this is usually effected by engraving, et-ching, dam- 
 askeening, enamel, or niello work. In the process of Engraving, the 
 decoration is engraved by means of the graving-tool, and the hollows 
 in some cases filled up with coloui'ed lacquer, &c. In Etching, the 
 metallic surface is protected against the action of the etching-fluid 
 by being coated with a film, so that the design is sunk where the 
 protecting film is removed by the A.rtist. In Damaskeening, the pre- 
 cious metals are fastened on iron and steel, by being hammered into 
 engraved hollows which have b^en undercut with a roughened ground. 
 The processes of Enamelling are very various. In the cloison process: 
 bent bands or fillets of metal (cloisons) are soldered -on to the metal 
 ground, and the hollows or cells thus formed are filled with pulve- 
 rised glass paste (glass coloured with metallic oxides) which are then 
 vitrified by heat. In the sunk or "cbamp-lev6'* process: the hollows 
 in the metallic ground are produced by the graver, or by casting 
 and subsequent chasing, and are then filled with enamel. Niello 
 resembles black enamel: the enamel paste being replaced by a com- 
 position of metal and sulphur, 
 
 Enamel work (sunk -work) was known in Antique times. The 
 Cologne enamel was celebrated in the Middle Ages. Cloison enamel 
 has been practised in the East, in China, and in Japan, from the 
 earliest times. The so-called Limoges "enamel" is painted on a plain 
 metal ground, without any previous cloispns or any suok- fields for 
 
282 
 
 EEPEATING ORNAMENT: 
 
 Plate 173. 
 
 The Scale Diaper, &c. 
 
The Scale Diaper. Circle Diaper, &c. 283 
 
 the pigments. Damaskeened objects are found in CJorman and Old 
 Frankish tombs. This art, however, disappeared in the West only t.<) 
 be pursued more energetically in the East, where it still flourishes, 
 e. g in Persia, and India Niello, Engraved, and Etched work were 
 most fashionable at the time of the Renascence. 
 
 Pi.ATK. 173 Thi: Scale Diaper, &c. 
 
 1—3 Chinese and Japanese. 
 
 4. 5 and 9 Indian and Persian 
 
 6 and 7 Renascence 
 
 8 and 10 Mediaeval, (Cologne enamel). 
 
 The Circle Diaper, &c (Tiles.) (Plate 174) 
 
 The decoration of walls and pavements, with glazed clay Tiles, 
 dates back as early as Assyrian times 
 
 The Middle Ages made a most extensive use of pavement tiles 
 The individual, tiles are mostly of a square shape, and vary in size 
 from 3 ins. to 6 ins The pattern is generally in intaglio, and fre- 
 quently filled in with clay of another color The designs of these tiles 
 are usually excellent. The tile contains either the whole of the 
 repeating ornament; or only a part of it so that 4 tiles form the unit 
 of design. These tiles are common in England, France, and Ger 
 many 
 
 Majolica tiles are used in Italy; and are generally adopted for 
 the Wall-decoration so popular in England. 
 
 Plate 174 The Circle Dlaper, &c. 
 
 1„„10 Various mediaeval tiles, after Owen Jones, Racinet, and others. 
 
 1. Fontenay, C6te d'Or. 
 
 4 and 7 Rouen Museum. 
 
 5. Cathedral, St. Omer. 
 
 6. IVoyes, Archives de I'Aube. 
 
 The Circle Diaper, &c. (Stained Glass.) (Plate 175.) 
 
 Window glazing is an introduction of the Middle Ages, and was 
 onknowQ to the Antique. Coloured windows were first used for 
 Churches. The oldest process consisted in fitting- together pieces of 
 coloured glass in the mosaic style. About the year 1000, the prin- 
 cipal place of manufacture was Kloster Tegernsee. In the lltb and 
 
284 
 
 REPEATmG ORNAMENT. 
 
 Wi 
 
 
 1 ic::^ 
 
 \^// 
 
 
 ^/ 
 
 mVA 
 
 wkvA 
 
 M 
 
 ffli^ 
 
 
 
 
 <^\ 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^n 
 
 
 % 
 
 _— — <j 
 
 
 /Sv 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^fl 
 
 
 
 
 ^fi 
 
 vmvAi 
 
 m 
 
 MVA 
 
 IrmvA^ 
 
 'M 
 
 ^1 
 
 ij^ 
 
 
 ■z^ 
 
 ^J 
 
 Plate 174. 
 
 The Circle Diaper, &c. 
 
REPEATING OENAMENT. 
 
 t 
 
 The Circle Diaper, &c. 
 
 Plate 175. 
 
286 The Cixcle Diaper, &c — Various Diapers. 
 
 12th centuries, painting begins, followed by Glass-painting strictl} 
 so-called, the design being outlined in bro\\Ti paint; flashed glass, &:c. 
 followed later. 
 
 After passing through a period of decadence; and almost vanishing 
 during the last two centuries; Glass -painting has, of late years, again 
 become the object of great attention, and especially that branch which, 
 leaving strict painting on one side, produces its most striking effects 
 with coloured glass and leaden cames. The vigorous outlines, 
 produced by the lead-sotting, enhance the brilliancy of the colours, 
 and prevent the unpleasant optical effect produced by the blending of 
 contiguous tints. 
 
 We have here to deal only with the ornamental decoration of 
 snrfaces by painting or mosaic. The best examples are to be found 
 in the transition period from the Romanesque to the Gothic style in 
 the churches of Germany, France, and England, the three countries 
 which may be regarded as the true home of stained glass. 
 
 Plate 175. The Circle Dlajer, &c. 
 
 1 — 10. Various patterns, Romanesque and Early Gothic (Owen Jones, 
 Racinet, and others). 
 
 1 and 9. Chartres cathedral. 
 
 2 and 8. Bourges cathedral. 
 6. Soissons cathedral. 
 
 Various Diapers. (Mural Painting.) (Plates 176—177.) 
 
 The models and precursors of Mural-decoration are to be looked - 
 for in hangings of carpets and textiles. The Egyptian style offers 
 the earlist known examples of the decoration of surfaces by means of 
 wall-painting. The scheme is generally a Meander or similar pattern, 
 varied by rosettes, &c. (Plate 177. 1 and 2). The Pompejan artists 
 used figures and architectural representations in perspective instead 
 of Diaper patterns. Early Christian art used mosaics, which were 
 gradually driven-out by wall-painting during the Romanesque, and 
 Gothic periods. Churches and public buildings are again the first 
 edifices whose 'interiors were decorated by "tapestry paintings", as we 
 may term this style of decoration in view of the mutual relation 
 between it and text,ile art. With respect of the principles of design: 
 we may refer the reader to the general introduction, page 277, and 
 to the plates 176 — 177. The use of Wall-papers in Modern times has 
 greatly narrowed the sphere of Mural painting: its principal task 
 being now confined to the decoration of Public Buildings. 
 
REPEATING ORNAMENT. 
 
 287 
 
 Various Diapers. 
 
 Plate 176. 
 
288 
 
 REPEATING ORNAMENT. 
 
 Plate 177. 
 
 Various Diapers. 
 
Various Diaccrs. 289 
 
 Plate 176. Various Diapers. 
 
 1 — 2. Painting, old cabinet, Brandenburg, beginning of the 15th 
 century, (Musterornamente). 
 
 3. Painting, Sta. Croce, Florence, Italian Renascence. 
 
 4—5. Painting, consistory church, Assisi," 13th century, (Hessemer). 
 
 6 and 10. Modern French, church painting. 
 
 7. Painting, castle of Trausnitz, Landshut, end of 16th century, 
 
 (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 9. Painting, Palazzo del Podesti, Florence, 14th century, (Muster- 
 
 ornamente). 
 
 Plate 177. Various Diapers. 
 
 1. Ancient Egyptian, meander. 
 
 2. Ancient Egytian, ceiling painting, (Racinet). 
 
 3 — 5. Arabian paintings, Kaitbey mosque, (Piisse d'Avennes). 
 
 6. Arabian mural painting, mosque of Ibrahim Aga, Cairo, (Hessemer). 
 
 Various Diapers. (Weaving.) (Pljites 178—179.) 
 
 The artistic decoration of Textile fabrics goes back to the very 
 earliest times; and is of a most varied character. After the decoration 
 of animal Skins, by sewing and embroidering, came the creation of 
 patterns in plaited Mats by the use of material of various colours; 
 and this again was followed by the dififerent products of Weaving, 
 variegated by the use of coloured yams, by Embroidery, by Print- 
 ing, &c. It is due to the perishability of the material that scarcely 
 any products of the loom of the older epochs are to be found in our 
 museums; and that we can only infer their patterns from descriptions 
 and pictures. All the richer, on the other hand, is the choice offered 
 by the Renascence, the Middle Ages, and the East. 
 
 It would go beyond the scope of this book to give a detailed 
 historical and technical description of Textile industry; and we refer 
 the reader to the special works and monographs on this subject*. 
 Usually the mode of decoration depends on the object, and varies with 
 the artistic conceptions of the different styles. By the side of purely 
 geometrical patterns (Plate 179. 1 and 3), we find organic elements in a 
 geometrical framing (Plate 178. 1 and 2, Plate 179, 4). By the side of 
 poly-axial arrangements (Plate 179. 1, 2 and 3), there are others with 
 mon-axial features (Plate 178. 1 and 2). By the side of symmetrical 
 "turn-over" patterns (Plate 178. 3), we have others uiisymmetrical 
 (Plate 178. 4). By the side of Artificial flowers and rosettes, powdered 
 
 ♦ Otto V. Schorn, "Die Textilkunst". Lcii)zig. 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament, Iv 
 
290 Various Diapers. 
 
 over the ground (Plate 179. 9), there occur natural elements lik^ 
 the curious Japanese design on Plate 179, fig. 7; and so on. The 
 great principle of style, in the standard examples of all periods, is the 
 avoidance of representations of relief, or of perspective views of archi- 
 tecture, which contradict the nature of the flat surface. Important 
 is also the proper distribution of the masses, so that distracting lines 
 or empty spaces may be avoided. Of equal importance with the design 
 is the Colour, but the plan of this work compels us to leave it out 
 of consideration. 
 
 Next to the fabrication of Textiles for ecclesiastical vestments 
 and secular garments: the most important manufacture is that of Car- 
 pets, and of Tapestries for use on walls, as curtains, portieres, &c. 
 Of the introduction of the latter into painting, we have already 
 spoken, on Plato 176. Here we will only refer to the tapestried 
 backgrounds, common in pictures of the 14th to the 16th century, 
 examples of which are to be seen in figs. 3 and 4 of Plate 178. 
 Woollen and silk tapestry were followed by sheets of Stamped-leather, 
 an Arabian invention, which in its turn was followed by the modern 
 Wall-paper, at first in painted single Sheets, and afterwards in the 
 printed Rolls now so common. That we do not devote a special 
 chapter of our work to this important product of modern art, is due 
 to the fact that a difference between Mural painting and Textile pat- 
 terns really only exists in the mode of manufacture, there being no 
 essential distinction in respect of Design. Modern Wall-papers have, 
 on the average, a breadth of 21 ins., on which the pattern is arranged 
 once or oftener, according to the size of the design. The repeating 
 of tbe pattern in an upward direction is partly duo to technical con- 
 siderations. In printing by hand from a wooden block, the length of 
 the repeating pattern varies from 21 ins. to 30 ins. 
 
 Pi^vre 178. Various Diapers. 
 laud 5. Mediaeval textile, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 2. Textile, 12th century, original in silk nnd gold; found in a 
 tomb in the Abbey of St. Germain dcs Pros, Paris, (Kacinet). 
 
 3. Paiterned gold ground of altar shrine, monastery of Heil 
 bronn, end of 15th century, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 4. Patterned gold ground of altar shrine, church of St. Egidius, 
 Barthfeld, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 5. French silk tapestry, 15th century, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 PiATE 170. Various Diapers. 
 
 1. Bishop's robo, Sacristy, Sta. Croro, Florence. 
 
 2. Pillow pattern, tomb, St. George's, Tiibiugon, German K'^nnscence, 
 (Gewerbehalle). 
 
REPEATING ORNAMENT. 
 
 291 
 
 Various Diapers. 
 
 Plate 178. 
 19* 
 
292 
 
 REPEATING ORNAMENT. 
 
 Plate 179. 
 
 Various Diapers. 
 
REPEATING ORNAMENT. 
 
 293 
 
 Various Grill Diapers. 
 
 Plate 180. 
 
294 Vaxious Diapers. 
 
 3. Lace, 16tb century, German, by Hans Siebmaclior. 
 
 4. Stamped -leather, book-cover, 17tb century, (Geworboballe). 
 5 Textile, German Renascence, (Musteromamento). 
 
 C. Carpet, Rottweil, German Eenascence, (Gewerbeballe). 
 
 7. Modem Japanese silk, (L'art pour tons). 
 
 8. Painted gold ground, St. Lorenzo, Rottweil, end of tbo 15tb 
 century, (Musteromamente). 
 
 9. Carpet, Stiftskirche, Comburg, beginning of tbe 17tb century, 
 (Musteromamente). 
 
 XO. Textile, Venetian picture, 1560, Berlin Museum, (Gewerbeballe). 
 
 Various Grill Dl^pers. (Plate 180.) 
 
 Wrougbt-iron Grills may also be treated as Diapers; and Railings 
 and Gratings are often treated as sbown by the figures in the Plate. 
 Tbe skeleton is formed by bars interlaced on the basis of the quadran- 
 gular or lozenge Net; the compartments being filled, either con- 
 tinuously, or at regular intervals, with recurring ornamental accessories 
 (figs. 1, 2, 5 and 6). 
 
 Another system places a, repeating scroU-like ornament between 
 parallel bars (fig. 3). The straight lines of tjie skeleton may also be 
 replaced by curved bars (fig. 4). 
 
 The material is square, round, and flat iron bars; either singly, 
 or in combination. Both the Middle Ages and the Renascence have 
 transmitted numerous examples in this branch; a selection is given 
 in the Plate. 
 
 Plate 180. Various Grill DiApers. 
 
 1. Late Gothic, choir-screen, minister, Constance, 15th century. 
 
 2. German Renascence. 
 
 3. Italian Renascence. 
 
 4. Modem, by Ende and BSckmann, Berlin, (Gewerbeballe). 
 
 5. German, 17th century, 
 
 6. German Renascence. 
 
296 
 
 PREFATORY REMARKS. 
 
 The third dmsion of the Handbook is entitled "Decorated 
 Objects". It is intended, firstly, to show in what manner and on 
 what principles Decoration is appUed to objects, (thus complement- 
 ing the work of the second division); and secondly, it ^vill pass a 
 little beyond the strict limits of Aisthetics, and enter on the sphere 
 of Tectonics, in order to present a view of the construction, profiling 
 and general plan of objects of art, e. g. Vases, Utensils, Furniture, &c. 
 
 These considerations, and the wish to be as comprehensive as 
 possible, have necessitated the inclusion of some objects which are 
 not decorated. This inclusion will increase the bulk of the Book; 
 but the selection of objects will be restricted, as much as possible, 
 to those which illustrate the Principles of Decoration. 
 
A. 
 
 VASES. 
 
 Vases, with which this division opens, are one of the most interest- 
 ing and impoi-tant of its groups. Gottfried Semper, who has treated 
 Keramics brilliantly in his epoch-making work "Der Stil", says in 
 the introduction to the chapter on this subject: "The products of 
 Keramic art were held in unusually high esteem by all peoples and 
 iu all periods. They had attained a religious symbolical significance 
 long before the times of monumental edifices, which latter, indeed, 
 were greatly influenced by the former; directly, in that Keramic 
 works served for the construction and ornamentation of the monu- 
 ments; indirectly, because architecture took up principles of beauty 
 and style and even finished forms which had already been developed in 
 Keramic work, and had first been fixed by the art potters of pre- 
 architectural times" "They are the oldest and most eloquent docu- 
 ments of history. Show us the pottery which a nation has produced, 
 and we can in general tell what manner of nation it was and what 
 height of culture it had attained!" Professor Gmelin, who, in his 
 essay: "Die Urformen und Gestaltungsprinzipien der Topferei" and in 
 his work: "Die Elemente der Gefassbildnerei", has attempted with 
 much success to popularise Semper's theories, says: "A bit of Dar- 
 winism is here unfolded in the sphere of industry: the way in which 
 the development of man has been influenced by climate, the character 
 of the soil, food, «S:c., finds its parallel in Keramics in the formation 
 of vessels as conditioned by the joint causes of aim, material, and 
 technique". 
 
298 Vases. 
 
 How far Pottery goes back to prehistoric times, is proved by 
 the calculations made from the alluvial deposits of the Nile valley, 
 and the geological conditions on the coasts of Scandinavia, which give 
 us the respectable age of 10 000 to 12 000 years for the pottery 
 discovered in those spots. The circumstance that, besides satisfying 
 the needs of daily life. Pottery was used in religious and funeral 
 rites, more especially the custom of placing vessels in the grave of 
 the departed, of enclosing the ashes of the dead in urns before com- 
 mitting them to the earth, has at any rate preserved to us certain 
 kinds of pottery, of which, otherwise, only sherds and fragments had 
 remained. 
 
 By Keramics we understand not only earthen-ware, but the design 
 and making of vessels in general. Next to the various clays, glass, and 
 metals, which have the first claim on our attention, stone, wood, and 
 ivory, along with other less common materials, are the substances 
 generally used. Each of these Materials imparts its own character 
 to the vessels made of it; the corresponding technique will limit or 
 modify the Form. A metal vessel 'requires form and decoration diffe- 
 rent from one of glass or porcelain; the profile of a clay vase cannot 
 be made in marble without much modification. On the other hand the 
 Purpose, for which the vessel is intended, will influence the choice of 
 the Material; so that a reciprocal interaction arises, which stimulates 
 to the study of Keramics, and makes it charming and instructive. 
 
 That the majority of the examples in this group of pottery have 
 been taken from the Antique, is due to the fact that this epoch offers 
 a general picture complete in itself; and that it is chiefly in the 
 Greek style that the above-mentioned reciprocal interaction, regularity 
 of form, and tectonic principle are, on the average, most clearly ex- 
 pressed. That, on the other hand, we have brought the constructions 
 of other countries and periods into suitable connexion with the Antique, 
 arises from our wish to meet the wants and requirements of our time 
 in a greater degree than can be done by monographs of Greek Keramics 
 alone, such as we possess in a large number of special wocks*. 
 
 In view, of the immense importance of Antique Keramics and of 
 Clay as a material in general: it may be well to ofi'er here a few 
 general remarks on this subject, reserving our observations on other 
 materials and styles till the elucidation of the plates in question. 
 Pottery is generally made on the potter's wheel. In Egypt, India, and 
 
 * Among such works whose size, get-up, and text render them suitable 
 for school and educational purposes, we may mention: 
 
 Th. Lau: die griechlschen Vascn, ihr Fonncn- und Decorationssystem. 
 44 Tafeln mit einer historischen Einleitung und erlaulemdem Text 
 von Dr. Brunn und Dr. Krell. Leipzig: E. A. Seemann. 
 
 A. Genick: gnechische Eeramik. 40 Tafeln mit Einleitung und Be- 
 schreibung von Adolf Furtwiingler. Berlin : Ernst Wasmuth. 
 
Vases. 299 
 
 Mesopotamia, the use of this important implement of civilisation goes 
 back to the very earliest times. The mural paintings of Beni Hassan, 
 which have been refen-ed to the 19th century B. C, show that pottery 
 was then already known; while Germany did not use pottery before 
 the Roman peiiod; and America, previous to the arrival of Europeans, 
 was only acquainted with the formation of pots by hand, in spite of 
 the great achievements of the Peruvians. The formation of pottery 
 by hand, is still in use in many countries. To this class belongs the 
 building-up with zonal or spiral strips, and the moulding over plaited 
 moulds or gourds which are then destroyed in the firing. Wooden 
 and stone moulds were used in early times; and also m modern 
 times in connection with the wheel. At the outset, people con- 
 tented themselves with drying the clay; afterwards drying was 
 followed by firing. An intermediate stage is to fire beneath a 
 covering of cow- dung, the air being excluded; when the smoke 
 penetrates into the clay, and colours it gray or black. Originally 
 only smoothed and polished, the vessels were afterwards rendered 
 more impervious to liquids by being painted with a Varnish, such as 
 IS seen on Greek vases; and by the discovery of the tin and lead 
 Glazes, such as are found on the so-called "majolica ware". The 
 porosity, of many oriental vessels, is intentional, in order that the 
 contents may be kept cool by the process of evaporation on the sur- 
 face of the vessel. Of the chemical composition of these ancient 
 Varnishes, we are not so well informed as we could wish. 
 
 Antique pottery is found in all places where ancient civilisation 
 penetrated; but the principal sources are: Greece, Sicily, and Italy, 
 particularly Campania and Etruria. To this latter circumstance is 
 asciibed the erroneous use of the name "Etruscan", in the last century, 
 as a collective name for antique pottery in general. Athens, Corinth, 
 and Chalcis, were the chief factories of pottery in Greece; and Ta- 
 rentum and Cumae in Italy, where pottery established itself after the 
 decay of Greek art. Apart from prehistoric products, it can be pro- 
 ved that Greek vase-painting begins historically in the 7tb century 
 B. C; attained its golden age about 400 B. C; and decayed with the 
 invasion by the Romans about 200 B. C. According to peculia- 
 rities of form and finish, we distinguish difi'erent periods, the leading 
 characteristics of which are as follows: — 
 
 1. The gcometHcal style: clay natural colour, yellowish -grey, rough; 
 decoration brown, in bands, rings, zigzag lines, checks and 
 other simple patterns, borrowed from the technique of weaving 
 and wood carving, sometimes in connection witb represen- 
 tations of domestic animals, teams, «S:c., in rhythmic sequence, 
 (compare Plate 194. 2 and 8). 
 
 2. The Asiatic style: clay natural color, yellowish, impregnated 
 and smoothed; decoration dark brown, dark red, and white, 
 
3CX) Vase. — Fundamental Vase-Forms. 
 
 with fantastic mnged creatures, lions, panthers, geese, sphinxes, 
 mostly arranged in zones. The intervening spaces, between the 
 animals, are filled with rosettes, flowers, &c. The Zonal deco- 
 ration is often replaced by Scales, (compare Plate 194. 4). 
 S. The Black Figure style: clay reddish-yellow, coloured with 
 oxide "of iron; decoration black, pure white being used for the 
 carnations of female figures, horses, &c. The conception of 
 the figures is frequently archaic, drawn in uncoloured com- 
 partments bordered by ornamental bands. The lines of 
 drapery, &o. are scratched through the black colour, to 
 the clay. 
 
 4. Tlie Bed Figure style: clay red, very smooth: the entire vessel, 
 with the exception of the ornaments and figures, coated black; 
 the black sometimes having a greenish shimmer. White only 
 occasionally found, for grey hair and the like. The tendency 
 to simplification is predominant in respect of both ornament 
 and figures; usually with only one figure or with simple 
 groups of figures; outlines are painted- in with the pencil. 
 
 5. TJie Painted style: clay as in No. 4; the vessels frequently 
 of colossal size (they are then not intended for practical use, 
 as may be inferred from their having no bottom); the nume- 
 rous red figures on the black ground are placed one over the 
 other, with the addition of architectural decoration: technically 
 the decoration is executed in a careless manner; dark red, 
 white, yellow, and gold are also used; luxuriant brushwork 
 ornament, patterns in perspective, and painted reliefs, "are 
 common. 
 
 The succession of these styles, in time, is generally that of the 
 above order; but they often blend with each other ^vithout any de- 
 finite demarcation, forming composite styles and varieties. We find, 
 for instance, certain drug-pots which have polychrome painting on a 
 white background, and so on. 
 
 Fund Ai^iENTAL Vase-Forms. (Plate 181.) 
 
 Vases, as a rule, are composed of a number of simple forms or 
 parts. These are usually the foot, the body, and the neck; to which 
 a handle, a lid, and a spout, may also be added. The most^ impor- 
 tant part is the Body. In the majority of cases it determines the 
 fundamental form of the vessel The natural models for vessels are 
 the hollow hand, the egg, the husks of fruits (gourds, nuts), the 
 horns of animals, the skins of animals, and similar objects. These 
 have, as a matter of fact, been used in all ages as models, for more 
 
The Fundamental Vatc-Forms. 301 
 
 or less direct imitation; and were undoubtedly used by mankind in 
 the lowest stages of civilisation, instead of artificial vessels. Certain 
 stereotyped forms recur again and again: first among tbem (due to the 
 use of the potter's wheel) the form of the so-called body of revolution. 
 An attempt is made, on Plate 181, to give a general view of the com- 
 monest fundamental forms, mth their names. The Sphere, the Cylinder, 
 and the Hyperboloid, are the simplest of these. The Sphere is altered, 
 by equally flattening or extending, to the Spheroid, or the Ellipsoid. 
 If these bodies bo cut-away at both ends: we have the erect, and the 
 recumbent vessel. Unequal flattening and extending produce forms 
 which wo may term Echinus, Cake, Egg, and Top forms; or, if the 
 length much exceeds the breadth: Wedge, Spindle, and Drop forms. 
 If only the top be cut-into: we have either the Dish, or the Cup 
 form. ■ Conical, Bag, and Canopus forms may be derived from the 
 Cylinder. In a similar way the Hyperboloid also leads to new forms. 
 If the height of the vessel be a high multiple of the diameter, we 
 get slender, tapering forms: in the reverse case, we have dishes and 
 plates. 
 
 The Egg is the commonest form in Pottery. Cylindrical and 
 Conical forms, i. e. such bodies as have a developible surface, are 
 best adapted for Sheet- metal work. 
 
 Mathematical curves, e. g. arcs of circles, are not strictly ad- 
 hered-to in the profiles. Vessels, which are not made on the wheel, 
 often exhibit arbitrary forms which cannot be grouped in the scheme 
 of the Plate. In* the Chinese and Japanese st3des, for example, pris- 
 matic forms are very common (compare Plate 187. 1); human and 
 animal shapes are found in the Antique, as forms of vessels, (com- 
 pare Plate 194. 12). 
 
 The "Various junctions, of the Body with the Neck, or the Foot, 
 will produce a series of new forms. The use of Double-curvature in 
 the profile will also produce new forms, the simplest of which are the 
 Bell, and the Pear. The so-called "Gourd-pots", the Pilgrim-bottles, &c., 
 also form special and rarer groups of forms. Here too, may be 
 mentioned duplex vessels formed by the juxtaposition of two vessels on 
 a common foot, or by uniting them with a common handle. These 
 forms are found sporadically in Prehistoric and all subsequent periods. 
 
 As regards the Feet of vessels: we have first to remark that in 
 the earliest times footless and three-footed vessels are by no means 
 rare. The former were sunk in the earth, the latter would stand on 
 an uneven surface. The usual form of foot presupposes a level stand- 
 ing surface and therefore some degree of civilisation. Intermediate, 
 between the absence of a foot and the high foot, is the Ring-foot, a 
 
302 Fundamental Vase-Forms. 
 
 torus or profiled circular ring, forming the lower end of the vessel. 
 It evidently arose from the early custom of placing footless vessels 
 in hyperboloid Rings, which were afterwards i'ncorporated with the 
 vessel itself. The decoration of the foot is generally subordinate to 
 that of the body; and consists of simple motives, channellings, &c. 
 
 The Neck receives a cylindrical, conical, or hyperboloid form, 
 according to the object of the vessel. As experience showed that 
 pouring- out is best done through a narrow opening, and filling through 
 a wide one: funnel-shaped necks, intended to meet both requirements, 
 arose. A good decoration of the neck is to surround it at its narro- 
 west part with a neutral band, from which the motive of decoration 
 may be developed upwards and downwards. 
 
 The upper margin or Mouth is either bent outwards or inwards, 
 or is straight; the latter especially when the vessel was intended to 
 be closed by a Stopper. Pouring- out is facilitated if the vessel be 
 provided with a Spout, or curved Lip, as is the case with some 
 mugs and cans.* The decoration of the Mouth, when round, is usually 
 a beading or row of leaves curving downwards and outwards. The 
 curved Lip depends for its effect on the line of its curve, or, like 
 the Spout, is decorated by masks, scallops, &c. 
 
 The Lid generally fits into, on-to, or over, the upper margin. 
 It may be raised by means of a knob, hoop, or ring; and if it does 
 not lie loose on the mouth, is fastened by a hinge, or by cords and 
 chains (Censer). Antique lids have sometimes the form of little vessels, 
 or dishes. 
 
 The Handle varies in size, position, a-nd number, according to 
 the use and size of the vessel. The points of attachment of the 
 vertical handle lie in a vertical plane; those of the horizontal handle 
 are in a horizontal plane side by side; and those of the hoop handle are 
 opposite each other in a vertical plane. The vertical handle is most 
 used. The Jiorizontal handle is specially intended for lifting; the ver- 
 tical for tilting the vessel when pouring-out. Vertical handles are 
 most suitable for tall vessels; and horizontal handles for flat ones. 
 Other forms are produced by combination, as when a vertical handle 
 is added to the centre of a horizontal one. As a rope was originally 
 used instead of a handle, the latter frequently takes that form, (com- 
 pare Plate 182. 4). If the vessel be intended for pouring-out. iho 
 handle should be so attached that the pouring-out may be done with 
 equal ease whether the vessel be full or nearly empty. 
 
 Attempts have often been made to classify vessels according to their 
 uses; but definite divisions cannot be made, as many vessels may serve 
 for a number of purposes, which gives rise to combinations and inter- 
 
Fundamental Vase-Forms. — The Amphora. 303 
 
 mediate groups. We mainly follow Semper's classification when wa 
 divide vessels into the following groups- 
 
 1. Holders; their chief object being storage and preservation. 
 
 To this group belong: the Amphora, Urn, Krater, dish 
 and salver, the Ampulla, the Alabastron, and similar small 
 vessels, flower-vase, salt-cellar, mk-pot, snuff-box, holy-water 
 stoup, &c. 
 
 2. Dippers; chiefly used for drawing and filling into other vessels. 
 
 To this group belong: the Hydria, bucket, spoon^ and 
 Patera. 
 
 3. Pouters; for pouring- out. 
 
 To these belong; the Prochoiis, Olpe, OinochS, Lekythos, 
 mug, can, and bottle. 
 
 4. Drinking vessels. 
 
 The principal representatives of this class are: the antique 
 drinking vessels of the forms Kylix, Kantharos, Kyathos, te.\ 
 the drinking horn or Rhyton, beaker, bowl, goblet, Rum- 
 mer, Tumbler, and all the various forms of our modem 
 drinking-glasses. 
 Th^ various vessels will be treated in this order. 
 In many cases: one half of the cut shows the geometrical view; 
 and the other shows the vertical section. Decorative figures are fre- 
 quently omitted, particularly on Antique vases; the decoration has 
 sometimes been omitted, when that was required by the minuteness 
 of the scale; and sometimes it has been only partially drawn or in- 
 dicated, in order to avoid unneccessary work. 
 
 a. Holders. 
 
 The Amphora. (Plate 182.) 
 
 The Amphora is of frequent occurrence in the Antique. It was 
 intended to receive water, oil, and w.ne. Originally serving for practi- 
 cal purposes, it was afterwards employed merely as a show,' or state 
 vessel. The form was often revived in later styles; and has the follow- 
 ing characteristics, erect, extended body, like an inverted egg (Plate 
 182. 9), a spindle (Plate 182. 7), a bag (Plate 182. 6), more rarely 
 conical (Plate 182. 11), hyperboloid (Plate 182. 10), or cylindrical 
 (Plate 182. 14). The neck is narrow, more or less extended, with 
 shoulder (Plate 182. 6), or without (Plate 182. 5), thickened at the 
 the rim. Two vertical handles, diametrically opposite each other. At 
 first without a foot (Plate 182. 3 — 7), afterwards with a round or 
 
304 
 
 VASES. 
 
 The most usual fundamental forms of vessels 
 and their names. 
 
 ^t^ 
 
 ^r 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 -,-^y 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 --#7 
 
 plate -shaped 
 
 bag -shaped 
 
 T 
 
 1 
 
 
 conical 
 
 f 
 
 
 '1 
 1 
 
 cylindrical 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 echinus 
 
 dish -shaped 
 
 Q 
 
 recumbent 
 
 spheroid cake -shaped 
 
 T 
 
 pear-shaped 
 
 spherical 
 
 \ 
 
 hyperboloid 
 
 Inverted cone top-shaped Inverted egg elllosold egg-shaped 
 
 (D 
 
 erect cask 
 
 - canopas 
 
 CP CD ""■""' 
 
 ~up • shaped 
 
 ^^ wedge-shaped spindle-shaped drop-shaped 
 
 Plate 181. Chart of Fundamental Vase Forms. 
 
VASES. 
 
 i05 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 
 
 The Amphora. 
 
 Plate 182. 
 20 
 
306 The Ampbura. — The Urn. 
 
 high foot. With or without cover. Material: clay, more rarely glass, 
 or other materials. Size: very variable, according to use. 
 
 Plate 182. The Amphora. 
 
 1 Egyptian, witli cover, Thebes, Thutmes III. 
 
 2. Egyptian, with cover, Thebes, XX dynasty. 
 
 3. ^mall four-sided, with Latin inscription, found in Egypt, 
 unpainted clay. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 4. Assyrian, with rope handle, clay. 
 
 5. Roman, unpainted red clay. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 6. Roman, tunpainted yellow clay, found near Aquileia in 1877, 
 United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 7. Roman, glass, with stopper, Rouen, Museum, (Deville). 
 
 8. Roman, iridescent glass, found at Pompeii. 
 
 9. Ancient, Attic, painted clay (so-called Diota), Munich, (Lau). 
 10 — 11. Clay, painted in polychrome, with band-shaped handles, so- 
 called Alexandrian style, (Lau and Jacobsthal). 
 
 12. Antique, black painted clay, (Gropius). 
 
 13. Antique state amphora, white marble, with swan handles, 
 "Vase of the Athenian Sosibios", Louvre, Paris. 
 
 14. Modern French, state amphora, by Lienard. 
 
 15. Faun with amphora, from the painted neck ol an Antique 
 Drinking-horn, (compare Plate 202. 5 — 6). 
 
 The Urn. (Plate 183.) 
 
 The Urn is met-with, not only in the Antique and all subsequent 
 styles, but in early times everywhere and specially in Prehistoric 
 styles. Apart from other purposes, the Urn was frequently used in 
 funeral rites, as a repository for the ashes of the dead, as a coftiu, 
 and so on. It has an erect body, profiled like an inverted egg or 
 spindle. The neck is comparatively wide and low, the mouth straight 
 or cui-ved outwards, usually closed by a cover. Either without feet, 
 or with a low round foot. Without handles, or with two small hori- 
 zontal handles, attached to the greatest prominence of the body. 
 Material: clay. Generally of considerable size. 
 
 Plate 183. The Urn. 
 
 1. Egyptian, nibbing an Urn, (Lienard et Sauvageot). 
 
 2. Prehistoric, Gallic, (Bosc). 
 
 3. Grey clay, ornamentation in relief, United collections, Carlsruhd 
 4 — 5. Greek, painted clay, Munich. 
 
 6. Majolica, 15th century, Italian, 
 
VASES, 
 
 307 
 
 \ 2 / 
 
 The Urn. 
 
 Plate 183. 
 20* 
 
308 The Urn. — The Ki-ater. — The Basin, and Dish. 
 
 7 — 8. Slavic, found in the district of the Elbe and Oder. 
 9. Modern Faience, Bombay, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 10. Majolica, 16th century, Italian, (Storck). 
 
 11. German, cut crystal, small with high foot, 16th century, Na 
 tional Museum, Munich, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 The Krater (Plate 184.) 
 
 The Krater is an Antique vase, chiefly used for mixing water 
 and wine (wine was not drunk unmixed); and perhaps also for ablu- 
 tions. Although we meet with it as early as Egyptian times, it is 
 not found in Antique Keramic art until its later periods. As a state 
 vessel, the Krater has probably been more highly developed than any 
 other form. Modern art employs the Krater preferentially as a garden 
 vase for plants. A characteristic of the Krater is its great width 
 at the top. The body is either a hemispherical dish (fig. 9), 
 or has a wide, cup - shaped neck, (figs. 7 and 8). Where the 
 junction is formed without a shoulder: we have the bell-shaped I{j'ater 
 (figs. 3 and 4). The Foot is frequently small; and so arranged that it 
 stands on an independent base (fig. 10). Two, sometimes four, or 
 more, horizontal or vertical handles, or hints of them. The principal 
 materials were clay, marble, and metal. Kraters are usually of con- 
 siderable size. 
 
 Plate 184. The Krater. 
 
 1. Egyptian, %vith lotus cups. 
 
 2. Egyptian, Thebes, XVIII dynasty. 
 3^4. Greek, Munich, (Lau). 
 
 5. Greek, with columnar handles, Munich, (Lau). 
 
 6. Greek, with volute handles, (Lau). 
 
 7. Antique, Uffizi, Florence, (Gropius). 
 
 8. Antique, marble, with four handles, found at Ostia, evi- 
 dently copied from a metal original. 
 
 9. Ditto, found at Tivoli, England. 
 
 10. Antique, state Vase, marble, the decoration of the neck, con- 
 sisting of figures or rich scroll ornament, is omitted. 
 
 11. Assyrian. 
 
 12 — 13. Ajitique, for ladies' toilet, Greek vase-paintings. 
 
 The Basin, and Dish. (Plate 185.) 
 
 Basins, and Dishes, are vessels of such common use, that they 
 are found everywhere, and in all periods in which the Keramic art 
 
■VASES. 
 
 The Krater. 
 
 Plate 184. 
 
310 The Basin, and Dish. 
 
 has been practised. Their uses are manifold; their form is Indicated 
 by their names: Dishes are the deeper, Plate3 the shalloiver vessels. 
 They occur without foot, and with a round or high foot. The last 
 was specially adopted for the Greek Kylix. Handles are wanting, or 
 occur singly, or in pairs, horizontal, vertical, as hoop handles, and so 
 on. Material, and size: various. The decoration of Dishes is generally 
 on the exterior; and of Plates is generally on the inner or upper 
 face. In the latter case: the border and the centre are ornamented 
 separately, being divided from each other by a neutral, undecorated 
 zone, (figs. 13 — 16). To paint the entire surface with figures, dis- 
 regarding the division of border and centre, would be contrary to 
 correct Style. 
 
 PiATE 185. The Basin, and the Dish. 
 
 1 . Egyptian Dish, with hoop handles, Metal, (Menard et Sauvagcot). 
 
 2. Egyptian Dish, with erect handles, Metal, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 3. Greek Dish, yellow clay, painted brown and red, Geo- 
 metrical style. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 4. View from above, of the handles of the above. 
 
 5. Greek Dish, yellow clay, ornamented with horn - like ex- 
 crescences, painted red, Geometrical style. United collections, 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 6. Greek Dish,- with high foot (Kylix), yellow clay, decoration 
 brown, Geometrical style, Munich, the interior is decorated 
 with the ornament shown on Plate 157. 4. 
 
 7. Ditto. 
 
 8. Greek, -flat Dish, with ring foot, Munich, (Lau). 
 
 9. Antique footless Dish, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 10. Antique, small Dish, with low foot, silver treasure, Hildes- 
 heim. 
 
 11. Antique, metal Dish, with high volute handles, (Menard et 
 Sauvageot). 
 
 12. Roman, glass Dish, with pierced handle ring, Found in Nor- 
 mandy, (Deville). 
 
 13 14. Majolica Dish, view and section, Italian Ecnascence. 
 
 15_1G. Modern glass Plates, with scalloped border. 
 
 17. Modern Soup-tureen, with cover. 
 
 18. Modern French metal Dish, with vertical handle and , three 
 feet, (Julienne). 
 
 19. lyiodern Spanish, small Dish, of variegated glazed clay, 
 Malaga, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 20. Modern Coffee-bowl, with horizontal handles. 
 
 21. Handle of No. 20, viewed from above. 
 
VASES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 The Basin, and the Dish. 
 
 Plate 185. 
 
312 The Ampulla, Alabastron, &c. — The Flower-Vase, •S.c. 
 
 The Ampulla, Alabastron, &c. (Plate 18G.) 
 
 The Ampulla is a diminutive Ajnphora, often in black painted 
 clay, adorned with impressed ornament (figs. 4 — 6). The Phiale 
 is a slender vessel, without handles, with elongated body, and 
 long narrow neck, of clay or glass (figs. 1 — 3). The Alabastron 
 has a bag-like or cylindrical body, no foot, a very narrow neck with 
 a shoulder, a large plate-like mouth, and little ear-shaped handles 
 (figs. 13 — 14). This vessel was intended for the reception of oils 
 and unguents; it was made of alabaster or striped glass, whence 
 its name. The Lachiymatory, so-called from its tear -like profile, 
 or from its purpose, is a glass vessel, of the forms shown in figs. 
 11 and 12. Not less frequent are little bag forms like the 
 handleless vessels given in figs. 6, 9, and 10. Like those already 
 named, they were intended for toilet. or religious purposes. 
 
 Plate 186. The Ampulla, Alabastro>', Sec. 
 
 1. Egyptian Phiale, with cover, Thutmes IIL 
 
 2. Antique Phiale, painted clay, Munich, (Lau). 
 
 3. Antique glass Phiale, (Stackelberg). 
 
 4. Antique glass Ampulla, striped bright blue and yellow. 
 
 5. Antique Ampulla, black painted clay with impressed orn- 
 aments, Athens, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 6. Ditto, Athens. 
 
 7 — 10. Antique, Small Vessels, painted clay, United collections, Carls- 
 ruhe. 
 
 11 — 12. Antique glass Lachrymatories, Museum, Nuremberg, and 
 United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 11. Antique Alabastron, veined glass, imitating oriental ala- 
 
 baster. 
 
 14. Antique Alabastron, milk-white glass, with brown stripes, 
 Campana collection, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 15. Vase, white iridescent glass, Campana collection, (L'art 
 pour tous). 
 
 16. Modern Japanese, Small Vase, with mask handles, Landes- 
 gewerbehalle, Carlsruhe. 
 
 17. Old German, Small stoneware Vase. 
 
 The FLO^vER-VASE, &c. (Plate 187.) 
 
 Flower- vase is the name given to vessels intended to receive and 
 support bouquets of living or dried flowers. Various as the forms of 
 these vessels may be in other respects, their purpose requires that they 
 
VASES. 
 
 The Ampulla, the Alabastron, &c. 
 
 Plate 186. 
 
VASES. 
 
 Plate 187. 
 
 The Flower-Vase, &i 
 
The Flower-Vase, &c. — Vase-forms for Various Purposes. 315 
 
 should have a funuel-shaped mouth. Japan and China, which have 
 been especially prolific in this group, use cylindrical and prismatic forms. 
 Such vessels do not possess a cover; handles, which are equally super- 
 tiuous, are also generally wanting; the decoration should avoid any 
 attempt to imitate natural plant motives. Glass, clay, and porcelain are 
 the predominant materials. A special example of these vessels is the 
 so-called "Hyacinth-glass" intended for forcing bulbs in water. As it 
 is desirable that the root should be visible, recourse must be had to 
 some transparent material. Decoration is excluded in the case of the 
 ordinary Flower- pot, which must admit air and moisture. This has 
 led to the use of the Decorated Flower-pot, an example of which is given 
 in fig. 12. The suspended Flower -vase, like suspended vases in 
 general, must be furnished with three or more handles to which 
 the cords and chains may be attached; but it need not have a foot 
 unless it intended to stand also. 
 
 Plate 187. The Flower- Vase, &c. 
 
 1. Chinese, with cloison enamel, (Li^vre). 
 
 2. Modern English, in oriental style, blue glazed clay, with 
 black ornament, Landesgewerbehalle, Carlsruhe. 
 
 3. Modern, glazed clay, with decoration in colours. 
 
 4. Modern Italian majolica, Landesgewerbehalle, Carlsruhe. 
 
 5. Modern, coloured stoneware, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 6. Glass, 17 th century. 
 7 — 9. Modern, glass. 
 
 10 — 11. Modern, Hyacinth-glasses, (No. 10 is patented: the upper 
 part is made to lift out for greater convenience of pouriug- 
 in water). 
 
 12. Modern, decorated Flower-pot, green glazed clay. 
 
 13. Arabian suspended Lamp, enamelled glass, conventional form, 
 (part of the ornamentation is omitted). 
 
 14 — 15. Modern suspended Flower- vises, of glazed clay. 
 
 Vase-forms for Various Purposes. (Plate 188.) 
 
 This plate exhibits a number of receptacles for salt and other 
 spices, vinegar, oil, ink, &c. The name "cellar" and "stand" have 
 little connection with the form of these vessels, which may be very 
 various. Receptacles for oil and vinegar are often called "Cruets". 
 Vessels belonging to this group have not been preserved to us from 
 the Antique; but we may not conclude, from this, that salt, oil, &c., 
 were not preserved in vessels in those days: on the contrary, some 
 small vessels in the silver treasure at Hildesheim, have been supposed 
 
316 Vase-forma for Various Purposes. 
 
 to be Salt-cellars, though we have no definite evidence that this 
 was so. 
 
 The Salt-cellar usually takes the form of a dish or bowl, some- 
 times of a little trough or tub. The material is glazed clay, glass, 
 porcelain, metal, &c. The Renascence period created Salt-cellars of 
 rich design: the most celebrated is the famous one by Cellini. 
 
 With the increased use of writing, the Inkstand has undergone 
 an immense number of changes of form. The wooden Inkstand, with 
 glass lining, was in use, for a long time, till it was rendered obsolete 
 by vessels of clay and glass. What is required of a good Inkstand 
 is: — it should not fall-over easily, and if it does should not spill; 
 the evaporation must be reduced to a minimum; the height of the 
 contents must be easy to regulate. To fulfil all these requirements 
 numerous inventions have been made, some of which we will notice 
 here. In fig. 10 the centre of gravity lies in the foot, and this, with 
 the form of the glass, prevents falling-over, or spilling. In fig. 12 the 
 level of the ink can be regulated by an India-rubber stopper. The funnel- 
 shaped tube in which the ink rises is convenient for dipping the pen; 
 and it reduces the evaporation. Fig. 13 shows an Inkstand with 
 sloping bottom, and revolving cover, which may be adjusted to the 
 varying level of the ink. The form of fig. 14 is intended to prevent 
 falling-over, to reduce evaporation, and to maintain the level uniform 
 for a long time; a result which is attained, notwithstanding the sim- 
 plicity. 
 
 Oil and Vinegar Cruets are usually small bottles with a shoulder. 
 They are generally placed in pairs, in a frame (fig. 7); a direct union 
 of the two, as in fig. 6, is rare. 
 
 The Pepper-box has of late years taken the form of the pepper 
 mill or grinder (fig. 8), otherwise it is associated with the Salt-cellar, 
 and receives the same form. The Inkstand and the Sand-box were 
 also often associated together; but Blotting-paper renders the latter 
 unnecessary. 
 
 Plate 188. Vase -forms for Various Purposes. . 
 
 1. Salt-cellar, Renascence, (Formenschatz). 
 
 2. Salt-cellar, German, 16th century. 
 
 3. Majolica Salt-cellar, Italian Renascence, (Teirich). 
 
 4. Spice-frame, glass, 18th century. 
 
 5. Modern Cruet- frame. 
 
 6. Modern Cruets, coloured glass, Antique model. 
 
 7. Modern Cruet-frame. 
 
 8. Modern Peppermill. 
 
 9. Old Inkstand, wood. 
 
 10. Modern Inkstand. 
 
 11. Inkstand, Glazed clay. 
 
VASES. 
 
 Vase-forms for Various Purposes. 
 
 riale 188. 
 
318 Vase-foru»s for Various Purposes. 
 
 12. Modern Inkstand, with adjustible stopper. 
 
 13. Modern glass Inkstand, with sloping bottom and revolving cover. 
 
 14. Modern glass Inkstand. 
 
 15. Old horn Inkstand, for the pocket; after unscrewing the foot- 
 piece, the metal pin may be forced into the Table -top. 
 
 16. Modern Inkstand. 
 
 17. Modern Inkstand. 
 
 The Jar, the Cist, &c. (Plate 189.) 
 
 Jars and Pots are small receptacles of spheroid or cylindrical 
 form, for solid, granular, or pasty substances. The lid is either 
 loose, or affixed by hinges; and is an essential part of the vessel. ■ 
 The materials are clay, porcelain, glass, wood, metal, ivory, &c. 
 
 Besides the small clay Pots and Boxes which are conjmon in the 
 Antique: we must also mention the Cist. This is a metal vessel of 
 cylindrical form, and considerable size, which was used for religious 
 rites, and for the reception of jewelry, rolls, &g. The style is con- 
 ventional: there were three claws for the feet; and the exterior of 
 the cylinder was decorated with incised figures, and furnished with 
 rings to which chains were attached, for the transportation of the 
 vessel. The lid is slightly domed; and the handle usually consists of 
 two wrestlers grasping each other by the shoulders (fig. 6). 
 
 Plate 189. The Jar, the Cist, &c. 
 
 1. Antique, yellow clay, painted brown and red, this is the so-called 
 "Dodwell vase" celebrated as the first-discovered of the vases in 
 imitation of the Asiatic style, dug-up- near Corinth. 
 
 2. Antique, yellow clay, painted red and brown, United collections, 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 3. Antique, with small Kylix as lid, yellow clay, painted brown and 
 red, imitating the Asiatic style, T^Iunieh, (Lau). 
 
 4. Antique, black clay. 
 
 5. Antique, painted clay, belongs to the later period of the red 
 figure style, metal ring, Berlin, Museum. 
 
 G. Antique bronze Cist, Louvre, Paris, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 7. Modern Japanese, lacquered gold and black, the lid forms a dish, 
 Landesgewerbehalle, Carlsruhe. 
 
 8. Old Persian, repousse copper, the decoration is too small to be 
 given, (Kuusthandwerk). 
 
 9. Modern Snuff-box, birch bark. 
 
 10. Modern' Tobacco-jar, Norwegian, carved in wood, Landesgewerbe- 
 halle, Carlsruhe. 
 
 11. Metal box, with collapsible Drinkiug-cup, Modern. 
 
VASES. 
 
 319 
 
 1 ^ ! H 
 
 H 1 h 
 
 The Jar, the Cist, &c. 
 
 Plate 189. 
 
320 The Font, and the Holy -Water Stoup. — The Hjdria. 
 
 The Font, and the Holt- Water Stoup. (Plate 190.) 
 
 Holy-water plays an important part in many rites of the Roman 
 Catholic Church. It is kept in Holy-water Stoups. These are bowls, 
 either free, or attached to walls. In the former case, the form generally 
 approaches that of the Krater; in the latter case, the edge projects as 
 a half or three-quarter circle from the surface of the wall; and the 
 stoup is supported on a pilaster, column, or console. For use in 
 houses: the Stoup takes the form of a suspended dish, as shown by 
 fig. 11. The decoration is mostly symbolic, e. g, crosses, monograms, 
 cherub-heads, &c. Most of the examples are taken from the work by 
 Raguenet, which contains a large selection of these objects. 
 
 Plate 190. 
 
 1. Romanesque, minster, Weissenburg, (Raguenet). 
 
 2. Romanesque, Church of the Crucifix, Compi^gne, (Raguenet). 
 
 3. Romanesque, church, Picardy, (Raguenet). 
 
 4. Romanesque, church, Charleville, (Raguenet). 
 
 5. 12th century, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 6. 16th century. Church, Mas d'Azil, Ari^ge, (Raguenet). 
 
 7. 17 th century. Church, Cormontreuil, (Raguenet). 
 
 8. Church, Picardy, (Raguenet). 
 
 9. Modem, church, Couthuin, Belgium, Architect Halkin, (Raguenet). 
 
 10. 16th century. Chapel of the castle, Mello, France, (Raguenet). 
 
 11. 17th century, beaten silver. Royal Museum, Stuttgart, (Kunst- 
 handwerk). 
 
 b. Dippers. 
 
 The Hydria. (Plate 191.) 
 
 The Hydria, as its name implies, is the water-pot. It is the 
 vessel which the maidens took to the spring; fiilled with water; and 
 then bore home on their heads. It was carried, when empty in a 
 horizontal; and when full, in a vertical attitude. Of all vases: it is 
 the most perfect in form; its aim being so well expressed in its con- 
 struction. It must be easy to carry, convenient to fill and empty, 
 and to hold as much fluid as possible; it therefore has a vertical 
 body of the shape of an inverted egg (this form places the centie 
 of gravity at the top, which facilitates transportation in a verticd 
 attitude); on which a funnel-shaped neck is placed. It has three 
 handles: two are horizontal, diametrically opposite to each other at 
 
 4^ 
 
VASES. 
 
 321 
 
 The Font, and the Holy- Water Stoup. 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 
 
 Plate 190. 
 21 
 
322. The Hydria. — The Bucket, &c. 
 
 the greatest protuberance of the body, which served to raise the vessel 
 when full; the third is vertical, placed on one side of the neck, 
 which served to carry the vessel when empty, to steady it when full 
 and when pouring- out. The foot is always sm'all. The neck has a 
 shoulder, or blends in a curve with the body. A special Irind of the 
 latter treatment is the Kalpis (fig. 2). The smaller, slenderer Hydrias, 
 which were not intended to be carried on the head, are termed 
 Hand -hydrias. The material is clay. 
 
 Tlate 191. The Hydria. 
 
 1. Greek, (Jacobsthal). 
 
 2. Greek, of the Kalpis form, body smooth, black, painted with 
 red figures on the shoulder. 
 
 3. Greek, painted black, reddish brown and white on the clay 
 ground, Campana collection," Lou\Te, Paris, (L'art pour tous), 
 the decoration is of the highest class, the shoulder is decorated 
 by an ivy band, which is omitted in this figure, but given 
 on Plate 32. 4. 
 
 4 — 5. Graeco - Italic Hand-hydrias, unpaintcd clay, United collections, 
 
 Carlsruhe. 
 Q — 8. Greek Vase-paintings, showing the mode of carrying and using 
 
 the Hydria. 
 
 The Bucket, &c. (Plate 192.) 
 
 We have seen that the Hydria gives beautiful expression to tho 
 idea of pouring-out; the Bucket, on the other hand, is distincly a 
 dipper, and the Funnel a filler. 
 
 The Bucket is of specifically Egyptian origin; with it water was 
 drawn from the Nile; and hence the drop-like form, with the centre 
 of gravity low down. Two such Buckets were carried on a yoke. 
 The form serving to prevent spilling, (figs. 1 — 4). The Assyrian 
 Bucket generally terminates below in a lion mask, from which the 
 hag-shaped neck rises, (fig. 6). In the Graeco-Italic style, we find 
 footless Buckets resembling an inverted egg (fjg. 10); others with a 
 ring foot are, however, not uncommon, (figs. 7, 8, 9 and 11). Instead 
 of one hoop handle there were sometimes two (figs. 7 and 9). 
 
 The ecclesiastical art of the Middle ages gave its portable Holy- 
 water Stoups the form of bucket^, modifying the shape of the latter 
 to fit them for this purpose (figs. 13, 14). Sometimes . the Bucket 
 is furnished with a spout, or a nozzle (fig. 15). 
 
 The Funnel, as a rule, takes the shape of an inverted cone, with 
 or without a tubular continuation; the handle is vertical (figs. 20, 21), 
 
VASES. 
 
 323 
 
 The Hydria. 
 
 Plate 191. 
 21* 
 
324 The Bucket, &c. — The Spoon, &c. 
 
 hoop-shaped' (fig. 19), or two horizontal double (fig. 18). A Water- 
 ing pot is shown in fig. 19: the hole at the top is intended to let 
 the water flow when opened, or to stop the flow by atmospheric pres- 
 sure when closed by the finger. 
 
 Metal, as the more durable material, is generally used for Buckets 
 and Funnels: clay, glass, &c., are less common. 
 
 Plate 192. The Bucket, &e. 
 1, . Egyptian, Thebes, Tutmes III. 
 2 — 4. Egyptian, bronze. 
 
 5. Egyptian Bucket-like Vessel, without handle. 
 
 6. Assyrian, with cord handle. 
 
 7 — 11. Graeco-Italic, bronze, of various forms, 
 
 12. Antique, with hoop handle, red clay, painted black, United 
 
 collections in Carlsruhe, the eye in the uppermost zone, 
 which is found in Greek Keramics, has been explained as a 
 protective against the "evil eye". 
 
 13 — 14. Mediaeval, beaten copper, 15th century, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 15. Modern Italian, clay, with hoop-handle and nozzle, (Gropiusj. 
 
 16 — 17. Modern Coal-vases, sheet-metal, square and round. 
 
 18. Antique clay Funnel. 
 
 19. Mediaeval Vessel, for watering the ground, clay, (Viollet-le- 
 Duc). 
 
 20. Modern Funnel, for wateriog the ground, sheet-metal, 
 21 General form of the modern sheet-metal Funnel, 
 
 The Spoon, and the Ladle. (Plate 193.) 
 
 Spoons and Pateroe form a special class of dippers. As the 
 Table-spoon, strictly so-called, will come up for discussion among the 
 utensils, we have here to consider only the larger spoon -shaped 
 vessels and the Paterae (handled dishes) used for religious and other 
 purposes. The natural model of the Spoon is the hollow hand, 
 whence the spherical, elliptical, or oval dish-shape, with an attached 
 handle. The latter usually lies in the plane of the rim, but it may 
 also form an obtuse angle with it, or, as in the case of the antique 
 Simpulum (fig. 11), a right- angle. Egyptian Spoons, which are 
 richly decorated, often possess a cover rotating round a pin (compare 
 the projections on the dish, fig. 2), the spoon then becomes a kind 
 of pot or receptacle. A foot is of course superfluous on the ordinary 
 Spoon; but the Patenx! with handles not iiifrequently have a ring- 
 foot to enable them to stand (figs. 7 — 8). The Spoon and the 
 Patene may also bo furnished with a special spout or lip (fig. G). 
 
VASES. 
 
 325 
 
 The Backet, &c. 
 
 riate 192. 
 
326 The Spoon, &c. — The Prochous, &c. 
 
 As a rule: the Dish is plain, or is slightly decorated by 
 engraving the interior, (fig. 6). The decoration is generally confined 
 to°the rim and the handle, or its points of junction. The material 
 is usually wood, bone, or metal. The size varies with the use. 
 
 Plate 193. Tiie Spoon, and the Ladle. 
 
 1 — 4.' Egyptian Spoons, plainly or richly finished, partly painted. 
 
 5. Assyrian spoon-like Vessel. 
 
 6. Antique bronze Patera, with lip. 
 
 7,9, 10. Antique bronze Paterae, seen from the side, from above, 
 
 and below. 
 8. Antique terracotta Patera. 
 
 11 — 12. Antique Simpula. 
 
 13. Antique spoon - like Vessel, bronze, United collections, 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 14. Antique cooking Ve.'^ise), like a handled dish, (^lenard et 
 Sauvageot). 
 
 c Tourers. 
 
 The PROCHOtJs, the OinoceoE, the Olpe, &c. (Plate 194.) 
 
 We commence the series of pourers with the antique forms of 
 the Prochous, Oinochoe, Olpe, &c. As the definition of these appella- 
 tions is not yet finally settled: it will be best to leave the various 
 intermediate forms entirely unnamed. The vessels were used partly 
 for secular, partly for religious purposes. Thus the Prochous is the 
 sacrificial vessel from which the libations of wine were poured- out, 
 into the Patera. The Oinochoe is believed to have been a secular 
 wine jug; and the Olpe to have been a receptacle for oil, &c. 
 
 All these vessels have this in common: that the mouth is wavy, 
 elongated to a channel on one side, or pinched -in at the sides, to 
 form a large spout and facilitate the pouring-out. The older vessels, 
 in particular, show great boldness in thus making the form of the 
 mouth different to the circular plan which is a result of the use of 
 the Potter's-wheel; but in the later times there was a return to the 
 simpler and more beautiful shape. The Prochous and the Oinocho6 
 generally have an upright body, in shape like an egg. The Olpe 
 invariably has a cake or bag -shaped body, a form which is occa- 
 sionally found in the Prochous. The vei-tical handle is raised above 
 the vessel and is attached in a bold sweep to the side opposite the 
 lip. The foot is usually ring-shaped. Bronze and clay are employed 
 
VASES. 
 
 327 
 
 The Spoon, and the Ladle. 
 
 Plate 193. 
 
328 The Prochous, &c. — The Lekythos, &c. 
 
 as materials. The Prochous and OinochoS are, generally, vessels of 
 considerable size, while the Olpe is smaller. 
 
 Plate 194. The Prochous, the Oinochoe, the Olpe, «SLc. 
 
 1. Greek Prochous, archaic form and ornamentation, painted 
 clay. 
 
 2. Greek Prochous, geometrical style, red clay, painted black. 
 
 3. Greek Cyprian Vessel, geometrical style, yellow clay, painted 
 brown, Munich, (Lau). 
 
 4. Greek OinochoS, Asiatic style, yellow, painted clay, (Semper). 
 
 5. Antique small Vessel, yellow clay, painted black. United 
 collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 G. Antique small Vessel, clay, painted black, engraved orna- 
 ment. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 7 — 9. Greek Vessels, painted clay. 
 
 10. Greek bronze Vessel, collection of Herr von PuLsky, Pesth. 
 
 11. Graeco-Italic bronze Vessel. 
 
 12. Prochous in the form of a female head. Museum, Rome, 
 13 — 14. Antique Olpe, painted clay. 
 
 15. Antique bronze Olpe, Museum Rome. 
 
 The Lekythos, &c. (Plate 195.) 
 
 The Lekythos is a small antique pom-er, employed sometimes in 
 the toilet as a receptacle for oils and unguents, and sometimes in 
 funeral rites, to be placed with the deceased in the grave. The 
 form is generally elongated, cylindrical or spindle-shaped, more rarely 
 bag-like or spherical. The foot is a plain ring foot, the neck long 
 and narrow with a shoulder. The handle rises from the body up to 
 the upper end of the neck. As regards form and decoration, these 
 pretty vessels form special groups. The slender forms are the older, 
 the spherical and depressed the later. Upright palmettes, as shovvu 
 in fig. 1, are a characteristic decoration. The material is clay. 
 
 Plate 195. The Lekythos, &c. 
 
 1 — 3. Greek, red clay, painted black, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 4 — 6. Greek, red clay, painted black. 
 
 7. Greek, painted black and white, later period. 
 
 8. Greek, Attic style. 
 
 9. Ditto. 
 
 10- -12. Greek, red clay, painted black. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 13. Greek, red clay, painted black and white, Munich, (Lau). 
 
Vases. 
 
 329 
 
 The Prochous, the Oinochoe, the Olpe, &c. Plate 194. 
 
330 The Lekythoa. — The Lip-spout Pitcher, 
 
 14. Greek Aryballos (perfume vase), United collections, Carls - 
 ruhe. 
 
 15. Greek Aryballos, painted black, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 16. Greek, Perfume - vase , with hoop handle, painted black. 
 United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 17. Greek Lekythos, later period. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 The Lip-spout Pitcher. (Plates 196—197) 
 
 The want of some uniform nomenclature makes itself felt not 
 only in the case of antique vessels, but also with such colloquial 
 expressions as "pitcher", "jug", "pot", "can", "bottle", <fec., which 
 include a great variety of forms, so that what one calls pitchers and 
 pots another calls jugs and cans. To maintain at least some' kind 
 of system in this handbook, we class all vessels with vertical handles, 
 (unless they belong to some special category), as "Pitchers" if they 
 have the usual mouth with a lip; and as "Pots" if they have a pipe- 
 like spout. 
 
 The material and size, of the Pitcher vary greatly, according to 
 its pui-pose and period. The principal representatives are the ewers, 
 and jugs, of glass, clay, stoneware, and metal. 
 
 Plate 196. The Lip- spout Pitcher. 
 
 1. Egyptian, -with saucer, recalling our modern ewers and basins. 
 
 2. Antique iridescent glass, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg. 
 
 3. Antique glass, found in Trouville-la-Rivi^re, Normandy, (Deville). 
 
 4. Antique glass, found near Mainz, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 5. Roman, glass, from a grave at Bingerbriick, Wiesbaden Museum. 
 
 6. Antique, blue glass, Louvre, (Deville). 
 
 7. Like No. 5. 
 
 8. Antique, yellowish green glass, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg. 
 
 9. Like No. 4. 
 
 10. Antique, glass, found in Rouen, 3d century A. D., Rouen Museum, 
 (Deville). 
 
 11. Antique ring-shape, unpainted clay. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 12. Roman - Alemannic , red clay, found in Kaferthal near Mannheim, 
 United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 13. Antique (?) bronze, with cover, found at Saumur, (Menard et 
 Sauvageot). 
 
 14. Ancient American, grey clay, time of the Incas, excavated at 
 Trujillo in Peru, (the round compartment of the body is fan- 
 tastically adorned with figures). United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
VASES. 
 
 331 
 
 The Lekythos, &c. 
 
 Plate 195. 
 
VASES. 
 
 Plate 196. 
 
 The Lip-spout Pitcher. 
 
VASES. 
 
 The Lip-spout Pitcher. 
 
 Plate 197. 
 
334 The Lip-spout Pitcher. — The Pipe-spout Pot 
 
 15. Old German, Bohemian glass. 
 
 16. Modem Hungarian, glazed clay, Landesgeworbehalle, Carlsruhe. 
 
 Plate 197. The Lip- spout Pitcher. 
 
 1. Italian Faience, glazed in colours, 16th century, the blue 
 lilies on a gold ground are the coat of Julius III., Cluiiy 
 Museum, Paris, (L'art pour tons). 
 
 2. German, by Hans Holbein, 16th century, (Hirth, Formea- 
 schatz). 
 
 3. Old German, stoneware, with disc-shaped body. 
 
 4. German Renascence, pewter, (Hirth, Formenschatz). 
 5 — 6. Old German, stoneware, the decoration is omitted. 
 
 7. Modern stoneware, with tin cover, by Dir. Kachel. 
 
 8. Modern majolica, Carlsruhe. 
 9 — 10. Modern, stoneware. 
 
 11 — 12. Modern, green and blue glass. 
 
 The Pipe-spout Pot. (Plate 198.) 
 
 As already remarked, we group here all those one-handled pourers 
 which possess a separate spout or mouth. Here too, material, size, and 
 form are very various. Distinct categories are formed by the State - 
 jugs of metal J such as were in use at the period of the Italian 
 Renascence (fig. 1), the Oriental metal Jugs, the Venetian small glass 
 Jugs, milk, coifee, tea and watering Pots, &c. Where a" spout occurs: 
 it is generally attached at the lower part or middle of the body, more 
 rarely towards the top; and usually reaches to the level of the mouth 
 The Spout generally tapers in an upward direction; its orifice is some 
 times a mask or a widened mouth -piece; in the case of the Watering 
 pot it is furnished with a rose. The handle is vertical, or a hoop 
 Noteworthy is the long stump-handle of some modern Coffee-pots (fig. 9) 
 The vessels of this group frequently have a lid. 
 
 PiATE 198. The Pipe -spout Pot. 
 
 1. Italian Renascence, State -jug, metal, design by Polidoro 
 C;lravaggio, Uffizi, Florence. 
 
 2. Japanese, enamelled metal, Louvre, (L'art pour tons). 
 
 3. Ai-abian, metal, 16th century, Cluuy Museum, Paris, (L'art^ 
 pour tons). 
 
 4 — 5. Venetian glass, IGth century, (Hirth, and L'art pour tons). 
 6. Modern Oriental, uuglazed clay, from Jerusalem, United 
 
 collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
VASES. 
 
 The Pipe-spout Pot. 
 
 Plate 198. 
 
336 The Pipe-spout Pot. — The Bottle. 
 
 7. Oriental Tea-pot, painted china. 
 
 8. Milk- ewer, painted faience, 18th century, United collections, 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 9. Modern Coffee-pot. 
 
 10. Modern Tea-kettle, metal, hoop handle, with wooden guard. 
 
 11- — 13. Modern Watering-pots, sheet metal. 
 
 The Bottle. (Plates 199—200.) 
 
 The Bottle has a spherical, elongated, or bag body; and an 
 elongated, narrow neck, which usually expands like a funnel towards 
 its upper extremity, and is sometimes closed by a stopper. Bottles 
 have either a ring foot or no foot at all, high feet are exceptional. 
 Handles are seldom attached; where this is done, they appear in pairs. 
 In the case of Pocket- flasks, which are usually of a disc or watch 
 shape, the handle serves to attach the flasks to a cord or belt. The 
 material is chiefly glass; but clay and metal are also used. The 
 Bottle form has been specially cultivated in the East, in Persia, China, 
 Japan, &c. A natural model is frequently found in the Calabash, 
 which is itself often used as a Vessel. 
 
 Plate 199. The Bottle. 
 
 1 — 2. Egyptian, front and side view. 
 
 3^ Antique, sinall watch-shaped Perfume- bottle, blue and white 
 
 glass, with handles for suspension, like a hunting-flask. Cam 
 
 pana collection, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 4. Antique, glass, with handles for suspension, (Deville). 
 
 5. Antique, Perfume-bottle, transparent emerald green glass. 
 
 6. Antique, Campana collection, (L'art pour tons). 
 
 7. Antique, two-handled, iridescent glass, Campana collection, 
 (L'art pour tous). 
 
 8. Antique, iridescent glass, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 9. Antique, iridescent glass. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 10. Old German, glass, from the Spessart, (Friedrich, Die Alt- 
 deutschen Glaser). 
 
 11. Modern, cut glass, Dresden, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 12. Modern, green glass, with ring stopper. 
 
 13. Modern, yellowish green glass. 
 
 14. Modern, "Florentine flask", covered with bast. 
 
 Plate 200. The Bottle. 
 
 1. Egyptian, without foot, two rope handles for suspension. 
 
 2. Antique, red, unpainted clay. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
V^ASES 
 
 Weyer, Handbook of Ornameat. 
 
 The Bottle. 
 
 Plate 199. 
 22 
 
338 
 
 VASES. 
 
 Plate 200. 
 
 The Bottle. 
 
The Bottle. — Drinking Vessels. 339 
 
 3. Antique, hammered bronze, with cover and ring, Castellani 
 collection. 
 
 4. Ditto, United collections, Carlsrulie. 
 5 — 7. Japanese, bronze. 
 
 8. Pei'sian, clay. 
 
 9 — 11. Modem, Egyptian, xtnglazed gray clay, United collections, 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 12. Chinese, blue porcelain, (Li^vre). 
 
 13. Persian, damaskeened metal, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 14. Wrought-iron military Flask, holding 44 pints, 15th century, 
 Cluny Museum, Paris. 
 
 15. Modern Hungarian military Flask, colored glazed clay, Lnndes- 
 gewerbehalle, Carlsruhe. 
 
 16. Majolica, colored plastic ornamentation. Modern English, 
 Landesgewerbehalle, Carlsruhe. 
 
 17. Modern, French, green glazed clay. 
 
 d. Drinking Vessels. 
 
 Plates 201 — 210 show drinking vessels. Drinking vessels are 
 as ancient as drinking itself; and they are consequently found in every 
 style. Their forms and kinds are infinitely various; especially in the 
 Antique, the Middle Ages, and the Renascence. Semper says on this 
 point: "Athenaeus gives us the names and descriptions of more than 
 a hundred drinking vessels, although he confines himself to those of 
 the precious metals, which, long before his time, had replaced earthen- 
 ware drinking vessels among the Greeks. The same variety rules in 
 the drinking vessels of the Middle Ages; and although, in this branch 
 too, our poverty of invention is obvious, compared with the earlier 
 fecundity; still, an enumeration of the different forms and kinds of 
 drinking vessels now in common use would be fairly extensive; and 
 would be all the more difficult inasmuch as our modern time does 
 not adhere to typical forms; or, more correctly speaking, has lost all 
 idea of what a type is. Nowhere is the influence of caprice, and 
 heedless confusion of forms more conspicuous than in this class of 
 vessels; so that any attempt to classify drinking vessels, and to 
 enumerate the subdivisions which have existed and still exist, can meet 
 with little success. But if we disregard "freaks" and those anomalous 
 forms of drinking vessels, which have been evolved more by the 
 influence of fashion, and caprice than by the intended use, we 
 shall find that the distinctions which we found to be true for the 
 
 22* 
 
340 Drinking Vessels. — The K}Ils, the Kantharos, &c. 
 
 forms of vessels in general, are applicable to drinking vessels in 
 particular". 
 
 Notwithstanding this, we will attempt to classify the forms of 
 drinking vessels. Tliis will be done, partly according to style, placing 
 the commonest antique forms on one Plate, specifically Old German 
 ftrms on another, and the drinking vessels of our own time on a third. 
 Partly, too, we will place, on other Plates, definite groups which have 
 either an identical fundamental form or a common object, regardless 
 of their belonging to the same or to different styles, e. g. Drinking 
 horns and Rhytons, Cups and Beakers, Chalices and Goblets, State-Cups, 
 Rummers, Mugs, and Tankards. 
 
 The Kylix, the Kantharos, "&c. (Plate 201.) 
 
 Drinking vessels of clay and the precious metals, played the chief, 
 part in Antique times, while glass, which was employed for other 
 purposes, was only occasionally used. 
 
 A very common form is the two-handled dish or Kylix, with a 
 low or high fcot. Both the form and the name of the later Calyx 
 and -our Chalice are derived from Kylix. When formed of clay, the 
 Kylix is a plain shallow dish, ornamented on the under side, some- 
 times with figures on the inner side, and with two horizontal handles 
 (figs. 1 — 2). In metal, the form becomes richer, the handles are 
 elongated and bolder in curvature (figs. 3 — 4). 
 
 The fundamental form of the Kantharos is that of the deep dish 
 or Krater, with two vertical handles. The decoration is only external; 
 the simplicity in clay (fig. 5), passes into richness when metal is em- 
 ployed (figs. 6 — 7). Bacchic attributes, the vine, ivy, the thyrsos, 
 masks, &c., from the decoration. 
 
 The Kyathos, a dipper and drinking vessel at once, is a disb 
 with the handle elongated vertically and sometimes replaced by a 
 straight handle, which gives the vessel somewhat of the appearence of 
 a spoon (figs. 8, 9, 10). 
 
 The Skyphos is a dish with two horizontal handles (figs. 11); 
 the Kothon (fig. 12), is the military drinking vessel, "a vessel with 
 a broad rim bent inwards, out of which one could only drink 
 by bending the neck right back; but it was convenient for dipping 
 water from brooks, and the in -curved rim caught the impurities of 
 the water so that they remained behind both in dipping and drinking", 
 (Semper). 
 
 We might further adduce the Deinos, the drinking vessel of 
 Hercules, the amphikypellon, a double beaker mentioned by Homer, 
 the Kalathos, and others. But the examples selected above may 
 suffice. 
 
VASES. 
 
 341 
 
 The Kylix, the Kantharos, &c. 
 
 Plate 201. 
 
342 The Kylix, the Kantharos, &c. — The Rhyton. 
 
 Plate 201. The Kyux, the Kantharos, &c. 
 
 1. Antique Kylix, painted clay, Museum, Naples. 
 
 2. The same vessel, viewed from below. 
 
 8. Greek Kylix, bronze, found in sarcophagus at Ccphalonia, (Stackel- 
 berg). 
 
 4. Greek Kylix, bronze, found in Ithaca. 
 
 5. Antique Kantharos, black painted clay. United collections, Carls- 
 ruhe. 
 
 G. Antique Kylix, beaten silver, Hildesheim treasure, ISIuseum, Berlin. 
 
 7. Antique Kantharos, beaten silver, found at Berthouville near 
 Bernay, Biblioth^que Nationale, Paris. 
 
 8. Antique Kyathos, black painted clay. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 9. .'^tique Kyathos, painted clay. United collections, Garlsruhe. 
 
 10. Antique Skyphos, metal, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 11. Antique Skyphos, painted clay. 
 
 12. Antique Kothon, painted clay, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 The Rhyton. (Plate 202.) 
 
 The primaeval custom, of using the Horns of animals as drinking 
 vessels, led to the Drinking-Horn. The Antique is not alone in 
 creating, in the Rhyton, a special kind of these vessels: in the Middle 
 ages and in Modern times, in England and Germany, Drinking-horns 
 are well known. In view of the varied and often complicated forms 
 of these latter, we shall confine ourselves to presenting some Antique 
 examples. 
 
 The form of the Ehyton was that of an animal's head, with 
 the addition of a handle. As a rule, it has no foot; and cannot be 
 set down. When pierced at the lower end, it could be drunk-from 
 in the manner shown in fig. 11. Stags, asses, swine, vultures, &c. 
 were utilised as models, whence the special names Elaphos, Onos, 
 Kapros, Gryps, &c. 
 
 Sometimes the human head was used, (fig. 2). The vessel 
 modelled naturalistically ; and receives a painted decoration on the 
 neck alone. The material is clay. 
 
 Plate 202. 
 
 1. Antique, (Tragelaphos) with a ram head. 
 
 2. Antique, with a hnman head, 
 
 3. Antique, (Kapros) Vv'ith a swine head. 
 
 4. Antique, (Elaphos) with a stag head, (Scraper). 
 
 5 — 6. Antique, (Hippotragelaphos) on one side a ram, on the other 
 an ass liead. 
 
VASES. 
 
 34c 
 
 The Rhyton. 
 
 Plate 202. 
 
VASES, 
 
 -^^S,, 
 
 Plate 203. 
 
 The Cup, and tbe Beaker. 
 
The Rhjton. — The Cup, and Uae Beaker. — The Chalice, and the Goblet. 345 
 
 7. Antique, (Grjps) with vulture head. 
 
 8 — 9. Antique drinking-horn, with lion mask as spout. 
 
 10. Antique State Rhyton, marble, Vatican Museum, Rome. 
 
 11. Picture from an Antique Vase, showing the manner of drink- 
 ing from the Rhyton, 
 
 The Cup, and the Beaker. (Plate 203.) 
 
 Drinking vessels of these forms are of veiy general occurrence. 
 They may be hemi- spherical, cylindrical, like an inverted cone, or of 
 a mixed shape; without foot, with a ring foot; or supported on 
 balls; without a handle, or with one, two, or more handles. The 
 use of the Cup restricts it to a certain size; the material is metal, 
 glass, clay, stoneware, &c. Richly- decorated Cups have come down 
 to us from the Antique, and the Renascence. 
 
 Plate 203. The Cup, and the Beaicer. 
 
 1. Assyrian, from a relief. 
 
 2. Assyrian, painted clay. 
 
 3. Antique, silver, parcel gilt, found on Ithaca. 
 
 4. Antique Kalathos, found in Athens. 
 
 6. Antique, clay, painted black, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 6. Antique, red clay, painted black. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 7. Antique, beaten silver, found in Pompeii, now in Naples. 
 
 8. Antique, originally decorated in sunk enamel, Hildesheim treasure, 
 Berlin, Museum. 
 
 9. Antique, beaten silver, Hildesheim treasui'e, Berlin, Museum. 
 
 10. Antique, green glass, found in Normandy, (Deville). 
 
 11. Antique, glass, (Deville). 
 
 12. Old German, glass. 
 
 13. Venetian, glass, British Museum. 
 
 14. Old German, stoneware. 
 
 15. Old German, stoneware. 
 
 16. German Renascence, Metal, with bosses and ball foot. 
 
 The Chalice, and the Goblet. (Plate 204.) 
 
 These are deep vessels of the form of half an egg, without 
 handle, and with a high foot. The form was chiefly used in the Middle 
 Ages, and Renascence; for both secular and religious purposes. For 
 the former purpose, the material is glass or metal, and the size is 
 
346 
 
 VASES. 
 
 Plate 204. 
 
 The Chalice, and the Goblet. 
 
The Chalice, &c. — The Hanap. 347 
 
 various; for the latter purpose, the chalice is invariably of metal, 
 mostly of silver chased and gijt, enamelled, set with jewels, &c. In 
 the Komanesque style, the cup is hemispherical and shallow; in the 
 Gothic style and the Renascence, it becomes deeper. 
 
 Plate 204. The Chalice, and the Goblet. 
 
 1. Egyptian, Thebes. 
 
 2. Antique, red clay,^ United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 3. Antique, clay, painted black. 
 
 4. Romanesque Chalice, chased silver set with jewels, Yillingen 
 church. 
 
 5. Gothic Chalice, chased silver, Wertheim church. 
 
 6. Silver State -Goblet, German, 16th century; this goblet, along 
 with two others, is said to have been the model for the master- 
 pieces of the goldsmiths; and is usually attributed to the Nurem- 
 berg goldsmith Jamni.tzer, although this has lately been doubted; 
 the bossed outline is copied from the flower of the columbine 
 (Aqidlegia vulgaris), Municipal collection, Nuremberg. 
 
 7. Crystal Goblet, with cut ornaments, 17 th century. National 
 Museum, Munich, 
 
 8. Venetian glass Goblet, 17th century, British Museum, (L'art 
 pour tons). 
 
 9. Modern Champagne-glass, Landesgewerbehalle, Carlsruhe. 
 
 10. Old German glass Goblet, 17th century. 
 
 11. Old German glass Goblet, 17 th century. 
 
 The Hanap. (Plate 205.) 
 
 The same blending of forms which the reader will have ob- 
 served in the treatment of cups and goblets occurs in the case of 
 Hanaps. Ordinary colloquial language makes no definite distinction 
 between them. A State-cup presupposes a considerable richness of 
 decoration, it is usually a cup or goblet- shaped product of the gold- 
 smith's art, provided with a cover, or it may even be a richly 
 finished glass of similar form. 
 
 Plate 205. The. Hanap. 
 
 1. Design, by Hans Holbein, German, 16th century, (Formen- 
 schatz). 
 
 2. Design, German, 16th centuiy, (Formenschatz). 
 
 3. Design, 2nd half of the 16th century, the cover makes an in- 
 dependent Cup, (Musterornamente). 
 
348 
 
 VASES. 
 
 Plate 205. 
 
 The Hanap. 
 
The Hanap. — The Romer or Rummer. 349 
 
 4-_5. German, 16th and 17th centmies, chased silver, treasure of 
 
 Regensburg, (Musteromamente). 
 6 — 8. Old German, glass, 17 th century. 
 
 The EOmer or Rummer. (Plate 206.) 
 
 The Rummer, the glass par excellence for Rhenish wine, is the 
 most important representative of the Old German drinking glasses, 
 and is altogether one of tte handsomest forms of vessels. C. Friedrich 
 in his work "Die Altdeutschen Glaser", the study of wMch we warmly 
 recommend, states that the fragments of antique glass were worked-up 
 again into fine glass-ware; and that this ware was called "Romanum 
 •vitrum" or "Romarium vitrum" That led to the designation "Romarii" 
 wliich then became "Romer" and "Rummer". The original form of 
 the Rummer is somewhat cylindrical (fig. 1); instead of a foot it 
 has a ring at the bottom. At a later period a low foot was added, 
 upon which the body began to be divided into members (figs. 2, and 
 3). The high foot eventually led to the goblet form (figs. 10, 
 and 11). Rummers, in which the contents reach to the bottom, belong 
 to the 2nd half of the 16th century; Rummers with spun foot, the 
 wine reaching to the middle-piece, are to be ascribed to the 17th 
 century; while Rummers with an independent middle-piece are the 
 product of the 18th century. All three forms have been revived in 
 late years. The colour of the Rummer is green or yellowish -brown; 
 for aesthetic reasons, and not because it was impossible to manufacture 
 clear glass. The middle -piece is often divided from the cup by a ribbed 
 band and ornamented with bosses. In later times the cup was decorated 
 with cut or painted ornament (figs. 5, and 6). Such modern 
 examples, as Rummers with white feet and pink cups, are aberrations 
 of taste. The Rummer is generally of moderate size; but examples of 
 large size are sometimes met -with. 
 
 Plate 206. The Eummer. 
 
 1 — 4. Older forms, (Friedrich). 
 
 5 — 6. White and light-green, engraved ornaments, Bavaaian Ge- 
 
 werbemuseum, Nuremberg, (Friedrich). 
 7 — 8. Modem copies. 
 9. Old form, without foot, (Friedrich). 
 
 10 — ^11. Modem forms. 
 
 12. Wooden vessel resembling a Rummer, lacquered black, from 
 
 Borneo, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
350 
 
 VASES. 
 
 Plate 206. 
 
 The Romer or Rummer. 
 
VASES. 
 
 351 
 
 Various Drinking Vessels. 
 
 Plate 207. 
 
5b2 Various Glasses 
 
 Various Glasses. (Plato 207.) 
 
 The Plate contains a selection of other Old German drinking 
 vessels. What manifold varieties of drinking glasses existed, in the 
 16th century, for instance, may be seen in Fischart's romance '*Gar- 
 gantoa and Pantagruel", which is sociologically so interesting. In the 
 eight chapter, entitled "a conversation on drinking", he says: "Da 
 stachen sie eijnander die Focal auff die Frusty da flogen die milhelc, 
 da stibeten die Romercken, da raumt man die dickelhdcher, da soffen 
 je zween und ziveen aus doppleten, die man von eynander bricht, ja 
 soff aus gesti/leten Kriigen, da stiirzt man die Fott, da sclmang man 
 den Gutrnff, da trdliet man den Angster, da riss und schdlt man den 
 Wein aus Fotten, aiis Kelchen, Napffen, Gonen; Hoffhechern: Tasscn: 
 Trinkschalen: Ffaffenmasen: Stanffen von hohen stauffen: Kitten: 
 Kdlten: Kanuten: Kopffen: Knartgen." Schlauchen: Fipen: Nussen: 
 Fiolen: Lampeten: Kufen: Nusseln: Seydeln: Eulkesseln, Mdlterlin: 
 Melkgelten, Spitzmasen, Zolcken, Kannen, Schndulzenmas , Schoppen- 
 kdnnldn, Sfotzen: Da klangen die Gldser, da funckelten die Krausen." 
 We here offer a few forms, some of them named in the above descrip- 
 tion of Fischart's. 
 
 The name Angster is applied to a high narrow-necked drinking 
 bottle (from the Latin angustiis, narrow). The neck, which rises out 
 of a spherical, bulbous body, often consisted of 2, 3, or more tubes 
 wound round one another, frequently bent to one side and broadening 
 at the top into a cup -like mouth (fig. 8). These glasses belong 
 to the category of Puzzle -glasses, to extract the wine from which was 
 a matter of "anguish". Semper s observation is very true for such 
 puzzle-glasses: "it would really seem as if fashion and the toper's 
 humor of the competitors, in drinking-bouts with obstacles, had spe- 
 cially invented forms of vessels which demanded a most uncomfortable 
 and ingenious mode of drinking." 
 
 The Gutrolf (gutterer, kutrof, perhaps from the Latin gutturnium), 
 seems to have been a similar glass with a straight neck (figs. 6 
 and 9). 
 
 The Spechter (presumably from Spessart) is a taU, narrow, cy- 
 lindrical glass with a low foot, decorated with bosses, scrolls, &c. 
 (figs. 4, 5). 
 
 The Passglas (peg-tankard) resembles the spechter, but is divided 
 by rings into equal divisions which served as a scale in drinking bouts. 
 It often bears painted figures, inscriptions &c., (figs. 2, 3). 
 
 The form of the cabbage-stalk glass in sufficiently indicated by 
 the name (fig. 1). 
 
 The Tummler and Handtummler (tumbler) are glasses without 
 feet, which totter when set down; and if laid on their side at once 
 
Various Glasses. — The Mug. 353 
 
 resume a vertical position (figs. 14, 15); as also glasses like that 
 shown in fig. 13, which must first be drunk empty before they can 
 be set down. 
 
 To those times also belonged: Puzzle-glasses from which the 
 liquor had to be sucked - out at the end of the handle (fig. 10); 
 vessels in the shape of ladies (figs. 11 — 12), and of fantastic 
 <iniraals. 
 
 It would carry us too far to enter upon the details of manu- 
 facture: we therefore refer the reader once more to C. Friedrich's 
 '' Altdcutsche Gldser". 
 
 Plate 207. Various Drinking Vessels. 
 1. Green cabbage-stalk Glass, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg. 
 
 2 — 3. Old German Peg-tankards, painted. 
 4 — 5. Old German Spechters. 
 6. Kutrolf (Angster), 16th century, Bavarian Gewerbemuseum, 
 
 Nuremberg. 
 7_8. Old German Angsters, No. 8 in the Bavarian Gewerbe- 
 museum, Nuremberg. 
 9. Kutrolf (Angster) with winding neck. 
 
 10. Puzzle -mug, (Friedrich). 
 
 11 — 12. Old German Glasses, in the form of ladies. No. 12 in the 
 Bavarian Gewerbemuseum, Nuremberg. 
 
 13. Large Tumbler, 18th century, with metal handle; in the 
 original a figure of Mercury stands on the ball, Bavarian 
 Gewerbemuseum, Nuremberg. 
 
 14. Painted glass Tumbler, (Friedrich). 
 14. Hungarian coronation Glass, painted. 
 
 The Mug. (Plate 208.) 
 
 In accordance with its purpose, the form of the Mug is essen- 
 tially diff'erent from that of other drinking vessels. The body usually 
 has a cylindrical form, and is without a foot, or with only a ring 
 foot. A movable lid of metal, mostly tin, is attached by a hinge 
 to the vertical handle, in order to keep the liquid as fresh as possible, 
 in view of the great surface of evapora^iion. For the same reason 
 the material is preferably stoneware. That glass has of late years 
 been preferred to stoneware, is due to the fact that the liquid is 
 visible and more easily investigated in glass vessels; and that these 
 are more easily cleaned. Compared with the wine-glass, the Mug 
 will always have a greater circumference, and show a more robust 
 treatment. The hinge must be so attached that when the lid is wide 
 open, it forms an obtuse angle, with the rim. 
 
 23 
 
 Mpyer, Handbook of Ornament. '"^ 
 
354 
 
 VASES. 
 
 Plate 208. 
 
 The Mug. 
 
The Mug. — The Tankard. — Modern Drinking Glasses. 
 
 355 
 
 Plate 208. The Mug. 
 
 1. Renascence Mug (schnelle), stoneware, German. 
 
 2. Eenascence Mug, chased silver, Regensburg treasure, (Ge- 
 werbehalle). 
 
 3. Old German Beermug, brown glass, painted, Bavarian Ge- 
 werbemuseum, Nuremberg. 
 
 4. 6, 7. Old German stoneware Beermugs. 
 
 5. Old German glass beerraug. 
 
 8. Renascence Mug, amber, mounted with silver, Grunes Ge- 
 
 wolbe, Dresden. 
 9 — 10. Modern stoneware Beermugs, from old patterns. 
 11. Modern Beermug, brown glass, with green bosses. 
 
 The Tankard. (Plate 209.) 
 
 The Tankard is a drinking vessel, more or less coarse in shape 
 like a cylinder or an inverted cone; and made of glass, stone- 
 ware, &c. The name is also given to vessels of more architectural 
 pretensions, like that in fig. 9. The Tankard is less for individual 
 than for social use; and is intended chiefly for beer, hence its size 
 and robust form. Of special importance are the eagle, imperial, 
 electoral, and guild Tankards of the Renascence period. 
 
 Plate 209. The Tankard. 
 
 1. Roman Glass, of tankard form, found in Pompeii, (Deville). 
 
 2. Ditto, (Ditto). 
 
 3. Old German green glass Tankard, (compare this form with 
 that of the Rummer on Plate 206). 
 
 4. Ditto. 
 
 5-— 6. Old German glass Tankards. 
 
 7. Old German armorial Tankard, (Friedrich). 
 
 8. Modern brown glass Tankard. 
 
 9. Modern brown glass Tankai-d, painted, (Keller-Leuzinger). 
 
 Modern Drinking Glasses. (Plate 210.) 
 
 Great laxity is apparent in the forms of modem drinking 
 vessels. Alongside coarse forms in transparent blown and cast glass: 
 delicate glasses, cut and etched, appear in the market. Of late years 
 old examples of coloured glass have been frequently copied, with 
 
856 
 
 VASES. 
 
 Plate 209. 
 
 The Tankard. 
 
VASES. 
 
 357 
 
 Modern DrinkiDg Glasses. 
 
 Plate 210. 
 
358 
 
 Modem DrLuking Glasses. 
 
 more or less skill and intelligence. It is to be hoped that the 
 general revival of Applied Art will lead to the attainment of high- 
 class results in this branch also. 
 
 Plate 210. Modern Drinking Glasses. 
 
 1 — 11. Various modern Glasses for water, wine, and beer, of white 
 and coloured glass. 
 
 Plates 191—210 present some 50 different classes of vessels in nearly 
 600 specimens. But even this copious material was far from permitting 
 every form to be taken into consideration. The first place was accorded 
 to definite groups and to conventional, ever-recurring shapes; while the 
 arbitrary, sporadic, accidental, and barocco, were excluded. Still, it is 
 possible that we have not succeeded in giving a general view of the group 
 of pottery and vessels. Readers who desire to pursue their studies further 
 axe referred to the special works and periodicals dealing with this subject. 
 
859 
 
 B. 
 METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 (UTENSILS.) 
 
 Utensils are very various; and an exhaustive treatment of them 
 is quite impossible within the scope of this Handbook. Beside this, 
 decoration is quite excluded in many cases. Still, definite divisions 
 of this group have been created by the fact, that their representatives 
 in certain periods have received artistic treatment; and hence they 
 may be reduced to a system. 
 
 Although, on the one hand, a number of utensils have found no 
 place on the Plates devoted to this group: we have, on the other 
 hand, been able to form a number of subsidiary divisions, each com- 
 plete in itself. Thus, for example: chaptere 211 — 220 will deal 
 with the interesting subject of utensils for Illumination, chapters 
 221—225 with the utensils of Ritual, chapters 226—230 with the 
 utensils of War and Hunting, chapters 231 — 235 with those of the 
 Table, and chapters 236 — 240 with a variety of Household and 
 Toilet utensils. Tools, «fec. 
 
 a. Utensils for Illumination. 
 
 Utensils of illumination, both for religious and household use, 
 are extremely numerous. Great attention and artistic finish have 
 been lavished upon them in all styles; and especially in the Antique. 
 We need only mention the Candelabra of the Antique and the Renas- 
 cence, Greek Lamps, the Chandeliers of the Middle Ages, &c. 
 
MO The Candelabrum. 
 
 The forms and the finish of the different utensils have changed 
 along with the radical changes which the mode of illumination has 
 undergone in the course of time. Oil, lamp-light, candle, torch-light, 
 gas-light, and our latest achievement, the electric light, all demand 
 special, different forms of bearers, and apparatus. 
 
 The predominant material would seem to be metal; and, next 
 to this, clay, and glass; while imfiammable materials like wood are, 
 by their very nature, almost excluded. 
 
 Here, too, it is proper to call attention to a difference which 
 must be borne in mind between Antique and Modern illuminating 
 utensils. The difference is this: that whereas the Antique with all 
 its artistic perfection, is very defective from a practical point of \'iew; 
 Modem apparatus, while surpassing the Antique in the matter of 
 technical adaptation to its purpose, scarcely ever reaches the Antique 
 beauty, and generally falls below it. 
 
 We will consider the Candelabrum, the Antique Lamp, the 
 different kinds of Standard, Hand, and Bracket Candlesticks, Hanging 
 Lamps, ' Lanterns, Chandeliers, and Modern Lamps; taking them in 
 this order. 
 
 The Candelabrum. (Plates 211—212.) 
 
 The Candelabrum (from candela = candle) was, as its name in- 
 dicates, originally intended to carry a candle. But as candle-light, 
 like the illumination by means of torches and pitch-pans, gradually 
 receded before the use of Lamps in Antique times, and was more 
 and more reserved for the purposes of ritual; the Antique Cande- 
 labrum came to be employed as a Lampstand or Lampadarium. 
 Hence it comes that the upper end of a Candelabrum is furnished 
 sometimes with a bowl, sometimes with a pricket or socket to receive 
 the candle, sometimes with a fiat disc, and, sometimes with project- 
 ing clips and hooks to hold the lamp or to suspend it from. • The 
 last is the most frequent form. The great State - candelabra, for 
 religious observances, have bowls; and are made of marble. The shaft 
 of such a Roman Candelabrum of conventional form is given on 
 Plate 121, fig. 2. Candelabra for household use were, made of 
 bronze. In height: they are of two different dimensions, according 
 as they were meant to stand on the ground, or on a table. The 
 former are of an extremely slender construction (Plate 211. 1), of an 
 average height of 3 feet toj; 4 ft. 6 ins. The form of the latter class 
 (candelabrum liumile) is less slender (Plate 211. 5 and 6), . and the 
 extreme height is - about 1 ft. 8 ins. The design of the Antique 
 Candelabrum is either of architectonic character, or free and natura- 
 
The Candelabrum. 361 
 
 listic. We have already mentioned, in chapters 135 — 137, that in 
 the former case: the base, sliaft and bowl, are generally decorated. 
 The second class includes standing and sitting figures, behind which 
 the shaft of the candelabrum rises, or by which it is borne (Plate 211, 
 2 and 3); or of bearers in the form of trees, beneath which figures 
 or groups are seated (Plate 211. 4). Occasionally examples are found 
 so arranged that they can be taken apart and adjusted to different 
 heights (Plate 211. 7). The majority of the Antique bronze Cande- 
 labra which have been preserved to us are of Etruscan origin. 
 Plate 211 shows seven different examples selected from the copious 
 material. 
 
 Plate 211. The Antique Candelabrum. 
 
 1. Antique, bronze stand from Which to suspend lamps (lychnucus, 
 lampadarium)^ found in Pompeii, Berlin, Museum. 
 
 2. Etruscan, bronze, Biblioth^que National, Paris. 
 
 3. Antique, bronze, found in Chiusi, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 4. Antique, bronze, found in Herculaneum. 
 
 5. Antique, bronze, to hold a candle or torch, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 6. Antique, (Candelabrum humile), bronze, Museum, Naples. 
 
 7. Antique, bronze, adjustable to different heights, found in Her- 
 culaneum. 
 
 The Candelabrum was revived at the time of the Renascence 
 along with the tradition of Antique art. It accepted the form; but 
 remodelled it in its own fashion. Since that time the Candelabrum 
 occurs in countless modifications, both for state and use, in religious 
 and secular buildings. It is no more a Lampstand, but bears a 
 candle in a pricket ox, more rarely, in a socket. The Roman Catholic 
 ritual, in particular, the services of which require lighted candles, 
 has given an impetus to the new forms of Candelabra in metal, and 
 carved wood set-off by painting and gilding. The finest examples of 
 this kind are to be found in the churches and palaces of Italy. 
 
 Plate 212. The Renascence Candelabrtjm.^ 
 
 1. Altar candlestick, church of the Benedictines, Villlngen, wood, 
 gilt and silvered. Late German Renascence, 3 ft. 9 ins. high. 
 
 2. Bronze, end of the 16th century, Italian. 
 
 3. Altar candlestick, Certosa near Pavia, 17th century, Italian/ 
 (Musterornamente). 
 
 4. Medicean. chapel, San Lorenzo, Florence, Italian, Renascence, 
 
 5. Bronze, Italian, Renascence, Bargello, Florence. 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 Plate 211. 
 
 The Anti<iue Candelabrum. 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 363 
 
 Th^ Renascence Candelabrum. 
 
 Plate 212. 
 
364 The Antique Lamp, 
 
 The Antique Lamp. (Plate 213.) 
 
 The Antique Lamp (lycJmus, lucerna) is, strictly speaking, a 
 combination of holder and pourer; and might with equal propriety 
 have been included in the group of Vases. The fundamental form, 
 which was retained down to the latest times, is found in early 
 Egyptian household utensils; and is created by adding a handle, a 
 funnel for filling, and a spout with an opening for the wick, to a 
 spheroid body, figures 1 and 2. 
 
 In Greek and Roman Lamps: the body becomes flattened, the 
 funnel contracts to a simple orifice, and the round handle is either 
 replaced by a straight one or combined with it, (figs. 4 and 9). 
 Very frequently the lamp has several wick -openings {dimyxos, tri- 
 myxos &c.) instead of only one, (figs. 5, 10 and 11). 
 
 Clay and bronze are the materials almost exclusively employed. 
 The clay Lamps are mostly plastically decorated, more rarely painted. 
 The decoration is most conspicuous on the handle and the spout; the 
 upper part of the body is often treated with figures in bas-relief, 
 (fig. 4). Bronze Lamps are decorated with figures, with covers fastened 
 by hinges, wick -trimmers, &c., (fig. 10). And it was the bronze 
 Lamps which were especially arranged to be suspended from Larapa- 
 darii. Small Lampstands, in the form of low tripods, are also not 
 scarce (figs. 8 and 9); occasionally Tripod and Lamp are combined, 
 as in the example shown in fig. 7. By the side of examples tectoni- 
 cally constructed, we find freer forms, imitating human figures, animal 
 shapes, human feet, &c. In some cases these may be considered as 
 "hajTpy thoughts"; in others they are simply an aberration of style 
 (figs. 12 and 13). 
 
 The early days of Christendom show reminiscences of the An- 
 tique, 6. g. the Lamp in fig. 13, which also bears the monogram 
 of Christ. 
 
 In later periods: the decoration degenerates, although the fun- 
 damental form has been retained till the present time, in the East, 
 for household lamps; the design of the modern lamp from Jerusalem 
 (fig. 14) is of the simplest possible description. In the West: the old 
 form is gradually dying- out, since the introduction of the glass cylinder, 
 which enables the illuminating gases to be more thoroughly consumed. 
 
 Plate 213. The Antique Lai^ip. 
 1 — -2. Egyptian, clay. 
 
 3. Antique, painted clay, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 4. Antique, red clay. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 5. Ajitique, red clay, with two spouts and vertical ring handle, 
 United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 365 
 
 The Antique Lamp. 
 
 Plate 213 
 
366 The Antique Lamp. — The Candlestick. 
 
 6. Antique, with cover and ring handle, red clay, United 
 collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 7. Antique, bronze, with high stand, the missing coyer was 
 evidently a human mask, Louvre, Paris. 
 
 8 — 9. Antique, bronze, on small tripods (candelabrum humile). 
 
 10. Antique, bronze, vnih three spouts, the figure serves as a 
 handle for the cover, a wick-trimmer is attached to it by a 
 chain, found in Herculaneum. 
 
 11. Antique, bronze, with two spouts, found in Herculaneum, 
 Museum, Naples, ^/g of original size. 
 
 12. Antique, bronze, for suspension, (Formenschatz). 
 
 13. Early Christian, bronze, with the monogram of Christ, for 
 suspension, from the catacombs, Rome. 
 
 14. Modern, Oriental, clay, from Jerusalem, United collections^ 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 The Candlestick. (Plates 214—215.) 
 
 The Candlestick is the candle-bearer of the Middle Ages, the 
 Renascence, and Modern times. It is distinguished from the Cando- 
 labi-um, if a distinction can be made at all where the forms thus 
 blend with each other, hy its smaller dimensions and simpler forms: 
 and it is chiefly used for secular purposes. 
 
 The principal materials beside brass, iron, copper, tin, &c., are 
 clay, porcelain, and glass. 
 
 In the Middle Ages; it was usual to stick the candle on a conical 
 pricket; our Modern times prefer the cylindrical socket. The design 
 includes base (often tripartite), shaft, and socket, as in the case of 
 the Candelabrum. The upper end is furnished with a saucer or bowl, 
 to catch the droppings. The saucer is sometimes loose, so that it 
 may easely be taken-off and cleansed, in which case it is termed a 
 "save-all". 
 
 Often the upper part is furnished mth a number of arms to 
 receive several candles. As regards decorations: the principles laid 
 down for the Candelabrum, in the chapter on Supports, hold good. 
 The Seven-branched-candlestick, of the Temple at Jenisalem, is histo- 
 rically celebrated; fig. 1 of Plate 215 reproduces this from the repre- 
 sentation of it on the triumphal arch of Titus. The fundamental 
 form of it has been retained, to this day, in Jewish ritual. 
 
 High Candlesticks, of simple form, m&,de of wrought-iron, are not 
 rare in the Middle Ages (Plate 215. 2). Richly - finished examples, 
 in Avrought-iron and bronze, were created in the Renascence, (Plate 
 214. 5, and 21-5. 3). The Japanese and Chinese bronze candlesticks 
 
The Candlestick. — The Hand-Candlestick. 367 
 
 have a certain similarity to the Romanesque ecclesiastical candlesticks 
 of the same material, (Plate 214. 1 — 4). 
 
 Modern productions in clay, glass and porcelain have scarcely 
 any artistic importance; all the more must we praise modem art for 
 recurring to the old models in metal work; and thus producing very 
 gratitying results, (Plate 214. 6, 7, 8, and Plate 215. 4 and 5). 
 
 Plate 214. The Candlestick, 
 
 1. Romanesque, bronze, 11th century, Dugu6 collection, (Viollet-le- 
 Due). 
 
 2. Romanesque, bronze. Cathedral, Hildesheim. 
 
 3. Romanesque, bronze. 
 
 4. Ancient Chiuese, bronze. 
 
 5. Brass, 17th century. 
 
 6. Modem, bronze, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 7. Modern, bronze, Gewerbehalle, Carlsmhe. 
 
 8. Modern, bronze, by Prof. Schick, Carlsruhe, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 Plate 215. The Candlestick. 
 
 1. The Seveu-branched-candlestick of the Temple at Jerusalem, Arch 
 of Titus, Rome. 
 
 2. Wrought^iron, S. Peter's, Tarrosa, Spain, 14th century, (L'ai-t 
 pour tons). 
 
 3. Wrought-iron, for 8 candles, 17th century. 
 
 4. Wrought-iron, Modern. 
 
 5. Wrought-iron, with several arms, by C. Zaar, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 The Hand-Cani>lestick:. (Plate 216.) 
 
 The term Hand-candlestick includes any kind of portable can- 
 dlestick; and it assumes the existence of some kind of handle, to hold 
 and carry it. The Hand-candlestick is always of mode_st dimensions; 
 and it is generally low in height, as in our flat candlesticks. 
 
 It may be constructed on an immense variety of plans, so that 
 a number of different forms occur. Candlesticks frequently recur of 
 the form shown in fig. 2, in which a screw thread enables the height 
 of the socket to be adjusted. The Middle Ages and the Renascence 
 exhibited great ingenuity in the invention of such arrangements 
 
 As the Hand-candlestick is liable to gutter: the "save-all" has 
 here undergone a special developement, so that in a certain class of 
 
368 
 
 METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 Plate 214. 
 
 The Candlestick. 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 369 
 
 The Candlestick. 
 
 Meyeri Bandbook of Ornament. 
 
 Plate 215. 
 
 24 
 
370 The Hand-Candlestick. - The Candle-Bracket 
 
 candlestick it consists of a broad dish out of" t^hich rises a shaft 
 with a socket-bowl at the end' (figs. 216. 6, 7, 8). 
 
 Often an Extinguisher is combinet with the Candlestick, especially 
 when the latter is of wrought-iron; as shown by the original example, 
 fig. 4; of late years Match-holders have also been included. 
 
 The material is the same as for other candlesticks.' There is 
 nothing special to say as regards the decoration. 
 
 Pate 216. The Hand -Candlestick. 
 1 — 3. Wrought-iron, 17th century. 
 4 — 5. Modern, wrought iron. 
 
 6. Modern, by P. Faure of Paris, (GewerbehaUe). 
 
 7. Modern, brass. 
 
 8. Modern, brass. 
 
 The Candle-Bracket. (Plate 217.) 
 
 Candle-Brackets are fixed or movable bearers attached to vertical 
 Burfaces, e. g. columns, pilasters, &c. In the Middle Ages and the 
 Renascence they were chiefly used for Torches and Candles; at the 
 present time they are employed for Candles and Gas. Their form 
 naturally differs from that of the upright Candlestick. Curved 
 scroll-work and consoles of metal (for this material is the one almost 
 exclusively used) bear on their free end the prickets, or the socketg, or 
 the burners and globes, which last are employed to diffuse the glaring 
 light and soften the sharp shadows. A primitive method of connecting 
 the bracket with the wall is by hook and eye (fig. 1); in articles ot 
 better finish this is done by means of rosettes or wall-plates and car- 
 touches (figs. 6, 7, 8, 9). The Bracket may be used for one or more 
 lights. In the latter case: several prickets or sockets are placed on a 
 common disc (fig. 2); or, which is artistically better, the main branch 
 divides into a number of subsidiary arms (fig. 3). The Bracket 
 on a large scale, is used for Street-lighting, for Churches, Theatres, 
 Halls, Mansions, Palaces, Restaurants, &c.; and on a smaller scale, for 
 Pianofortes, &c. In designing Brackets for gas: care must be taken 
 to provide for the Gas-pipe. The modern adjustible Brackets, being 
 mostly without decoration, need not be considered. 
 
 Plate 217. The Candle-bracket. 
 
 1 — 2. German, Renascence, wrought-iron, National Museum, Munich. 
 
 3. Rococo, for 3 candles, bronze gilt, Milan Museum, (Raguenet). 
 
 4 — 5. Modem, by M. Weinholdt, Munich, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 6 — 7. Wall-plates, to 4, and 5. 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 371 
 
 The Hand-Candlestick. 
 
 Plate 216. 
 24* 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 Plate 217. 
 
 The Candle-Bracket. 
 
The Candle-Bracket. — The Pendant-Lamp. — the Chandelier. 373 
 
 8. Modern, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 9. Modern, wrought-iron. 
 
 The Pendant-Lamp. (Plate 218.) 
 
 Both aesthetic reasons, and the danger of being knocked- over to 
 which upright candlesticks are subject, led in early times to the con- 
 struction of Pendant-lamps, In addition to the small bronze lampg, which 
 could be used both standing or hanging, the Antique offers us Lamps 
 which could be used only for suspension. The latter form is still com- 
 mon in the East (compare Plate 187. 13), and in the West in Christian 
 and Jewish ritual. , The introduction, of Paraffin, Gas, and the Electric 
 light, has afforded plentiful opportunities of giving an artistic form 
 to Hanging-lamps. The spherical globes of ground glass lend them- 
 selves especially to such treatment, (figs. 4, 5, 6). Box-shaped hold- 
 ers, either open or closed by panes of glass, are termed Lanterns. 
 Modern lanterns, for illumination in the open air, are generally devoid 
 of any really artistic decoration; but the Middle Ages and the Re- 
 nascence created many objects of perfect form in this branch. The 
 most suitable material for Lanterns is wi'ought-iron (figs. 2 and 3). It 
 is self-evident that Lanterns must be so arranged that they cnn he 
 opened for cleaning, &c. 
 
 Plate 218. The Pendant-lamp. 
 
 1. Old Moorish, iron. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 2. Mediaeval, wrought-iron, for several candles, German, (Formen- 
 schatz). 
 
 3. French, Hotel Vogu6, Dijon, 17th century, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 4. Modern, for Electric glow-light, by Peter, of Esslingen, (Ge- 
 werbehalle). 
 
 5 — 6. Modern, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 The Chandelier. (Plate 219.) 
 
 The arrangement, of a considerable number of lights in circular 
 form on a framework intended for suspension, led to the construction 
 of the Chandelier. In the Middle Ages: the lights were all placed 
 in the same plane so that they formed a ring (fig. 2); the Re- 
 nascence secui-ed greater richness and variety of design by a number 
 of rings, an arrangement which has usually been retained in our 
 modern Chandeliers (fig, 3 and 4). Further variety is attained by 
 the alternation of the lights in the different rings. Wrought-iron 
 
METAL OBJECTS 
 
 Plate 218. 
 
 The Pendant-Lamp. 
 
The Chandelier, — The Modern Lamp* 375 
 
 and bronze, along with glass (Venetian chandeliers), and of late years 
 cheap cast-iron, and zinc, are the chief materials. Original and uni- 
 que in design is the mermaid chandelier consisting of female half- 
 figures terminating in fish-tails, and furnished with antlers to carry 
 the candles (fig. 1). The slender chains by which these mer- 
 maids, and other lamps and lanterns, were suspended, are replaced in 
 modern chandeliers by a tube which also serves as a gas-pipe. In 
 the former case the chain was carried over pulleys so that the light 
 could be shifted higher or lower; in modern chandeliers the adjust- 
 ment is effected by means of a stuffing-box with balance weights 
 (fig. 7). Very frequently the lower end of the Chandelier terminates 
 in a ring, to facilitate the change in height. In addition to the globes 
 round the flames, guards are often placed over them, to protect the 
 ceiling from heat and soot. Each burner must be connected with the 
 main gas-pipe by means of a separate pipe. Where the Chandelier 
 is intended for Electric lights; the latter may be bent downwards 
 instead of upwards, so that the frames for the globes will cast no 
 shadow. The Plate gives a number of ancient and m(3dern Chande- 
 liers, partly in half profile, the foreshortened arms, which interfere 
 with the drawing, having been omitted. A regular arrangement, of 
 4, 5 or 6 arms, is the rule: more or fewer arms occur more rarely. In 
 the case of Chandeliers with a great number of lights: each arm is 
 arranged after the fashion of a bracket with several candles. 
 
 Plate 219. The Chandelier. 
 
 1. Modern, style of the German Renascence. 
 
 2. German, Renascence, Hemispherical, for 8 candles. 
 3 — 6. Modern, bronze and wrought-iron. 
 
 7. Modern, French, by the sculptor Villeminot, (L'art pour tons) 
 
 The Modern Lamp. (Plate 220.) 
 
 The principal value, of the modem Lamp, lies in the technical 
 completeness, and adaptation to its purpose. There is, it is true, 
 no such wealth of artistic fancy as is shown by Antique Lamps; but 
 still some good examples may be found among the two or three 
 fundamental forms of the Paraffin-lamp, with which we have mostly 
 to do. Metal, glass, porcelain, and majolica, again appear as materials. 
 As a general rule we have a profiled foot, on which the oil-receiver 
 rests, from which latter the burner, chimney, and globe rise, (figs. 1 
 and 2). 
 
 More richly finished examples have a masked receiver, the latter 
 being enclosed by a vase (figs. 3, and 4). Attempts have lately been 
 
376 
 
 METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 Plate 219 
 
 The Candelier. 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 377 
 
 The Modern Lamp. 
 
 Plate 220. 
 
378 The Modem Lamp. — The Altar. 
 
 made to replace these conventional forms by more original designs. 
 An example of this is the "vestal lamp" (fig. 5), which must be admitted 
 to be successful. This form admits of adjustment of height; can be 
 easily filled and cleaned; and allows of a combination of several burn- 
 ers (fig. 6). 
 
 Plate 220. The Modern Lamp. 
 
 1 — 2. Paraffin lamps, with visible oil receiver. 
 
 3. Oil Lamp, with concealed receiver, by the sculptor Piat of 
 Paris, (L'art pour tons). 
 
 4. Paraffin Lamp, with concealed receiver, by Paul Stotz, of Stutt- 
 gart, Bronze, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 5. Paraffin Lamp, "Vestal lamp", Berlir 
 
 6. Paraffin Lamp, with 3 burners, by the architect Bohringer, of 
 Stuttgart, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 h. Religious Utensils. 
 
 Notv;ithstanding the varied character of Religious Utensils: we-: 
 devote only five Plates to them, principally because many have been 
 already dealt-with in other groups. We cannot attempt to give a 
 complete view of the apparatus of ritual; but must confine our 
 selection to objects taken, partly from Heathen, and partly from 
 Christian examples. 
 
 The Altar. (Plate 221.) 
 
 The original form of the Altar (from alta ara) was no doubt 
 extremely simple. Blocks of rock and stones, piled -up beneath the 
 blue sky or under trees, were probably the earliest. With the evolu- 
 tion of art, and especially of architecture, the Altar entered into the 
 service of the Temple; and received a more artistic finish. The plan 
 of the Antique Altar is usually triangular, quadrangular, or circular. 
 The material is generally marble. Its top is a table-like Slab, gene- 
 rally with a hollow to contain the sacrificial fire. The decoration 
 was of symbolic character. Skulls of animals. Festoons of fruit, votive 
 Wreaths, Figures of the Gods, Genii, and similar creations, were used 
 almost always. The triangular Altar was often used as the base of 
 the Antique State- candelabrum; e. g. the altar represented on fig. 5, 
 which is the base of a Candelabrum. 
 
 The so-called "Altars" of the Christian religion have nothing in 
 
The Altar. - The Tripod. 379 
 
 common with those of the Antique; and they do not fiill within the 
 scope of our work. 
 
 Plate 221. The Ai.tae. 
 
 1. Assyrian, triangular sacrificial stone. 
 
 2. Assyrian, round sacrificial stone. 
 
 3. Assyrian, sacrificial slab, from a relief in the British Museum, 
 
 4. Roman, three-sided Altar, like a number of examples, differing 
 little from one -another, in the museums in London, Paris, &c. 
 
 5. Roman, three-sided Altar, used as the base of a Candelabrum. 
 6 — 9. Roman,- various altars, fig. 9 with the masks of 12 Deities, and 
 
 the signs of the Zodiac, (M6nard et Sauvageot). 
 
 The Tripod. (Plate 222.) 
 
 The name Tripod is applied i,o any three-legged support, what- 
 ever the use to which it may be j)ut. More accurately, the Tripod is 
 a construction in three parts: the top part being a bowl, dish, or 
 slab. The Antique Tripod played an important part both in religious 
 rites and in daily life. Originally an article of practical use, for 
 cooking, &c., its form is simple; when it was elevated to an utensil 
 of Religion, to bear the sacrificial pans and the consecrated offerings 
 for the Deities, or to be the Prize of Victory in th3 games: it assu- 
 med conventional forms, and received an artistic finish. The material 
 was generally bronze, except for the great, monumental State-tripods, 
 which were of marble. The Greek, Roman, and Etruscan Tripods differ 
 characteristically from each -.other, in their detail; but have this in com- 
 mon, that they are supported by three smooth, rod-like legs, which are 
 terminated at their lower end in animals' claws; and are connected 
 together by rings (fig. 3), or struts (figs. 1 and 2); and at the top are 
 either connected directly with the dish (figs. 1 and 2), or with a ring 
 intended for the reception of a loose dish (fig. 3). For the sake of 
 greater convenience, handles are sometimes attached to the dish (fig. 1); 
 the legs may be adjusted to different heights (figs. 1 and 2); or the 
 Tripod may be so arranged that it can be taken to pieces. These 
 antique Tripods, of which some of the simpler examples are given on 
 the Plate, afford us, better than anything else, an insight into the 
 Antique art of bronze-working. 
 
 The Middle Ages and the Renascence have also transmitted to us 
 numerous Tripods. Their principal, use is in households as stands for 
 washing-basins, &c.; and they are generally of wrought-iron (figs. 4, 
 5, 6). After the art of working in wrought-iron had been revived 
 in modern times, we find them as Stands for washing -apparatus, Trays 
 for Wsiting-cards, Stands for wine-coolers, (fig. 7), &c. 
 
380 
 
 METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 
 
 
 :i 
 
 Plate 221. 
 
 The Altar. 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 381 
 
 The Tripod. 
 
 Plate 222. 
 
382 The Tripod. — The Censer. 
 
 Plate 222. The Tripod. 
 
 1. Antique, bronze, found in Pompeii, about Museum, Naples. 
 28 ins. high. 
 
 2. Romanesque, bronze, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 3. Etruscan, bronze, Berlin Museum. 
 
 4. Mediaeval, bronze, Pierrefonds castle, (YioUet-le-Duc). 
 
 5 — 6. Italian, 17th century, wrought-iron, about 4 ft. high, (L'art 
 
 pour tous). 
 7. Modern, wi-ought-iron, for wine-cooler, by the architect Zaar, 
 
 (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 The Censer. (Plate 223.) 
 
 One of the oldest ecclesiastical utensils is the Censer or Thu 
 rible, in the use of which the rising clouds of incense are a sym- 
 bolical representation of prayer ascending to heaven. The material is 
 silver, bronze, iron, copper, or brass. The lower part consists of a 
 dish with foot, containing the fire-pan. The pierced cover is kept 
 in its place by means of the three chains which pass through the 
 three holes made for the purpose. These three chains hang from a 
 small plate with a ring. 'The cover is fastened to a fourth chain,, 
 which also terminates in a chain and may be drawn up through a hole 
 in the plate (fig. 7). The decoration is frequently symbolic, and In- 
 scriptions are also used. The Romanesque and Gothic Censers often 
 exhibit an architectonic design of domes and towers (figs. 2, 4, 6). 
 The Renascence prefers the strict form of a vessel (figs. 8, and 9). 
 Modem art avails itself of Ancient models, without having anything 
 independent to show. An appendage of the Censer, in a certain sense, 
 is the Censer-boat, or incense-holder, usually an elliptical dish with 
 a partition and two hinged covers. The incense is conveyed from 
 the Incense-boat to the Censer by means of a Spoon. 
 
 Plate 223. The Censer. 
 
 1 — 2. Romanesque, bronze, 6th and 12th centuries, each 7^0 i'^s, 
 
 high, Collection of antiquities. Grand- ducal Court, Mannheim. 
 3. Romanesque, bronze, French, beginning of the 13th century, 
 
 53/4 ins. high, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 4 — 5. Gothic, from stone statues. Cathedral, Chartres, 13th century, 
 
 (L'art pour tous). 
 6. Gothic, with tower shaped cover. 
 
 7 — 8. Renascence. 
 9. Renascence, South Kensington Museum, London, 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 38^ 
 
 The Censer. 
 
 Plate 223. 
 
384 Tiie Censer. — The Crucifix. 
 
 The Crucifix. (Plate 224.) 
 
 The Crucifix (from criicifixus = nailed to the cross) does not appear 
 in Christian ritual until after the abolition of the shameful punish- 
 ment of Crucifixion. The oldest Crucifixes may be dated about the 
 6th century. In the course of the following styles: it underwent a 
 variety of transformations. The older examples often represent the 
 crucified Christ as clothed (fig. 3), while in later times the body is 
 more frequently nude, with the clothing restricted to the cloth round 
 the loins. The older renderings of Christ show a straight stifl:' atti- 
 tude, and a calm expression; while later periods exhibit a more life- 
 like conception, and the expression of pain. At first: each foot is 
 pierced by a separate nail, later the two feet by one nail only; so 
 that the four nails are reduced to three. A nimbus appears above 
 or behind the head; and over this a roll with the letters I. N. R, I. 
 (lesus Nazarenus Rex ludaeorum). The arms of the Latin Cross are 
 often terminated in four quatrefoils containing symbols of the four 
 Evangelists (figs. 2, 3). Purely ornamental terminations of the arms 
 and decorations at their intersections are also not uncommon (fig. 1). 
 When the Crucifix is intended to stand upright on the Communion- 
 table: it is furnished with a candelabrum -like base (figs. 1, 2, 3). 
 The bases are generally of similar style to the accompanying Candle- 
 sticks. The materials are chiefly metals, wood, and ivory, the body 
 of Christ and the Cross being often of different materials. 
 
 Plate 224. The Crucifix. 
 
 1. Italian, 1511, silver gilt, the inlaid plates of the cross are rock 
 crystal, Poldi Pezzoli collection, Milan, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 2. Italian, bronze, Certosa near Pavia, 4 ft. 4 ins. high. Renascence, 
 (Musterornamente). 
 
 3. Italian, Bronze, Renascence, evidently of earlier. date than the base. 
 
 4. Modem, Carved wood. 
 
 The Crozier, and the Monstrance. (Plate 225.) 
 
 The Crozier or Pastoral -staff has been the badge of episcopal 
 dignity since the earliest period of the Middle Ages. In the West: it 
 had the shape of a crutch up to the 12th century;, and it has re- 
 tained this form in the East up the present day (fig. 1). Afterwards 
 the upper end was curved spirally. The curved end and the staff 
 itself are separated by a knob." In the Middle Ages: the curve is 
 decorated with crockets and inscriptions; and its centre bears figures. 
 In many cases the war of the Church against the Evil One is sym- 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 385 
 
 The Crncifix 
 
 Mt'ycr, Handbook of Ornament. 
 
 Plate 224. 
 25 
 
386 The Crozier, and the Monstrance. 
 
 bolically represented by the fight with the dragon (fig. 4). In the 
 Gothic period the knob below the curve is developed into an archi- 
 tectonic lantern. The length of the Crozier is 5 to 6 ft. The 
 material is wood, ivory, and metal, usually contrasting in the different 
 parts. The Plate only reproduces the upper ends; as these alone are 
 of importance by their decoration. 
 
 The Monstrance is a utensil allied to the Ciborium and Reli- 
 quary. It is an expository vessel in which, since the institution of 
 the feast of Corpus Christi by Urban IV in 1264, the consecrated 
 wafer is shown and carried in processions in Roman Catholic churches. 
 It possesses great varieties both of style and size, the height varying 
 from 1 ft. to 5 ft. It usually has a slender hexagonal or octagonal 
 foot, and a knob. From the foot rises a tower-like receptacle (turri- 
 cula), or a "Glory" with a disc-shaped glass box in which the wafer 
 rests on the so-called eye. The material is gold, silver, or brass. 
 The Plate gives one of the numerous examples which have been 
 preserved. 
 
 Plate 225. The Crozier, and the Monstrance. 
 
 1. Romanesque, Bishop Gerard of Limoges, f 1022. 
 
 2 — 3. Romanesque. 
 
 4. Transition period from Romanesque to Gothic, French, (L'art 
 pour tous). 
 
 5. Gothic, Martin Schongauer, end of 15th century, (^\^essely). 
 
 6. Rococo, ivory. 
 
 7. Monstrance, gilt brass, 23 ins. bigh, Hotzendorf. 
 
 c. Utensils of War and Hunting; Wen2)ons. 
 
 Utensils of war and hunting, in their most primitive forms at 
 least, are as old as mankind itself. Savages of the earliest as well 
 as of modern times, show great skill, and a certain originality in 
 the decollation of these utensils, as we may see in our ethnological 
 collections. So long as these utensils continued to be made of horn, 
 bone, and such materials: and also so long as they belong to the so- 
 called "Stone age", they are comparatively simple. They do not 
 assume a richer form and finish till the introduction of bronze and 
 iron. The great revolution which ensued on the transition from 
 the "Stone" to the "Bronze age" finds a not less imposing parallel 
 in the revolution wrought by the invention of Gunpowder. 
 
 Utensils of War and Hunting may be divided into two great 
 sections: weapons of Defense and weapons of Offense. To the former 
 belong Shields, Helmets and Armour, The kinds and number of 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 387 
 
 The Crozier, and the Monstrance. 
 
 Plate 225. 
 2&* 
 
388 The Shield. 
 
 weapons of offense are far more manifold. Swords, Daggers, Spears, 
 Pikes, Lances, Axes, Maces, Arrows, Rifles, and" Pistols, are the 
 principal. It is unfortunately impossible, in this work, to give due 
 consideration to every single form; still the chief representatives have 
 been included, with the exception of Firearms and Armour, in which 
 only the engraved or chased details are of decorative importance. 
 
 The most striking examples, in our Armouries and Museums, 
 have lately been published, in numerous works; so that it is not 
 difficult to obtain a general view of this section; monographs on Wea- 
 pons have also been published, among which we may specially men- 
 tion Boeheim's Waffenkunde (E. A. Seemann, Leipzig). 
 
 The Shield. (Plate 226.) 
 
 The Shield, which from the earliest times has been the usual 
 weapon of defense against blows and thrusts, is generally a dom^d 
 disc, the form of which has varied considerably. Circular, elliptical, 
 semi-circular, and kite-shapes, are found alongside others of richer out- 
 line. The materials are wood, plaited osiers, leather, metal, and 
 combinations of these. ' The Shield is held in the left hand by a 
 handle, or slung on the arm by a strap. The size varies from 
 20 ins. to 5 ft. The Antique Shield was circular; and frequently 
 ornamented ^^ith a boss in the centre. Among the ancient Teutons, 
 the form was large and square; in the Middle Ages, it was triangular. 
 The Standing -shields or Pavises, of the 14th and 15th centuries, 
 were very large, and provided with feet, so that they would stand 
 upon the ground, without being held. The Tilting-shield had a hole cut- 
 away in which the lance was laid. With the introductions of fire-arms 
 the Shield became worthless, and disappears as an article of practical 
 use; but it has continued to be employed for State -purposes down 
 to the present time; and, from a decorative standpoint, these State- 
 shields are'- of high interest. They offer to metal-workers an except- 
 ionally favourable field for the display of their art. The simple 
 zonal divisions of the Antique Shield have given place to freer 
 di\nsions and a richer decoration wdth figures and ornaments. 
 
 Plate 226. The Suield. 
 
 1. Roman, with boss, bronze partly-silvered, found near Mainz, Wies- 
 baden, Museum. 
 
 2. Etruscan, bronze, Campana collection, (L'art pour tons). 
 
 3. Mediaeval, time of the Crusades, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 4- Renascence, time of Henry II of France, hammered metal. 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 589 
 
 The Shield. 
 
 Plate 226. 
 
390 The Shield. — The Helmet. 
 
 5. RenascencG, decorated in the centre with a rosette and pointed 
 knob, Turin. 
 
 6. Renascence, with rich decoration of figures, in hammered metal. 
 
 7. Renascence, hammered silver, by P. van Vianen. 
 
 The Helmet. (Plate 227.) 
 
 The armour for the defense of the head is the Helmet. It was 
 probably originally made of leather; at a later date it was of metal; 
 and in Modern times it again consists of leather with metal accessories. 
 Its form has suflfered many transformations in the course of the cent- 
 ui'les, arising sometimes from practical, sometimes from aesthetic 
 reasons. 
 
 The greatest perfection of form is found in the Greek helmet, 
 which, like Antique armour in general, fits very closely to the human 
 body. We need only remind the reader of the plain but beautiful 
 Helmets iu which Pallas Athene is shown on Antique gems. The 
 Medusa head and Sphinxes are popular motives of decoration. The 
 decoration is most prominent on the front, and on the moveable 
 cheek-pieces. Fig. 1 shows a Greek Helmet with a crest which is 
 similar to the form of the Phrygian cap. The Etruscan Helmet 
 (fig. 2) is similar to the Greek. The Roman Helmet is simpler. 
 Helmets were often decorated with plumes of feathers or horse-hair; 
 and were provided with sockets for fixing these accessories. The 
 Roman gladiators' helmets, with their rich, florid, often overdone de- 
 coration, and their large face-guard and heavy crest, have something 
 awkward, without becoming ugly. 
 
 Very manifold, although of no great importance decoratively, 
 are the Helmets of the Middle Ages. Leaving out of account the 
 less important transitional forms, we will here give the names of the 
 principal, classes in order of historical succession. They are the 
 Heaume ' (fig. 8), the Salade or sallet (fig. 7), the Tilting-helmet 
 (fig. 9), the Armet (fig. 10), and the Helmet with barred Vizor (fig. 11). 
 The section on Heraldry may also be consulted. 
 
 The Helmets of the Renascence, especially the State - helmets, 
 are richly, sometimes too richly, decorated. To the forms received, 
 from the Middle ages, were added the Burganet (fig. 13), and the 
 ^lorion (fig. 12). Some of these State-helmets are also copied from 
 the Antique, as may be seen in fig. 14. The Modern creations in this 
 section are of no artistic importance. 
 
 Plate 227. The Helmet. 
 
 1. Greek, bronze, Campana collection, (L'art pour tons). 
 
 2. Etruscan, bronze, Campana collection, (L'art pour tous). 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 391 
 
 The Helmet. 
 
 Plate 227 
 
392 The Helmet. — The Sword. — The Dagger. 
 
 3. Roman, bronze, Louvre, Paris, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 4 — 6. Roman, bronze, for gladiators, different views, (Menard et 
 Sauvageot). 
 
 7. Mediaeval Salade, iron. 
 
 8. Mediaeval Heaume, iron, the chain was hooked into the cross- 
 shaped slit. 
 
 9. Mediaeval Tilting-helmet, iron. 
 
 10. Mediaeval Armet, iron. 
 
 11. Mediaeval, iron, with barred vizorT 
 
 12. Renascence, Morion, etched iron. 
 
 13. Renascence Burganet, German. 
 
 14. State-helmet, 16th century, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 The Sword. (Plate 228.) 
 
 The SwxDrd is the most universally used of the offensive weapons. 
 Much as these weapons for cutting and thrusting differ from each 
 other in size and finish; they generally consist of three principal 
 parts: the Blade, single or double-edged, tapering more or less 
 towards the point, generally straight, but sometimes curved or waved, 
 also sometimes fluted to save weight, only decorated by means of 
 engraving, etching, damaskeening, &c,; the Handle, with or without 
 pommel, cup, or basket; and the Scabbard or sheath, with or without 
 a hanger. The two latter, the handle and scabbard, offer the most 
 scope for decoration. The material of these is, in addition to iron, 
 the other metals and alloys, wood, bone, leather, coloured stones, &c. 
 Here, also, from an artistic point of view,^ we have to consider less 
 the practical than the State-swords, on which the Renascence, the 
 following styles, and Modern art, have found ample opportunity to 
 exercise their artistic skill. Plate 228 offers a small selection from 
 the copious material in our armouries and collections of weapons. 
 
 Plate 228. The Sword, and its Scabbard. 
 
 1—3. Assyrian, from reliefs. 
 
 4 and 6. Egyptian. 
 
 5. Prehistoric, bronze, found in Switzerland. 
 
 7 — 9. Mediaeval, and Renascence, 
 10 — 12. Renascence. 
 
 13—15. Renascence, Pommel, guard, and ch^pe, by Hans Holbein tlie 
 Younger, (Formenscbatz). 
 
The Sword, and its Scabbard. 
 
 Plate 228. 
 
394 The Dagger. - The Halberd. 
 
 The Dagger. (Plate 229.) 
 
 The Dagger is a Sword in miniature, in which the guard is 
 either omitted or reduced in size. What has been said of tbe Sword 
 will apply to the Dagger. The greatest artists of the Renascence: Holbein, 
 Diirer, Cellini, and others, did not disdain, as the plate shows, to devote 
 their artistic genius to this weapon, which was often worn more for 
 fashion than for practical purposes. The "Dance of Death" (fig. 5) 
 is a .very popular motive in the decoration of the scabbards of Daggers. 
 Considering the object of the weapon, a more pregnant and appro- 
 priate decoration can scarcely be imagined. 
 
 Plate 229. The Dagger, and its Scabbard. 
 
 1. Egyptian, blade of white bronze, handle of cedar wood, 
 plated with gold and silver, tomb of Queen Aah-Hotep, 
 Qurnah ,near Thebes (1800 B. C), Bulak, Museum. 
 
 2. Egyptian, blade of gold, handle of cedar wood plated with 
 gold and incrusted with red and blue enamel, (as No. 1). 
 
 3. Renascence, handle, end of 15th century, Basel, (Kunst ira 
 Hause). 
 
 4. Renascence, handle, end of 15th century, Basel, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 5. Renascence, German, Basel, (Kunst im Hause). 
 
 6—8. Designs, by Hans Holbein the Younger, (1497—1543), 
 
 (Formenschatz). 
 9. Designs, by Albrecht Diirer, (Formenschatz). 
 
 10. Renascence, German, blackened iron parcel-gilt. Collection of 
 Napoleon III, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 11, Creese, from Sumatra, wooden handle and sheath, United 
 collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 The Halberd. (Plate 230.) 
 
 Among the multifarious utensils of war of the Middle Ages and 
 the Renascence: we may specially mention the follomng: — 
 
 The Lance and the Pike, wooden shafts with a leaf or awl- 
 shaped iron spike. (Fig. 11 shows a Pike-head of complicate shape). 
 A small flag was often attached to the Lance just below the head. 
 
 The Partizan is a Pike with a flat blade and symmetrical lateral 
 points (figs. 1, 4, and 5). 
 
 War -scythes and War-forks: the shapes of which are indicated 
 by their names (figs. 3, and 7). 
 
 The Battle-axe, and Martel, are axe and hammer-shaped weapons, 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 The Dagger, and its Scabbard. 
 
 Plate 229. 
 
396 The Halberd. — The Spoon, 
 
 with one side terminating in an axe or a hammer, and the other in 
 a point (fig. 9). 
 
 The Halberd is a combination of the Pike or Partizan with the 
 Battle-axe (figs. 2 and 8). 
 
 The Mace is a handle with a knob of various forms; when it 
 is set with spikes, it is called a "Morning-star", and when set with 
 radiating blades, it is termed a Quadrelle (fig. 10). 
 
 The AVar- flail is distinguished from the Mace by the knob being 
 fastened to the handle by a chain. 
 
 And so on, in endless variety. 
 
 So far as decoruLion is concerned: the first place is due to 
 Halberds and Partizans; not only because the shape of the blade is 
 frequently very varied and handsome, but also because the union 
 with the shaft, by means of bands, nails, tassels, &c., gives an oppor- 
 tunity for rich colour. The blades, also, are often decorated by 
 damaskeening, engraving, gilding, etc. 
 
 Plate 230. The Halberd, &c. 
 
 1. Partizan, richly -etched, German, 16th century, Historical 
 Museum, Dresden, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 2. Halberd, richly- etched, German, 1613, Aiiillery Museum, 
 Paris, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 3. Fauchard, richly- etched, German, 1580, Artillery Museum, 
 Paris, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 4. Partizan, richly- etched, German, 17th century, Artillery 
 Museum, Paris, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 6. Partizan, richly- etched, German, 1712, Royal Armoury, 
 Berlin, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 6 and 8. Halberds. 
 
 7. Combination of War-scythe and War-fork. 
 
 9. Battle-a^e, Hindu, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 10. Mace, so-called quadrelle, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 11 Pike. 
 
 (The shafts have been omitted, or only partially indicated). 
 
 c. Talk Utensils. 
 
 The Spoon. (Plate 231.) 
 
 The Spoon is, strictly speaking, a dipper; and has already been 
 alluded-to in the discussion of the group of Vessels (comp. Plate 193). 
 It is here treated in the group of Utensils. As a table utensil the 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 397 
 
 The Halberd, &c. 
 
 Plate 230. 
 
398 The Spoon 
 
 Spoon has been in use from the earliest times; its fundamental 
 form has undergone very little alteration; although its style and size 
 have varied in different periods. 
 
 The form of the Bowl is spherical, elliptic, or oval (in the last 
 case the handle is usually attached to the broad end, more rarely to 
 the narrow one). The Handle has a cylindrical, prismatic or conical 
 tapering form, or is spatulate. Spatulate handles broaden out at the 
 free end; and are decorated with cartouches or pierced work 
 (figs. 26, 28 — 30). Prismatic, cylindrical, and conical, handles usually 
 terminate in knobs, busts, or little whole-length figures (figs. 13 — 17, 
 ^nd 19—23). 
 
 The "handles of small Antique spoons for eating shellfish, <fcc., 
 often taper to a point to serve as openers. Double-spoons, as shown 
 in fig. 24, are rare. Folding Pocket-spoons, as in figs. 18, 19, 21 
 and 22, are not infrequent in the Middle Ages, and the Renascence. 
 Bowl and handle either lie in the same plane (figs. 3 and 16), or 
 they form an angle at the point of junction (figs. 8, 10 and 11). 
 
 As a rule: the decoration is confined to the handle; where the 
 bowl is decorated, it is with some kind of flat work (engraving, or 
 enamelling). The materials are the precious metals, alloys, tin, bone, 
 horn,* wood, &c.; very often, the handle and the bowl are of different 
 materials. 
 
 Plate 231. The Spoon. 
 1 . Egyptian. 
 
 2 — 12. Antique, bronze, (ligulae), Pompeii. 
 13 — 14. Mediaeval, hammered copper, 13th century, 6V4 ins. long, 
 
 Pierrefonds castle. 
 15—16. Mediaeval, tin, 12th century, 6^/4 ins. long. 
 17 Mediaeval, chased and hammered brass, SVs ^^^- ^o^ot 
 
 Pierrefonds castle. 
 
 18. Folding Pocket-spoon, 15th century, 4^8 i^s. long, Cluoy 
 Museum, Paris, (Viollet-le-Duc)^ 
 
 19. Renascence, South Kensington Museum, London. 
 
 20. Renascence, silver, terminating in a Madonna, 6^/^ ins. long. 
 Cluny Museum, Paris. 
 
 21. German, folding Pocket-spoon, 16th century, 7 ins. long, 
 Dziatinska collection. 
 
 22. Renascence, folding Pocket-spoon silver, 5'/8 ii^s. long, Cluny 
 Museum, Paris. 
 
 23. Renascence, bowl of agate, handle of copper gilt, 5 '/s i^s., 
 Cluny Museum, Paris. (L'art pour toas). 
 
 24. Double-spoon, bronze, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg, 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 399 
 
 The Spoon. 
 
 Plate 231. 
 
400 * The Spoon. — The Knife, and the Fork. 
 
 25., Persian, from an inkstand, 17Lh centuiy, 4^/^ ins. long, 
 
 Duhousset collection, (L'art pour tous). 
 26. Persian, 17th century, 4 V4 ins. long, Duhousset collection,. 
 
 (L'art pour tous). 
 27- German, tin, inscription: "Trink mid is, Gott nit vergis". 
 
 United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 28. Modern, French, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 29. Modern, silver gilt and enamelled, by the architect P. O 
 Schulze, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 30f Modern, silver, by F. Seitz. 
 
 The Knife and the Fork. (Plate 232.) 
 
 Knives and Forks, unlike Spoons, are of comparatively late 
 introduction as table utensils. Although it is probable that they 
 were in use at a very early period as kitchen utensils for carving 
 food, still they did not attain the rank of a recognised dinner set 
 until the art of eating had reached a certain refinement. It has been 
 maintained that Knives and Forks appeared on dinner tables towards 
 the close of the Roman Empire. In our own country it can be 
 proved that they did not come into general use until- the 15th or 
 16th century. This may be explained by the circumstance that in the 
 earlier period of the Middle ages, as at the present time in the East, 
 food was carried to the mouth with the fingers or with a spoon, 
 after having undergone the necessary division into small portions in 
 the kitchen. Cleanliness was ensured by frequently washing the 
 hands during dinner. 
 
 As regards form and material: what has been said of Spoons, is 
 also true for Knives and Forks. The handles are similarly shaped, 
 to secure uniformity in the whole set; the bowl of the Spoon is 
 replaced by the 'two, or more prongs of the Fork, or by the blade 
 of the Knife. The Handle is made of wood, ivory, &c., and it is 
 comparatively stronger as it must possess a greater power of re- 
 sistance, becaiise the tang or prolongation of the blade, which is 
 always made of steel, must be let- into it. As the Plate shows, the 
 shape of the blade has passed through many changes in the course 
 of time. To cut the "consecrated bread" the Middle Ages employed 
 peculiar knives, the blades of which were engraved with mottoes and 
 musical scales. 
 
 Plate 232. The Knife, and the Fork. 
 
 1 — 2. Mediaeval, (13th — 15th century), wooden handle inlaid with 
 silver. 
 
METAL OBJECTS, 
 
 401 
 
 The Knife, and the Fork. 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 
 
 Plate 232. 
 26 
 
402 Tiio Knife, and the Fork. — The Paper-Knife. — The Scissorg. 
 
 3 — 4. Gothic, 14th century, the prongs of alloy, the handle of 
 ivory mounted with silver, 7 72 i^is. long, Garneray collection. 
 
 5. Mediaeval, copper gilt, 4^/4 ins. long, Garneray collection. 
 
 6. Renascence, ivory, Leon Bach collection, (L'art poui' tous). 
 
 7. Renascence, South Kensington Museum, London. 
 
 8. Renascence, Bach collection, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 9. Renascence, Bach collection, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 10. Barocco period. South Kensington Museum, London. 
 
 11 — 12. Renascence, Dresden, (Musterornamente). 
 
 13—14. Ditto. 
 
 15-_16. Modern, silver gilt and enamelled, by F. 0. Schulze, (Ge- 
 
 werbehalle). 
 17. Modern, silver gilt and enamelled; by F. 0. Schulze, (Ge- 
 
 werbehalle). 
 
 The Paper-knife. (Plate 233.) 
 
 Paper-knives are an invention of Modern times. As the name 
 implies, they are used for cutting paper, the edges of books, news- 
 papers, and letters; and they find a place on every desk. 
 
 The form is usually that of a one or two-edged Knife. As the 
 blade does not require to be very sharp, it is generally made of the 
 same material as the handle, and in most cases of ivory, wood, 
 or brass. 
 
 The decoration is generally confined to the handle; the blade is 
 at most decorated with flat enrichment. 
 
 Plate 233. The Paper -Knife. 
 
 1. Modern, brass. 
 
 2 — 3. Modern, ivory or wood, by Dir. G. Kachel, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 4 — 6. Modern, wood carving, by J. Eberhardt, Heilbronn. 
 
 7. Modern, pierced metal. 
 
 The Scissors. (Plate 234.) 
 
 Scissors, intended primarily for use in ladies' work, and after- 
 wards applied to a variety of other purposes, are mostly met-with in 
 two different fundamental forms. The earlier form (French: forces), 
 which held its ground up to the end of the Middle Ages, has a 
 spring hoop which unites the two blades (fig. 1). The later form 
 (French: ciseaux), which begins to appear sporadically as eai'ly as 
 the 10th century, has two separate blades moveable round a central 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 403 
 
 I 1 ' ' ■ i 
 
 The Paper Knife 
 
 Plate 233. 
 26* 
 
404 The Scis3or3. — The Hand-Bell. 
 
 pivot, and terminating at one end in the blades and at the other in 
 handles with ring-shaped eyelets to receive the fingers (figs. 2, 3, 
 5. 6). The shape is usually symmetrical. Variations, like fig. 4, are 
 rare. Not infrequently, the scissors are provided with a chain by 
 means of which they may be suspended, either alone or with other 
 aracies, from a Chatelaine. The points are sometimes protected by a 
 guard (fig. 10). The decoration is generally confined to the handles, 
 and frequently consists of pierced work; the blades are plain, or 
 decorated by inlaying, &c. Where handle and blades are not of the 
 same metal, which in this case can only be steel, the handles are 
 often of brass or silver. Between these two extremes are gilt, silvered, 
 and nickelled handles. The Renascence gratified its luxurious taste 
 to the full, in the matter of Scissors; in Modern times, the plainer 
 and simpler forms are preferred. The length of the blades varies, 
 according to the purpose; but the size of the handles remains the 
 same, being governed by that of the human hand; hence the pro- 
 portions between the two are very various. Among Scissors which 
 are intended for special purposes, and depart from the usual form: 
 may be mentioned Snuffers, and "Lazy-tongs" (fig. 9). 
 
 Plate 234. The Scissors. 
 
 1. Renascence, Sonth Kensington Museum, London. 
 
 2. Renascence, blades etched, handles gilt, August I of Saxony, 
 Royal Historical Museum, Dresden, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 3_4. Persian, 17th century, 7^8 ins. and 6'/.i ins. long, Duhousset 
 collection, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 5. Renascence, South Kensington Museum, London. 
 
 6. Renascence, German, Dresden, (Musterornamente). 
 
 7. Renascence, handles silver gilt, German (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 8. Snuffers, in bird form. 
 
 9. Lazy-tongs, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 The Hand-Bell. (Plate 235.) 
 
 In those utensils of which it may be said that as a rule they 
 are artistically decorated beyond what is wanted for practical purposes, 
 we may reckon the Hand-bell. During the Middle Ages and the 
 Renascence: the Hand-bell seems to have been chiefly used in an 
 official capacity in Council- chambers and for ecclesiastical purposes; 
 and its introduction into ordinary households, to summon the atten- 
 dants did not take place till later. In our own times, so prolific of 
 Parliamentary and other Meetings: the Hand-bell is indispensable. The 
 necessary parts are: the resonant Cup, the Clapper suspended in the 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 405 
 
 The Scissors. 
 
 Plate 234. 
 
406 The Hand-Bell. 
 
 interior of the cnp, and the Handle. The two former are always of 
 metal; the cup of an alloy, or sometimes of silver; and the clapper 
 of iron. The handle may be of the same material as the cup, or it 
 may be made of wood, ivory, &c. The form of the cup is generally 
 the same as that of the large Church -bells, which is based on practical 
 experience (figs. 2, 3). Forms like figs. 1, 5 and 6, are rarer. 
 Hand -bells for domestic use are small (about 4 ins. high); those for 
 official purposes are larger (up to 12 ins). The latter class often 
 have a non-essential adjunct in the shape of a Pedestal (figs. 7 and 8). 
 The handle takes the form of a long extended knob (figs. 2, 3, 7, 8), 
 or of a hoop (figs. 1 and 6). The decoration extends to the handle 
 and the cup of the bell, which is frequently adorned with heraldic 
 bearings, and zones of inscriptions. Sometimes we find Hand -bells in 
 the form of ladies, in which case the wide skirt of the dress is the 
 cup (fig. 4). Cups of open-work are also occasionally met-with. Of 
 late years the traditional Hand-bell has yielded place to another form 
 in which the sound is caused by pressure on a knob by means of a 
 spring (figs. 9 and 10). 
 
 Plate 235. The Hand-Bell. 
 
 1. Modem, brass, from an old model. 
 
 2 — 3. Renascence, bronze, 4^/^ ins. high, Wiesbaden Museum. 
 
 4. Modern, brass, after an old model. 
 
 5. Modern, brass. 
 
 6. Modern, French, by D. R6nard, 4^4 iiis. high, (L'art pour 
 tons). 
 
 7. Modern, silver, ^vith ivory handle, by the architect F. Schulz, 
 with foot 7 7s ins. (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 8. Modern President's bell, Town-Hall, Milan, by the architect 
 Angelo Colla, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 — 10. Modern, of the latest systems. 
 
 €. Various Domestic and Toilet Utensils, 
 
 The promise, which was made in the introduction to the -group 
 of utensils, to devote some plates to Domestic and Toilet utensils must 
 not be construed as an undertaking to exhaust the whole field. Very 
 much has already come under discussion: the utensils of Illumination, 
 for instance, are also for the most part, domestic utensils. The followng 
 five plates will therefore, to a certain extent, bring-together from the 
 remaining domestic utensils those which in the first place deserve 
 consideration from the point of view of decoration, including Door- 
 knockers, Keys, Mirrors, Fans, Tools, and Instruments. As regards 
 
METAL OBJECTB. 
 
 407 
 
 The Hand-Bell, 
 
 Plate 235. 
 
408 The Door-Knocker. 
 
 these latter objects in particular, a much more extensive collectinn 
 might have been made if the allotted space had permitted. There is 
 scarcely a Tool or Instrument which did not occasionally receive an 
 artistic finish during the^ Renascence. The introduction of the so- 
 called "master-pieces" into the Guilds, naturally led to the result that 
 unnecessary labour was sometimes expended on the most ordinary 
 things. But still we shall offer sufficient to give the reader the 
 necessary view of the entire section. 
 
 The Door-Knocker. (Plate 236.) 
 
 Although the Door-knocker was in use in Antiquity, as proved 
 by an example (the head of Medusa with ring) found in Capua: 
 still the strict period of the Door-knocker is in the Romanesque, 
 Gothic, and Renascence epochs. In Modern times: it has already 
 become a historical object, having been ousted by Bellpulls, &c. 
 It is made almost exclusively of bronze, and cast or wrought iron. 
 Its dimensions are variable, like those of the doors and gates them- 
 selves, to which it must bear some proportion. We may distinguish 
 three principal classes. The first has the form of a Ring, usually 
 suspended from a lion's jaws; in which case it is at the same time a 
 Door-handle (figs. 1 — 7). The second has the form of a Hammer 
 moveable on a primitive hinge. The third class, which arose in Italy 
 in the best days of the Renascence, shows Figures, Animals, &c. 
 (figs. 9 and 11). In all three classes the requisite noise is produced 
 by the moveable part falling on a metal stud. In the third class the 
 plate by which the knocker is affixed to the door is of subsidiary 
 importance, while in the two former classes it is often the principal 
 feature of the design. The Gothic period devised richly - decorated 
 plates of pierced - work. This motive was often retained by the Re- 
 nascence (fig. 4), or replaced by double-headed eagles and the like 
 (fig. 5). The Plate gives 11 different examples, selected from the 
 copious material. 
 
 Plate 236. The Door-Knocker. 
 
 1. Romanesque, bronze, North portal of the cathedral of Puy-en-Velay, 
 11th century. 
 
 2. Mediaeval, T^/g ins. square, Soyter collection, Augsburg. 
 
 3. Renascence, 2^/^ ins. square, Museum, Berlin. 
 
 4. Transition from Gothic to Renascence, 5^2 ins. square, S. Peter's, 
 Strassburg. 
 
 5. Renascence, wrought-iron, German, National Museum, MunicH. 
 
 6. Renascence, (Guichard). 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 409 
 
 The Door-Knocker. 
 
 Plate 236. 
 
410 The Door-Knocker. — The Key. 
 
 7. Mediaeval, bronze, 15th century, S'/j ins. high, East portal of 
 the cathedral of Noyon. 
 
 8. Renascence, wrought-iron, Dutch, 14^/8 ins. high, Vermerch col- 
 lection. 
 
 9. Renascence, bronze, Italian, .1372 iiis. high, David with the 
 head of Goliath, house in Ferrara, (Vorbilder fiir Fabrikanten 
 und Handwerker). 
 
 10. Renascence, bronze, Italian, 1560, South Kensington Museum, 
 London. 
 
 11. Renascence, bronze, Italian, Austrian Museum, Vienna, (Gewerbe- 
 halle). 
 
 The Key. (Plate 237.) 
 
 It is not the task of this Handbook to follow the developement 
 of the Lock through its various stages from the Antique up to the 
 present day. It would also carry us too far if we were to attempt 
 to go into the decorative details of the case of the lock; one plate, 
 however shall be devoted to the Key; while the escutcheon will find 
 its place in the group of Frames. Apart from such special designs 
 as that shown by fig. 2, the Key usually consists of - three parts: the 
 Bow, the Stem, and the Bit. Keys may be divided into two classes, 
 according as the stem is tubular, or is solid. The stem is generally 
 cylindrical, or profiled; more rarely angular, or prismatic. The bit, 
 which projects as a rectangular plate at the end of the key, is 
 divided by notches into wards. The decoration is applied to the 
 bow. The Pompeian key, shown in fig. 1, is an exception, the bow 
 being smooth and the bit and stem prettily ornamented. Keys are 
 made of iron and bronze, the stem being frequently of iron, and the 
 bow of some other metal; the bow, and indeed the whole key, is often 
 gilt. The palmy days of Keys were the Middle Ages and the Re- 
 nascence; compared with these, our Modem keys are on the whole 
 smaller, simpler, and, if less beautiful, are certainly more practical. 
 Finally we may mention those colossal examples which were formerly 
 made to serve as Signs; and are even now met- with. 
 
 Plate 237. The Key. 
 
 1. Antique, Pompeii, (Bliimner: Das Kunstgewerbe im Alterthum). 
 
 2. Roman, bronze, found on the Hohenkrahen, United collections, 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 3. Romanesque, bronze. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 4 — 5. Renascence, (Kunst und Gewerbe). 
 
 6 — 8. Renascence, Museo Medio Evo e Rinascimento, Rome, (Ge- 
 werbehalle). 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 411 
 
 The Key. 
 
 Plate 237. 
 
412 The Hand-Mirror. — The Fan. 
 
 9. Renascence, (Guichard). 
 
 10. Renascence, South Kensington Museum, London. 
 
 11 — 12. Renascence, German. 
 
 13—14. Bows, 18 th century, (Wessely). 
 
 15—19. Modern, by the architect Otto Girard, Berlin, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 The Hand -Mirror. (Plate 238.) 
 
 The first place in the series of ladies* toilet requisites belongs 
 to the Hand -mirror. Its history falls into two periods. In Antiquity 
 and in the earlier years of the Middle Ages: mirrors were made of 
 polished metal, either bronze or silver. About the 13 th century, glass 
 begins to be used, the reflecting surface being hacked with metal foil. 
 The Antique, and .particular^ the Etruscan mirrors, of which a large 
 number Have been preserved to us, show engraved ornaments and 
 figures from mythology and daily life, mostly of primitive, but 
 sometimes of excellent, workmanship. Glass min-ors are, generally, 
 flat. The fundamental' shape of the Antique mirror is circular or 
 spatulate (figs. 1 — 6); and that of the glass mirror is circular or 
 elliptical (figs. 8 and 9). The plastic decoration of Antique mirrors 
 is confined to the handle, and the frame. The handle and frame may 
 be of a great variety of materials, wood, ivory, or metal. Here, too, 
 it is the Renascence which shows the richest decoration. Where the 
 decoration consists of figures, these are in keeping with the object; 
 and show Amorini and Aphroditic personages. With the increasing use 
 of wall or plate-glass mirrors, the Hand-mirror jas lost much of its 
 former importance; so that modern art no longer devotes much atten 
 tioii to it. 
 
 Plate 238. The Hand-Mieror. 
 
 1. Egyptian, bronze, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 2. Egyptian, bronze, handle of carved wood, British Museum, 
 London. 
 
 3—4. Greek, bronze. 
 
 5. Pompelan. 
 
 6—7. Etruscan, engraved figures, handles lost. 
 
 8. Renascence, (Kunst und Gewerbe). 
 
 9. Renascence, by Etienne de Laulne (1549 to 1583), (Wessely). 
 
 The Fan. (Plate 239.) 
 
 The Fan is undoubtedly the most interesting of all toilet requisites. 
 Its history can be traced back uninterruptedly for 3000 years, although 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 418 
 
 The Hand-Mirror. 
 
 Plate 238. 
 
414 The i^an. 
 
 It did not enjoy tlie same measure of popularity in every period. It 
 alone would almost suffice to furnish a historical picture of the artistic 
 and technical developemeut of industrial art through all periods. The 
 object of the Fan is twofold. Firstly, it is used to direct a current 
 of cool air to the face; and secondly, to keep off flies and other 
 insects. From its first use it derives its Latin name of "flahelkim" 
 (from flare = to blow, French "eventail")] from its second use its 
 Latin name "muscarium" (from musca = a fly, French ''esmouchoir"). 
 Fans of this latter class are usually called "Fly-flappers". Occasion- 
 ally, the fan is used to blow the fire (as in ancient Persia, where 
 the blowing of the fire with the lips was forbidden for religious 
 reasons); and as a Symbol of dignity in ecclesiastical and court cere- 
 monies. A consideration of its purpose renders it obvious that it is 
 chiefly employed in the hotter countries of the globe. 
 
 The manifold forms of the fan may be reduced to 5 diff'erent 
 principal types: 
 
 1. The Fixed Fan: a leaf immovably attached to a handle (figs. 
 6—9). 
 
 2. The Pennon Fan: attached to the side of the handle, and 
 movable round it in a horizontal direction (figs. 10 and 11). 
 The forms and materials of the fixed and the pennon fan are 
 of the utmost variety. 
 
 3. The Radial Fan: a rectangle of paper, silk or some other 
 material, fastened to a handle in such a manner that it may 
 be folded together and spread out in the form of a circle 
 (fig. 12). 
 
 4. The Lamellar fan: pieces of stiff" material e. g. slips of ivory, 
 are connected together at one end by a pin, which serves as 
 the axis. They are collapsible into a narrow shape, and 
 may be opened-out to a semi-circle. They are held-together 
 by a ribbon drawn through them (fig. 13). 
 
 5. The Folding fan: distinguished from the preceding by the 
 lamelltB being covered by a sheet of paper, silk, &c., which 
 is folded - together or spread-out by the opening of the sticks 
 which compose the frame (fig. 14). 
 
 It appears from this that the Fixed, the Pennon, and the Radial 
 fans have handles, while the Lamellar and the Folding fans have not. 
 The Radial fan, being a folding fan with a handle, is a kind of inter- 
 mediate form. The size of the fan varies according to fashion and 
 the purpose for which it is intended, regard being usually paid to 
 convenience of handling; as a general rule, it may be said that the 
 firmer, stiffer and more impervious to air the fan is: the smaller it 
 may be. Fans for cooling should have a short, broad form, Fly- 
 flappers require a longer, narrower shape. 
 
METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 415 
 
 The Fan, 
 
 Flate ?39, 
 
416 The Fan. 
 
 On the subject of history and style, the following may be said: 
 The Fixed fan is the oldest and most primitive. Its natural model is 
 a leaf on a stalk, just as savages at the present time make their fans 
 of dried palm-leaves or of plaited work in the form of leaves (fig. 4). 
 The feather may also be regarded as a natural model, and hence its 
 frequent application to fans of every kind. The Pennon fan is the 
 least practical, its domain is the Middle Ages and the early Renascence, 
 together with certain parts of the East (India, Turkey, Morocco, 
 Tunis, &c.). The Radial fan was also in use in the Middle ages (with 
 a long handle), and down to the present time in certain parts of Italy, 
 Persia, China, and Japan. The Lamellar and the Folding fan are of 
 later date. Their introduction is contemporaneous with the general 
 use of the fan in Europe (15 th century). After the period of the 
 lamellar fan in the 17 th century, follows the golden age of the folding 
 fan in the Rococo period. The Folding fan is also the predominant 
 form in Modern times. 
 
 Egyptian mural paintings and Assyrian reliefs frequently show 
 Pan -bearers, with larger or smaller Fly -flappers, in the retinue of 
 the kings. The most common Egyptian forms are given in figs. 1 
 and 2, Ihe Assyrian in fig. 3. Scarcely any vestige has been pre- 
 served of Antique Fans. Judging by the pictures on vases, «fec., the 
 Greek Fan consisted of a leaf, cut to a palmette - shape , on a long 
 handle. The Roman ladies were somewhat luxurious in the matter 
 of fans, %vhich they either managed themselves or had carried by 
 slaves; and under the Emperors the men were also. In the Middle 
 Ages, the fan entered into the service of the church; deacons and 
 ministrans kept- off flies from the consecrated host by means of the 
 flabella, which often took the form of six-winged seraphs. When the 
 fan became popular for secular purposes, its use was given up in 
 churches. As already observed, the Renascence passed from the Fixed, 
 to the Lamellar and Folding fan. The Lamellar fan offered numerous 
 opportunities for carved and pierced work in ivory, horn, tortoiseshell, 
 filigree, and enamel work. The Folding fan offered an unlimited 
 field for decoration by painting; and painters, like Boucher, Watteau, 
 and others, devoted themselves to fan -painting (pastoral scenes &c.). 
 During this period the "Puzzle-fan" was invented, which shows differ- 
 ent pictures according to the way it is folded. Lace fans, fans with 
 mirrors, monograms, and autographs, and the bespangled Empire -fans, 
 complete the category. The Modern ball-room fan is a large Folding 
 fan generally decorated with naturalistic paintings of flowers. But 
 all possible forms ara occasionally used. France, China, and Japan 
 supply the fan market. Heinrich Frauberger, who has written a most 
 valuable monograph on the Fan*, maintains that the latter countries 
 
 H. Fraubcrf)cr: "Die Geschichte des Fachers." Leipzig: K. Scholtz^ 
 
The Fan. — Various Tools. 417 
 
 alone manufacture between them about 8/4 of the 400 million fans 
 which are annually made on the globe. 
 
 Finally we may briefly enumerate the materials which are prin- 
 cipally used in the manufticture of fans. They are: bamboo, palm- 
 leaves, wood, bone, horn, ivory, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, metal, 
 paper, straw and other plaited material, silk, lace, gelatine, mica, 
 leather, feathers, &c. 
 
 Plate 239. The Fan. 
 
 1. Egyptian, Fly-flapper, feathers, handle omitted. 
 
 2. Egyptian, feather-fan. 
 
 3. Assyrian, Fly-flapper, from a relief, British Museum. 
 
 4. Modern, Fly-flapper, plaited palm-leaves. South Caroline Is- 
 lands, (Frauberger). 
 
 5. Modern, Fly-flapper, plaited paim-leaves. United collections,' 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 6. Modern, palm-leaf, cut and bound at the edge. 
 7 — 8. Modern, Japanese, bamboo and paper. 
 
 9. Modern, printed paper with silk fringe and gilt wooden 
 
 handle. 
 
 10. Modern, Siamese, handle of whipped wood, centre of paste- 
 board, decorated with rosettes and bordered with peacock 
 feathers, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 1 1. Modern, Hindu, handle of wood, centre of pasteboard covered 
 with silk, braid, and butterfly wings, bordered with peacock 
 feathers, (Frauberger). 
 
 12. Mediaeval, Radial-fan, French, (VioUet-le-Duc). 
 
 13. Modern, Folding-fan, wood and grouse feathers. 
 
 14. Modern, Folding-fan, wood, painted silk, and gold. 
 
 Various Tools. (Plate 240.) 
 
 Among the Tools and Instruments which only occasionally or 
 accidentally receive an artistic finish we may mention: Hammers, 
 Tongs, Compasses, Cocks, Pestles, Hour-glasses, and Clocks, along 
 with many other things. No attempt can be made here to treat 
 these articles in detail. But it may be said that, in general, th© 
 highly -decorated examples have been specially made for State -occasions, 
 9. g. the Hammer (fig. 1), with which Pope Julius III inaugurated the 
 Jubilee year (1650) by knocking three times on the walled-up main- 
 portal of S. Peter's, as a sign that it should be opened. 
 
 Plate 240 exhibits a number of such objects. 
 
 97 
 
 Msyex, Handbook of Ornsment. - ( 
 
418 
 
 METAL OBJECTS. 
 
 Plate 240, 
 
 Various Tools, 
 
Varioua Tools. 
 
 419 
 
 Plate 240. Various Tools. 
 
 1. Ceremonial -Hammer, silver gilt, Italian, 16th century, pre- 
 sented by Gregory XIII to Duke Ernest of Bavaria, beneath 
 the enamelled armorial bearings is the inscription: "Julius III 
 Pont. Max. Jubilaeum VIII condidit feliciter MCCCCCL.; the 
 relief on the reverse shows Moses striking water from the 
 rock, with the words: Percussit petram et fluxerunt aquae", 
 National Museum, Munich; (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 2. Tongs, iron, German, Germanisehes Museum, Nuremberg. 
 
 3. Snuffers, brass, German, Renascence, Germanisehes Museum, 
 Nuremberg. 
 
 4 — 5. Compasses, bronze, chased, engraved, and gilt, German, 16th 
 century, half the size of the original. 
 
 6. Cock, brass, cast and chased, German, 16th century, iP/^inc. 
 long, (Vorbilder fiir die Kleinkuust in Bronze). 
 
 7. Match-holder, bronze, Modern. 
 
 27* 
 
420 
 
 c. 
 
 FURNITURE. 
 
 Furniture, in its btoader sense, is a collective name for all kinds 
 of household goods and chattels. It is more strictly confined to such 
 objects as Chairs, Tables, ^yardrobes, &c. But even in this narrower 
 sense the examples of Furniture are so numerous that it is not 
 possible to give a detailed description and discussion of each indivi- 
 dual article on the 20 Plates which are devoted to this group. 
 And it .is the less necessary to do this as our object is only to give 
 a view of the application of decoration to fui-niture in general. 
 We show a series of the more important articles, while others, such 
 as Pianos, and Wardrobes, have been omitted. They have been so 
 grouped that Plates 241 to 250 contain the different varieties of Chairs, 
 while the following 10 Plates are devoted to Tables, Cabinets, Bed- 
 steads, Cradles, &c. 
 
 The examples have been chiefly taken from the Antique, the 
 Renascence, and Modeiu times; while the Middle Ages, the Barocco- 
 and Rococo periods have only occasionally been taken into account. 
 That particular attention has been paid to the German Renascence, is 
 based on the fact, that this period is specially distinguished for its 
 achievements in the field of richly-decorated furniture. 
 
 This chapter might seem to offer an inducement to give a historical 
 account of the development of tectonic form in the different periods 
 of art. But to do this, with any thoroughness, would also require 
 us to abandon the conciseness we have hitherto maintained; aud 
 
Furniture. 421 
 
 we will therefore onlj refer the reader to the details in Semper: "Der 
 Stil", and to the highly - interesting work by Georg Hirth: ^^Das 
 Deutsche Zitnmer der Gotliik und Renaissance, des Barock-, Rokoko-, 
 und Zopfstils" (G. Hirth, 'Munich and Leipzig). The necessary in- 
 formation about the furniture of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks, 
 and Romans will be found in Menard et Sauvageot: "ia Vie Privee 
 des Anciens" ; and about the Middle ages in Viollet-le-Duc: ^^Dic- 
 tionnaire Raisonne du Mobilier Frangais"; from both of which 
 works we have taken numerous examples for our Plates. Besides 
 these, there is such a number of cyclopaedic works on this subject 
 that it is impossible even to name them all here. 
 
 a. Seats. 
 
 As regards Seats: the fundamental form has generally been depen- 
 dent on the special purpose, and on the ever- varying mode of life; 
 while the details have been influenced by the artistic taste of the 
 time, and by the material used. Definite fundamental types often 
 recur by the side of new and arbitraiy special forms; and we have 
 attempted a classifieation according to these fundamental forms. 
 
 The simplest and most primitive form, although for many pur- 
 poses the least comfortable, is that of the Taboret or Ottoman, which 
 is without a back. The Chair is more comfortable because of the 
 addition of the back; and it becomes still more so, when arms are 
 added. To this group belongs the Throne, which in view of its pur- 
 pose is more monumental in form, and richer in material. Revolving, 
 folding, ^nd rocking Chairs meet the demand for special purposes. The 
 Stall, and the "Prie-dieu" also have peculiar accessories, due to their 
 being used for other purposes than sitting. The Bench and the 
 Couch offer a seat or repose for several persons simultaneously. 
 
 In spite of the variety of forms, one feature is common to nearly 
 all, namely, the height of the seat. In order to sit comfortably, the 
 feet should just reach the ground, and the height of the seat is there- 
 fore from 15 ins. to 18 ins. The depth of the seat shows greater va- 
 riations, from 12 ins. to 24 ins. The height of the back varies from 
 30 ins. and more; the fact having to be taken into consideration tliat 
 the. head, when it is leant back, should have a proper support. 1'he 
 upper surface of the arms should be about 12 ins. above that of the 
 seat. Straight, upright backs are less comfortable than curved lines 
 adapted to the vertebral curve. Similarly: flat, horizontal seats aj*e 
 not so suitable as those which slope downwards towards the back. 
 
 The principal materials are wood, cane, and metal; stone, terra- 
 cotta, &c., are rarer. As it is unpleasant to rest against a hard 
 
422 The Chair. 
 
 material for any length of time, recourse is had to cane, or flexible 
 seats, skins, cushions, and upholstering. In coui'se of time, chairs 
 have become more comfortable with the progress of comfort in general. 
 It may be specially emphasized that the handsomest and most richly- 
 decorated seats are not usually the most practical; further remarks 
 are reserved for the discussion of the different forms. 
 
 The Chair. (Plates 241—243.) 
 
 The Chair is a stool with a back to it. The most usual form 
 has four legs. Sometimes the legs are connected-together by braces 
 or ties, which are called Foot-rails. The seat generally has the shape 
 of an oblong, a square, or a trapezium. Circular and polygonal seats 
 are less common. Hexagonal and octagonal Seats, with a corresponding 
 number of legs, begin to appear in the 13th century; and certain 
 wooden chairs of the Renascence have seats in the form of regular 
 or semi -regular polygons (Plate 242. 3, 5, 6). The legs are prismatic 
 or turned, frequently with claw feet, while the top of the back 
 terminates in knobs, animal-heads, or masks (Plates 241. 1; 242. 1; 
 243. 4, 5, 6). Instead of legs, the seats of the wooden chairs of the 
 Renascence are sometimes supported by perforated and cai-ved boards, 
 either at the two sides or in front and behind (Plate 242. 3, 5, 6). 
 Where the back is carved out of a single piece, as is the case with 
 many Renascence and Modern chairs, the two hinder legs have the 
 same form and height as the front legs (Plates 242. 7, 8; 243. 1). 
 Very often the back is treated as a frame (Plate 241. 5, 8, 10), 
 or is bent into a cylindrical plan, as in the Greek "klismos" (Plate 24 1. 
 6, 7), and its imitation, the Empire chair (Plate 241.11). Openings 
 for the hand are made in carved wooden backs for convenience in 
 moving (Plate 242. 1, 8, 9). Where the top of the back is hori- 
 zontal, it is often crowned with a cornice or an ornament (Plates 242. 6; 
 243. 9). Where the seat, alone or in conjunction with the back, is 
 of woven cane -work or padded, the Chair is termed a "cane" or an 
 "upholstered" chair.' Sometimes not only the padding but also the 
 entire structure of the chair is upholstered in some material, just as, 
 on the other, band, chairs may be made entirely of cane or rushes. 
 The seats and backs of upholstered chairs are covered with leather, or 
 textiles (Plate 243, 6). The* overlaying of wood with metal occurs in 
 the Assyrian style, and occasionally in later periods; the State- 
 chairs of the Middle Ages, especially the Byzantine, are not infre- 
 quently decorated with coloured stones; a similar treatment may be 
 observed in the Renascence example (Plate 242 figs. 5, and 6). In 
 addition to the decoration by carving (which will always be the chief 
 
FURNITURE. 
 
 423 
 
 The Chair. 
 
 Plate 241. 
 
424 
 
 FURNITURE. 
 
 Plate 242. 
 
 The Chair. 
 
The Chair. — The Throne, and the Arm-chair. 425 
 
 material of common frames), we find inlays of bone, (the socalled 
 *'Certosina work" of the 15 th century), metal,- &c. 
 
 Plate 241. The Chair. 
 
 1 — 2. Egyptian, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 3. Egyptian, mural painting, tomb of Ramses III, Thebes, (IM^nard 
 
 et Sauvageot). 
 '^' Egyptian, upholstered with patterned material, British Museum. 
 
 5. Egyptian, British Museum. 
 
 6 — 7. Greek, draped with skin, "Klismos" form, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 8. Antique, with cushions and foot-stool, Pompeian, (Menard et 
 Sauvageot), 
 
 9. Greek, vase, painting. 
 
 10. Ajitique, with statue of Jupiter, (M6nard et Sauvageot). 
 
 11. French Empire period, (Gallien). 
 
 Plate 242. The Chair. 
 
 1. German, Renascence, wood, Moreau collection, '(L'art pour tons). 
 
 2. Flemish, wood, 17th century, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 3. Italian, wood, IGth century, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 4. Dutch, upholstered in leather, (Crispin van den Passe, 1642). 
 5 — 6. German, decorated with stones. Renascence, Museum, Dresden. 
 7 — 8. German, 17th century, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 9. German, 17th century, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg. 
 
 Plate 243. The Chaui. 
 
 1. Modern, "Inn-chair", by Dir. Kachel, (Gewerbehalle), 
 
 2 — 3. Modern, cane, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 4 — 7. Modern, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 8. Renascence, (Raguenet). 
 
 9. Modern, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 The Throne, and the Arm-chair. (Plates 244 — 245.) 
 
 Thrones and Arm-chairs have been grouped-together, because the 
 former almost always have the same form as the latter, and there is 
 no essential difference since the time of the Renascence. The Throne 
 being the Seat- of- honour, has naturally, from the earliest periods,' 
 received more attention and decoration. It is planned on a larger 
 and more monumental scale than the ordinary Chair. For this reason, 
 and also because it does not require to be so often moved as comraoa 
 
426 
 
 FUKNITURE. 
 
 Plate 243. 
 
 The Chair. 
 
The Throne, and the Arm-chair. 427 
 
 Chairs it is often made of marble, metal, &c. Very often it is raised 
 on a Dais, with steps, or a Foot- stool is placed in front of it- not 
 infrequently it is covered by a Baldacchino or canopy, with Hangings, 
 or a Cornice. This is especially the case with those for royal per- 
 sonages and bishops in the Middle Ages. As regards the decoration: 
 hgures and symbols may be added to the. other decorations of the 
 frame. 
 
 The Arm-chair, in its simplest form, is distinguished from the 
 ordmary Chair by the addition of arms, which are generally supported 
 froni the fore-legs, and connected with the back, whereas in the case 
 of the throne, when the material is stone, the arms are made in one 
 solid piece with the whole. Compared with the ordinary Chair, the 
 Arm-chair is larger, and more conducive to repose. Where it is in- 
 tended to serve as the Seat-of-honour for the head of the family, or 
 a chairman, it corresponds in style to other Chairs of the set, and 
 only differs from them in its size and its richer finish. The furni- 
 ture of our modern drawing-rooms generally consists of 4 or 6 chairs, 
 with 2 easy-chairs, &c. 
 
 In addition to the Egyptian and Assyrian thrones, and the Roman 
 State-chair, the "Sella Curulis": we may mention as belonging to this 
 group, the Norwegian stall of the 12th century (Plate 245, 1), and 
 the polygonal chair enclosed by a lattice, as shown by fig. 5 of the 
 same Plate. 
 
 Plate 244. The Throne, and the Arjvi- chair. 
 
 1. Egyptian Throne, with lotus ornament, the arms formed by the 
 wings of the sacred hawk, (Teirioh). 
 
 2. Ancient Persian Throne, bas-relief, Persepolis, the decoration 
 represents a king sitting on his throne borne -up by slaves, 
 (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 3. Assyrian Throne, relief, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 4. Greek Priest's - chair., marble, by the door of the temple of The- 
 mis, 4-tbens, (Raguenet). 
 
 5. Greek Judge's-chair (pro6dra), marble, found on the site of the 
 Prytaneum, Athens. 
 
 6. Antique Bath -chair, (sella balnearis), the openings served to 
 admit the vapour, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 7. Greek Arm-chair, relief of a tomb, i-epresenting the deceased on 
 the thrones. 
 
 8. Greek Throne, Harpy Monument, from Xanthos in Lycia, British 
 Museum. 
 
 9. Roman Arm-chair, with decoration symbolic of Ceres, (Menard et 
 Sauvageot). 
 
428 The Throne, and the Arm-chair. — The Stall. 
 
 10. Roman Arm-chair, found in Herculaneum, Museum at Portici, 
 (Raguenet). 
 
 1 1. Antique terracotta, representing an Arm-chair in the form of the 
 hollowed-out body of a sphinx, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 12. Chair of S. Peter, wood with ivory reliefs illustrating the story 
 of Hercules, S. Peter's at Rome, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 Plate 245. The Theoxe, and the Arm-chair. 
 
 1. Norwegian Stall, 12th century, from Bo, Telemark. 
 
 2. Mediaeval Arm-chair, with foot -stool and draped back, (VioUet- 
 le-Duc). 
 
 3. King David's Arm-chair, 13th century, from relief, portal of 
 cathedral, Auxerre, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 4. Frame of Mediaeval arm-chair, iron, the drapery omitted, (Viollet- 
 le-Duc). 
 
 5. Mediaeval polygonal chair, painting, chapel in Toulouse, (Viollet- 
 le-Duc). 
 
 6. Mediaeval Arm-chair, metal, the drapery omitted, 13th century, 
 (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 7. Mediaeval Arm-chair, decorated with fringe, end of the 15th cen- 
 tury, bas-relief, stalls, Amiens, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 8. English Aj-m-chair, 16th century, wood, upholstered. 
 
 9. Arm-chair, Louis XVI style, wood carved and gilded, (Williamson). 
 
 10. Modern Arm-chair. 
 
 11. Modern Arm-chair. (Raguenet). 
 
 The Stall. (Plate 24G.) 
 
 The rows of seats along the north, west, and south sides oi the 
 Choir in chapels, &c., are termed Stalls. They have a peculiar con- 
 struction corresponding to their special use. In the earliest period 
 of the Middle Ages the single seats to the right and left of the bishop's 
 chair were built into the wall of the chancel, at a later period they 
 were replaced by moveable seats; and these again, from about the 
 13th century onwards, were replaced by Stalls, strictly so-called; the 
 seats being united in a continuous row, with an architectonic character 
 and construction. There are generally two rows, one behind the 
 other, and the hinder row is a little elevated. Partitions divide the 
 seats from one another; and serve as arms. Between the partitions 
 are the seats. These are either fixed or arranged to fold back. In the 
 latter case a console-like projection is attached to the underside of 
 the seat, to serve as a kind of rest when the seat is folded-back; 
 thus, out of ])ity for the aged monks, rendering it possible to rest 
 
FURNITURE. 
 
 429 
 
 The Throne, and the Arm-chair. 
 
 Plate 244. 
 
430 
 
 FUENITURE. 
 
 riate 245. 
 
 The Throne, and the Arm-chair. 
 
The Stall — The Stool 431 
 
 while appearing to stand; hence the significant name of these sup- 
 ports, "miserere" The backs of the hinder row of seats form a 
 Screen; and are usually decorated with carving, intarsia, &c.; and 
 are furnished with a canopy. In front of the seat, there is generally 
 a kneeling-stool. Where there are several rows of seats, the priiyer- 
 desks of the one row serve at the same time as the backs of tlie 
 next lower row. "When the front rows are interrupted by passages 
 leading to the hinder rows, the Stall- ends are richly decorated. 
 
 A large number of magnificent Stalls of the Gothic, and still more 
 of the Renascence period, have been preserved in England, Germany, 
 France, Italy, and elsewhere. To enumerate them all would take too 
 long. Enormous pains have frequently been lavished on these works. 
 Rich ornamental and architectural motives alternate with represen- 
 tations from Bible history and the legends of the saints; secular and 
 satirical compositions are also no rarity; so that Stalls are altogether 
 of high importance for the history of art as? well as of civilisation. 
 To exemplify what has been said, the Plate gives a few examples, 
 which are far from being among the most sumptuous. 
 
 Plate 246. The Stall. 
 
 1. Sta. Maria Novella, Florence, decorated with intarsias, by Baccio 
 d'Agnolo, end of the 15th century, (Teirich). 
 
 2. Side-view, and section of above. 
 
 8. Laurentian Library, Florence, beginning of the 16th century, said 
 to be by Michelangelo, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 4. Side-view, and section of the central row, great church, Dortrecht, 
 Dutch Renascence. 
 
 5. Modern French, Convent of Elisabeth, Fourviferes near Lyons, Ar- 
 tect Leo, (Raguenet). 
 
 The Stool. (Plate 247.) 
 
 The simplest seat is the Taboret or Stool , which is the chair 
 without a back. As our Plate shows, it has been in use from the 
 earliest times. The most primitive, and at the same time the most 
 stable, is probably the round seat with three legs; the Egyptian 
 example, (fig. 2), may be regarded as the prototype of the modern 
 Cobbler's- stool. The Plasterer's-stool, which has only one leg, is in 
 deed still simpler; and bears some resemblance to our modern Walking- 
 stick Camp-stools. The four-legged Taboret is generally square, and 
 possesses the same features as the lower part of a Chair. It is made 
 with or without upholstery, and with or without foot- rails. Here, 
 
432 
 
 FURNITUEE. 
 
 Plate 246. 
 
 The Stall. 
 
FURNITURE. 
 
 433 
 
 Meyer, HaDdbook of Ornament, 
 
 The Stool. 
 
 Plate 247 
 28 
 
434 The Stool. — The Folding-Chair. 
 
 too, we may group, the "Bisellimn", or Roman double-stool, which was 
 granted as a distinction, and was mostly made of metal (fig. 7). Box- 
 stools, supported on boards instead of legs, are furnished with an 
 opening in the seat to enable them to be moved. Th^ Garden-seats of 
 burned and glazed clay, introduced from China (fig. 1 1) are made without 
 backs; and, from their round or polygonal fundamental plan, ai-e 
 classed with the Taborets; also the upholstered and draped treatment 
 (fig. 12), which is sometimes applied to a commode. 
 
 The Revolving-stool, which is chiefly employed in an office or 
 for performers of music, permits of lateral movement, and adjustment 
 to different heights as required (figs. 18 and 15). This is effected 
 by means of a screw. 
 
 Plate 247. The Stool. 
 
 1. Egyptian, British Museum. 
 
 2. Egyptian, (M6nard et Sauvagpot). 
 
 3. Etruscan, (M6nard et Sauvageot). 
 
 4. Assjrrian. 
 
 5. Greek, vase-painting. 
 
 6. Greek, vase-painting. 
 
 7. Roman Bisellium, bronze, covering of the seat omitted, 
 Pompeii. 
 
 8. Bisellium of L. M. Faustus, tomb of Naevoleia Tyche, 
 Pompeii. 
 
 9—10. Modem. 
 
 11. Chinese Garden -seat. 
 
 12. Modem, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 13. Modem Music-stool. 
 
 14. Modern. 
 
 15. Modern Revolving -stool. 
 
 The FOLDING-CHAIR. (Plate 248.) 
 
 The idea of a Chair which could be folded-together so as tO' 
 take up less room, and be more conveniently transported, is an old 
 one. The principle is found as early as the time of Ramses TH in 
 the Egyptian chair shown on Plate 241. 3. The Folding-chair is 
 common in the Antique, either with four legs combined and joined- 
 together like a saw-horse (figs. 1, 2, and 4), or with crossing stmts 
 combined to form a ribbed chair. Antique Folding-chairs of the for- 
 mer kind (Diphros okladias) are remarkable for invariably having 
 claw feet, sometimes turned outwards, but usually inwards. The 
 ribbed chair, which recurs in the Middle Ages and the Renascence, 
 scarcely admits of decoration, and is, therefore, mostly plain. 
 
FURNITURE. 
 
 435 
 
 The Folding-Chair. 
 
 Plate 248. 
 28* 
 
436 The Folding-Chair. — The Bench. 
 
 The- Folding-chair may be a Stool, a Chair, or an Armchair. 
 Sometimes it can be folded-up as it stands, like our iron Folding- 
 chairs for use in the open air; sometimes it must be taken to pieces 
 before it can be folded-up, like the chair shown on fig. 8. The most 
 suitable material is metal (bronze or iron). Folding-chairs of wood 
 are very often so constructed as not to fold at all, but are merely 
 imitations with the purpose overlooked (fig. 10). The seat is fre- 
 quently of bands, eilher textile or leather. Where the scat is not 
 flexible, it must be arranged to be moveable by means of hinges. 
 
 Thrones have been sometimes made like Folding-chairs. We may 
 also mention: the Camp-stools for tourists, sportsmen, painters, &c. 
 The principles of decoration are sufficiently elucidated by the figures 
 of the Plate. 
 
 Plate 248. Tiie Folding-chair. 
 
 1. Egyptian, tomb of Chambali, 18th dynasty. 
 
 2. Antique, (Diphros okladias). 
 
 3. Greek, tomb of an agonothetes, found in Krissa, (Delphi). 
 
 4. Antique. 
 
 5. Mediaeval, Nonncnberg, (Mothes). 
 
 f>. Mediaeval, miniature painting, representing King Nabuchodonosor, 
 9th or 10th century, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 7. Mediaeval, bronze gilt. Throne of Dagobert, restored. 
 
 8. Mediaeval, bronze, 12th century, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 9. Renascence. 
 
 10. French Renascence, Sens cathedral, (Raguenet). 
 
 The Bench. (Plate 249.) 
 
 The Bench is an elongated seat, usually intended for several per- 
 sons. In its simplest form, as a board with four legs, it was already 
 known, in Antiquity. In the Middle Ages and the Renascence, it was 
 in general use; and was employed not only as a seat, but as a table, 
 as is shown by such terms as "work-bench", &c. The Bench-seat 
 was afterwards furnished with a back and arms, the back being fre- 
 quently formed like the canopy over stalls (fig. 7). It was uphol- 
 stered with cushions and draped with textiles. Tbe material is gene- 
 rally wood; but in public buildings there are also Benches made of stone. 
 This latter material and iron, frequently combined with wood, are 
 the most suitable for benches in tbe open air. A further variciy is 
 formed by tbe Double-bench, with a back in the middle; this back is 
 moveable, as shoAvn in the example (fig. 3). 
 
 As the Bench, in most cases, is intended for every-day use, it is 
 generally undecorated. Those of the Middle Ages are more tho 
 
FURNITUEE. 
 
 437 
 
 The Bench. 
 
 Plate 249. 
 
438 The Bench. — The Sofa, and the Couch. 
 
 work of the carpenter than that of the cabinet-maker, but the Be- 
 nascence, especially in Italy, has created some finely- decorated examples. 
 
 Plate 249. The Bench. 
 
 1,2, 4 and 5. Middle ages, (Viollf^t-le-Duc). 
 
 3. Mediaeval, double with moveable back, for use in front 
 
 of the fireplace, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 6. Eenascence, with arms, (Ducerceau). 
 
 7, Eenascence, with canopied back, church at Flavigny, 
 French, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 8—9. Eenascence, with podium, Italian, (Teirich). 
 
 The Sofa, and the Couch. (Plate 250.) 
 
 The Sofa and the Couch are among upholstered furniture what 
 the bench is among wooden furniture. By the side of forms which 
 are nothing more than elongated Chairs, occur others which have more 
 the character of the Bed. The intention of these pieces of furniture 
 is therefore to be found in their availability for both lying and 
 sitting. According as the one or the other object becomes predo- 
 minant, the symmetrical form (figs. 4 — 7), or the unsymmetrical form 
 with strongly marked head (figs. 1 and 8), is employed. In accordance 
 with the double object, the arms are frequently treated as cylindrical 
 cushions (fig. 7), or upholstered with cushions (fig. 6). 
 
 Although furniture of this nature was not unknown to the An- 
 tique, as shown by the Eoman examples (figs. 1 and 2), these articles 
 cannot be said to have come into common use before the last three 
 centuries; and now-a-days the sofa is found in every middle -class 
 household. What enormities our Modern times have perpetrated in 
 this direction is evidenced by- the S-shapcd Ottomans for two persons, 
 which are sometimes to be found in our Saloons. 
 
 We may here briefly mention the transitional form which is 
 found in Waiting-rooms, and Public vehicles; and the circular Otto- 
 man with centre-piece for flowers, which occupies the centre of the 
 floor in Galleries. 
 
 Plate 250. The Sofa, and the Couch. 
 
 1. Eoman bedstead (lectus cubicularis) in the form of a sofa, 
 (M6nard et Sauvageot). 
 
 2. Ditto. 
 
 3. Mediaeval bench, with cushions and drapery, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 4—7. Modem forms of the Sofa, (Gewerbehalle, &c.). 
 
 8. Modern Conch. 
 
FURNITURE. 
 
 439 
 
 j^*f^^^^g^ 
 
 
 [1 It j f 1' 1 y' 
 
 ■|(f l\ 
 
 k^- --■■Ti=r 
 
 ll 
 
 The Sofa, and the Couch. 
 
 Plate 250. 
 
440 The Table. 
 
 b. Tables. 
 
 TnE Table. (Plate 251.) 
 
 Next to the seat, the Table is probably the oldest and most im- 
 portant piece of furniture. Its chief uses are as a Dining - table, 
 Work-table, and Fancy -table on which to place vases, utensils, &c. 
 Its principal parts are the flat Top, and the Frame. The top may 
 be square, rectangular, circular, elliptical, semicircular, &c. The frame 
 may be very variously constructed. There are tables with one leg, 
 with three, four, and more legs, and sometimes tables with two legs, 
 in which case the Top rests upon two side - supports. Where only 
 one leg is used as a support, it is either fastened to the floor 
 or the lower end is spread -out so that the table may stand firmly 
 (fig. 4). The top, in such cases, is usually square or round, and is 
 frequently united to the leg by means of a screw, so that it may be 
 taken -off. Where three, four, or more legs are used as supports, 
 they are often connected by means of a framework, on which the 
 table -top then rests (fig. 8). The legs may further be rendered rigid 
 by means of connecting rails (fig. 9). The legs are prismatic, turned, 
 or sometimes curved. They either stand upright, or slope outwards 
 as in fig. 9. Where the top rests upon two side-supports (fig. 5), 
 their lower i3art is hollowed-out in such a way that they touch the 
 ground at only four points. They are connected with each other by a 
 longitudinal bar, held in position by wedges (fig. 5). Sometimes they 
 are replaced by pillars or balausters (figs. 6 and 10), or other legs 
 are employed iu addition (fig. 11). They may also be replaced by 
 crossed struts forming a S. Andrew's cross, which is called the "Saw- 
 horse table". Drawers may be accommodated in the framework of 
 the table; and a series of shelves may be added beneath the real 
 table-top (Whatnot). Special forms of the table are: the Console-table, 
 which is fixed to the wall, and Mas console - like supports instead of 
 legs; the Telescope or expanding table, which may be enlarged by 
 different kinds of mechanism; the Folding-table which may be made 
 larger or smaller by means of flaps (chiefly used for card tables); 
 the Occasional -table for a variety of purposes; the Writing-table, to 
 which a special Plate will be devoted, and many more. 
 
 The material is, first of all, wood; metal, stone, &c., are rarer. 
 The decoration is specially confined to the under -frame, which is 
 ornamented by carving and turning in the style suitable to supports. 
 The top is frequently left uudecorated, as it is often covered with 
 a ^able- cloth; and the objects placed upon it would not permit the 
 
The Table. 441 
 
 decoration to be properly seen. Where the top is decorated, the orna- 
 mentation is flat, consisting of intarsia-work, incising, painting, &c. 
 
 The size of the table varies according to the purpose for which 
 it is intended; its height, on the contrary* is subject to little varia- 
 tion, and is about 2 ft. 4^2 i^s. for ordinary tables. Tables, with 
 legs which could be adjusted to varying heights, were in use in the 
 Antique period, being required by the social life of that time; a 
 similar arrangement may also be seen on some modern artists' tables, 
 which can not only be adjusted to different heights, but aJso allow 
 the top to be slanted. 
 
 The following remarks are from the point of view of 'history 
 and style. The Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian tables, chiefly known 
 to us from the representations of altars, have legs terminating in 
 claws. This motive was also popular among the Greeks and Romans, 
 with the difference that the latter nations permit the claws to rest 
 directly on the ground, while the former support the claws upon small 
 circular plinths. The legs of Antique Tables are frequently of bronze; 
 they have a similar form with those of the Tripod; and like them 
 are adjustible, as already observed* (fig. 1). The table-tops are often 
 of stone or wood. Large rectangular tables with stone suppoi-ts of 
 rich workmanship, and round tables with three legs of marble, a 
 considerable number of which are given on Plates 143 and 144, are 
 well known to us from the excavations at Pompeii. They were not 
 Dining-tables but State-tables which stood in the tablinum and atrium 
 of Roman houses. Dining-tables of the modern form were unknown 
 to the Antique; even in the Early Greek period, while it was still 
 the custom to sit at dinner, each diner had his own separate table; 
 and the same custom continued in the later period when meals 
 were taken in a recumbent posture. These little tables were lower 
 than ours. We also find them in similar forms among the Romans 
 (fig. 3), along with larger Banqueting -tables, around three sides of 
 
 which the Sofas were ranged as shown | j. The Late Roman period 
 
 was one of lavish luxury; we are told, for example, of tables with 
 legs of silver and ivory, and with Table -tops of rare woods, &c. In- 
 credible prices, up to £ 14,000, were paid for a single choice top. 
 
 The Tables of the Middle Ages were generally, rectangular or 
 semicircular, rested on posts or trestles, were plain, and rather 
 cumbrous. It is said of Charlemagne, however, that he possessed 
 three of silver, and one golden (?) table. Beautiful and richly-designed 
 Tables of very different kinds have been preserved from the time of 
 the Renascence. Of particularly frequent occurrence, are richly-carved 
 side-trusses (fig. 7), simpler forms of which were already in use in 
 the Gothic period (fig. 5). In the Barocco and Rococo periods, the 
 legs are curved , and the tops are of bold, arbitrary design (fig. 8). 
 The Console-table is an invention of this period. It was also at this 
 
442 
 
 FUKNITURE. 
 
 Plate 251. 
 
 The Table. 
 
The Table. — The Writing-Table. 443 
 
 time that the Dumb-waiter, came into general use. As far as art is 
 concerned, our modern Tables are mostly copies of old models. 
 Plate 251 gives a small selection from the copious material. 
 
 Plate 251. The Table. 
 
 1. Antique, bronze, Museum, Naples, (Raguenet). 
 
 2. Antique, bronze, (M6nard et Sauvageot). 
 
 3. Eoman, (Kantharos of Ptolemy). 
 
 4. Mediaeval, Chronicle of Louis XI, (VioUet-le-Duc). 
 
 5. Late Gothic, Municipal Collection of Antiquities, Freiburg, (Schau- 
 insland). 
 
 6. Renascence, with turned legs, French, Castle of Bussy - Eabutin, 
 (C6te d'or). 
 
 7. Renascence, with carved side-trusses, French, (Ducerceau). 
 
 8. French, 18 th century, Garde-meuble, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 9. Modern, Renascence style. 
 
 10. Modern. 
 
 11. Modern, French, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 The Writing-Table. (Plate 252.) 
 
 The peculiar construction of the Writing-table removes it from 
 the category of ordinary Tables. In a certain sense it .forms the 
 transition to the Cabinets, in the form in which it is now manu- 
 factured. The Writing-table is a product of modem civilisation. In 
 earlier times, when writing was the privilege of the select few, the 
 common table evidently served the purpose. It is also true that the 
 old caligraphers, used special writing apparatus, either desks which 
 could be rested on the knees (fig. 1), or small tables, an example of 
 which is given in fig. 2. But it was reserved for our much-writing 
 Modern time to invent special furniture for business and private use. 
 The Writing-table must not only serve for writing, but also as a 
 receptacle for stationery, correspondence, writing-materials, &c. Hence 
 it is furnished with cupboards, drawers, pigeon-holes, and shelves. 
 It is often furnished with side-cupboards below the table-top having 
 a space between them for the legs of the writer. "^Tiere the table 
 has an upper part, which admits of a variety of constructions, as 
 may be seen from the few examples of the Plate, it is usually of 
 lesser depth than the surface of the table so as to leave the ne- 
 cessary room for writing. The same end is attained by leaving a 
 space equal to the whole depth free between it 'and the table -top, 
 as shown by fig. 6. The table-top is often covered with some textile 
 material or with leather, to afford a soft surface for writing -upon 
 
444 
 
 FUENITURE. 
 
 Plate 252. 
 
 The Writing-Table. 
 
The Writing-Table. — The Cabinet. 445 
 
 Special varieties are formed bj the Double -writing -table for ofHce 
 use, the Cylinder-desk, which can be closed after use by letting down 
 a cylindrical flap, the Secretaire, in which the table-top may be lifted 
 up or locked, the Lady's-m-iting-table, &o. 
 
 Plate 252. The WritixNG-table. 
 
 1. Mediaeval, (scriptionale) with inkhorn, intended to be placed on 
 the knee, 11th century, portal of the church, Vezelay, (Viollet- 
 le-Duc). 
 
 2. Mediaeval, with double top, for raising, 15th century. Abbey of 
 Saint-Michel-en-Mer, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 3. Modern, with eight legs and side drawers, (Max Schulz). 
 
 4. Modern. 
 
 5. Modern. 
 
 6. Modern, by W. Hanau, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 c. Cabinets. 
 
 The Cabinet. (Plate 253.) 
 
 Cabinets were evidently a rare phenomenon in Antiquity. The 
 Egyptians and the Greeks were probably not acquainted with them 
 at all; the Romans see'm to have possessed simple Cabinets with two 
 doors, if we may judge from occasional paintings; in any case, 
 however, they were of no artistic importance. Chests, of which we 
 shall speak later on, were no doubt more frequent, and took the place 
 of cabinets. It was the same in the early Middle Ages, in which we 
 certainly find Cabinets in churches and monasteries, but seldom in 
 private houses. Where they do occur, they show the hand of the 
 carpenter rather than that of the skilled cabinet-maker. "The car- 
 dinal feature of Romanesque furniture is practicability; that the slow 
 moving, serious spirit of that time paid but little regard to elegance 
 was only natural: men had their virtues and their vices, but they 
 were free from affections of the nerves" (Georg Hirth). Cabinets be- 
 came more common in the Gothic period; and although the matched- 
 board -work and the simple carving generally give the products of 
 this time a certain rude appearance; still the architectural disposition 
 of the members, and the bands and mounts, are effective. Later Gothic 
 led to all kinds of extravagances, one of which is the lavish use of 
 geometrical tracery, called "flamboyant" from its flame-like character. 
 The revolutionary process, which marks the transition from Gothic to 
 Renascence, finds striking expression in the group of Cabinets. Georg 
 
446 
 
 FURNITURE. 
 
 Plate 253. 
 
 The Cabinet. 
 
The Cabinet. 447 
 
 Hirth, whom we quoted above, describes the revival of decoration 
 in the transition period, in the following words: "In their (wood 
 carvers', cabinet-makers', and others') hands the prismatic bead was 
 transformed into the living vine, the stone leaf- work of the minster 
 was metamorphosed into lifelike flowers and rich sweeping branches, 
 wrested with astounding skill from an immense variety of materials. 
 In contrast to the lofty and imaginative but severe creations of the 
 Gothic masons this developement of art in the sphere of ornament 
 seems to me like a picturesque revolution, like the song of the 
 German lark in the rosy dawn of a new day of humanity. The 
 chimes of spring rang from the Lower Rhine to our snow - capped 
 giant peaks, a loud cry for the All -mother Nature, for freedom of 
 heart and imagination. And then what childlike naivete, what devout, 
 blissful hopefulness in these modest men! In truth, the more we 
 strive in vain to imitate them, the more we ought to love them, to 
 draw inspiration from their works and to bless their memory." 
 
 Astounding and of high importance, are the achievements of the 
 Renascence in Cabinets and Shrines. Th^y are of all imaginable sizes, 
 from small Caskets to large Cabinets occupying a whole wall. They 
 are devoted to the most different objects: linen, clothes, books, jewels, &c. 
 A rich wealth of form is evolved; architectural systems of columns 
 and pilasters mark the divisions of the ever-alternating doors, drawers, 
 and opens spaces. Add to this the charming play of the coloured 
 woods, grainings, wood-mosaics, and intarsia-work, set-off by the use 
 of all kinds of mounts. The place of the prismatic and bevelled 
 posts is taken by richly -profiled and twisted columns and terminal- 
 figures; instead of matchboard - work we find mortised frame -work, 
 and panels decorated with figures and ornaments. The revolution 
 produced a happy and lasting effect. We do well when we build 
 further on this tradition, and construct our modem Cabinets on the 
 good models of this epoch. Unhappily the few examples of our 
 Plates can only give a faint idea of this group. 
 
 Plate 253. The Cabinet. 
 
 1. Late Gothic, end of the 15 th century, oak, with tinned iron mounts, 
 Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 2. Renascence, variegated woods, South German 16 th century 
 (Formenschatz). 
 
 3. Renascence, side-view, German, (Formenschatz). 
 
 4. Modern, by Prof. Schick, Carlsruhe. 
 
 5. Modem, black wood with copper intarsia,'by A. Balcke. 
 
 6. Modem, in two woods. 
 
448 
 
 FURNITURE. 
 
 riatc 254. 
 
 The Sideboard. 
 
The Sideboard — The Hanging-Cabinet. 449 
 
 The SiDEBOAFtD. (Plate 254.) 
 
 Sideboards are a separate di\nsion. They are intended for the 
 reception of articles used in the service of the table. Vases and 
 ornaments may also be placed upon them; and in many cases they 
 are themselves decorative objects. In the Middle Ages they are com- 
 paratively plain, and of invariable form; the ground -plan being an 
 oblong or semi-octagon; they stand on legs, and have of an open 
 space beneath, over which are the cupboards, with a flat top, (figs. 1 
 and 8). During the Renascence, this traditional plan gave way to 
 richer and more complicated constructions; the lower recess was fre- 
 quently retained; instead of it or along with it, further recesses 
 were added at the middle height or still higher; the top is con- 
 structed as an independent member, often of smaller dimensions and 
 recessed; and terraces of shelves with balaustered galleries for glasses 
 and plates, form the conclusion of the whole. 
 
 Here, too, our Modern times follow the old models. Special 
 requirements have given birth to special forms, such as the Buffets 
 in hotels, and waiting-rooms, which frequently form an integral part 
 of the wainscot or architecture of the wall. 
 
 Plate 254. The Sideboard. 
 
 1. Renascence, German, with reminiscences of Gothic, Bavarian Na- 
 tional Museum, Munich. 
 
 2. Renascence, side-view, St. Lo, Normandy, 1580, South Ken- 
 sington Museum, (Musterornameute). 
 
 3 — 4. Modern, front and side-view, designed in the School of In- 
 dustrial Art, Carlsruhe. 
 5—6. Ditto. 
 
 7. Modern, by Ph. Niederhofer, Frankfort. 
 
 8. Mediaeval, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 The Hanging-Cabinet. (Plate 255.) 
 
 Hanging- cabinets also form a special subdivision. They differ 
 from other Cabinets in being of more modest dimensions, by being, 
 for practical purposes, of less depth, and, as they are intended for 
 suspension, by terminating in a consulc instead of in legs and base. 
 For the rest, what has already been said of Cabinets in general, will 
 hold good of Hanging-cabinets also. 
 
 These are adapted to hold books, tobacco," &c., medicine, keys, 
 
 correspondence, &c. 
 
 29 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Omam'^nt. 
 
450 
 
 FURNITURE. 
 
 Plate 255. 
 
 The Hanging-Cabinet. 
 
The Hanging-Cabinet. — The Chest. — The Desk, &c. 451 
 
 Plate 255. Tfte Hanging -cabinet. 
 
 1. Renascence, German, (Formenschatz). 
 
 2. Modern, with intarsia panels, by Dir. Hammer, Nuremberg. 
 
 3. Modern,, architect Crecelius, Mainz. 
 
 4. Modern, by Dir. Gotz, Carlsruhe 
 
 5. Modern, by Prof. Haas, Lucerne. 
 
 The Chest. (Plate 256.) 
 
 Chests are of 'older date than Cabinets. We meet with then 
 on Antique vase-paintings, and among the objects found in Pompeii. 
 They have the form of boxes, prismatic or widening towards the 
 top, with short legs and with rich mountings, of nailheads, &c. (fig. 1). 
 
 In the Middle Ages, the Chest was a very popular piece of fur- 
 niture. Its form was mostly that of a prismatic box without feet, with 
 delicate iron mounts, and all kinds of carving (figs. 2 — 5). Very 
 often Chests were at the same time used as benches. The same form 
 was retained by the Renascence but differently decorated in accord- 
 ance with the style of the time. Besides this, we have numerous 
 examples of smaller Chests with feet and lids of pyramid form, richly 
 decorated with carving, intarsia, ivory, and metal reliefs. These small 
 Caskets were chiefly used for' jewelry, and as work-boxes, etc., for 
 which purposes similar caskets are still manufactured. 
 
 Plate 256. The Chest. 
 
 1. Antique, Pompeii, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 2. Mediaeval reliquary, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 3. Mediaeval bench-chest, 13th century MS. (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 4. Gothic, carved chestnut wood with iron mounts and handles, 15th 
 century, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 5. Mediaeval, Brampton church, England, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 6. Renascence, Dutch, (L'art pour tons). 
 
 7. Renascence, Italian. 
 
 8. Renascence, Flemish, 17th century, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 d. Miscellaneous. 
 
 The Desk, &c. (Plate 257.) 
 
 The Desk is a stand with a sloping top, on which books and 
 other things may be placed. Passing over Reading-desks, Music-desks, 
 and other desks for secular use, which as a rule are left undecorated; 
 we have the desks used in churches, e. g. the "Prie-diea", the Lectern, 
 &c., which are to some extent found of rich workmanship as early as 
 
 29 » 
 
452 
 
 FURNITURE. 
 
 [1«00»00*(ID-»(I1*OQ*DQ 
 
 Plate 256. 
 
 Tiid Chest. 
 
The Deak, &c. — The Clock-Case, «S:c. 453 
 
 the beginning of the Middle Ages. They are made of wood, or metal, 
 or of both combined. We distinguish between single and double 
 desks. The Lectern is frequently supported on the back of an Eagle 
 with outspread wings, a design which is supposed to contain a 
 reference to the Evangelist S. John, whose symbol in the eagle. 
 Ecclesiastical desks eiter have a fixed position in the choir or chancel, 
 or they are moveable. These latter were sometimes like a Saw-horse 
 and could be folded -up; in which case the slope was replaced by 
 bands (fig. 6). The upper part of fixed desks fi-equently revolves, 
 and is furnished ynih sconces for lights. 
 
 The Easel is a sloping frame with three or four legs. The 
 front and rear are often connected by hinges to enable the angle of 
 the slope to be altered at will. The front is provided with a small board, 
 which can be adjusted to different heights by pins or other mechanism. 
 It is an invention of modern times; and in its usual undecorated, 
 form is employed by painters, sculptors, &o. But it is often made 
 as a decorative piece of furniture of superior finish, to hold pictures, 
 portfolios, &c. The decoration in this case may consist of the sym- 
 bols of art, as shown in fig. 7. 
 
 Plate 257. The Desk, &c. 
 
 1. Gothic, 15th century, base of wood, slope of wrought-iron, eagle 
 and ball gilt, dragon painted green. S. Siraphorien, Nuits, (Viollet- 
 le-Duc). 
 
 2. Mediaeval, San Stefano, Venice, (Mothes). 
 
 3. Renascence, marble, Pisa Cathedral, Italian, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 4. Mediaeval, Double-desk vdth revolving shaft, end of 13th century 
 (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 5. Mediaeval, Upper part of Double-desk, (Viollet-le-Duc). * 
 
 6. Renascence, Folding stand, cathedral, S. Gimiguano, Italian, (Kunst- 
 handwerk). 
 
 7. Modern decorative Easel, architect Durm, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 The Clock-Case, &c. (Plate 258.) 
 
 The Clock-case, as a piece of furniture, is of comparatively recent 
 date, for the invention of the clock with a train of wheels is itself 
 not old; and for some time after their introduction clocks were manu- 
 factured without cases or, at any rate, without cases of artistic 
 importance. In the 17 th century, cases for^ protecting the works 
 against dust and for giving the clock a more pleasing aspect, begin 
 to appear. The forms at first manufactured were chiefly two. The 
 first is that of the old-fashioned tall Hall -clock, something like the 
 toilet- stands (figs. 5 and 6), the upper part accommodating the clock 
 
454 
 
 FURNITUEE. 
 
 Plate 257. 
 
 The Desk, &c. 
 
The Clock-Case, &c. 455 
 
 and tho lower part being destined for the weights. The other form 
 is that of the dwarf drawing-room clock, the weights being replaced 
 by springs, so that the case does not need to be so tall, and is only 
 dependent on the length of the pendulum. These clocks are placed 
 on chimney-pieces, cabinets, &c., or on pedestals (fig. 1). A third 
 form, which was added at a later date, is the hanging- case, intended 
 for both weight and pendulum clocks. With more or less alteration 
 these forms, together with a number of innovations, are in use at the 
 present time. Pendules and similar constructions are not taken into 
 account here. Clock-cases are mostly of wood, frequently decorated 
 with gilding, and metal mounts. A special division, in respect of 
 material, is formed by the clocks in Buhl - work. The dials, of 
 lacquered wood, porcelain, metal, enamelled, in niello- work, &c., are 
 often bordered by a metal ring and closed by glass doors. Pendulum 
 and weight-cases may be either open or closed; sometimes they have 
 only a slit for the bob. The sides of the case are often of fret-work, 
 in order that the sound of the striking - work may be better heard. 
 Dome - shaped clocks are sometimes crowned by a small bell - turret 
 (fig. 3). Calendar-clocks, Cuckoo-clocks, Trumpeter-clocks, and similar 
 fancy forms, also require special constructions. In general, we may 
 assume that the get-up of our modern regulator and other clocks is 
 perfectly familiar to the reader. The starting-points in designing a 
 clock case are the diameter of the dial, the depth of the works, the 
 distance from the centre of the dial to the centre of the bob and the 
 extent of swing of the pendulum, and (in the case of Weight-clocks) 
 the length to which the weights run. 
 
 'It is possible that Toilet-stands may have been met-with in the 
 Middle Ages; but they were not treated as decorative furniture till 
 the Renascence. A number of really magnificent examples from this 
 period have been preserved (fig. 5). The usual form is that of a 
 slendei-, tall Cabinet, the upper and lower parts of which are provided 
 with doors, and serve to hold various necessary objects, while the 
 centre^ takes the form of a niche. In this niche hangs a metal water- 
 reservoir with a lid and a cock; at the lower end of the niche is a 
 basin to receive the waste water. Elegant wrought-iron towel-holders 
 are attached. The two figures (5 and 6) will give an idea of the 
 arrangement of these pretty pieces of furniture, which are now be- 
 coming popular again, after they had been supplanted and fallen into 
 disuse. 
 
 Pi^TE 258. The Clock -case, &c. 
 
 1 . Barocco, with pedestal, by Daniel Marot. 
 
 2. Modern, with roof, by Hans Steinier, Furtwangen. 
 
 3. Modern, with metal ornaments, architect Lauter, Carlsruhe. 
 
 4. Modern by Fr. Miltenberger, Nuremberg. 
 
456 
 
 FURNITURE. 
 
 Plate 258. 
 
 The Clock-Case. &c. 
 
The Clock-Case, &c. — The Bedstead, aud the Cradle. 457 
 
 5. Toilet-stand, German Renascence, 1597, Town-hall, Ueberlingen, 
 (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 6. Toilet-stand, various coloured woods, Gernr«an Renascence, (Formeu- 
 schatz). 
 
 The BfiDSTEAD, and the Cradle. (Plates 259— 2G0,) 
 
 From the earliest to the present time, the Bedstead has passed 
 through many changes. In the Egyptian and Assyrian styles: we find 
 metal Bedsteads imitating the forms of animals (Plate 259. 1, 2); and 
 sometimes arranged to fold up like a Camp-bed (Plate 259. 2). Those of 
 the Greeks and Romans, which served partly as Beds, and partly as 
 Couches, are of manifold forms. In addition to the four-legged bench 
 (Plate 259. 3), we have benches with a head -board (Plate 259. 1), with 
 head and foot board (Plate 259. 4), the latter being usually lower 
 than the former, and others with head, foot, and back boards, like 
 our modem Sofas (Plate 260. 2). The materials are wood and metal, 
 sometimes more precious materials, ivory, &c., as we learn from the 
 examples found in Pompeii. 
 
 The same fundamental idea may be seen in the Bedsteads of 
 the earlier Middle Ages, which show traces of Byzantine influence, 
 and have richly - decorated, turned posts, and carved sides. The front 
 was often furnished with an opening to allow of getting into the 
 bed (Platd 259. 5, 6). At a later period the Bedstead was furnished 
 with canopied hangings suspended from special rods fixed to the 
 wall. The Renascence considerably enlarged the size; placed it on a 
 podium; raised the head-board; and carried the legs higher to receive 
 the tester or canopy - frame , which was then adorned with drapery 
 and hangings. Examples of this period have been preserved (Plate 260. 
 1 and 2). In the Barocco and Rococo periods: textile materials pre- 
 dominate, and the wooden frame is neglected. Then the so-called 
 "Parade-beds" (Plate 260, 3) became fashionable. 
 
 Modem times again have generally simplified the form. The 
 commonest is that with high foot and head -boards (the latter often 
 to excess), and low sides. Tester-bedsteads have passed out of 
 fashion. 
 
 The Cradle seems to have been an invention of the Middle 
 Ages. By means of pins the little box or trough - shaped Bedsteads 
 were fixed in a frame in which they were moveable; or the legs of 
 the Bedstead were replaced by curved battens which admitted of rock- 
 ing (Plate 259. 8 and 9). The Cradles of the Renascence are of 
 similar form, often with raised end-boards, and rich carving. Owing 
 to sanitary objections, Cradles have almost gone out of use. Some- 
 
furniturp: 
 
 Plate 259. 
 
 Tbe Bedstead, .&c. 
 
FURNITURE. 
 
 459 
 
 The Bedstead, &c. 
 
 Plate 260. 
 
460 
 
 The Bedstead, and the Cradle. 
 
 times Cradles are made of metal rods, like a basket, with the head 
 of the frame raised to support a canopy. 
 
 Plate 259. The Bedstead,. &c. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 Egyptian, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 Egyptian collapsible Camp -bedstead. 
 
 Greek, vase-painting, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 Roman, 'Porapeian vase-painting, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 Mediaeval, MS. of the 13th century, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 Mediaeval, MS. of the 12th century, (Hortus deliciarum of 
 
 Herrad of Landsberg), (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 Chinese, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 Mediaeval Cradles, (Viollet-le-Duc). 
 
 Plate 260. The Bedstead, &c. 
 
 1. Renascence, Plantin Museum, Antwerp, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 2. Renascence, French, Cluny Museum, Paris, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 3. Barocco, Parade -bedstead, by Daniel Marot. 
 
 4 Renascence, .Head -board of Cradle, French, gilt ornaments on 
 red ground (L'art pour tous). 
 
D. 
 
 FRAMES, &c. 
 
 The term "Framework" is a very inclusive one. Every edging, 
 border, and every rim of a plate, belongs to this group; but the follow- 
 ing ten plates will contain only those features in which the Frame 
 is, to a certain extent, an end in itself, and a definite, characteristic 
 whole. Framework is useful in every branch of applied art; it is 
 used in an immense variety of materials, and is treated in many different 
 ways. Plates 261 — 270 contain some important subdivisions selected 
 from the entire group: these are frames of Architectural character; 
 frames (strictly so-called) for Pictures, Mirrors, &c., Tablets, Typo- 
 graphical borders, and the borders of Dials, Plates, &c. 
 
 •It is highly interesting to pursue the rise of Framework on an 
 architectural basis, its gradual transformation and its adaptation to 
 the products of art industry. For this, however, we refer the reader 
 to the remarks of Semper (Der Stil, §§ 130 et seqq.). We will only 
 make the following observg^tions from the point of view of style: 
 Framework, in the sense in which it is here understood, only occurs 
 rarely and sporadically in the older styles, the Antique and the 
 Middle Ages. It was reserved for the Renascence to cultivate this 
 field, and to attain the highest possible results. It cannot, however, 
 be denied that occasionally it was exaggerated and illogical. A Frame 
 must, above all things, have some relation and proportion to the object 
 to be framed. To make a frame, and put it where there is nothing 
 to be framed, is illogical. And yet we find in the late Renascence, 
 and in the Barocco and Ro'coco periods, countless examples which^ 
 so far as their application goes, have no other object than the de- 
 coration of empty spaces. 
 
462 The Architectural Frame. 
 
 The Architectural Frame. (Plate 261—262.) 
 
 By Architectural Frames we mean those which are used in 
 Architecture, and those which, although applied in other branches, 
 such as furniture, show an architectural derivation. These are: the 
 framings of doors, windows, panels, tablets, medallions, niches, soffits, 
 <S:c. In Furniture they are the border-like ornaments which serve as 
 a framing to panel -ornaments; but which are also very often used 
 merely as decoration, without having any object to frame. There 
 are two classes of Frames: one which is mon-axial, with external or- 
 naments at the top and bottom, to emphasize the vertical attitudn; 
 and one which is bi- axial, for application on horizontal surfaces. 
 In the former class: the lower ornament has the general shape of a 
 suspended triangle. This expresses the idea of supporting like a Console; 
 and is a free-ending down-wards. The other of these has the general shape 
 of the erect triangle; making a cresting feature, and is the free-ending 
 upwards. Frames of this class are shown on Plate 261, figs. 2, 8, 9, 10 
 and 11. In the second class of Frames: the space to be enclosed, 
 be it a circle, square, or oblong, is surrounded by an ornament 
 which is symmetrical on all sides without regard to top and bottom. 
 Frames of this class are shown on figs. 4 — 7 of Plate 261 , and 
 figs. 5, 8 and 9 of Plate 262. These two principles are not always 
 so strongly marked as in the examples given; and sometimes they 
 are combined; but as a rule the one or the other will always pro- 
 dominate. 
 
 Plate 261. The Architectural FnAim. 
 
 1. Gable-opening of a Dormer-window, Rouen, French, 17th cen- 
 tury, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 2. Tablet, modem, in the style of the Italian Renascence. 
 
 3. Pedestal, Italian Renascence, Genoa, (Owen Jones). 
 
 4. Door-panel, (Architektonisches Skizzenbuch). 
 
 5. Stove -tile. Castle of Wiilfingen near Winterthur, 17 th cen- 
 tury, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 6. Desk in S. Giorgio maggiore, Venice, Italian, Renascence. 
 
 7. Cofi'er, cupola of the Dagobert Tower, Baden-Baden, German, 
 Renascence. 
 
 8—9. Pulpit, Magdeburg cathedral, German, 1595—1597, (Gewerbe- 
 halle). 
 
 10. Door of cabinet, in the style of the German Renascence, 
 (Formenschatz). 
 
 11. Door of a sideboard. Louvre, Paris, Renascence. 
 
FRAMES. 
 
 463 
 
 The Architectural Frame. 
 
 Plate 261. 
 
464 
 
 FRAMES. 
 
 Plate 262. 
 
 The Architectural Frame. 
 
Tlie Architectural Frame, Mirror -Frame, &c. 465 
 
 Plate 262. The Aechttectural Frame. 
 
 1. German, 17tli century, Stalls, Stiftskirche, Ascbaffenburg, (Ge- 
 werbeballe). 
 
 2. Italian, Renascence, (Formenscbatz). 
 
 3. French, 1529, Lozenge panel, choir of Chartres cathedral, 
 (Raguenet). 
 
 4. RenascencQ, by Enea Vico, (Formenscbatz). 
 
 5. Italian, Renascence, Panel of the stalls, S. Giorgio maggiore, 
 Venice. 
 
 6. German Renascence, Frame of small niche, Dagobert Tower, 
 Baden-Baden, 
 
 7 — 8. Modem, French, Hotel Mirabaud, Paris, Architect Magne, 
 
 (Raguenet). 
 9. 'Modern, in the style of the German Renascence. 
 10. Modern, French, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 The Mirror-Frame, &c. (Plates 263—264). 
 
 The moveable Mirror -frames, which are designed and made to 
 be hung-up, might have been classed among the Furniture; but they 
 are more conveniently treated here. The Middle Ages framed Altar- 
 pieces and the Pictures of the saints; but the universal use of frames 
 begins with the Renascence; and it is particularly Italy which has 
 preserved the most numerous examples of this period. At first we 
 meet with Architectural-frames; but simultaneously with the transition 
 from the Mural-picture of the Middle Ages (which had been a part 
 of the wall), to the Table-picture (which was portable), the treatment 
 becomes freer and less constrained. And when the architectural 
 members were afterwards blended-together in scroll-work, the funda- 
 mental architectural idea generally remained visible, as may be seen 
 from tbe Barocco and Louis XVI frames in Plates 263. 1,2, 6, and 10; 
 and 264. 3 and 4. It was reserved for Modem times to cut -up 
 factory-made mouldings into lengths, to produce frames of any required 
 size, vnthout regard to the proportion which should exist between the 
 frame and the enclosed space. Cheap and practical! but Art has gained 
 nothing by it. Still, we' would not be understood to say that our 
 time does not occasionally produce frames which completely satisfy 
 the demands of both tecbiiique and taste. 
 
 The chief material is wood; but bronze is used for frumes of 
 small size. The old custom of painting and gilding the carved-wood 
 frames, led to the manufacture of the so-called "gilt frame", which is 
 made of stamped brass. Opinions may differ as to the justification 
 of these frames from an aesthetic point of view; but there is little 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 30 
 
466 
 
 FRAMES. 
 
 Plate 263. 
 
 The Mirror-Frame, &c. 
 
FRAMES. 
 
 467 
 
 The Mirror- Frame, &c. 
 
 Plate 264. 
 30* 
 
468 The Mirror-Frame, &c. — The Strap-work Frame. 
 
 doubt that the metallie frame tends to enhance the eflfect of coloured 
 pictures. Porcelain and glass have also been used as materials for 
 frames; but their propriety will always be questionable. 
 
 In addition to outline and style of decoration: an important part 
 is played by the amount of projection of the Frame. The efTect of 
 a picture, which appears to be recessed behind a Bevel-frame, is very 
 different from that of one which seems to be brought into relief by 
 a Torus - moulding. The fundamental form of the frame is usually 
 oblong, either figure- wise or landscape -wise; circular, elliptic, or square 
 frames, are rarer. Sometimes the outer shape of the Frame differs 
 from the inner shape (Plate 263. 9, 10). In the Barocco period, 
 frames received a number of arbitrary curved forms; as shown in 
 on Plate 263, fig. 5. 
 
 Plate 263. The Mirror -frame, &c. 
 1 — 2. German, 18 th century, Berlin, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 3 — 4. French, angle - ornaments of wall -panels, old castle of Bercy, 
 near Paris, 18 th century, (Raguenet). 
 
 5. Barocco, witn bracket, by Paul Decker, (Formenschatz). 
 
 6. Rococo, (Formenschatz). 
 
 7—8. French, Louis XVI., by La Londe, (Wessely). 
 9—10. French, Louis XVI., by Delafosse, (Raguenet). 
 
 PiJiTE 264. The MmROR- frame, &c. 
 
 1 — 2. Renascence, (Raguenet). 
 
 3—4. Italian Renascence, Florence, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 5. Modem, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 6. Modem, by Prof. Schick, Carlsruhe. 
 
 7. Modern, by the architect Huber, Frankfort. 
 
 The Strap-work Frame. (Plates 265 — 266.) 
 
 When the Frame i^ cut into fantastic shapes and bands, which 
 interlace and curl,- like leathern Straps; then it is termed the Strap- 
 work Frame. It is much used, in the later Renascence, for Shields, 
 Tablets, &c.; and is a characteristic of the Elizabethan style. Foliage, 
 palmettes, festoons and garlands of fruit, fluttering, ribbons, chemb- 
 heads, &c. are frequently added. Strap-work was an invention of the 
 Renascence; and it is extremely common, especially in the later years 
 of that period. This kind of Frame-work is frequently used, not as 
 a Frame, but for mere decorative purposes, so that the fields to be 
 framed are left as empty spaces. Strap-work appears in architecture, 
 sepulchral monuments, and epitaphs; on medals and coins; in cabinet- 
 
FRAMES. 
 
 469 
 
 The Strap-work Frame. 
 
 Plate 265. 
 
470 
 
 feames. 
 
 Plate 266 
 
 The Strap-work Frame.' 
 
The Strap-work Frame. — The Typographical Frame. 471 
 
 work, heraldry, jewelry, the decoration of books, &c., and the minor 
 arts in general. The arrangement is usually symmetrical; but this 
 was abandoned in the Rococo period in favour of unsymmetrical and 
 picturesque arrangements, as shown in Plate 266, fig. 6. 
 
 Plate 265. The Strap- work Frame. 
 
 1 — 4. Renascence, bronze tablets, cemetery of S. John, Nuremberg, 
 
 (Gewerbehalle). • 
 5 — 6. Renascence, 17 th century, French, (L'art pour tous). 
 7 — 10. Renascence, new castle, Baden-Baden, 1576 — 1577. 
 
 11. Renascence, National Library, Paris, (Raguenet). 
 
 12. Modem, French, book ornament. 
 
 Plate 266. The Strap- work Frame. 
 
 1. Renascence, French. 
 
 2. Renascence, from "Civitates orbis terramm", published by 
 P. von Brackel, Cologne, 1573, (Ysendyck). 
 
 3. Rococo, Louvre, Paris, Raguenet). 
 
 4. Rococo, French, corner of a wall, (Raguenet). 
 
 5. Rococo, French. 
 
 6 — 7. Modern, by Dir. Kachel, Carlsruhe. 
 
 8. Modern, French, -(Lienard). 
 
 9. Modern. 
 
 The Typographical Frame. (Plates 267—268.) 
 
 We find numerous Framework - motives in the decoration of 
 books and documents; and though they have become more general 
 since the invention of printing, we find them in the Manuscripts of 
 the Middle Ages. The Title-pages were framed or bordered; it was 
 also a favourite practice to border the headings; Initials are some- 
 times treated in this way; and Printers' -marks, and Head and Tail- 
 pieces are often designed with Strap - work. Old books are often 
 richly decorated with such things; and artists of the highest rank 
 often lent their aid to this style of decoration. After the sobriety 
 which ruled in the first half of this century, our modem times have 
 de\oted increased attention to this branch. Breaches of taste are 
 still committed in this direction, principally because factory -made 
 Blocks, Borders, and Rules, are combined without judgment in 
 Typography. Not only books, but also diplomas, addresses, ball-pro- 
 grammes, dinner and business - cards, labels, book-plates, and similar 
 things are furnished vrith artistic borders. The principles of decoration, 
 and the motives employed, are very varied; and great freedom is al- 
 
FRAMES 
 
 Plate '267. 
 
 The Typographical Frame. 
 
FRAMES. 
 
 478 
 
 The Typographical Frame. 
 
 Plate 268. 
 
474 The Typographical Frame. — The Strap work Tablet. 
 
 lowed. When architectural forms appear, thej are treated lightly 
 and playfully; and are often resolved into all manner of strap -work 
 (Plate 267. 1, 2). 
 
 Plate 267. The Typographical Frame. 
 
 1. Border, by Johann Sadler, 1550 — 1560, Flemish, Renascence, 
 (Guichard). 
 
 2. Border, by Hans Holbein, (Guichard). 
 
 8. Border, by J. Wiericx, 16th century, Flemish, Renascpnce, (I/art 
 pour tous). 
 
 4. Printer's -mark, (Giaco4po Cornetti of Venice), Italian, Ren;)scencp, 
 1586, (L'art pom- tous). 
 
 5. Ditto, (Giovanni Guarisco, Venice, 1575). 
 
 6. Ditto, (Ex typographia Jacobi Staer, 1585). 
 
 7. Ditto, (A. Quantin, Paris, 1882). 
 
 Plate 268. The TvPonRAFHiCAL Fraace. 
 
 1. German, Tablet from the trinraphal entry of the Emperor Maxi- 
 milian by Hans Burkmair, (1473 — 1531). 
 
 2. French, Renascence, 16th century, Lyons, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 3. Modern, by Max Lauger, Carlsruhe. 
 
 4. Modern, by Rudolf Seitz, Munich. 
 
 The Strap-work Tablet. (Plate 269.) 
 
 Examples of Strap -work, designed for use in some of tho 
 Minor Arts, which serves not as a frame but as the actual Tablet, 
 are shown in the Plate. Figures 1 and 2 are clock-cases; 3 and . 4 
 are for goldsmiths' work; 5 and 6 are wrought- iron signs; 7 and 8 
 are suitable ornaments for stampcd-leather, and inlaying; fig. 10 is 
 an escutcheon; and Nos. 9 and 11 are book-mounts. The series 
 might easily be increased; but these examples vnll suffice, as it would 
 lead us too far to treat each of these classes in detail. 
 
 Plate 269. The Strap- work Tablet. 
 
 1. Clock-case, hammered metal, French, Renasrence. 
 
 2. Clock-case, stamped metal, Modern. 
 
 3 — 4. Decoration of escutcheons, snuif-box lids, »?'c., by Wilhelm 
 
 Visscher, 17th century. 
 5 — 6. Wrought-iron signs. Modem. 
 
 7. Book-cover, 16th century, French Renasccuco, (L'art pour tons). 
 
 8. Modern, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
FRAMES. 
 
 The Strap-workTabl 
 
 PJate 269. 
 
476 
 
 FRAMES. 
 
 Plate 270. 
 
 The Strap-work Border, and Margin. 
 
The Strap-work Tablet, Border, aud Margin. 
 
 477 
 
 9. Metal mounts for the cover of an album, Modern, 
 
 lu. Wrougbt-iron escutcheon, German, 16th ceuturj, Natioudl 
 
 Museum, Munich. 
 11. Centre-piece of bookbinding, by Dir. C. Graff, Dresden. 
 
 The Strap-work Border, and Margin. (Plate 270.) 
 
 To those products of art, which frequently receive an additional 
 exterior border or Margin, must further be reckoned plates and dishes. 
 So far as they are included under pottery, the border usually has a 
 smooth unbroken edge; the material scarcely admitting of a freer 
 treatment of the rim. It is different when the object is of metal; in 
 this case, the rim may be decorated with pierced- work; and the outlines 
 may undergo a richer and more vigorous treatment (figs. 4 and 5), in 
 which the framework forms a free-ending outwards. 
 
 Plate 270. The Steap-wokk Border, and Margin. 
 
 1. Renascence, Majolica, Gewerbemuseum, Berlin, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 2. Renascence, Majolica, Italian, (Racinet). 
 
 3. Renascence, Limoges, by Pierre Raymond, 16th century, (Racinet) 
 4 — 5. Modern, by Placido Zuloaga, Eibar, Spain, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
E. 
 
 JEWELRY. 
 
 The love of personal adornment is as old as mankind itself; as 
 is proved by the relics which have been preserved from the earliest 
 times. Personal adornment, broadly taken, is a somewhat extensive 
 domain; it includes the Painting and Tattooing of the body. Clothing, 
 as soon as this exceeds what is required to meet practical needs, 
 Armour, &c.; but this section will be confined to adornment by Jewelry. 
 
 The following 10 plates will deal with this group so far as 
 their chief representatives are concerned. These are: Pins, Buttons, 
 Finger-rings, Chains, Necklets, Bracelets, Belts, Clasps, and Buckles, 
 the various kinds of Chatelaines, and Ear-rings. 
 
 The plan of this book requires that we should chiefly direct 
 our attention to the decorative aspect of these objects; but we will 
 here ofl'er a few general observations on the subject. 
 
 Trinkets, which are not indispensable, but rather an object of 
 luxuiy, are closely connected with dress and costume; and like them, 
 subject to fashion. This explains the diSerent transformations which 
 trinkets have undergone in the course of centuries. On the other 
 hand, technical considerations have also played a part: the art of 
 working the materials has passed through various stages of deve- 
 loperaent iu the different periods; so that the form and finish were 
 governed not only by the lashion, and taste of each period, but also 
 by the technicd skill of the workman. 
 
 The ]>rincipal materials of trinkets are the precious metals. From 
 the state in which the metals are found in Nature, it is easy to see 
 that the first metal to come into general use would be Gold, which 
 
Jewelry 479 
 
 ( 
 
 is found in a pure state almost all over the world; and is easy to 
 work. It can easily be beaten into plates, and drawn out into wire; 
 and the earliest style is consequently that of plate-gold and filigree 
 work. This is abundantly proved by the objects belonging to prim- 
 itive times whether they are found on Greek, Oriental, Scandinavian, 
 or American ground. The common metals, and bronze, are also oc- 
 casionally used as well as gold and silver. Among non-metallic ma- 
 terials, we have: gems, and other valuable stones, pearls, enamels, 
 amber, shells, mother-of-pearl, &c. 
 
 In addition to the arts of punching and hammering metal pla- 
 tes, and filigree work, the latter consisting chiefly of soldering-togo- 
 ther wire and beads, there arose, in process of time, the further arts 
 of: casting, chiselling, niello, enamel, damaskeening, inlaying, gilding, 
 silvering, oxidising, and die-sinking. For other than metallic ma- 
 terials, the principal processes are: cutting, facetting, setting, the pro- 
 duction of tints, and foils, and the engraving of gems, and cameos. 
 As it is impossible here to go into details of the history or technique 
 of these processes, we will refer the reader to the special works on 
 this subject, among them: Semper, Der Stil, Hauptstiick XI. Metallo- 
 technik; Luthmer, Der Goldschmuck der Renaissance (from which 
 excellent work we have taken a number of oiir figures); Bucher, 
 Geschichte der technischen Kilnste; Mathias, Der menschliche Schniuck. 
 
 Taken on the whole, trinkets are an article of Womans' toilet, 
 although certain objects have also been worn by Men, either at all 
 times, like the Finger-ring, or only at certain periods and among 
 certain nations, like the Bracelet. On the other hand, there are cer- 
 tain objects of personal adornment, like Orders, Badges, and Medals, 
 which are a speciality of the male sex. Trinkets which presuppose 
 an injury of some part of the body, such as Ear and Nose-rings, are 
 a relic of barbaric manners. An excessive indulgence in adornment 
 is usually characteristic of the primitive stage, and of the decay of 
 the civilisation of a nation; while the golden ages of civilisation and 
 style are marked by restraint in the quantity of trinkets, and by a 
 chaste moderation in the use of the effects of bright gold and cut 
 gems — "The later empire (Roman), Byzantium, the entire early period 
 of the Middle Ages, swim in gold" — says Semper. The best periods 
 of personal adornment are the Antique and the Renascence: but it is 
 impossible to praise too highly the attempts which are being made, 
 at the present time, to improve the style of Goldsmith's -work and 
 Jewelry, by a recurrence to the models of those times. For the rest, 
 certain traditional and standard forms of trinkets have been presei-ved 
 for centuries, in some national costumes, such as those of Switzer- 
 land, Italy, Sweden, and elsewhere. 
 
480 The Pin. 
 
 The Pin. (Plate 271.) 
 
 The Pin is a toilet article of very general use, particularly in 
 primitive times. According to its application, it is either a Hair-pin 
 or a Dress-pin. Its form may be referred to three fundamental types. 
 The first has a cylindrical or slightly conical stem, pointed like a 
 thorn at one end, and terminated at the other by a knob or some 
 other finial (figs. 1 — 16); it is used principally as a hair or breast 
 pin, the stem in the former case being sometimes split like a fork 
 (figs. 23 — 24). The materials are chiefly metals, bone, and horn; the 
 bead and the stem may be of different materials, as in the modern 
 glass-headed pin. The handsomest examples of this class are to be 
 found in the Antique, which gave this simple object a great variety 
 of form. The East also furnishes us with original forms, as shown 
 by the Japanese examples (figs. 22 — 26). 
 
 The second class is that of the Fibula, the Brooch or Safety-pin. 
 These pins consist of two parts, a disc or hoop - shaped upper -part 
 connected with the actual pin by elastic spirals or by a hinge, the 
 point of the pin being held and secured by a catch like a hook or 
 sheath. Brooches are always used for garments; and, in the antique, 
 supplied the want of Buttons. They were in common use up to the 
 Middle Ages, as shown by the numerous finds in Greece, Italy, and 
 Scandinavia. The hoop is commoner than the disc; and more practical, 
 as it afforded room for the gathered -up folds of the garment The 
 dpcoration is of the utmost variety; certain forms, such as the spiral 
 (fig. 86), are conventional. The material is always metal, mostly 
 bronze, more rarely a precious metal. Modern times make use of these 
 pins only in the form of the plain wire Safety-pin, and the Brooch, 
 in which latter the disc replaces the hoop (fig. 37). Double -pins form 
 a third class. Two or three (and occasionally more) pins of the first 
 class are connected by means of chains or spangles, usually t9 serve 
 as an ornament for the bosom (fig. 17). This form, was popular in 
 ancient Scandinavian art; and is in use up to the present day in 
 some national costumes. 
 
 Plate 271. The Pin. 
 
 1 — 10, Roman, and Etruscan, Campnna collection, (L'art pour tous). 
 11—16. Roman, found in Pompeii. 
 
 17. Anglo-Saxon triple breastpin, found in Lincolnshire, Archaeolo- 
 gical Institute. 
 
 18. Alemannic, bronze, United collections, Carlsr'uhe. 
 19 — 21. 17 th century, (Guichard). 
 
 22 — 26. Modern, Japanese, metal, bone, &c. United collections, Carls- 
 ruhe. 
 
JEWELRY 
 
 481 
 
 The Pin. 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 
 
 Plate 271. 
 31 
 
482 The Pin. — The Button. 
 
 27^ Modern, French, Filigree work with pearls and brilliants, 
 
 (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 28 — 33. Antique, bronze, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 34—35. Etruscan, Gold. 
 
 36. Eiruscan, spiral -brooch, bronze, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 37. Modern, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 The Button. (Plate 272.) 
 
 The objects, which we have here classed as Buttons, serve va- 
 rious puiTioses. They appear as Pendants to necklets and similar things, 
 as Bullae (an antique pendant like an amulet with symbolic signifi- 
 cance), as Ornaments of Belts, Garments, Harness, &c., and as Buttons, 
 in the strict sense of the term, for fastening garments. According to 
 its uses, the Button takes the form of the sphere, the hemisphere, or 
 the disc. As a Pendant it resembles a drop with the character of a 
 free-ending (fig. 26). One end is then furnished with a ring by 
 which it may be suspended or sewed-on. The double- buttons or Links, 
 shown in figs. 1, 14 and 27 form a special subdivision. The principal 
 materials are again the metals, enamelled, damaskeened, set with gems, 
 or as filigree-work. Buttons are also manufactured in ivory, mother- 
 of-pearl, amber, glass, and similar materials; discs of wood are covered 
 with silk, and metal threads, adorned with gold -foil, &c. Standard 
 examples are furnished by the Antique, the Renascence, and many 
 Modern national costumes, while the modern wholesale factory -made 
 Button has scarcely any artistic value. Our examples have been taken 
 from the periods named above; and are mostly the same size as the 
 originals. 
 
 Pi ATE 272. The Button. 
 1. Antique, double-button, gold, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 2 — 3. Etruscan, gold with gems and pearls. 
 
 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 27, 28 and 29. Buttons 
 and double - buttons of various origin, of metal, with filigree- 
 work, enamelled, &c. In the possession of Prof. Marc 
 Rosenberg, Carlsruhe. 
 8 — 9. Renascence, gold, enamelled and set with pearls, Regalia, 
 
 Berlin, (Luthmer). 
 10. Renascence, from a belt. 
 
 13. Modern, filigree. 
 
 18. Renascence, enamelled, National Museum, Munich 
 
 20 and 23. Buttons by a Frankfort maker of the 18th century, in 
 the collection of Mr. J. Werneck, Frankfort, silk, gold- 
 thread and foil, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
JEWELRY. 
 
 483 
 
 The Button. 
 
 Plate 272. 
 31* 
 
484 The Button. — The Ring. 
 
 21. Renascence, the gallery Schleissheim, (Luthmer). 
 
 22 and 24. Renascence, from pictures in Worlitz and Gotha, (Luthmer^ 
 
 25. Indian, silver filigree, from Sumatra, United collections^ 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 26. Modern, pendant of a necklet, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 The Ring. (Plate 273.) 
 
 The Finger-ring is universally employed as an article of personal 
 adornment; and it is one which has been vv-'orn by both sexes at al- 
 most all times, and in almost all countries. The manner of wearing 
 it was determined partly by fashion, partly hy edicts. Sometimes it 
 was considered good taste to wear only a single ring, at other times 
 both hands were covered with rings; it is worn sometimes under, and 
 sometimes over the glove; plain, comfortable forms give way to 
 monstrous shapes; sometimes it is purely ornamental, sometimes it 
 has a symbolic significance, as in the wedding ring (a legacy of 
 heathendom to Christianity); sometimes it is a token of dignity, as in 
 the fisherman's ring of the Pope, and of Emperors, Kings, &c. 
 
 The form is manifold. The Signet -ring, formed partly of a 
 single piece (fig. 4), partly of a hoop in which a cut gem revolves 
 (fig. 1), occurs in the Egyptian style. Spiral rings with the serpent 
 motive (figs. 7 and 8), and rings opening on one side (fig. 12), are 
 not rare in the Antique. Besides these: other forms appear, which 
 are still popular. Sometimes the upper side was broadened to receive 
 some ornament or a gem (figs. 5, 9, 10, 13), a method which was 
 used in the Renascence (figs. 20—29), while the Middle Ages preferred 
 cylindrical, ribbon - like bands (figs. 14 and 16), and architectural 
 motives (fig. 17). It was reserved for Modern times to give the Wedding- 
 ring its smooth, convenient, but artistically unimportant form. The 
 predominant material is gold. Niello, enamel, pearls, and gems, are 
 used for its further decoration. The ring has frequently given rise 
 to artistic freaks, e. g. where two or three separate rings are so 
 constructed that they may be interlocked. 
 
 Plate 273. The Ring. 
 
 1 — 3. Egyptian, signet, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 4. Roman, signet, found in the Crimea. 
 
 5. Egyptian, with enamel and two horses in free relief. 
 
 6. Egyptian, with pierced work, (Racinetj. 
 7—8. Greek. 
 
 9 — 10. Roman, found in the Crimea. 
 1 1 Etruscan, gold, Vulci, (Bliimner). 
 
JEWELRY. 
 
 485 
 
 The Ring. 
 
 Plate 273. 
 
486 The Ring. — The Chain. 
 
 12. Pompeian. 
 
 13. Ancient Italic. 
 
 14 and 16. So-called "Jewish wedding -rings", 15th and 16th cen- 
 turies, collection of the late architect Oppler, Hanover 
 (Luthmer). 
 
 15. Renascence, with cut onyxes. Collection in Cassel, (Luthmer). 
 
 17. Gothic, ISth century, (Mothes). 
 
 18. Eenascence, enamelled, representing the Fall of Man. 
 
 19. Renascence, with clasped hands. 
 
 20. Renascence, from a picture, dated 1572, Museum, Cologne. 
 
 21. Renascence, Museum, Sigmaringen, (Luthmer). 
 
 22 — 23. Renascence, from pictures at Gotba and Darmstadt, (Luth- 
 mer). 
 
 24. Renascence, from a picture, Germanisches Museum, (Luth- 
 
 mer), 
 
 25 and 27. Renascence, private collection, Mainz, (Luthmer). 
 
 26. Renascence, Hildesheim, with niello-work, (Luthmer). 
 
 28, 29, 31, and 32. Renascence, (Hefner- Alteneck). 
 
 30 and 32. Renascence, after Hans Mielich, Middle of the 16th century. 
 
 The Chain. (Plate 274.) 
 
 Chains are an interesting chapter in ornament. The task of art 
 here is to treat the stubborn metal in such a way that it will pro- 
 duce flexible, easily - moving forms, which shall still be absolutely 
 unyielding to tension. This is done by the system of links. Rings, 
 perforated discs, balls with an eye, &c., are linked together in appro- 
 priate ways to form a whole. In the common Chains of everyday 
 use, nothing but strength and flexibility are expected; in ornamental 
 chains, attention must be paid to the artistic effect. This is sought 
 to be attained, less by lavishing care on the single link, than by an 
 elegant rhythmic sequence of links of different kinds, by effective 
 alternations of form, size, and treatment- (comp. Semper II, p. 497). 
 Chains used for personal adornment, at least as far so they are of 
 artistic consequence, are almost always like a Band. All the figures 
 of the Plate belong to this class, with the exception of figs. 5, 8» 
 11, and 16. The arrangement may be such that the chain, held 
 horizontally, is neutral, that is, of the same design upwards and 
 downwards, right and left (figs. 1, 4, 15, 17, 18); or it OLay have 
 an "up and down" (figs. 9 and 13); it may also have a lateral direction, 
 in which case it is chiefly used to suspend objects (figs. 3, 10^ 
 and 12). Chains are sometimes made tapering towards the end, which 
 is done by making each successive, link smaller than the preceding. 
 The ends of chains terminate in Hooks, Eyes, Rings, &c., according 
 
JEWELRY. 
 
 The Chain. 
 
 Plate 274. 
 
48B The Chain. — The Necklace. 
 
 to their use, as Necklets and Belts, or to suspend Watches, Bags, 
 Smelling-bottles, and similar articles. Heraldic and symbolic elements 
 are often found on Chains of Orders and Office, something like fig. 12. 
 The size and material vary with the purpose. The materials are the 
 precious and ordinary metjils, sometimes with gems and pearls, enamel, 
 niello, and filigree-work. This last seems to be especially suited for 
 chains, as it readily conveys the idea of being light and flexible. 
 
 Plate 274. The Chain. 
 
 1. Egyptian, (Racinet). 
 
 2. Etruscan, Louvre^ Paris, (Racinet). 
 
 3. Greek, filigree, found in the Crimea, Hermitage, St. Peters- 
 burg, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 4. Etruscan, bronze spirals. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 5. Antique, bronze. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 6. Gallic, bronze. 
 
 7. Indian, silver filigree, from Sumatra, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 8. Small prismatic, from Sumatra, United collections, Carlsruhe, 
 
 9. French, Chain-belt, 16th century, Sauvageot collection, (L'art 
 tous). 
 
 10. Renascence, from a Chatelaine, with enamel and pearls. 
 
 11 — 12. Renascence, gold, Griines Gewolbe, Dresden. 
 13 — 15. Renascence, H. Holbein. 
 
 16. Pierced ellipsoid links, Griines Gewolbe. 
 
 17. Renascence, exhibition, Carlsruhe, 1881. 
 
 18. Modern. 
 
 The Necklace, or Necklet. (Plate 275.) 
 
 The Necklace has always been a favourite article of feminine ad- 
 ornment. It is worn either alone or with a pendant. Three classes 
 may be distinguished. The first is a ring, consisting of a clasping 
 hoop with or without a pendant (figs. 7 and 8), and mostly used by 
 savage peoples. The second is formed of links in a similar manner 
 to the chainrbelt (fig. 10). The third, and at the same time the most 
 perfect form, is that in which a row of pendants hangs from a cord 
 or a slender chain, and encircles the neck, thus giving expression to 
 the idea of a free pendant ending as well as to that of an encircling 
 band. Striking artistic efl'ects may be obtained by the rhythmic alter- 
 nation of the links, and by a tapering from the middle towards the 
 ends. Egyptian and Antique necklets are frequently constructed on 
 this principle; as are also the neck ornaments of primitive peoples, 
 who replace the pendant by shells, shining insects, corals, or the teeth 
 of animals. Sometimes the three classes are combined; it is not rare 
 
JEWELRY. 
 
 489 
 
 The Necklace. 
 
 Plate 275. 
 
490 The Necklace. — The Bracelet. 
 
 to find several necklets of diflerent circumferences worn one above 
 the other; and producing a good eflfect. Metal, precious stones, 
 pearls, &c., play the chief part in Necklaces. 
 
 Plate 275. The Necklace. 
 
 1. Egyptian, with enamelled pendant, (Menard et Sauvagcot). 
 
 2. Egyptian, with golden flies (symbolic), (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 3. Antique, with stamped sheet-metal ornaments, found in Rhodes, 
 (Menard et Sauvageot.) 
 
 4. Egyptian, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 5. Etniscan, gold, Campana collection, Paris, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 6. Oriental, gilt silver filigree, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 7. Old Italic, Neck-ring, bronze. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 8. Barbaric, Neck-ring, iron, from the White Nile, United collections, 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 9. Prom portrait, Henry VI, of England. 
 
 10. From portrait, 1572, municipal museum, Cologne, (Luthraer). 
 
 11. Piligree. 
 
 12. Modern, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 The Bracelet. (Plate 276.) 
 
 The Bracelet, which is now exclusively an article of feminine 
 adornment, was formerly worn by men also, not merel} on the vrrist 
 as at the present day, but on the arm too. But even the Antique 
 considered this custom, and that of wearing bangles on the ankles, 
 to be a relic of barbaric times. Bracelets are either closed rings or 
 bands (figs. 9 and 11); or they are open on one side (figs. 2, 6, 8, 
 13 and 14); or rolled spirally (figs. 3 and 7); or, finally, the bracelet 
 may be a closed chain with a greater or lesser number of links 
 (figs. 10 and 16). Another division is formed by the twisted example 
 (fig. 5). As the Bracelet is an object of some size, it is, more fre- 
 quently than other ornaments, made of silver rather than of gold; thb 
 Antique shows a preference for bronze. 
 
 Plate 276. The Bracelet. 
 
 1. Egyptian, pierced -work, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 2. Assyrian, bronze. Louvre, Paris, (Bliimner). 
 3 — 4. Roman, found in Pompeii. 
 
 5., Antique, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 6. Bronze, found near Ladenburg, United collections, Carlsruhe 
 
 7. Spiral wire, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 8. Bronze, United collections, Carlsni'ie. 
 
JEWELRY. 
 
 491 
 
 The Bracelet. 
 
 Plate 276. 
 
492 The Bracelet. — The Girdle, the Buckle, and Clasp. 
 
 9. Bronze, found near Ladenburg, United collections, Carlsrulie. 
 
 10. From portrait, 16 th century, Gotha, (Luthmer). 
 
 11. Venetian, 16 th century, (Mothes). 
 
 12. Javanese, black wood. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 13 — 15, Modern Egyptian, silver, Grand Ducal Landesgewerbehalle, 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 16. Modern, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 17. Modern, by Dir. A. Ortwein, Granz, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 The Girdle, the Buckle, and Clasp. (Plate 277.) 
 
 The Girdle was originally used by men to suspend weapons 
 from; and by women to confine the clothing at the waist; later -on, 
 it was worn merely as an ornament, or to carry pouches, fans, scissors, 
 (fee. Its form is either that of the Chain -girdle (comp. Plate 274), 
 or Bands of leather or textile material are decorated by ornaments 
 of metal sewed or threaded - on. Particular attention is usually given 
 to the fastening, which is generally a Clasp or Buckle (figs. 1, 7, 8 
 and 15). The Agraffe (Lat. agrappd) or Hook, and the Buckle are 
 applied to other purposes besides fastening Girdles; the former are 
 used as fastenings for garments; the latter on the straps of weapons, 
 harness, &c. The Buckle is complete in itself, consisting of a ring 
 or hoop with a movable pin; and the fastening is done by pushing 
 the pin through a hole in the leather or textile band (figs. 2, 4 and 5). 
 The Clasp consists of two parts, generally symmetrical, one of which 
 can be hooked into the other (figs. 9—13). Clasps and Buckles are 
 both old inventions; and are found in very early times. As they are 
 objects of practical use rather than ornament, they are more often 
 made of the common than of the precious metals. The terminations 
 of clasps are mostly designed as free - endings, which gives them a. 
 certain similarity with decorated hinges. 
 
 Plate 277. The Girdle, the Buckle, and Clasp. 
 
 1. Greek Girdle, gold and hyacinths, tomb in Ithaca. 
 
 2. Ancient Italic or Roman Buckle, bronze. United collections, 
 Carlsruhe. 
 
 8. Roman Clasp, silver, (Menard et Sauvageot). 
 
 4. Alemannic, Buckle, bronze, foimd near Mosbach, United, col- 
 lections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 5. Mediaeval' Buckle, Scandinavian, (Weiss, Kostiimkunde). 
 
 6. Gallic Girdle, St. Germain Museum, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 7. Gothic Buckle, 15th century, from a picture, municipal mu- 
 seum, Cologne, (Luthmer). 
 
JEWELRY. 
 
 493 
 
 The Girdle, the Buckle, and Chisp. 
 
 Plate 277. 
 
494 The Girdle, &c. — The Pendant. 
 
 8. Renascence Girdle, 17 th century, National Museum, Munich. 
 
 9. Renascence Clasp. 
 
 10. Renascence Clasp, National Museum, Munich. 
 
 11. Renascence Clasp, Kunstgewerbemuseum, Berlin, (Gewerbe- 
 halle). 
 
 12 — 13. Barocco and Rococo Clasps, National Museum, Munich. 
 
 14. Modern Norwegian Girdle, brass and leather, United collec- 
 
 tions, Carlsruhe. 
 
 15 Sumatran Girdle - fastening, silver, United collections, Carls- 
 
 ruhe. 
 
 The Pendant. (Plate 278.) 
 
 Pendants are among the most beautiful of articles of adornment. 
 Their forms and uses, are manifold. We find them as Lockets, with 
 and without symbolic meaning; as Ornaments for the hat and the 
 biretta; as "Charms" on watch-chains, and, less richly finished, on 
 Harness. The Pendant is naturally designed on the principle of the 
 fiee-ending. Sometimes it assumes the form of the Cross, the Me- 
 dallion, the Votive-tablet, or the Monogram. It serves as a setting 
 for gems, miniatures, coins, &c. It offers the proper field for all 
 kinds of little hanging ornaments; and for the full display of the gold- 
 smith's versatile skill. Examples of exceptional beauty have been 
 transmitted to us by the Antique, and still more so by the Renascence. 
 Not only did the first artists of this period occupy themselves practi- 
 cally with such things; but they designed numerous patterns for them, 
 e. g. Hans Holbein, in his sketchbook for Henry VIH, of England. 
 
 We can only offer a small selection from the copious material, 
 
 Plate 278. The Pendant. 
 
 1. Egyptian, gold and enamel, (Racinet). 
 
 2. Gold, found in Rhodes, Louvre, Paris, (M6nard et Sauvageot). 
 
 3. Greek, gold filigree, found near Kertsch, Hermitage, St. 
 Petersburg, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 4. Etruscan, gold, Campana collection, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 5. Ancient Italic, bronze. United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 6. Turkish, harness in the Booty of Prince Ludwig of Baden, 
 United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
 7 — 9. Renascence, (Hefner-Alteneck). 
 
 10. Renascence, 1637, Exhibition, Carlsruhe, 1881. 
 
 11. Empire period, gold filigree, collection of Prof. Marc Rosen- 
 berg, Carlsruhe. 
 
 12. Renascence, Antique cameo set in enamelled gold and jewels, 
 Paris, (L'art poui' tous). 
 
JEWELRY 
 
 495 
 
 The Pendant. 
 
 Plate 278. 
 
4"96 The Pendant — The Ear-rinf?. 
 
 13. Renascence, by Hans Brosamer, (Formenschatz). 
 
 14. Renascence, by Hans Holbein. 
 
 15 — 16. Renascence, by Hans Holbein, (Formenschatz). 
 
 17. Renascence, (Luthmer). 
 
 18. Renascence, 17 th century, Silvef coin, set. 
 
 19. Renascence, by Julius Bernic, (Luthmer). 
 
 20. Modern, (Blatter fur Kunstgewerbe). 
 
 21 — 23. Modern, (Zeitschrift des Kunstgewerbevereins). 
 
 24. Modern, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 25. Modern, French. 
 
 The Ear-ring. (Plate 279.) 
 
 The custom of wearing Ear-rings as articles of adornment seems 
 to be of ancient oriental origin; and to have penetrated tlirough Asia 
 Minor to the civilised countries of the West. It has been practised 
 from the earliest times by the Arabs, in Spain, and in Sicily. Both 
 sexes, among the ancient . Germans and Gauls, decked themselves with 
 Ear-rings. As the wearing of them implies either that the ear must 
 be pierced or the ornament hung on to the ear, .neither of which 
 processes , are particularly aesthetic; the custom has fallen out of 
 fashion, and become obsolete. The forms in general, are two: the 
 Ring and the Drop. The Rings are either not quite closed (figs. 1, 
 3, 9, and 10); or they are fastened by a catch of one kind or ano- 
 ther (figs. 7, 14, 20, 21, and 31). Drops, usually terminate in a 
 wire loop by which they may be suspended (figs. 6, 16, 16, 26, 27, 
 29, and 30). As these objects must be light, they are generally o 
 delicate form, and modest dimensions, manufactured of the precious 
 metals, in sheet or wire-filigree. As Pendants they have the character 
 of free -endings, frequently consisting of diflerent moveable members. 
 The standard examples are furnished by the Antique and the East. 
 
 Plate 279. The Ear-ring. 
 
 1 — 3. Egyptian, (Racinet). 
 
 4 — 12. Etruscan, Louvre, Paris, (Racinet). 
 13. Greek, in the form of a siren, gold, found in Ithaca. 
 
 14 — 21. Roman, National Library, Paris, (L'art pour tons). 
 22. Bronze, found near Niedereggenen, Baden, United collections 
 
 Carlsruhe. 
 ^3. Old Frankish. 
 
 24. Renascence, from portrait, castle at Gotha, (Luthmer). 
 
 25. Louis XVI, gold of various colours, (Racinet). 
 
 26 — 27. Modern, by Dir. A. Ortwein, Graz, (Gewerbehalle). 
 28 — 29. Modern, Tunis, United collections, Carlsruhe. 
 
JEWELRY. 
 
 497 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 
 
 The Ear-ring. 
 
 Plate 279. 
 
JEWELRY. 
 
 Plate 280. 
 
 Miscellaneous Jewelry. 
 
Miscellaneous Jewelry. 499 
 
 Miscellaneous Jewelry. (Plate 280.) 
 
 Finally, we may mention, a number of articles of adornment 
 which, from their nature, are less generally used; either because they 
 are worn only by certain persons, or that, as objects for daily 
 use they only fall within the category of decorative objects 
 when they are richly finished. Among them are decorations for the 
 head, for example, the Diadem, Bridal and other Chaplets, Insignia of 
 Orders of Knighthood, Combs, Scent - bottles, Seals, Needle-cases, &c. 
 The so-called "Chatelaine", was in common use in the Middle Ages; 
 and has been revived lately. It is suspended from the belt or some 
 other part of the dress; and is furnished with hooks, from which 
 Bags, Keys, Fans, Scissors, Watches, Scent - bottles, &c. may be hung 
 (figs. 7, 8, 13 and 14). We may also add Spangles, which were 
 sewed as a decoration on garments in the Antique; and sometimes in 
 later periods (fig. 3). 
 
 We give a few examples of these objects, without any pretension 
 to system or exhaustiveness. 
 
 Plate 280. Miscellakeous Jewelry. 
 
 1. Egyptian Diadem, gold incrusted with gems and enamel, with 
 the badge of Ejng Amesis. 
 
 2. Greek Head-dress, gold-plate, found in Mykenae, (Bliimner). 
 
 3. Greek Spangle, ornament of a dress from Mykenae, (Bliimner). 
 
 4. Greek Diadem, gold, found near Kertsch, Hermitage, St. Peters- 
 burg, (Kunsthandwerk). 
 
 5. Kenasoence, Smelling-bottle, as Pendant. 
 
 6. Barocco, Smelling-bottle. 
 
 7 — 8. French Chatelaines, 18 th century, (Racinet). 
 9 — 10. Barooco, Seals, Exhibition, Carlsruhe, 1881. 
 
 11. Modem, Needle-case, in anchor-form as a Pendant, private 
 collection, Carlsruhe. 
 
 12. Modem, Comb, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 13. Modem, French, Chatelaine, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 14. Modem, Chatelaine, by Dir. A. Ortwein, Graz, (Gewerbehalle). 
 
 Z2* 
 
F. 
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 Heraldry has so .many points of contact with Ornament that it 
 cannot be omitted from a work that deals with the whole art of 
 Decoration. Heraldry includes both the science and the art of armorial 
 bearings. The former contains the rules of framing and bearing coats 
 of arms; the latter is the practical art of "blazoning" or designing 
 and depicting such coats. Armorial bearings are distinct Badges, 
 fixed according to certain principles, which individuals, families and 
 corporations are entitled to bear in perpetuity. Armorial bearings 
 arose during the crusades, towards the end of the 11th century. 
 The elevation of the nobles into a corporation, the addition of the 
 family or surname to the baptismal name, the peculiar usages of 
 Chivalry, the custom of military games and tournaments, are all closely 
 connected with the introduction of armorial bearings. Heraldry as 
 a science did not arise till a later time (about the 18 th century). 
 Armorial bearings, whose origin is contemporary with the custom of 
 wearing such Badges, and whose right to be borne was afterwards 
 tacitly recognised, are distinguished from the later bearings, the right 
 to bear which was granted by Letters - patent from princes or their 
 plenipotentiaries. Besides the nobles, the right of armorial bearings 
 was possessed by other patrician, though not noble, families. Their 
 bearings have frequently arisen from monograms, family tokens, and 
 trade - marks. . The inscription on a coat of arms of the Fuggers of 
 the year 1382 runs: "Dises zaichen, wirt Vlrich Fugger, vorbemelten 
 Hansen Fuggers Bruder, gepraucht haben, Welchs hernach Jacob 
 Fugger, des namens der erst, angenommen, nnd das sambt seinen 
 
Heraldry. 501 
 
 Siinen, bis auf aufpringung (ies Wappens, gefiert hat" (This token 
 was no doubt used by Ulrich Fugger the brother of the above-named 
 Hans Fugger: it was afterwards adopted by Jacob Fugger, the first 
 of the name, and borne by him and his sons until the assumption 
 of the coat of arms). The marshalling of armorial bearings was the 
 duty of the Heralds, whose official badge was the tabard and the staff. 
 The Heralds' Colleges still exercise control over armorial bearings on 
 behalf of the State. | Including the coats of families, towns, corporations, 
 and offices, there are probably about 200,000 coats of arms in 
 existence. Coats are called allusive or punning when they suggest, 
 (in whole or in part), the name of the bearer. The pikes on the coat 
 of the Lucy family, the hirondelles of the Anlndells of Wardour, are 
 familiar instances in English heraldry. 
 
 We may distinguish three principal epochs of armorial bearings: 
 (1) The period from the 11th to the 13th century, in which the 
 shield alone with its badge formed the Arms, which is the period of 
 the evolution of Heraldry; (2) The period from the 13th to the 15th 
 century, in which shield, helmet, and crest formed the Arms, in which 
 painted shields and helmets were really worn, which was the golden 
 age of heraldry; (3) The period from thq 16th century to the present 
 time, in which the wearing of shields and helmets with badges was 
 discontinued; and Heraldry" creased to be a living art, which is the 
 period of decay, in which arbitrariness, ignorance, and a pedantic ad- 
 herence to antiquated principles have taken the place of the living 
 art. From the point of view of style we may distinguish: — Early 
 Gothic, Late Gothic and Renascence Arms; as also those of the Ba- 
 rocco and Rococo periods, and Modem times. The general direction 
 of style has always had an influence on Heraldry; but the developement 
 of architecture is on the whole always some twenty years in advance. 
 The developement of heraldry was different in different countries; and 
 even the modern English, French, German, and other systems, differ 
 from one-another in several essential points. 
 
 Here, of course, we cannot go minutely into the details of the 
 subject. We shall only give, in all brevity, what is absolutely 
 necessary. The Plates will deal with the colours or Tinctures, the 
 Shapes and Divisions of the Shield, the Charges, the Helmet and its 
 accessories; the badges of Rank and Dignity 7 and Pageantry. Those 
 who wish to study Heraldry more deeply, will find an ample lite- 
 rature at their disposal; since Bartolus de Saxoferrato took up the 
 subject in the middle of the 14th century, more than enough has 
 been written about heraldry. As accompaniments and supplements 
 to study and teaching we may rocommend the excellent work of 
 F. Wamecke: Heraldisches Eandbuch, illustraded by Doepler the 
 younger; the Anleitung zur praktischen Darstellung und Ausfilhrung 
 heraldischer Ornamente fiir das gesamte Kunstg^verhe, by Detlav 
 
608 ^ Heraldry. — Tinctures, and Divisions of the Shield. 
 
 Freih. von Biedermann, with illustrations, in the Zeitschrift des 
 Milnchmer Eunstgeiverhevereins, 1885; and the KatecUsmus der Herat- 
 dik by Dr. Ed. Freih. von Sacken. These works have been followed 
 in this chapter, and our illustrations are taken from them. Heralds 
 have invented a special language of their own, that is always used 
 in Blazoning, which is the technical description of a coat of Arms; 
 and it should always be as correct and concise as possible, so that the 
 coat may be drawn from it. This language will be used, as far as 
 possible, in the explanations of the following plates. 
 
 Finally, we may observe that anyone, who has to deal practically 
 with Heraldry, will scarcely ever succeed in satisfying all those who 
 have laid -down and still lay -down rules on the subject. Although, 
 on the one hand, it seems advisable that on the whole a ceiiain order 
 should be maintained and arbitrariness excluded, still, on the other 
 hand, a good deal of antiquated rubbish might be eliminated from 
 the rules without doing any harm. On this point real heralds like 
 Wamecke are all agreed. The safe path is in the middle; that ar- 
 tistic freedom is quite consistent with observance of heraldic rules is 
 shown by the masters of the. Renascence; Diirer, Burckmair, and others. 
 For our present purpose: the most suitable sources for the study are 
 the drawings of these Masters; and next to them: old Seals, Windows, 
 and Monuments. Heraldic ojnaments may be applied to thousands of 
 things; in Architecture, in Mural painting, on Furniture, in Textiles, 
 in Documents, on Harness, &c. But they should' only be applied 
 where they have a representative character; and then only with mo- 
 deration and purpose, and in due proportion to the object. 
 
 Tinctures, and Divisions of the Shield. (Plate 281.) 
 
 In the good old days of Heraldry there were six Tinctures, which 
 were almost exclusively used, two metals and four colours. The 
 metals are ^old (or), and silver (argent); which for practical reasons 
 were often replaced by yellow, and white. The original colours are 
 red (gules), blue (azure), black, (sable), and green (vert). Full, strong 
 shades were^ employed: vermilion or minium for red, cobalt or ultra- 
 i^iarine for blue, Paris green, emerald green, or some other striking 
 shade for green. The original scale of colours was afterwards enlar- 
 ged, by the addition of the so-called "Proper" or natural colour of 
 the object, purple (purpure), ash-gray (which is not used in English 
 Heraldry), blood-colour (murrey), and tawny (tenne). Natural objects, 
 men, animals &c. were represented "proper", that is, in their natural 
 tints; whereas the older heraldry depicted these objects in one of 
 the nearest original tinctures: e. g. the lion was golden, or red, the 
 eagle was black or red, and so on. Purple is not used on the Shields, 
 
Tinctures, and Divisions of the Shield, 503 
 
 but only on Crowns, Caps of estate, and Mantlings. Murrey and Tenne 
 are tinctures that might well have been dispensed -with; as they con- 
 flict with the original principle, which was to make the shield clear 
 and distinct at a distance. 
 
 Where coats of Arms are depicted uncoloufed, as is frequently 
 the case in books: the tinctures in the oldest period were indicated 
 by their initial letters. Afterwards they were indicated by dots and 
 hatchings. Silver was left plain, gold was indicated by dots, red by 
 perpendicular lines, blue by horizontal lines, black by crossed hori- 
 zontal and perpendicular lines, and the other tinctures were also 
 marked as shown on the Plate. 
 
 The Furs are also generally reckoned among the tinctures. Er- 
 mine has black tails or tips on a white or silver ground; Erminois 
 has the same tints reversed. On robes, mantlings, and coronets: er- 
 mine is depicted in its natural form. The fur known in German 
 heraldry as kiirsch is denoted by strokes arranged like scales. Vair, 
 with its varieties "vair per pale" and "countervair", is of silver and 
 blue in the shapes shown on the Plate. Vair has obviously 'arisen 
 from an arbitrary division of the field, like the check and fusil, of 
 which we shall have to speak later on. 
 
 Damaskeening (see also p. 281.) is the name given to minute 
 decoration intended to enliven the various tinctures without inter- 
 fering with the effect of the colours or altering the coat. The design 
 is arbitrary: originally geometrical patterns were preferred, afterwards 
 scrolls and curves were added. 
 
 In the case of relief- work, when it is not painted: the damas- 
 keening and the dots and hatchings of the tinctures, may also 
 be plastic, but the height of the relief must be moderate if the effect 
 is not to be spoilt. On seals and similar objects: the effect is pro- 
 duced by engraving. "Where the coat, instead of standing upright, is 
 in a slanting position, the lines of the hatchings follow the axis of 
 the shield, as otherwise confusion would be inevitable. 
 
 According to good heraldic rules, colour should not be laid upon 
 colour, nor metal on metal. Coats which transgress this rule are said 
 to be false. The principle cannot, however, be always maintained 
 in the case of composite coats (comp. Plate 283). 
 
 In the divisions of the shield: the expressions "dexter", and "sinis- 
 ter" (right, and left) refer to the bearer of the shield; they are to be 
 understood as if one were standing behind the shield and holding it in 
 front of the breast; hence it follows that the expressions mean just 
 the reverse of what they do in ordinary life. If we divide the shield 
 by lines: we have Fields, which are termed "quarters" when they 
 are rectangular. The example in the Plate divides the shield into 
 nine quarters. The names of the different quarters are given, so that 
 it is unnecessary to repeat them here. 
 
504 
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 The Heraldic Colours or Tinctures. 
 
 Original Tinctures. (2 metals — 4 Colors.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 WW 
 
 < 1! 
 
 ^^—— 
 
 Or. 
 
 Argent. Gules. Azure. 
 
 Later Tinctures. 
 
 Sable. 
 
 Vert. 
 
 Proper. 
 
 Purpuro. Ash-grey. Murrey. Tawny. 
 Furs. 
 
 \,v.,.' 
 
 K ^ 
 
 .y\ 
 
 u/'V., 
 
 ''>!Va«;iI" 
 
 '\m'' 
 
 y"'' 
 
 .,,,/v 
 
 Ermine, Erminois. Kiirscli. Yair. Vairperpale. Countervair. 
 Damaskeenings. 
 
 Later. 
 
 Divisions of tlie Shield 
 
 into 9 quarters or fields. 
 A. B. 
 
 AB. Upper margin. 
 CD. Lower margin. 
 
 AC. Dexter margin. 
 BD. Sinister margin. 
 1.2.3. Chief. 
 
 4.5.6. Fesse. 
 7.8.9. Base. 
 
 1.4.7. Dexter tierce 
 
 2.5.8. Pale. 
 
 3.6.9. Sinister tierce. 
 
 1. Dexter chief 
 canton. 
 
 2. Chief point. 
 
 3. Sinister chief 
 canton. 
 
 4. Dexter flank. 
 
 5. Centre point. 
 
 6. Sinister flank. 
 
 7. Dexter canton 
 of base. 
 
 8. Base point. 
 J), 9. Sinister canton 
 
 of base. 
 
 10. Honour point. 
 
 11. Nombril point. 
 
 Plate 281. 
 
 Tinctures, and Divisions of the Shield. 
 
Tinctures, and Divisions of the Shield. — Shapes of the Shield. 505 
 
 The shield sometimes bears a smaller shield. The large shield 
 which bears the smaller is call'^d the Escutcheon. The smaller shield 
 in the centre is termed the Ihescutcheon. The Inescutcheon some- 
 times bears a third shield which is then said to be "sur le tout du 
 tout". The smaller shields have the same shape as the large shield. 
 
 The chief and the dexter side of the shield are the most 
 honourable parts; and preference is given to the angle of the dexter 
 chief or canton. lu blazoning a coat: the description always starts 
 from this point. 
 
 Shapes of the Shield. (Plate 282.) 
 
 The shape of the shield is very varied; and is chiefly deter 
 mined by the period* in which it originated. The oldest shape is the 
 triangular or "heater- shaped" shield (fig. 1). It was in use in the 
 12th, 13th and 14th centuries. On seals, it is first one-half and at 
 a later time one-third the height of a man; the ratio of its height 
 to its breadth is about 10 : 7. In the 14th century shields straight 
 at the top and rounded at the bottom (we may term them half- 
 round) began to appear; and after them shields pointed at the bottom 
 (fig. 2). This shape, and the 16th centuiy shapes which were deve- 
 loped from it (figs. 4 — 6), were probably never actually borne; but 
 are merely heraldic. At the end of the 14th century the Tilting- 
 shields begin to make their appearance, their shape being based on 
 that of the shields used in tournaments (figs. 7 — 10). The indenta- 
 tions in the sides of these are suggested by the "bouche" or place 
 for the lance on shields intended for actual use. The Tilting- 
 shield is considerably smaller than the Triangular-shield; it is about 
 one -fifth the height of a man. At the end of the 15th century 
 the old shapes disappear, and make w^ay for the German or strap- 
 work shields. These latter were never in actual use, but are orna- 
 mental inventions mostly based on the Tilting shield. Figs. 19 — 26 
 give a number of such shields belonging to difi"erent periods of the 
 Renascence epoch. Shapes like figs. 11 and 12 are very common in 
 Italy at that time. Elliptic, circular, and almond-shaped shields 
 are not rare, especially in the Barocco period, a time in which 
 Heraldry was treated in a somewhat arbitrary fashion. Of shapes 
 that are specifically modern, we may mention: figs. 16 and 17, the 
 former of which was used for the Arms of Great Britain & Ireland; 
 and of France; while the latter is the best adapted for the blazoning 
 of complicated coats. The Lozenge -shape (fig. 18) is especially the 
 shield of ladies; in France, where it has been common since the 
 13th century, it is frequently surrounded with a knotted twisted 
 girdle. 
 
606 Shapes of the Shield. — Ordinaries. 
 
 Plate 282. The Shape of the Shield. 
 
 1 — 3. Triangular, pointed, and half-round. 
 
 4 — 6. Simple shapes, Renascence. 
 
 7 — 10. Simple shapes, Tilting-shields. 
 
 11 — 12. Italian Renascence. 
 
 13 — 15. Elliptical, almond, and circular. 
 
 16—17. Modem. 
 
 18. Lozenge-shaped. 
 
 19. German, Michel Miiller, 1564. 
 
 20. German, unknown master of the 16th century. 
 
 21. German, Daniel Lindtmair, 1595. 
 
 22. German, Jost Amman, end of 16th century. 
 
 23. German, school of Holbein, 16th century. 
 
 24. German, Hans Wagraann, 1565, (Warnecke). 
 
 25. German, 16th century. 
 
 26. German, 16 th century, (Formenschatz). 
 
 Ordinaries. (Plate 283.) 
 
 Heraldic representations may be divided into Ordinaries, and 
 Charges. 
 
 The Ordinaries are the geometrical figures which are formed 
 when the shield is divided into different fields by straight or curved 
 lines which extend to the margin of the shield. The number of 
 such figures is infinite. Plate 283 contains a collection of the ordi- 
 naries which most commonly occur. We shall not discuss each figure 
 in detail. The following blazoning or description of the figures on 
 the Plate will, no doubt, give the reader all he requires to know 
 The blazoning begins from the upper dexter angle of each shield. 
 
 Plate 283. The Ordinaries. 
 
 1. Per pale, sable and or. 
 
 2. Paly of four, argent and sable. 
 
 3. Argent, the dexter tierce gules. 
 
 4. Gules, a pale or. 
 
 5. Ai'gent, a pallet (narrower than a pale) sable. 
 
 6. Per fesse, or and gules. 
 
 7. Barry of five, azure and argent. 
 
 8. Or, a chief azure. 
 
 9. Argent, a base gules. 
 10. Argent, a base vert. 
 
HERALDRY. 
 
 507 
 
 Shapes of the Shield, 
 
 Plate 282 
 
508 Ordinaries. 
 
 11. Or, a fesse gules. 
 
 12. Argent, a barrulet sable. 
 
 13. Per pale; the dexter half argent, the sinister half per fesse azure 
 and or. 
 
 14. Per fesse; the upper half per pale sable and gules, the lower 
 argent. 
 
 15. Quarterly, or and azure. 
 
 16. Cheeky of nine, vert and argent. 
 
 17. Cheeky of twenty, or and gules. 
 
 18. Quarterly: the 1st and 4th per pale, argent and gules; the 
 2nd and 3rd or. 
 
 19. Per fesse, gules and argent, a pale counterchanged. 
 
 20. Per pale, barry of five, or and azure, counterchanged. 
 
 21. Paly of six, argent and sable, a fesse counterchanged. 
 
 22. Or, a cross gules. 
 
 23. Argent, ,a dexter canton sable. 
 
 24. Azui-e, a chief point vair. 
 
 25. Per bend, or and vert. 
 
 26. Per bend sinister, argent and azure.* 
 
 27. Or, in the dexter chief a triangle sable. 
 
 28. Argent, in the sinister base a triangle gules. 
 
 29. Or, a bend gules. 
 
 30. Bendy sinister of six, azure and argent. 
 
 31. Per saltire, vert and argent. 
 
 32. Per iDend, the dexter half argent, the sini<^ter per bend sinister, 
 vert and or. 
 
 33. Per bend sinister, bendy of six, sable and argent, counter- 
 changed. 
 
 34. Lozengy, argent and. azure. 
 
 35. Fusilly, argent and azure. 
 
 36. Or, a pile azure. 
 
 37. Azure, a pile argent, issuing from the sinister side. 
 
 38. Gyronny of four, argent and gules, issuing from the dexter chief 
 point. 
 
 39. Or, a chevion vert. 
 
 40. Chevronny of six, azure and argent. 
 
 41. Party per pale and saltire, gules and argent. 
 
 42. Gyronny of eight, or and azure. 
 
 43. Argent, a gyron azure, moving from the dexter side. 
 
 44. Per pall, sable, argent and gules. 
 
 45. Per pall reversed, or, argent and azure, 
 
 46. Argent, a pall gules. 
 
 47. Pily barwise, argent and azure. 
 
 48. Per fesse angled, argent and gules. 
 
 49. Per fesse eseartely, azure and or. 
 
HERALDRY. 
 
 509 
 
 Ordinaries. 
 
 Plate 283. 
 
Ordinaries. — Ctiarges. 
 
 50. Or, a pile indented sable, also Per chevron indented, or and sable. 
 
 51. Per bend indented, azure and argent. 
 
 52. Per pale potented, argent and azure. 
 
 53. Per fesse potented, or and gules. 
 
 54. Per fesse dentilly, gules and aregnt. 
 
 55. Per fesse nebulj, azure and argent. 
 
 56. Sable, a chief engrailed or, also Per fesse engrailed, or and sable. 
 
 57. Argent, a pale raguly. 
 
 58. Or, a bend indented. 
 
 59. Argent, a bend sinister wavy azure. 
 
 60. Azure, a cross engrailed or. 
 
 61. Gules, four wolfs teeth argent, moving from the sinister side. 
 
 62. Azure, a gurge issuing from the sinister base. 
 
 63. Argent. 
 
 Charges. (Plates 284—285.) 
 
 The second class of heraldic representations are Charges. We 
 distinguish natural, imaginative, and artificial charges, according as 
 they belong to the kingdoms of nature, the heavenly bodies, phe- 
 nomena of nature, or to fantastic forms; or again to art, trade, 
 mechanics, &c. Contrary to the Ordinaries, whose outlines usually 
 touch the edge of the shield, the charges usually stand free in the 
 field, at any rate, on two or three sides, and fill the field as much 
 as possible. The charges are all more or less conventionalised; and 
 show conventional forms agreeing with the style of the times. Atten- 
 tion must be paid to this point, so that the unity of otyle may be 
 preserved between shield and charges They are mostly shovra in profile, 
 and vigorously drawn and outlined. The tinctures, at least in older 
 heraldry, are not those of nature, but one of the nearest heraldic 
 tinctures, so that the idealisation extends not only to the form but 
 also to the colour. Complicated objects are often comparatively sim- 
 plified; trees, for example, appear with few leaves and fruits, «fec. 
 
 Some charges, such as the lion and eagle, are of extremely fre- 
 quent occurrence; others the following are rarer. 
 
 Among animals the following are represented: — 
 
 Plate 284. 
 
 1. The Lion (rampant) with open jaws and protruding tongue; 
 
 the body lean, especially towards the hinder quarters; the tail 
 curled upwards, natural or split, but not arbitrarily; the teeth, 
 claws, &c. are gules on metal, or and argent on colors; the 
 entire figure is generally or or gules, more rarely sable, and 
 still more rarely azure. 
 
HERALDRY. 
 
 511 
 
 Charges. 
 
 Plate 284. 
 
512 Charges. 
 
 2. The Leopard, a lion walking (passant), the head frequently 
 tui-ned to tlie spectator (guardant); the tail cm-led over the 
 back, (see also Plate 44). 
 
 3. The Ibex jumping (salient), the horns large, and (like the 
 claws) of a different colour to the body, which is usually sable. 
 
 4. The Horse (rampant)^ mostly without saddle and harness; 
 mane and tail flying; generally sable, argent or gules. 
 
 5. The Boar (rampant), bristles erect, and (like the tusks and 
 claws) of a different tincture to the body. 
 
 6. The Dog (rampant), generally with a collar, with ears erect. 
 
 7 — 8. The Eagle (displayed), the talon spread; the head usually tur- 
 ned to the dexter side, the beak open; the tongue protruding; 
 frequently barbed; the tail is sometimes ornamentally treated; 
 generally sable, gules, or or, (see also Plate 53). 
 
 9. The Goose (like the swan) with reverted neck, generally ar- 
 
 gent, or sable. 
 
 10. The Martlet (\vhich is a Swallow without beak and feet,) the 
 two upper are passant, the lower one is (Jisplayed. 
 
 11. The Dolphin (rising), often with dorsal crest and ornamental tail. 
 
 12. Two Dolphins (rising and respecting each other), with open 
 mouths. 
 
 13. The Serpent (nowed), generally argenf, azure, or vert. 
 
 Other animals of frequent occurrence are the Stag, Bear, Wolf, 
 Pox, Bull, Cock, Raven, Dove, Stork, Crane, Pelican, Crab, Whelk, &c. 
 Parts of animals are also not infrequent, such as the wings, head, 
 and claws. 
 
 Both the entire human body and its several members are used 
 in heraldry; we may mention as examples: 
 
 14. The Triquetra, 3 legs with bent knee, conjoined, and regu- 
 larly disposed round a point; a badge on antique shields in 
 Greek vase-paintings, and the Arms of Isle of Man. 
 
 15. The Moor's -head, with ear-rings and crown. 
 
 16. The Monk with extended arms, the Arms of Miinchen. 
 
 In addition to the above: arms, hands, legs, trunks, clasped 
 hands, &c.; also angels, saints, deities, fools, maidens^ knights, kings, 
 savages, &c. 
 
 Among plants are; 
 
 17. The Lime, uprooted, with few leaves, (also fruit-trees, the oak, 
 fir, &c.). 
 
 18. The Oak -branch, gnarled, with few fruits and leaves, (alsc 
 withered branches, or logs, &c.). 
 
Charges. 513 
 
 19. The Rose, idealised as a rosette, single or double, in five to 
 eight parts. 
 
 20. The Lily orTleur-de-lis, conventional, consisting of three petals, 
 with or vdthout stamens; used in art long before the birth 
 of heraldry; common in French coats. 
 
 In addition to the above: Clover, Nettle, Water-lilies, Grapes, Pome-, 
 granates. Fir-cones &c. 
 
 Plate 285. Charges. 
 
 The most frequent imaginary figures and monsters are: 
 
 1. The Griffin (rampant), with eagle's head and wings, lion's body, 
 tail curved upward or downward, the upper and lower halves 
 often of different colors. 
 
 2. The Panther, similar to the griffin, but without wings, usually 
 spitting flame (turned towards the sinister side). 
 
 3. The Dragon, a winged reptile with two lion's paws or eagle's 
 claws. (The wivem is similar, but with hinder feet.) 
 
 4. The Dragon with wolfs jaws, serpent's body and fish-tail. 
 
 5. The two-headed Eagle (an ordinary eagle with two heads turned 
 away from each other, each with nimbus), the coat of the Holy 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 6. The Seiren (an eagle with the bust of a virgin), the arms of 
 Nuremberg, 
 
 7. The Mermaid (a naked female figure, terminating below the breast 
 in a fish-tail), the figure is also found without arms and also 
 symmetrical, with two tails curved upwards. 
 
 8. The Sea-lion, with the fore-part of a lion terminating in a fish- 
 tail. 
 
 Of the heavenly bodies there occur: 
 
 9. The Sun, with face and sixteen rays, straight and wavy alternately; 
 always gold. 
 
 10. The Moon, waxing or waning, with or without face (in the first 
 case the crescent is argent and the face or). 
 
 11. The Star, with rays of five to eight points; or. 
 
 Less common arej Comets, and the Earth, with the lines of latitude 
 and longitude. 
 
 Among the phenomena of nature we have: 
 
 11. The Cloud, very conventional, argent or azure. 
 
 12. The Rainbow, gules, or, and azure (shown in the Plate above a 
 triple hill). 
 
 Moyer, Handbook of Ornament. OO 
 
514 
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 Plate 285. 
 
 Charges. 
 
Charges. 515, 
 
 In addition: Storm and Wind, depicted by heads blowing; Lightning, 
 depicted by a bundle of flames. 
 
 To the artificial objects which are employed belong: Architectural 
 constructions (towers, gates, castles, churches, bridges, fountains, 
 ships); Utensils (tools, instruments, weapons, anchors, keys, .banners); 
 Vessels (kettles, goblets, mugs); articles of attire (hats, caps, belts, 
 crowns, mantles, shoes); family and trade Tokens, Monograms and 
 Crosses of all kinds. Some examples are: 
 
 13. The Wbeel, with eight spokes projecting beyond the felloe. 
 
 14. The Wheel of Cleves, a rosette terminating in eight lilies. 
 
 15. The Maltese Cross, and the cross ancr^e (the Plate shows one 
 half of each). 
 
 16. The Cross crampon6e. 
 
 17. Two crossed Swords. 
 
 18. The Crancelin, a wreath of rue, resembling the hoop of a crown. 
 
 19. The Axe, and the two-beaded Axe. 
 
 20. The Hat, and the Cap of maintenance. 
 
 Several charges may be combined in the same coat, or one charge 
 may be placed over another. The same charge may also be repeated 
 in a coat. The blazoning of the charges is not so simple as that of 
 the ordinaries; and, when the technical language of heraldry fails, we 
 must have recourse to the language of every-day life. We will here 
 give a few of the commonest of these technical expressions with brief 
 explanations: 
 
 accompanied: the main figure is surrounded by smaller figures. 
 
 accosted: a figure has other figures by its side. 
 
 armed, beaked, membered: an animal is furnished with claws, 
 beak, members, &c., of a different colour from the animal itself. 
 
 charged: when one figure bears another. 
 
 counterchanged: when the different tinctures alternate with one 
 another. 
 
 couped: when a part of a figure appears to have been cut- 
 off clean. 
 
 erased: when a part of a figure appears to have been torn -off. 
 
 issuant: when a figure rises out of the bottom of an ordinary 
 or shield. 
 
 flanked: when one figure stands by the side of another. 
 
 naissant: when part of a figure rises from the centre of an 
 ordinary. 
 
 passant: when an animal is represented as walking with one 
 
 foot raised. 
 
 rampant: when an animal rises on its hind feet; the usual posi- 
 tion for wild animals. 
 
516 Chargea. — Forms of the Helmet. 
 
 statant: when all four feet of an animal touch the ground. 
 sem6 or powdered: when an arbitrary number of one iiguro is 
 scattered over the shield. 
 
 2 and 1: three figures, placed thus 
 
 2, 2 and 1: five figures, placed thus • • 
 
 1, 3 and 1: five figui^es, placed thus . . . 
 
 2, 1 and 2: five figures, placed thus 
 and so on. 
 
 Forms op the Helmet. (Plate 286.) 
 
 In the earliest days of Heraldry the shield b> itself formed the 
 coat; and it is, down to the present time, sufficient for the presentment 
 of the bearings. To a complete coat, however, belong further the 
 Helmet, and the Crest. Sometimes, parti culary on seals, the Helmet 
 and Crest are used alone as a badge. But just as we saw that all 
 shields are not suitable for heraldic purposes, so here, too, there are 
 only a few helmets which have found acceptance in heraldry; such 
 as the Tilting-helmets. We have to consider four forms. The oldest 
 is the Salade, (fig. 1). The Heaume, the lower half of which is 
 cylindrical and the upper half a truncated cone, rests on the shoulders, 
 (figs. 2 — 4). The Tilting - helmet (figs. 6 — 9), is more elegant than 
 the heaume; it fits better to the form of the head, and has a slit for 
 the purpose of vision, (fig. 5 shov/s an intermediate form between the 
 Heaume and the Tilting - helmet). The latest form is that with the 
 barred Visor (figs. 10 — 11). This 'fits closer to the head than the 
 Tilting-helmet; the slit has been enlarge'd to a broad opening, guarded 
 either by vertical bars or by a grating. The Armet (fig. 12), and 
 other helmets, like the Burgonet, are unheraldic; and are seldom seen 
 in Arms. 
 
 Speaking generally: the Salade belongs to the 13th; the Heaume 
 to the 14th; the Tilting-helmet to the 15th and 16th centuries; the 
 Vizor also belongs to the two latter centuries. The first three helmets 
 are known as "closed", the Vizor-helmet as "open", 
 
 Plate 286. The Helmet. 
 
 1. Salade, first half of 14th century. Armory, Berlin, 11^4 ins. 
 
 high. 
 2 — 3. Heaume, front and side view, 14 th century. 
 
HERALDRY. 
 
 517 
 
 Forms of the Helmet. 
 
 plate 286. 
 
518 Forms of the Helmet — Helmet Trappings. 
 
 4. Heaume, second half 'of the 14 th century, from the collec- 
 tion ofGustav von Decker, Berlin, 14 72 ^^^- ^^o^i (Warnecke). 
 
 5. Heaume, approximating to the form of the Tilting -helmet, 
 14 th century. 
 
 6 — 9. Tilting helmets. 
 10 — 11. Helmets with barred Vizors. 
 12. Armet. 
 
 Helmet Trappings. (Plates 287—288.) 
 
 Plates 287 and 288 show the Helmet in conjunction with the 
 coat of Arms. As the Helmet was only worn by knights, it belongs, 
 strictly speaking, only to the coats of*knightly families; towns and 
 corporations, the clergy, and ladies, do not bear the helmet, although 
 there are exceptions. 
 
 As regards style, the Helmet should match the form of the Shield. 
 The Salade and the Heaume belong to the Triangular - shield: the 
 Tilting - helmet also belongs to these and still more to the Til ting- 
 shield. Helmets with barred Vizors are most suitable to Half-round- 
 shields. The size should- also be in proportion to that of the Shield. 
 The height varies between 1/2 ^^^ Vs *^® height of the Shield. 
 The usual position is over the centre of the upper margin of the 
 shield, and resting upon it (not free), so that it covers a little of 
 the field (Plate 287, 5). K the shield is represented in a slanting 
 attitude; the helmet rests on the highest angle (Plate 287. 6, 7, 8). 
 When the coat is composite, several Helmets may be placed upon the 
 Shield- they are then proportionately smaller in size. When the 
 number of Helmets is 2, 4, or 6: they turn their profile to each 
 other; when the number is uneven, the central one is shown in full 
 face. Only one helmet can be placed on a slanting shield. Helmets 
 may also be placed at the side of the shield, or borne by the sup- 
 porters. The helmet is coloured as if made of p'olished iron, frequently 
 with decorations of silver or gold; or the entire helmet may be gilt 
 or silvered. If the bearer was entitled to wear any Collar, he might 
 show it on the Helmet (Plate 287. 5); but these appendages are non- 
 essential; and are not met -with before the 15 th century. The Helmet 
 4s usually depicted as lined with red cloth. 
 
 The essential trappings in a complete coat of Arms are: 1. the 
 Crest, 2. the Mantling. 
 
 The Crest probably originated from the custom of painting 
 heraldic figures on the helmet. At- a later date, plastic ornaments 
 were added to the helmet; they have some figurative connection with 
 the coat. If the coat is blazoned with heraldic figures: these are 
 repeated either wholly, or partly, in a simple manner, as a crest 
 
Helmet Trappingg, 519 
 
 Plate 288, figs. 1 — 4); if the blazoning is with ordinaries: those 
 are repeated on certain objects selected as Crests. The principal of 
 these objects are: 
 
 Horns, in pairs, curved as a crescent or a lyre, in later times 
 broadened out at the. ends like a mouthpiece, painted with 
 the tinctures or ordinaries of the coat, surmounted with 
 branches, &c. (Plates 287. 4, 288. 4 and 5). 
 
 Wings, natural or artificial, singly or in pairs, displayed, or in 
 profile; painted with the tinctures or ordinaries of the coat 
 (Plates 287. 1 and 7; 288. 6). 
 
 Cushions and screens, round or square discs, painted with the 
 blazoning of the coat, hung and surmounted with tassels, bells, 
 and peacock's feathers (Plate 287. 6). 
 
 Caps, pointed and turned up, showing the colours and blazon- 
 ing of the shield, the tips decorated with coronets, plumes, &c, 
 (Plate 287. 5). 
 
 Quivers, cylindrical or conical 'tubes, painted with the colours 
 of the shield, crowned with coloured feathers (Plate 287. 8). 
 
 Human beings, animals, and all tinds of artificial objects; the 
 former often depicted as half-figures. We must refrain from 
 entering into detail into the various relations, often full of 
 meaning, between the crest and the shield; as an example we 
 may refer to Plate 287, 2, where the blazon of crossed 
 arrows and pitcher on the shield are repeated as a quiver and 
 a goblet in the hands of the maiden who forms the crest. 
 
 The Mantling is the connecting-link between the Helmet and 
 the Shield. In the oldest times it was formed of cloth: at a later 
 date covers of stiffened material, leather, metal-plate, «6;c,, were used, 
 the edges being cut-out into ornamental shapes. The same materials 
 were also employed for the Crest. During the Renascence period: 
 the Mantling was cut into ribbon-like strips, each strip being treated 
 independently like an Artificial -leaf. The Wreath is interposed 
 between the Crest and the Helmet, (Plate 288. 1, 3, 6). It rarely has 
 more or less than two tinctures. Where the Crest is directly connected 
 with the Helmet: the tinctures of the Shield are correspondingly 
 continued on the Wreath. The Mantling shows the tinctures of the 
 coat counterchanged in such a way that the colour is usually visible 
 outside, the metal inside. If it have four colours: -the chief ones 
 are on the dexter, the others on the sinister side. It should corre- 
 spond in style with the rest of the Arms: Salades and heaunies 
 require simple edges (Plate 287. 7); while Tilting and Vizored helmets 
 require jagged or scalloped edges. 
 
620 Helmet Trappings. — Crovms, &c. 
 
 Plate 287. The Helmet Trappings. 
 
 1. Tilting -helmet, with rich Mantling, and Crest of double wings, 
 Albrecht Durer, coat of arms of Death, 1503. 
 
 2. Coat, with Tilting -helmet, rich Mantling, and Crest of a virgin, 
 German Renascence, (Formenschatz). 
 
 8. Half-round-shield, with Vizored-helmet, Mantling like ribbons, and 
 Crest two swans* necks. 
 
 4. Tilting-shield, inclined to the sinister side, Vizored-helmet, Mantl- 
 ling like ribbons, and Crest two horns decorated. 
 
 5. German shield, with Vizored-helmet, and Crest a Cap -of- main- 
 tenance. 
 
 6. Shield, inclined to the dexter side, with Vizored-helmet, Mantling, 
 and Crest a cushion. 
 
 7. Triangular- shield, inclined to the dexter side, with^Salade, Mant- 
 ling, and Crest double wings. 
 
 8. Half-round-shield, inclined to the sinister side, with Vizored-helmet, 
 and high Crest and Mantling, (Dietz). 
 
 (Figs. 8 to 8 are from Siebmacher's Wappenbuch.) 
 
 Fi^\TE 288. The Helmet Trappings. 
 
 1. Tilting-shield, with Vizored-helmet, Mantling, and Crest an 
 
 2. Tilting-shield, with Vizored-helmet, Mantling, and Crest of a 
 naissant figure, German Renascence, (Formenschatz). 
 
 3. Tilting-shield, inclined to the dexter side, with Tilting-helmet 
 and naissant bull as Crest, Italian Renascence, palace in Florence. 
 
 4. Tilting-shield, inclined to the dexter side, with Tilting-hel- 
 met, Mantling, a'nd crest of horns. 
 
 6—6. Coats, by Hans Sebald Beham, 1544. 
 7. Modem coat, on seal, by A. von Werner. 
 
 Crowns, &c. (Plate 289.) 
 
 The principal heraldic badges of rank and dignity are: the Crown, 
 Hat, Cap -of- maintenance, Wand, Sword, Key, &c., and the insignia of 
 the various Orders of Knighthood. 
 
 The Crown -of- rank, which is not to be confounded with the 
 crown of the shield, is placed above the shield in the place of the 
 Helmet; the same holds good of the Coronets, and Caps (figs. 11 — 14). 
 These latter have partly a conventional form, appertaining to the 
 dignity; and they have special forms for special cases. 
 
HERALDRY. 
 
 521 
 
 Helmet Trappings. 
 
 Plate 287. 
 
522 
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 
 Plate 288. 
 
 Helmet TrappiDgs. 
 
Crowns, &c. — Heraldic Accessories. 523 
 
 Plate 289. Crowns, Coronets, &c. [according to German Heraldry]. 
 
 1. The German Imperial-crown: a circle of gold, set with 
 brilliants and formed of eight shields, with four gold arches, 
 surmounted by the imperial mound and cross, lined with 
 gold brocade, with two decorated waving ribbons of gold. 
 
 2. The Austrian Imperial-crown: a jewelled circle with eight 
 leaves, three arches curving from front to back; closed at 
 the sides, lined red; crowned with a cross. 
 
 3. The Regal-crown: a jewelled circle with eight leaves; eight 
 arches set with jewels or pearls; mound an cross. 
 
 4. The Grand-ducal-coronet: a royal crown, lined red. 
 
 5. The Ducal-coronet; faced with ermine, eight leaves, red 
 lining, with mound and cross. 
 
 6. The Princely-coronet: faced with ermine, four leaves, red 
 liiaing, mound and cross. 
 
 7. The Coronet of a Serene Highness: circle with eight leaves, 
 red cap, with ermine tippet. 
 
 8. The Count's Coronet: gold circle with sixteen pearls (nine 
 
 are visible). 
 
 9. The Baron's Coronet: twelve pearls (seven are visible). 
 
 10. The Nobleman's Coronet: eight pearls (five are visible). 
 
 11. Arms with Crown, by Albrecht Diirer. 
 
 12. Papal coat of Arms, with tiara and keys. 
 
 13. Arms, by Hans Burckmair, with mitre and crozior. 
 
 14 Archbishop's Hat: green with ten tassels (on each side). Car- 
 
 dinal's hat: red with fifteen tassels. Bishop's hat: green 
 with six tassels. 
 
 Orders and Decorations are either the badges of certain brother- 
 hoods (the Knights of Malta, the Temple, S. John, the Teutonic Order, 
 &c.); or they are distinctions conferred by sovereigns. The former 
 are blazoned on the shield, quarterly with the personal bearings 
 (fig. 16), or they are placed beside or behind the shield so that the 
 ends of the cross project beyond the edge of the shield. The latter are 
 almost without exception suspended from collars or borne below the 
 shield (Plate 290. 4, 7). 
 
 15. The Order of the Golden Fleece (founded by Philip of Bur- 
 gundy in 1429). 
 
 16. Shield, with the Maltese order quarterly. 
 
 17 — 18. Pennons, or Standards: they are either placed as a back- 
 ground to the shield, or borne by the supporters; they are 
 therefore a part of Heraldic pageantry. 
 
524 
 
 HERALDKY. 
 
 Plate 289. 
 
 Crowns, Coronets, &c. 
 
HERALDRY. 
 
 525 
 
 Heraldic Accessories. 
 
 Plate 290. 
 
<^^Q Heraldic Accessories. 
 
 Heraldic Accessories. (Plate 290.) 
 
 Under this title, we group such decorations as form do not an essen- 
 tial part of the Cuat, but rather give" an artistic finish to it. The prin- 
 cipal are: Supporters, Tents, Mottoes, &c. 
 
 Supporters are figures of human beings, or"" animals: angels, 
 knights, ladies, savages, lions, griffins, &c. On old tombstones and 
 the seals of knights, the possessor of the coat appears as the bearer 
 of it. Supporting angels are usually placed behind the shield (figs. 1 
 and 2). Ladies, knights, savages, &c., stand at the side of the 
 shield, either singly, or in pairs; and the same rule applies to ani- 
 mals (figs. 3 and 4). 
 
 Tents are draperies in the form of a Baldacchino, serving as a 
 background for the Shield. The outside is generally purple, the in- 
 side of ermine, and they are hung with golden tassels and fringes. 
 Such accessories are only suited to the coats of Sovereigns, and Sta- 
 tes; and are of comparatively Modern introduction. 
 
 Mottoes, War-cries, &c. are written on fillets or bands beneath or 
 round the shield (fig. 5). Examples of such mottoes are the English 
 "Honi soit qui mal y- pense", the American "E pluribus unum", or 
 the Wm-ttemberg "Furchtlos und treu". 
 
 There are also definite rules for the heraldic composition of a 
 number of coats in one (for example, in a double coat the figures 
 must be aff'ronted, &c.); but we need not enter into, the details of 
 these. The artistic execution is very various and arbitrary (fig. 6). 
 
 Plate 290. Heraldic Accessories. 
 
 1. Angel, as Supporter, by H. J. Guntinn, 1628, (Warnecke). 
 
 2. Angel, as Supporter, Italian, 16 th century, (Formenschatz). 
 
 3. Lady, as Supporter, H. Burckmair, Triumphal Procession of the 
 Emperor Maximilian, (Obsei-ve the repetition of the tinctures on 
 the lady's dress,- the crest, and the banner). 
 
 4. Griffins, as Supporters, by Hans Burckmair, (Formenschatz). 
 
 5. Coat, with Mottoes, 1529. 
 
 6. Composite coat, within a quatrefoil, Diirer's school, (Formenschatz). 
 
 7. Modern Tent. 
 
 8. Coat of Arms of the Artists, designed by L. Lesker. In conse- 
 quence of an affront offered by the lords of Rappoltstein to the 
 artists employed in the building of Strassburg minster, it is said 
 that the Emperor Sigismund granted the artists, called the "Yunkers 
 of Prague", permission to bear the same coat of arms — or, three 
 escutcheons azure — (Martin Cnisii, Schwabische Chronik). 
 
G. 
 WRITING, PRINTING, &c. 
 
 (ORNAMENTAL LETTERS.) 
 
 The invention of Writing dates back thousands of years before 
 onr era. To which nation it is to be assigned, cannot at present be 
 fixed with any certainty. Greek writing was developed from the 
 Phenician; and served, in its turn, as a basis for Roman writing. 
 From the Roman writing, arose the Occidental and Scandinavian 
 writings, as well as the Runic. The Latin script was introduced into 
 Germany contemporaneously with Christianity. The early Middle Ages 
 treated the shapes of letters in a some what arbitrary manner. By 
 the side of the Majuscles (or capital letters) appear the Minuscles (or 
 small letters, produced by the contraction and simplification of the 
 former), (compare the letters E and M in alphabet 1 on Plate 291). 
 By the side of the upright and angular Capital letters, appear the 
 Uncial letters with their "round and freer shapes (compare E, M and 
 U in alphabet 2 on Plate 291). Alongside of the perpendicular letters, 
 the more convenient slanting or Cursive letters begin to be employed. 
 Beside the Uncial writing, the Gothic period brought Text-hands into 
 use (Plates 294, 295, and 296). By this time the gradual trans- 
 formation was so far advanced that at the first glance it is often im- 
 possible to recognise the original connection. The more complicated 
 the Text-hands became, the more difficult they were to read; so that 
 it must be considered a happy circumstance that the Renascence 
 period strove in many ways to simplify the texts, and to revive 
 the old Latin alphabet, (1 on Plate 297). The invention of printing 
 in the year 1440 had an important influence on the developement of 
 the shapes of letters. The period of the decadence of the Renascence 
 
528 Writing, Pniiling, &c. 
 
 brought with it the decadence in the forms of letters, which is most 
 clearly seen in the middle of the 18th century. Since then, and 
 especially in recent days, a gratifying progress has been made to aome- 
 thing better, although it cannot be said that every attempt at im- 
 provement has been successful. It must not be forgotten that prac- 
 tical needs should be considered, quite as much as aesthetic aspirations, 
 especially in a domain of such great and general importance as letters. 
 It should ahvays be borne in mind that the first requirement is easy 
 reading; and that' this is dependent on simplicity and characteristic 
 shape in the letters. 
 
 As regards the decorative effect, for in this work we have chiefly 
 to deal with decoration, it has first to be observed that the Antique 
 did not recognise the principle of ornamental wi'iting, either because 
 no one thought of the pos.sibility of ornamenting writing, or because 
 they intentionally preferred the greater legibility, or for some other 
 now unknown reason. At a later date almost all civilised nations 
 and periods have occupied themselves more or less with the decorative 
 effect of writing. This may take two different directions: either the 
 letter may be decorated in its component parts, which eventually 
 leads to the extravagance that fishes, birds, human forms, i'c, 
 in all imaginable contortions, form the outline of the letters; or 
 the letter in its ordinary form may receive a decorative finish by 
 means of decorative accessories, by being set in a frame which theen 
 appears as a free ending, or as a picture. The second treatment is 
 especially suitable for Initials; and has led to very ingenious com- 
 binations; e. g. the background will frequently be an illustration of 
 the subject of the chapter which the initial begins, (Fig. 2, Plate 29S). 
 Both kinds of decoration may be combined. The first mode of 
 decoration frequently leads to the loss of the real character of the 
 letter; in the second -mode it not infrequently happens that the letter 
 cuts the picture, or vice versa, in an unpleasant manner. Colour is 
 an important factor in the decoration of writing. Gold, silver, and 
 a great variety of colours, but above all, gold and red, along with 
 black, play an important part in writing in the miniature painting of 
 the Calligraphists, as well as in Typography. In the present work 
 we are unhappily compelled to leave this aspect out of consideration. 
 
 In the Middle Ages: it was principally monks and nuns who 
 devoted themselves to the art of Writing; from the 13th century 
 onwards, it was also practised by laymen. A long series of celebrated 
 Calligraphists might be named. Calligraphy retrograded gradually 
 with the introduction of Printing; but on the other hand the best 
 artists of the Renascence, such as Holbein and others, did not disdain 
 to design Initials and other letters for printers, as may be proved 
 from a countless number of old books. As Christianity was intro- 
 duced into Germany by the Irish, northern influences may also be 
 
Writing, Printing, &c. 529 
 
 traced in writing. Up to the 10th century the decorations of 
 Writing have almost exclusively the character of interlaced-work and 
 fantastically - interlaced figures of animals; but from this period a 
 vigorous plant decoration begins to be developed, eventually ter- 
 minating, in later Gothic, in the endless interlacing of confused lines. 
 The Renascence period prefers to set its initials in square frames; 
 and these creations are among the most beautiful that writing has 
 ever produced. The interlaced and artificial ornaments which after- 
 wards became so common in Typography, especially in the 17th and 
 18th centuries (Plate 294. 2, 3 and 5), are either the invention of 
 the Calligraphists of this period, or are the transfer of their archieve- 
 ments to Typography. Here, too, as in so many other things, 
 Modern times revert to the models of the most different older periods; 
 rightly when good is selected, and wrongly when the objectionable is 
 revived. Over those sins of Modern Writing, which culminate in 
 deforming our houses and the titles of our books with rows of shaded 
 letters in all manner of possible and impassible places and positions, 
 it is best to draw the charitable veil of silence. Compared with these 
 sins of style, those sentimental garlands of roses and forget-me-nots, 
 into which the last century formed its lines, are tolerable. 
 
 As regards the technical names of the kinds of letters now in 
 general use: we can only say that they are so arbitrary that we shall 
 do best to refrain altogether from attempting to enumerate them. 
 Whoever vnshes for information on this point may be recommended 
 to consult the Specimen-book of some good Type-foundry. 
 
 Attempts were early made to construct Alphabets on a definite 
 system; to base them on network, to determine the height and breadth 
 of the entire letter, tlie dimensions of its component parts, &c.; among 
 others Diirer devoted himself to this task. Space has not permitted 
 us to reproduce all these constructions; but as a specimen we have 
 given on Plate 300 the constructions of a few. 
 
 The notation of Numbers was introduced at the. end of the Middle 
 Ages. Our Numerals are an Arabian invention, whence their name. 
 Plate 300 shows two collection of numerals of old times which are 
 not sensibly different from those now in use. It is well known that, 
 before Numerals were generally employed, recourse was had to the 
 Latin letters (Roman numerals) for the indication of numbers. It is 
 really remarkable that this latter apparatus, in spite of its unpractical 
 character, has remained in use down to the present day. 
 
 Finally we may say a word or two about tbe Monogram. This 
 name is given to letters and interlacings of letters intended to replace 
 or to indicate a name. It may be formed either by single ornamented 
 letters, usually the initials of the first and family name (Plate 300. 
 5_7)j or by all the letters contained in the word (Plate 300. 10). 
 It is not imperative that all the letters should be of the same size 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. "* 
 
630 Romanesque Letters. — Gothic Uncial Lettres. 
 
 or style; and if necessary some of them may be reversed. A Mono- 
 gram should be well arranged, and clear, so that it need not require 
 to be guessed-at like a riddle. A good effect is produced by adding 
 attributes and badges of dignity to monograms. Artistic sense and 
 feeling must here supply the place of rules. Numerous and excellently 
 ornamented monograms will be found in Gerlach: Das Gewerhemono- 
 gramm. 
 
 There are various books on Writing, as well as numerous col- 
 lections of Initials and Alphabets. Prof.* Hrachowina's Initialen, 
 Alphahete^und Randleisfen- (ViemiA: Graeser) will be found very useful 
 in teaching. Dr. Lamprecht's Initial- Ornamentik des 8 — 13. Jahrlmn- 
 derts (Leipzig: A. Diirr) is an exhaustive study of the older styles 
 of writing. 
 
 Plate 291. Romajjesque Letters. 
 
 1. Alphabet, beginning of the 8th century, S. Cuthbert's evan- 
 geliarium, British Museum, (Shaw). 
 
 2. Alphabet, 10th century, MS. British Museum, (Shaw). 
 
 3. Initial, 12th century, Berlin Museum. 
 
 4. Initial, 12th century, Breviarium Cassinense, Bibliothfeque Ma- 
 zarine, Paris, (L'art pour tous). 
 
 5. Initial, 9th or 10th century. 
 
 6. Initial, 12th century, Berlin, Museum. 
 
 7. Initial, 12th century, (Arnold & Knoll). 
 
 8. Initial, 12th century. 
 
 9 — 10. Initials, 990, Echtemacb evangeliarum, Gotha, (Lamprecht). 
 
 Plate 292. Gothic Uncial Letters. 
 
 1. Alphabet, 1849, S. Margaret's, King's Lynn, England, (Shaw). 
 
 2 — 5. Initials, 1480, Rouen. 
 
 6 — 7. Letters, stalls of S. George's chapel, Windsor, end of ir)th 
 century, (Shaw). 
 
 8. Gothic initial. 
 
 9. Gothic initial, 1494. 
 
 10 — 17. Initials, 1480, Pontificale of Johann IL, Archbishop of 
 Trier, (Shaw). 
 
 Pate 293. Gothic Uncial Letters. 
 
 1. Alphabet, 14th century, (John Weale). 
 
 2 — 3. Initials, 15th century, (Hrachowina). 
 
 4 — 7. Initials, 14th century, 1330. 
 
 8 — 9. Initials, end of 15th century, (Formenschatz). 
 
ORNAMENTAL LETTERS. 
 
 531 
 
 mHynoiBq 
 
 A?lBBCCDO 
 FEgbHIK 
 
 mmhmop 
 
 ISTU 
 
 Romanesque Letters. 
 
 Plate 291. 
 34* 
 
ORNAMENTAL LETTERS 
 
 Plate 292. 
 
 Gothic Uncial Letters. 
 
ORNAMENTAL LETTERS. 
 
 533 
 
 Gothic Uncial Lettem. 
 
 Plate 293. 
 
534 Old English Letters. — Old German Letters, &c. 
 
 Plate 294. Old English Letters, &c. 
 
 1. Old English text, tomb of Richard 11, Westminster Abbey, 
 
 about 1400, (Shaw). 
 2 — 4. Initials, 16th century, Plantin Museum, Antwerp, (Ysendjck). 
 5 — 8. Initials, 16th and 17th centuries, (Raguenet). 
 
 9. Modem initial, Dir. Gotz, Carlsruhe. 
 
 Plate 295. Old German Letters. 
 
 1. German text, 1467, (Hrachowina). 
 
 2. German text alphabet, composed frOm several documents. 
 
 Plate 296. Modern Text. 
 
 1. Schwabach type. 
 
 2. Gutenberg Gothic. 
 
 3. Fr. Thiersch, (Malerjournal). 
 
 4. Ribbon ornament, as Typographical Tail-piece. 
 
 Plate 297. Renascence Letters. 
 
 1. Roman Renascence alphabet, 1547, specimen-book of John of 
 Yciar, Durango, Biscaya. 
 
 2. Renascence alphabet, lower-case Roman letters, specimen-book of 
 Wolfgang Fugger, Nuremberg, 1553, (Hrachowina). 
 
 8. Renascence initial, 1531. 
 
 4. Renascence initial, 1500, (Formenschatz). 
 
 5. Initial, 1534, Lucas Cranach the elder, (Formenschatz). 
 
 6. Renascence initial, "Gedmckt Zu Augspurg Durch Jost De Necker* 
 (Wessely).' 
 
 7. Renascence initial, Italian, (Formenschatz). 
 
 8. Initial, 17 th century, Elzevir, printing office, (Ysendyck) 
 
 9. Initial, 17th century, specimen-book of Paul Furst of Nuremberg, 
 (L'art pour tous). 
 
 10. Initial, Barocco period, French, (Hrachowina). 
 
 11. Modem initial, by P. Koch. 
 
 12." Modem ioHial, by Dir. 0. Hammer, 
 
 Plate 298. Roman iNrnAus. 
 
 1. Renascence, 1537, (Hrachowina). 
 
 2. Renascence, 17th century, Plantin printing office, Antwerp, 
 (Ysendyck). 
 
 3. Modern, French. 
 4 — 13. Modern, Paris. 
 
ORNAMENTAL LETTERS. 
 
 535 
 
 Old English Letters, &c. 
 
 Plate 294. 
 
536 
 
 OKNAMENTAL LETTEES. 
 
 AT , 
 
 
 L 
 
 v 
 
 6; 
 
 
 
 <)< <> 
 
 1 ii| i 
 
 filillf 
 
 
 
 > , t 
 
 ^^ 
 
 r 
 
 <^ 
 
 ^(U> Pf< 
 
 '^^-^^xr 
 
 1 
 
 (^ 
 
 ^=^ 
 
 n 
 
 w 
 
 M^^ 
 
 Plate 295. 
 
 Old German Letters. 
 
ORNAMENTAL LETTERS. 
 
 587 
 
 a 
 
 p 
 
 
 Ii 
 
 11 m I 
 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 r 
 
 f. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Modern Text. 
 
 Plate 296. 
 
538 
 
 ORNAMENTAL LETTERS. 
 
 Plate 297. 
 
 Renascence Letters. 
 
OENAMENTAL LETTERS. 
 
 i39 
 
 [/? A-tir^^"^'---'"--**'**^^^*'^^^ ^^1' 
 
 ^^TO 
 
 <Sr>0 
 
 "^MiWM 
 
 
 
 L^^^Ekj^^^g^j 1 
 
 
 CAfWjB^ i 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^^ 
 
 Roman Initials, 
 
 Plate 298. 
 
540 
 
 ORNAMENTAL LETTERS. 
 
 'A\ B 
 
 E F y D J 
 
 L 
 
 ^ IB O D I^ IF" 0= 
 
 bl m IT xj ^%r 
 
 '\lk: 
 
 IT ^ ^^H (um 
 
 n 
 
 ^=<! 
 
 =^ 
 
 r 
 
 o 
 
 {SI 
 
 j/> 
 
 U' 
 
 I 
 
 par jnftiULi^'W' 
 
 Plate 299. 
 
 Roman Leltera. 
 
ORNAMENTAL LETTERS. 
 
 541 
 
 Constriictions, Numerals, and Monograms. Plate 300. 
 
542 Roman Letters. — Constructions, Kumerala, and Monograms. 
 
 Plate 299. Roman Letters. 
 
 1. Modern. 
 
 2. Modern. 
 
 3. Renascence italic, Gottlieb Miinch, Ordnung der Schrift, 1744. 
 
 4. Renascence lower-case italic, Michael Bauernfeind, Nuremberg 
 1737, (Hrachowina). 
 
 Plate 300, Constructions, Numerals, and Monograms. 
 
 1. Roman capitals. 
 
 2. German text, and large Gothic uncial letters. 
 3 — 4. Arabic numerals, 15th and 16th centuries. 
 
 5, 6, 7 and 9. Modern monograms of two and three letters, (Raguonet). 
 
 8. 
 10. 
 11. 
 
 Modern monogram, Pir. Gotz. 
 Monogram of a name: "Laugier", (Raguenet). 
 Monogram of Christ; formed of the Greek initials of 
 the name of Christ, found in the Catacombs. li is 
 frequently combined with the letters ^ Q.^ in allusion 
 to Rev. XXIL 13: "I am Alpha and Omega" (compare 
 Plate 213. 13). Of later date is the monogram IHS, 
 the first three letters of the name Jesus, //i-OF^", 
 when written with Greek letters, which was afterwards 
 selected by the Jesuits as the badge of their order. It 
 has been variously explained as meaning: ** Jesus 
 hominum salvatbr" (Jesus the saviour of men); "In Hoe 
 Salus" (in Him is salvation); "Jesus Habemus Socium" 
 (we have Jesus for our companion); or: "In Hoc Signo 
 vinces" (in this sign thou shalt conquer). 
 
Index. 
 
 The numerals refer to the Pages in all cases. Wliere they are enclosed in Brackets : 
 the page is a Plate; and the small numerals refer to the Figures in the Plate. 
 
 Akanthoa, leaf: 34, (163. 7). 
 
 Alo-oter: 166. 
 
 Alabastron: 312, 
 
 Alphabet: see Letters. 
 
 Altar: 378. 
 
 Amber-tree leaf: (55. 6,7). 
 
 Amphora: 303. 
 
 Ampulla: 312. 
 
 Animals: 63. 
 
 Antefix: 166. 
 
 Arm-chair: 425. 
 
 Armet: 390. . 
 
 Armorial Bearings: 500. 
 
 Artificial Objects: 110. 
 
 Artificial Foliage: 39. 
 
 „ Leaf: 35. 
 Aryballos: (331. u). 
 Astragal, Enrichment of: 152, 
 Atlanta: 242. 
 Badge: see Heraldry. 
 Balauster: 222. 
 Bands: 127. 
 Band-motive: 4. 
 Base, (column): 197. 
 
 „ , (candelabrum): 218, 
 Basin: 308. 
 Battle-axe: 394. 
 Beaker: 345. 
 Bedstead: 457. 
 BeU: 404. 
 Bench: 436. 
 
 Bisellium: 434. 
 Boar, head: (79. s), (343. 10). 
 Book Decoration: (23. 4.5). 
 Borders: see Bands, 477. 
 
 „ , (Typographical) : see Frames, 
 Boss: 182. 
 Bottle: 336. 
 
 Box: see Cist, Chest, &c. 
 Bracelet: 490. 
 Bracket: 241, (372. 1-9). 
 Breast-pin: 480. 
 Brooch: 480. 
 Bryony: 52. 
 Bucket: 322. 
 Buckle: 492. 
 Burganet: 390. 
 Button: 482. 
 
 Cabbage-stalk Glass: 352. 
 Cabinet: 445. 
 
 „ , Hanging: 449. 
 Calathus: see Kalathos. 
 Candelabrum: 360. 
 
 , (capital): 222. 
 „ , (foot and base): 218. 
 
 , (shaft): 219. 
 Candle Bracket: 370. 
 Candlestick: 361, 366. 
 Canephora: see Kanephoros. 
 Cantharus: see Kantharos. 
 Capital, (candelabrum): 222. 
 , (column): 205. 
 
544 
 
 Index. 
 
 Capital, (pilaster, and anta): 214, 
 Caryatid: 242. 
 Censer: 382. 
 Centaur: 106. 
 Chain Band: 129. 
 
 „ , (Jewelry): 486, 
 Chair: 422. 
 Chalice: 345. 
 Chandelier: 373. 
 Charge, (Heraldic): 510. 
 Chatelaine: 499, 404. 
 Cherub-head: 109. 
 Chest: 451. 
 Chimaera: 70. 
 
 „ , (head): (78. i). 
 Circle, Diaper: 278, 283. 
 
 „ , Panel: 256, (115. 6-9). 
 
 „ , Subdivision: 27. 
 Cist: 318. 
 Oasp: 492. 
 Claw-foot: (220. 1-9). 
 Clock-case: 453, (475. 1.2). 
 Cluster, of Fruit: 59. 
 Coat of Arms: (525. i-s). 
 Cock, (tap): 417. 
 Collar, (Heraldic): 518. 
 Column: see Supports. 
 Comb: 499. 
 Compasses: 417. 
 Console: 235. 
 
 Construction of Letters: 542, 
 Convolvulus: 52. 
 Com: 52. 
 Cornucopia: 124, 
 Coronets: 520. 
 Cothon: see Kothon. 
 Couch: 438. 
 Cradle: 457. 
 Oater: see Krater. 
 Oest, (Heraldic): 518. 
 Cresting Border: 161, 172. 
 Crocket: 185. 
 Cross: 172. 
 
 „ , (Heraldic): 515. 
 
 „ , Panel: (275. 3). 
 
 Crown, Coronet, &c.: 520. 
 
 Crozier: 384. 
 
 Crucifix: 384. 
 
 Cruet: 316. 
 
 Cup: 345. 
 
 Cyathus: see Kyathos. 
 
 Cylix: see Kylix. 
 
 Cyma, Enrichment of: 155, (1G4, 
 
 3,4,11,12). 
 Dagger: 394. 
 
 Damaskeening, (Heraldic): 503. 
 DECORATED OBJECTS: 295. 
 Desk: 451. 
 Diadem: 499. 
 Diapers: 277. 
 
 „ , patterns: 9. 
 Diphros Okladias: 434. 
 Dish: 308, see 476. 
 Dog, head: (79. ). 
 Dolphin: 86. 
 
 „ , (Heraldic): (511. 11). 
 Door-Knocker: 408. 
 Dormer: (463. 1). 
 Dress-pin: 480. 
 Eagle, (Natural): 80, (454. 1-3). 
 
 „ , (Heraldic): 80. 512. 
 
 „ , (head: (343. 7). 
 Ear-ring: 496. 
 Easd: 453. 
 
 Egg-and-tongue, &c.: 155. 
 Elaphos: 342. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF DECORATION: 8. 
 Ellipse, Construction, and Subdi* 
 
 vision: 30. 
 . „ , Panel: 267, 
 Enamels: 281. 
 Enclosed Ornaments: 246. 
 Evolute-spiral Band: 151, 
 Fan: 412. 
 Fauchard: 396. 
 FEATURES of Objects: 125, 
 Festoon: 59, (221.. e). 
 Fibula: 480. 
 Finial: 175. 
 Flowers, Natural: 58. 
 
Index. 
 
 545 
 
 Flower-pot: 315. 
 
 „ -vase: 312. 
 Fly-flapper: 414. 
 Folding-chair: 438. 
 Foliage, Artificial: 39. 
 
 „ , Natural: 34. 
 Font: 320. 
 Foot: (220. 1-9), 
 Fork: 400. 
 Fox, head: (79. 7). 
 Frames: 461. 
 
 „ , (architecturalj : 462. 
 
 ,, , (mirror): 465, 
 
 „ , (strap-work): 468. 
 
 1, > (typographical): 471. 
 Free ornaments: 169, 
 Fret Band: 128. 
 
 Frieze: (62), (104. 5), (162)-(164), 
 Fringe: 188. 
 Fruit, in Festoon : 59. 
 Funnel: 324. 
 Furniture: 420. 
 
 , Leg: 230. 
 Gable-ornament: 166. 
 Gargoyle: 185. 
 Garland: see in (82. i). 
 Gate: see Grill. 
 Geometrical Elements: 3. 
 German Drinkiug-glasses : 352, 
 Girdle: 492, 188, (487. u-is). 
 Gladiator's Helmet: 390. 
 Glass, Drinking: 355. 
 
 „ , see Stained-Glass. 
 Goblet: 345. 
 Gothic Tracery: 30. 
 Griffin: 70, (514. 1). 
 Grill: 294. 
 
 Grottesque Animal: 100. 
 „ Figure: 101. 
 
 Mask: 95, 
 Gryps: 345, 
 
 Guilloche: see Interlacement Band. 
 Hair-pin: 480. 
 Half-figure: 101. 
 Halberd: 394, 
 
 Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 
 
 Hammer: 417. 
 
 Hanap : 347. 
 
 Hand-bell: 404. 
 
 Hand-mirror: 412. 
 
 Hanging-cabinet: 449. 
 
 Hat, (Cardinal's, &c., Heraldic): 523, 
 
 Head-dress (Jewelry): 499, 
 
 Heads of Animals: 76. 
 
 Heaume: 390, 515. 
 
 Helmet: 390, 516, (108), (113). 
 
 ,, , Trappings: 518. 
 Heraldry: 500. 
 Hermes : see Terminus. 
 Hexagon, Subdivision: 18. 
 Hinge: 186. 
 Hippotragelaphos: 342. 
 Holy- water Stoup: 320. 
 Hop, leaf: 52. 
 Horn, Drinking: 342. 
 Horse, head: (79, 1-6). 
 Human, body: 93. 
 Hydria: 320, 
 Hyacinth-glass: 315. 
 Implements: see Trophy, Symbol. 
 Initial: see Letters, 
 Ink-stand: 316. 
 Inn-chair: (426. 1). 
 Instruments: see Trophy, Symbol 
 Interlacement Band: 135. 
 Ivy, leaf: 51, (203. 4). 
 Jar: 318. 
 Jewelry: 478. 
 Jug: see Pitcher, Pot. 
 Kalathos: (344, 4), 
 Kalpis: (323. 2). 
 Kanephoros: 242. 
 Kantharos: 340. 
 Kapros: 342. 
 Key: 410. 
 Kettle: (335. 10). 
 Klismos: 422. 
 Knife: 400. 
 Knob, (finial). 179. 
 Knocker: 408. 
 Knot: see Ribbon. 
 
 35 
 
646 
 
 Index. 
 
 Hothon: 340. 
 
 Erater: 308. 
 
 Kyathos: 340. 
 
 Kylix: 340, (311. s). 
 
 Label: 120. 
 
 Lace: 190. 
 
 Lachrimatory : 312, 
 
 Ladle: 324. 
 
 Lamp: 364, ^ 
 
 „ , Pendant: 373, (314. 13). 
 
 „ , Table: 375. 
 Lance: 394. 
 Lantern: 373. 
 Laurel: 43, (344. 9). 
 Lazy-tongs: 404. 
 Leaf Band: 145. 
 
 „ , (Natural): 52. 
 Lectern: 453. 
 Lectus Cubicularis: 438. 
 Leg, (Furniture): 230. 
 Lekythos: 328. 
 Letters: 527. 
 Link Border: 160. 
 Lion, (Heraldic): 510. 
 
 „ , (Natural): 63. 
 
 „ , head: 70, (233. 9,10). 
 Lizard: (92. 1). 
 Lock-escutcheon: (475. 10). 
 Lotus: 48, (162. 1), (208. 2-5), 
 
 (288. 2), (327. 2,4). 
 Lozenge, Panel: 272, (88. 2,3), (464. 3). 
 
 „ , Subdivision: 21. 
 Lunette, Panel: 268. 
 Lynx, head: (77. 5). 
 Mace: 396. 
 Maeander: see Fret. 
 Mantling, (Heraldic): 519. 
 Maple, leaf: (55. 3.4). 
 Margin: see 477. 
 Mars' head: (103. 9). 
 Martel-axe: 394. 
 Mask: 94. 
 Match-holder: 417. 
 Medallion: 109, (495. 12, 18,25). 
 Medusa, head: 100. 
 
 Mermaid: (514. 7). 
 
 Metal Objects: 359, 
 
 Minerva, head: (108. 6,7). 
 
 Mirror-frame: 465. 
 
 Mirror, Hand: 412. 
 
 Miserere-seat: 431. 
 
 Mitre: (524. 11-13). 
 
 Monogram: 542, 
 
 Monstrance: 384. 
 
 Morion: 390. 
 
 Mosaic: 278. 
 
 Motto: 526, 
 
 Mouldings, Enricltments of: 152, 161. 
 
 Mug: 353. 
 
 Mural Painting: 286. 
 
 Natukal Forms: 34. 
 
 Nautilus shell: (91. 1) 
 
 Necklace: 488. 
 
 Neck-ring: (489. 7,8). 
 
 Needle-case: 499. 
 
 Network: 4. 
 
 Numerals: 542. 
 
 Oak, leaf: (55. 1,2), (150. 9), (156 s). 
 
 OBJECTS, DECORATED: 295. 
 
 Oblong, Panel: 262, 
 
 ,, , Subdivision: 18. 
 Octagon, Subdivision: 18,^ 
 Oinochoe: 326. 
 Olive: 43. 
 Olpe:. 326. 
 
 Order, (Heraldic): 523. 
 Ordinary, (Heraldic): 506. 
 ORNAMEiNT APPLIED TO FEA- 
 TURES: 125. 
 Oval, Construction: 33. 
 Ovolo, Enrichment of: 155. 
 Ox, head: (79. 9). 
 Painting: see Mural painting., 
 Palmetto Band: 145. 
 Palm, leaf: 48, 
 Panels: 246, 
 Panther, (Henildic): (514. 2). 
 
 „ , head: 73. 
 Paper-knife: 402. 
 Papyrus: 48, 
 
Index. 
 
 547 
 
 Parapet: 227. 
 
 Parquetry: 278. 
 
 Partizan: 394. 
 
 Patera: 324. 
 
 Pendant, (Architectural): 179. 
 
 . „. ' , (Jbwelby): 494. 
 Pennon: 523. 
 
 Pentagon, Subdivision: 18. 
 Pepper-mill: 316. 
 Perforation: 172. 
 Perfume-vase: 328. 
 Phiale: 312. 
 Picture-frame: 465. 
 Pike: 394. 
 Pilaster, (capital): 214. 
 
 „ , (panel):'. 213, (113. 6,6), 
 
 (117. 1-8). 
 
 Pin: 480. 
 
 Pitcher (lip-spout): 330. 
 
 Plate: 310. 
 
 „ , Border: 476. 
 Polygon: 13, 
 Post: 227. 
 
 Pot (pipe-spout): 334, 
 Printer's-mark: 471. 
 Printing: 527. 
 Prochoiis: 326. 
 Proedra: (244. 5). 
 Puzzle-glass: 353. 
 Quadrelle: (397. 10). 
 Hailing: 227, see also Parapet, Bal- 
 
 auster. 
 Rain-water Spout: .185, (74. 8-5), 
 
 (87. 7-9). 
 Raking Panel: 276. 
 Bam, head: (78. 3-7), (343. 1-5). 
 Ranunculus, leaf: (55. 5). 
 Rectangle: see Oblong. 
 Repeating Ornaments: 277. 
 Revolving Stool: 434. 
 Rhombus, Panel: see Lozenge, Panel, 
 
 „ , Subdivision: 21. 
 Rhyton: 342. 
 Ribbon: 120. 
 Ring: 484. 
 
 Rope-pattern : see InterlacementBand, 
 Rosette: 182, see also Square, Panel, 
 
 Circle, Panel. 
 Rosette Band: 142. 
 Rummer: 349. 
 Salade: 390, 516. 
 Salt-cellar: 316. 
 Scabbard: 392, 391 
 Scale Diaper: 281. 
 Scallop SheU: (91, 3,4). 
 Scent-bottle: 499. 
 Scissors: 402. 
 Scriptionale: (252. 1). 
 Scyphus: see Skyphos. 
 Seal: 499. 
 Seat: 421. 
 Sector: 13. 
 Sella Balnearis: 427. 
 
 „ Curulis: 427. 
 Semicircle: see Lunette. 
 Serpent, (Heraldic): (511. 13). 
 „ , (Natural): 90. 
 
 Shaft, (candelabrum): 219. 
 „ , (column): 197, 202. 
 „ , (pilaster): 213. 
 
 Sheath: see Scabbard. 
 
 SheU: 90. 
 
 Shield: 388, 505. 
 „ , (Heraldic): 502. 
 
 Sideboai-d: 449. 
 
 Signet-ring: 484. 
 
 Simpulum: (327. 11.12). 
 
 Situla: (325. 7-11). 
 
 Skull, Human: 109. 
 „ , Ox: (61. 1), (62. 1). 
 
 Skyphos: 
 
 Smelling-bottle: see Scent-bottle. 
 
 Snuffers: 404. (413 3). 
 
 Sofa: 438. 
 
 Spanrail Panel: 268. 
 
 Spangle: 499. 
 
 Spoon: 324, 396. 
 
 Sphinx; 106, (223. e), (429. 9). 
 
 Square, Diaper: 278. 
 
 „ , Panel: 247, (15. 20). 
 35* 
 
548 
 
 Index. 
 
 Square, Subdivision: 14, (262, i-»). 
 Stained Glass: 283. 
 StaU: 428. 
 Standard: 523. 
 Star, Panel: 249. 
 
 „ , Subdivision: 13. 
 Stele-crest: 167. 
 Stool: 431. 
 Stoup: 320. 
 Strap Hinge: 186. 
 Strap-work, Border: 477. 
 
 , Frame: 468. (476), (476). 
 
 , Panel (260. 7,8), (264. 4,5), 
 
 (271. 6-9). 
 
 „ , Tablet: 474. 
 
 „ , Margin: 477. 
 Subdivision of Shapes: see l4 — 33. 
 Supports: 194, 
 Supporter, (Heraldic): 526. 
 Sword: 392. 
 Symbol: HI. 
 Table: 440, 231, 
 Tablet: see Frames. 
 Taboret: 431, 
 Tankard: 355. 
 Tap: see Cock. 
 Tassel: 188. 
 Telamon: 242. 
 Tent, (Heraldic): 526. 
 Terminus: 225. 
 Text: see Letters. 
 Textile: see Weaving. 
 Three-centred Arch, Construction: 33. 
 Throne: 425, 
 Thyrsos: (107. 6,7). 
 Tiara: (524. 12). 
 Tiger, head: (77. s). 
 Tiles: 283. 
 
 TUting Helmet: 390, 616. 
 Tinctures, (Heraldic): 502, 
 Toilet-stand, or cabinet: 455. 
 
 Tongs: 417. 
 
 Tool: 417, see also Trophy, Symbol, 
 
 Torch: 124. 
 
 Torus, Enrichment of: 155. 
 
 Tracery: (28. is-ie), (29. i-ji). 
 
 (259. 7,8), (275. 1), 
 Tragelaphos: 342, 
 Trapezium, Panel: 276. 
 
 , Subdivision: 21, 26. 
 Trapezoid, Panel: 276. 
 Trapezophoron: 231, 
 Triangle, Subdivision: 18. 
 
 „ , Panel: 276. 
 Tripod: 379, 
 Trophy: 110. 
 Tulip-tree, leaf: (55. s). 
 Tumbler: 352. 
 Typographical Frame: 471, 
 Uncials: see Letters. 
 Undulate Band: 146. 
 Uraniscus: 14. 
 Urn: 306. 
 Utensils: 359. 
 Valence: 188. 
 Vase-forms, Chart of: 304. 
 Vases: 297, (123. 1.4), (180. 5-^). f 
 
 Vertebrate Band: 145. 
 Vine: 43, 
 
 Viper: see Serpent. 
 Vizor-helmet: 390, 516. 
 Wall-papers: 286. 
 War-Bcythes, &c.: 391, 
 Water-pot: 334. 
 
 Wave-scroll: see Evolute-spiral Band 
 Weapons: 386. 
 Weaving: 289. 
 Wings: 81. 
 
 Wreath, (Heraldic): 519. 
 Writing: 527. 
 Writing-table: 443. 
 Wrought-iron : 175. 
 
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