WORLD EDUCATION Copies of this book may be obtained from W. B. CLARKE Co., Boston THE EICHELBERGER BOOK Co., Baltimore WORLD EDUCATION A DISCUSSION OF THE FAVORABLE CONDITIONS FOR A WORLD CAMPAIGN FOR EDUCATION BY W. SCOTT Secretary of the New England Education League and International Education Conference The successive generations of men, taken collectively, constitute one generation. HOKACE MANN. I will bear in mind that the world is my native city. SENECA. Eine von der Menscheit fuer die Menscheit geschaffene, Inter- nationale, universelle und unvergaengliche Institution, mit der Bestimmung, das geistige Erbe von Generationen und Epochen, gesichtet, geordnet und vermehrt, ohne Unterlass den Naechst- kommenden uebergeben. FBANZ KEMNY. Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation, rousing herself like a strong man after sleep, and shaking her invincible locks : methinks I see her as an eagle, mewing her mighty youth, and kindling her undazzled eyes at the full noonday beam, purging and unsealing her long abused sight at the fountain itself of heav- enly radiance. MILTON. CAMBRIDGE PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR 1912 COPYRIGHT, 1912 BY W. SCOTT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U. S. A. 3htscrttjeb to KATHERINE CAMPBELL SCOTT 21 453 CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE THE CHARACTERISTIC OF THE 19TH CENTURY ... 1 Its diffusive energy. Growth of freedom. Commerce, facilities of intercommunication, changes in governments, increase of national areas, literature, religious efforts, comparative religion, public education, a new era. CHAPTER II THE QUESTION STATED 10 Talleyrand's view of popular education. The school and universal learning, the three R's interpreted, scope of education, the learner, adequate education a birthright. CHAPTER III OBSTACLES 16 The governing classes dictate scope and privilege of edu- cation, obstacles of race, sex, religion, poverty, tradition, locality, how overcome, the educational struggle and progress. CHAPTER IV PROGRESS MADE, VOLUNTARYISM 21 John Foster's essay on Popular Ignorance in 1819, great changes in educational opportunity, influences producing changes, voluntaryism, individual promoters, great teach- ers, religious bodies, various bodies, local, state, national, international. CHAPTER V PROGRESS MADE, GOVERNMENT 35 The town, city, state, nation, education under govern- ment control a vast enterprise, transition from national to international governmental action in education. CHAPTER VI REASONS FOR GOVERNMENT PROMOTION OF EDUCA- TION 47 The protective, constructive, economic, corporate ideas, vii CONTENTS CHAPTER VII PAGE FAVORABLE CONDITIONS 51 The material conditions of society, "The Day of Roads," means of intercommunication, telegraph, telephone, transcontinental railways, ocean steamship lines, postal union, universal expositions, international cooperation, ideals of society, the economic and corporate ideas ap- plied to human race, mankind a corporation. CHAPTER VIII LINES OF APPROACH, ILLUSTRATIONS 64 Effective nature of agencies cited, individual promoters of education in town, city, state, nation, branch of human race, the world, corporate action, manufacturing, trans- portation and other agencies, the printed page, the press, publications, books and libraries, government action, national and international. CHAPTER IX INTERNATIONAL PLANS 77 Keme'ny's Weltakademie, International Educational League, Federation of National Education Societies, World Federation of Universities, Federation of Inter- national Associations, World University (Religious, Inter- denominational), World Education Fund or Foundation, Joint Foundation for International Education, Inter- metropolitan Educational Alliance, International Union for Education (Governmental), The World Travel Uni- versity, International Correspondence Schools, World Library and Museum. CHAPTER X STATISTICS 95 World educational statistics, international societies, con- gresses, etc., cities of 250,000 population and above. CHAPTER XI BIBLIOGRAPHY . 103 APPENDIX PART I. GERMAN SYNOPSIS 107 PART II. FRENCH SYNOPSIS 116 viii WORLD EDUCATION CHAPTER I THE CHARACTERISTIC OP THE NINETEENTH CENTURY The history of liberty might be made the central thread of all history. LORD ACTON. fTlHE nineteenth century made important addi- * tions to the sum of knowledge. It gave birth to new sciences. Vast accumulations of data were gathered, the relative prominence of departments of knowledge was modified, and there were remark- able movements in every area of action. But a survey of the century will probably show that its preeminent feature was its diffusive energy. This was favorable to the spread of knowledge and the general advantages of civilization. Personal liberty during this period was mar- vellously advanced. Serfdom fell in France in the revolution of 1789, in Germany in the first half of the century, in Russia in 1861, in Poland in 1864. The foreign slave trade was abolished by Austria in 1782, United States and Great Britian in 1807, Spain in 1817 and Brazil in 1826. Slavery flour- ished longer but the century has witnessed revolu- tions in human society resulting in the emancipation 1 WORLD EDUCATION of millions of siavss. Slavery ceased in the British colonies in 1835, and in the United States in 1863, and Brazil in 1889. The march of freedom has been incessant. A just and humane spirit has wrought these changes and tends to produce a better social condition everywhere. The progress of commerce is one of the noteworthy facts of the century. To the commercial activity of the times the inventions and discoveries, made or more fully applied during the period, .contributed. The steam engine is chiefly associated with the name of James Watt who died in 1815. The names of Fulton, Stephenson, Morse, Henry, Edison, Bell and others, men of scientific genius, are associated with steam-boat, steam-railway, telegraph and applica- tions of electric power. The first steam locomotive ran in 1804, a steamboat made a successful trip in 1807, in 1819 the steamer Savannah crossed the Atlantic. The first Atlantic telegraph landed in 1858 and 1866. It has been followed by a tele- graphic system which brings the business centres in touch with all parts of the globe. Important and numerous electric inventions and discoveries mark the closing years of the century, and make inter- communication easy the world over. These condi- tions have been further changed during the first decade of this century by the good roads movement, the automobile, wireless telegraphy and aerial navigation. The march of commerce was facilitated by great public works, commercial treaties, national or inter- 2 CHARACTERISTICS national expositions of industry, and various enter- prises tending to make mankind familiar with the work and products of all peoples. The Erie canal in 1824, the Suez canal in 1869, the Union Pacific railroad uniting in 1869 the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, the London exhibition of works of industry of all nations in 1851, the numerous treaties and conferences for international commerce, the penny post of 1840, the international postal union now es- tablished, the Siberian, Pan-American, Cape to Cairo and Australian railroads, constructed or pro- jected, are among the facts which have promoted business intercourse among nations. They suggest the commercial union of mankind. The changes in government were striking and ex- tensive. These changes were brought about chiefly by popular agitation and legislation, but wars were not wanting. Two of the most destructive wars of history redden the century's pages, the Napoleonic wars from 1793 to 1815 in the old world, and the American civil war from 1861 to 1865 in the new. These tremendous conflicts have had deep influence on civilized government. The United States in 1800 held no possession west of the Mississippi, and Florida and Louisiana belonged to European powers. By cession and pur- chase its area increased 4.3 times, exclusive of its latest territory. The growth of the British Empire also was remarkable. The unification of Italy oc- curred in 1870 and the reestablishment of the German Empire in 1871. Russia, with immense 3 WORLD EDUCATION stretches of territory and population, rose to an au- thoritative place in the old world, and Japan appears as an ancient nation taking a new and strong hold on the world's life. A fresh impulse stirred races, quickened race ambitions and introduced new and powerful forces among mankind. The rise of the people by industry, education, a larger share in government was a widespread and pervasive influence. Governments are working to a greater harmony by diplomacy and international law. A pacific and humane spirit is supplanting militarism and the time may not be remote when disarmament shall pre- vail among nations. Questions of government are handled and discussed as never before, and the de- mand for better and more equal government is uni- versal. While great evils exist, the general and gradual improvement of government is beyond doubt. Whether the century was relatively a productive period in literature is a question upon which dif- ferences of opinion exist, but famous names appear among its writers in every department. The diffu- sion of literature in books was facilitated by im- proved processes of printing. Extraordinary activity is apparent in forms of popular literature which treat of themes and events in a brief and readable way. It was an age of review, magazine and newspaper beyond all former times. A group of reviews started near the beginning of the century in Great Britain. The Edinburgh Review in 1802, the organ of the Whigs; the Quarterly Review in 4 CHARACTERISTICS 1809, the mouthpiece of the High Tories ; the Eclec- tic Review in 1805, representing Protestant Dissen- ters ; the Christian Observer in 1802, conducted by the Evangelical party of the Established Church; Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine in 1817, main- tained by the High Tories ; the Westminster Review in 1824, advocating radicalism in church, state and legislation, these publications began an era in per- iodical criticism. Their influence on the public mind was powerful. A large number of popular maga- zines and newspapers began also in America, France, Germany and other leading countries. In 1831 the first newspaper appeared in Constantinople, and in 1850 the Pekin Monitor was printed in China. Many newspapers became widely influential. The new pro- fession of journalism claims many of the ablest men in all civilized lands. The spread of news, informa- tion and opinion by the daily paper is one of the marvels of the times. The diffusion of religion was also characteristic of the century. Each age has its peculiar religious history. The extension of religion is a constant movement among mankind. Like the spread of light or the falling of the dew, it has often been silent and without observation. The progress of ideas, the operation of moral and spiritual forces may thus be unnoted though real. The century witnessed an extension of religion in ways which are without parallel in history. The routine effort of Christian churches was im- proved. Greater activity and intelligence are brought 5 WORLD EDUCATION to bear upon the work undertaken. The needs of man and how to meet them occupied thought, led to experiment and appropriate effort for existing personal and social wants. How to turn to best service resources formerly unused or only partially used resulted in societies for the young, for different sexes and ages, until religious and philanthropic or- ganizations became numerous and in many cases vast in size. To some extent these movements failed to do the good expected from them. Their number may wisely be decreased and wholesome changes promo- tive of economy of time, money and energy in- augurated, but it is also evident that the Christian element in society awakened to a new sense of its resources, opportunity and duty. Great waves of religious excitement also passed over society during this period. The revival connected with the Wes- leys and Whitfield antedated the century. It is a type of numerous movements affecting communities, or large populations during the century. The re- ligious revival in America in 1858, in Ireland in 1859 and others, local or extensive in character, ap- pear in the religious history of the times. While some writers disparage these movements as abnor- mal or transient, a more just estimation of social forces recognizes in them indisputable elements of progress. Man's personal and social life is epochal. Human movements as of politics, reform, commerce, education advance with concentrated power like the march of waves from the deep. History is charac- terized by the flow of mighty and uplifting tides. In CHARACTERISTICS connection with so profound a sentiment as religion these movements are co-extensive with history and result in permanent good to mankind. Another feature of the diffusion of religion was the organization and enlargement of missionary efforts. The Roman Catholic, Moravian and others were in the field before the nineteenth century, but the extension and success of Christian missions since 1800 have been phenomenal. The London Mission- ary Society started in 1794, the American Board, societies of Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians and Episcopalians, originated from 1810 to 1846. The missionary chapter in the history of the century, when written, will show the scope and nature of the work accomplished. The missionary has done his work in obscurity and in the face of peculiar diffi- culties. He has contributed to the advancement of knowledge in geography, ethnography and other sciences. Through him the arts and benefits of civi- lization have been introduced among many backward peoples. The effect of his direct religious effort has been to change for the better the character of numer- ous individuals and communities. The truths of Christianity have thus gained currency in many na- tions, shut against its missionary at the opening of the century. Such truths transform society wherever they obtain a foothold, but changes ani- mated by justice and truth are in harmony with the progress of the race. The comparative study of religion has been lifted into increased prominence as nations have been 7 WORLD EDUCATION brought nearer together. Such study reveals the variations of human thought on the relations and problems of life. The spiritual experience of the human race has a depth and mystery which pertain to no external interests. Fuller investigation in these lines is inevitable and must result in the diffusion of truth and the good of humanity. It tends to reveal that higher unity of humanity overlooked by states- men and race propagandist, but taught by religion in its purest forms. Public education as a social necessity became gen- eral in leading nations during the century. It is regarded as a primal and fundamental interest of society, especially in countries where government is of the people. To train each child aright is the surest way to maintain and improve the social order. Opinions on questions of education vary, but the best attainable education is believed to be a universal necessity. How to bring this inalienable right to every child is a question of the first importance as the twentieth century opens. The same diffusive energy, manifest in other activities of society, has affected public education. Changes in public opinion on the subject from those prevalent at the beginning of the nineteenth century in England, America and other countries are strik- ing social phenomena. The practical results that have been accomplished are among the noblest achievements of the times. The rudiments of knowl- edge have been brought to vast multitudes to whom elementary training was formerly denied or thought 8 CHARACTERISTICS unnecessary. The revolutions in public opinion and the enlargement of opportunity in education are as remarkable as any movement of the age. They are signs of promise for the future of mankind and open a new era. CHAPTER II THE QUESTION STATED Man cannot propose a higher and holier object for his study than education and all that pertains to education. PLATO. After bread, education is the first need of a nation. DANTON. rilHE spirit of the modern educational tendency * is well expressed by Talleyrand, minister of public instruction in France in 1791. He said, "While it is impossible for any one to learn every- thing, it should be possible in a well organized society for one to learn anything." The working out of this principle in detailed form places the accumulated knowledge of civilized man at the disposal of every member of human society, and from this treasury of study and experience each human being may draw what he chooses within the limitations of his own powers. The result is that the school, broadly inter- preted, teaches everything; the learner may get instruction in any line his natural ability enables him to pursue. It is probable that this idea is embodied in the institution which we term the school even in its simplest form. The elementary school, for example, which teaches the three Rs so-called, reading, writ- ing and arithmetic, properly understood, is a school 10 THE QUESTION STATED of universal learning. That is, these common studies are typical or symbolic of vast areas of knowledge, and are selected for that reason as well as because they are easily available. Reading puts man in communication with the messages of the external world as revealed by the sense of vision. The usual object to which this art is applied is the printed page. But we read in a far greater and more varied way than that. The drawing, map, or chart, the painting, works of art, music, the invention, the machine, the human face, action, noble or base, events, whatever is written in the heavens above or in the earth beneath one may read. Thus the message of the outer world, what- ever addresses the sense perception, is readable, and in truth included in the first R, as a type. Besides, if rightly mastered in its rudiments, read- ing calls into play the powers by which man learns to read the meanings of things and of life, commonly unseen. James Watt, the inventor of the engine, Stephenson, who put it on wheels and framed the locomotive, later inventors, who made it dive in sub- marine or float in flying machine, have simply been more deeply read than ordinary men in the resources of nature and mechanics. Pioneers in science and inventive arts, founders of states, teachers of the moral order of the world, have read better than others, have come nearer to the heart of things. The art of reading is expansive and inclusive to a mar- vellous degree. The first R is the type and symbol of all knowledge. The world is a reading book. 11 WORLD EDUCATION Writing points both to the common script and to greater things. For man writes not only in script, but on canvas, in stone or iron, in tool, machine, in- vention. Language, literature, music, art, trades, industry, commerce, laws, customs, institutions, the achievements of individuals and races, what are they but forms of writing in which the human intelli- gence and will have found expression? One may follow the copy set, another may make his own copy, still another may conceive a new design ; but all are busy at the second R. Page fair or blotted, hand firm or trembling, the writing goes on, life, char- acter, ineffaceable records, written not wholly by ourselves, but in part by an invisible hand. More- over, it is evident that an unseen intelligence, an infinite power also has set its mark on the page. We trace the characters written in man, in history, in earth and sky. Here are sacred writings none can fully read, but we discover in them the transcript of a higher will. " Celestial mechanics," a phrase of a great thinker, implies a mechanician of infinite re- sources, whose handwriting and plans appear in the myriad forms and movements of the universe. The world is also a writing book. The third R, arithmetic, introduces to numbers, quantities, their size, value, relations, a study which, as a type and symbol, is vast and unfathom- able. The attitude of the human spirit toward life and the universe is in its essence a matter of arith- metic. How does a man measure a thing? What valuation does he set on that object, event, tendency, 12 THE QUESTION STATED on himself, or others? For he is perpetually busy with his measuring-rule, making his estimates, true, false, or partial. Or, it may be, he errs by ignor- ance of the real issues moving about him because he fails to apply the third great R. To set the first thing first and to keep it there, to learn what is of most worth, to work out a wise order and propor- tion, what are these but a nobler sort of arith- metic? To discover what combinations may be made or avoided, how things may cost too dear, and what is intrinsically and always precious, these all seem naturally to group themselves under the last- named study. One cannot turn to the questions of our time or of the past, whether in education, home, work, business, government, without noting how omni- present these issues are, and how they perpetually face mankind. They touch war and peace, the rise and fall of states. From personal interests to a world's affairs, from the single event of a man's life to the perplexing tangle of interracial relations, none can escape the study of higher arithmetic with- out detriment. The conceptions derived from the contemplation of the universe have their mathemati- cal side. The precision of cosmic movements, sea- sons, tide, the procession of worlds, reveal an infinite mathematician at work. As we follow that work we find the moral and spiritual order a basic and con- stant factor. It is because the three Rs are far reaching sym- bolic studies, convenient and available types, that they have come into common use. The teacher, how- 13 WORLD EDUCATION /ever, must point out to the learner that these early studies open on the broad highways which traverse the whole field of knowledge. Let them have a right \ interpretation and they become tools, types, and symbols of universal learning. The opening of universal knowledge to the learner is thus no new thing, but an idea which has existed in the simplest forms of the school. That this latent meaning of the school whether in the humble local effort, the state and national system of education, or in still larger international enterprises, has escaped observation is not to be wondered at, for the full uses of familiar things frequently go unnoted until a deeper insight reveals them. On the side of the school, therefore, universal education requires that everything which reason and necessity dictate shall be taught, that the school shall be a place of universal learning. Dr. Johnson's definition of a university as " a place where everything may be learnt," fits the ideal of the school and school systems, whether of the small town or civic unit, the great city, state, nation, or in possible future international move- ments, the human family. To turn to the learner, universal education is sufficiently comprehensive to embrace everybody. The theory enjoins upon society the obligation of due training and instruction for each human being. If there are in any case natural disqualifications, such instances are confessedly rare, and even where they may exist in a measure the progress of educa- tional ideas and methods seems steadily to lessen the THE QUESTION STATED number and area of the non-teachable. In working out this aspect of universal education, society must bring to every human being an adequate education as his birthright in human society. The actual appli- cation of the idea to human life, like the bestowment of other personal, social and civic rights and privi- leges, has been and may continue to be slow and gradual. The recognition of the idea, however, as part of the economy of civilization is an indication of gain and progress. The changes and advance of society have for various reasons set emphasis on the prin- ciple that it is both the interest of the individual and of society that every human being should be brought to his best estate so far as education may contribute to that desirable end. Closely related to this end is the advancement of social groups, small or large, whether of the local community, state, nation or en- tire human race. This idea is firmly fixed in modern thought although humanity has yet to go forward a long way before it has been effectually realized. In universal education, therefore, these two great ideas are involved, the school (and by the school we refer to the general educative process of society as well as what is technically termed school) must teach everything necessary and reasonable, and the learner must be enabled to learn anything desired and within the reach of his powers. The curriculum of the school thus embraces everything. Further, the school and the learner are not to be restricted to locality, nation, or favored race, but include all mankind. 15 CHAPTER III OBSTACLES Promote then, as an object of primary importance, the general diffusion of knowledge. WASHINGTON. AN inquiry into the obstacles to universal edu- cation reveals many interesting sides of the evolution of civilization, and runs out into historic conditions which though subject to continual varia- tions are yet deep rooted. What are termed the governing classes of society have profoundly affected education from age to age. It is impossible here to introduce a protracted discussion of this factor in education, but its place and power are obvious to the student of education and social history. While the present is a democratic period and in theory the whole people govern, thus obliterating a governing class, a deeper insight into affairs shows that this is a theory and tendency rather than a well worked out principle. The governing class may be defined as that group within society which wields paramount influence. Historically various governing classes have appeared, as the military, the priestly, the titled, the professional, the commercial, the literary classes, individuals or classes distinguished by birth, wealth or industrial preeminence. These have shaped edu- cation in a remarkable degree. They have dictated 16 OBSTACLES its character and extent, who shall enjoy its privi- leges and who shall be excluded from its benefits. They have invested the prescribed forms of education with a dignity and a social estimation which have been prevailing and often oppressive. They have taken possession of the approaches of influence by which society is reached, and have by effective means dominated their respective periods. The struggle for a broader, more reasonable and adaptive edu- cation has been ceaseless as is the case with other struggles for human rights and privileges. These adverse conditions or obstacles have not arisen wholly from personal or class selfishness but also from the limitations in intelligence and applied ideas which have prevailed, as well as from larger in- fluences at work in human evolution, but not fully understood and often quite unknown to the body of society. Gradually, as the respective classes of so- ciety are assigned their places in the larger and com- prehensive social unity, the class educational ideals become modified, and the educational theory grows more universal and fits itself to the aspirations and genius of humanity. To enumerate specific obstacles to universal edu- cation, that of race stands conspicuous. The atti- tude of American society toward the education of the black race, 1 which is a comparatively recent aspect of education, is an illustration in point. This atti- tude is partly explained by the fact that most of the 1 WILLIAMS, G. W., History of the Negro Race in America (Chapter XH. Negro School Laws, 161&-1860), New York and London, 1885. 17 WORLD EDUCATION black race In the United States occupied for a long period the status of an enslaved race. This obstacle was imbedded in legislation, in social conviction and industrial life. Sex * has been another obstacle in the way of universal education. The opening of the schools to women, especially in the higher grades of instruction, is a movement of the last few decades. No argument is here attempted for one or another form of education for women, nor is it here claimed or advocated that an identical form of education is desirable for the male and female; it is simply stated, as is familiar to all students of the history of education, that woman's access to educational ad- vantages has met barriers now more or less removed in many parts of the world. The religious test has been operative as a bar to education at the English universities. Until parliamentary action in Great Britain in 1870, dissenters were excluded from the universities. Poverty has also served as a barrier where tuition fees have shut out the poor student from educational opportunities. The introduction and expansion of free public systems of instruction in leading states and countries on the basis of a safe and wise public policy has done much to remove this barrier especially in the lower schools, and to some extent in the higher institutions. What may be termed the local barrier to education still remains to a greater or less degree, that is, the smaller or poorer civic unit which exercises under state control 1 BOONE, K. G., Education in the United States, p. 262, New York, 1889. 18 OBSTACLES educational function is unable to furnish an equal education to that of the larger or wealthier town or city. Here the small country town is commonly at a disadvantage schoolwise as compared with the city, and the poor state or country in comparison with the larger and richer. A narrow and exclusive idea of education has prevailed as a result of one or more of the above named obstacles. The professional, wealthy and leisure classes have shaped the schools to meet their class ideals, and thus the industrial, mechanical, agricultural and laboring classes have had scant provision even in educational schemes avowedly public and for the people. The broader movement, called the school of modern democracy, has somewhat enlarged the system of popular in- struction and recognized the wisdom and necessity of a more natural and comprehensive educational scheme. The obstacles to universal education here enum- erated in a general way might be set forth in details at much length. Their persistence, injustice, and evil consequences might be illustrated from personal and social history, as well as from the larger fields of national, international and race experience, for ig- norance, mental repression, narrow training are a menace to the whole fabric of human society. It would, however, be a serious error to overlook the other issues which the ardent educational reformer is prone to forget, that is, the condition of friction and conflict in human affairs. This appears in edu- cational ideas and administration. It both aids and 19 WORLD EDUCATION retards educational and social progress. The con- tributions of the governing classes of society to edu- cation have been important and valuable, and, in current and future readjustments of education as a personal, national or world force should be retained and set in right relations to universal progress. 20 CHAPTER IV PROGRESS MADE, VOLUNTARYISM A chief distinction of the present day is a community of opinion and knowledge, in different nations, existing in a degree heretofore unknown. DANIEL WEBSTEB. Tous les hommes Sclaires s'empressent de reconnaitre, qu' il n* y pas ou ne doit pas avoir une science francaise, une science aUemande, mais que la verite, une pour tous, doit e"tre recherchee d' un commun effort. LABOUSSE. JOHN FOSTER in his celebrated essay, "The Evils of Popular Ignorance," * issued in 1819, pleads for a national system of education and appeals to the governing classes of Great Britain to grant the ignorant mass of society access to the rudiments of learning. His plea for elementary instruction for the people is historic. It moves about the whole horizon of motives to show that selfish as well as high considerations should move the influential classes of a nation to assume this task. The appeal of John Foster is not a solitary voice crying in the wilderness of popular ignorance. Other strong ap- peals and numerous efforts, more or less isolated and temporary, but adding to the general onward move- ment, appear in the educational history of the past 1 FOSTER, JOHN, An Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance, 1819 (several editions), Revised, New York, 1859. 21 WORLD EDUCATION century, not to go back to earlier periods. The transition from the conditions under which John Foster's plea was made to existing conditions has been so swift and vast that it properly ranks among the wonders of the world. The few intervening decades show the establishment of systems of elementary popular education among all leading nations and a movement toward this goal among backward nations. Further, resting upon the basis of widespread ele- mentary education, a system of secondary education has been built up which is undergoing expansion. Still more, in some states and countries the highest areas of education, the university and the school of research, are established and are opened free to all the people. A distinguished university president, President James B. Angell of Michigan University, recently made the following statement : " From Ohio to the Pacific and from Minnesota to Texas educa- tion is free from kindergarten to university, and sup- ported by public tax, and there is no tax more will- ingly paid by the people." This statement, which might be put in other forms and somewhat modified in many other sections of the world, indicates a change and expansion in popular education, silent, irresistible, which has marked the last century. This movement has not been estimated as highly as the future historian is likely to estimate it, for among the revolutions of the last hundred years none is more remarkable and noteworthy. The influences which have co-operated to produce this change of attitude toward popular education in 22 PROGRESS MADE, VOLUNTARYISM some parts of the world, and also to give a material impulse to universal or world education, have been various, and are worthy of careful examination both on account of what they have done and what they may still accomplish. Among the early, and, we may add, permanent promoters of education is voluntaryism. This may appear, Proteus-like, under many forms. Private in- dividuals, persons of wealth, religious denominations, efforts emanating from groups of men led by phil- anthropic or business motives, the press and other agencies apart from government, have played no small part in the advancement of popular intelligence. These contributions may be made clearer by citing some notable examples in illustration. Peter Cooper of New York City, who accumulated a fortune in industry, and who lived from 1791 to 1888, founded in that city an institution for the free instruction of the young. Its work is broad and effective and reaches a large number of students. Its usefulness has commended the institution to other benefactors by whom it has been aided and enlarged. The Cooper Institute is worthy of study as an example of what a single individual, a pioneer in education, may accomplish, self-impelled to the task of increasing the educational opportunity of the people. Ezra Cornell (1807-1874), the founder of Cornell Uni- versity, declared, " I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study." x He thus expressed the idea which is at the heart of uni- 1 Autobiography of ANDBEW D. WHITE, Vol. 1, p. 300, N. Y., 1907. 23 WORLD EDUCATION ,versal education. The university * which he estab- lished, with the co-operation of the national govern- ment, shows how a voluntary worker in the field of education may serve a commonwealth, as Peter Cooper served a metropolis. Friends of education have given an impulse to education in a wider area, as George Peabody (1795-1869) in the Fund for Southern education, John D. Rockefeller (1839- ) in the education fund in aid of higher education throughout the United States, and Cecil John Rhodes (1853-1902) in the fund to promote the education of picked youth among Anglo-Saxon peoples under the auspices of Oxford University. One of the broadest donations to education was that of John Macie Smith- son ( 1765-1 829), who bequeathed to the United States of America 105,000 to found at Washington an institution " for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." This fund started the Smithsonian Institution which under the patronage and further aid of the United States government is one of the world forces operating for universal educa- tion. It is obvious from even a superficial study of the voluntary movements of recent decades that prog- ress is making toward the application of the idea of universal education, that is, toward the education of man irrespective of locality, nation or race. To this end the voluntary efforts of men eminent in philan- thropy, industry, or citizens of the world are the strongest elements, especially in the earlier stages of the work. 1 Gives free education to 600 youth from New York State. 24 PROGRESS MADE, VOLUNTARYISM In citing the above-named instances of voluntary- ism in education it should be added that the list of benefactors to education, who have aided this cause locally or in a larger area, is long and growing. Others might readily be mentioned whose services in this connection have been as great, if not greater, than any here recorded. Besides, numerous examples appear where an individual without large pecuniary wealth has accomplished vast results. Thus Mary Lyon, the founder of Mt. Holyoke Seminary; John Pounds, the starter of ragged schools ; Robert Raikes, the promoter of Sunday Schools ; John R. Vincent, the originator of the Chautauqua movement ; Dwight L. Moody, the originator of the Northfield schools, and other men and women to whom education as a social, constructive force strongly appealed, and who had the genius to invent or marshall educational resources, have been potent factors in popular edu- cation. The services thus rendered have been so marked that many incline to the view that the great- est services are not those which money can supply or command, but of a higher and, what may be termed, a spiritual kind. Religious bodies or associations which draw their support from the churches and from the religious sentiment diffused throughout society fill a large place in the progress of education. How the reli- gious motive affects the cause of education is a sub- ject which opens a large field to which we need not here refer at length. Religion is placed by some thinkers under education as itself fundamentally an 25 WORLD EDUCATION educational force ; others set education under religion as one of its natural products. Our aim is simply to show in brief the debt of modern education to religion. It may be said that religion, notably Christianity which is prevalent in the western world, is an intellectual as well as a moral and spiritual force from the fact that it has been the vehicle for the diffusion of a body of literature, the Bible, which itself is a generally accepted interpretation or mirror of human life; that it is the parent of the greatest ideas which the mind can grasp, as the idea of God, the universe, man as a cosmical being or a member of the universe. On the moral plane also religion is an efficient factor in education in the larger sense, for it influences character and conduct; invests human life from infancy to age with sacredness and dignity; and reveals with a force and beauty elsewhere un- equalled the ideas of human relationships, equality, duty, the value and frailty of life, the pathos and inevitableness of death. This it does with a sobriety and wisdom far removed from the extravagances with which these themes are sometimes treated elsewhere. It not only deals with humanity in the large, the families, nations, epochs of history, and has a univer- sal, world outlook, but invests the individual with remarkable interest, as though his life were a sacred place not to be lightly invaded or desecrated. It gives a status both to the high and the lowly, as the child, the stranger, the backward and the broken members of human society. It thus supplies educa- PROGRESS MADE, VOLUNTARYISM tion with spirit, motive or method of approach, and furnishes suggestion, illustration and material. The view of man which it presents, his capacity for im- provement, its universal hospitality which is race in- clusive, its tenderness and insight which permit no outcast class, its sane and practical view of life which is favorable to the harmonization of needless social discord and conflict, show that religion fits itself to the individual as well as to the whole race. The past century and notably recent decades reveal the close connection of the purely voluntary and religious spirit and the general progress of education. This spirit has been a pioneer, incentive and reinforcement to state and national education. It holds a similar relation to international educational efforts as yet in their infancy, but is freer in its adaptation and mobility. The pervasive influence of religion as it affects society in institutions, work and government creates a favorable condition for educational effort whether local or universal. The schools planted and maintained by the religious bodies in the various countries aggregate a great number. Some statis- tics 1 are furnished to show what some religious bodies are doing for education in the United States and in other countries. These statements are incomplete, but suggestive of the great work con- ducted under religious auspices the world over, a work likely to increase in the future. An examination of the educational work of some leading religious bodies serves to show the possibili- 1 See also church year books in Bibliography. 27 WORLD EDUCATION ties of a free, voluntary organization in the diffusion of educational opportunity. An interesting compila- tion appears in the report for 1909 of the United States Commissioner of Education, giving a list of universities, colleges and technological schools in the United States for men and for both sexes, and stating whence such institutions derive their support. It is indicative also of the large place which the religious denomination fills in American higher education. The total number of the above-named institutions is 493, classified as follows : State (national, state, city, territorial) 88 Non-sectarian 84 Religious Denominations: Baptist 34 Christian (Disciples) 14 Congregational 13 Lutheran 23 Methodist 68 Presbyterian 44 Roman Catholic 54 Other religious bodies 66 316 Unclassified 5 Total 493 The Young Men's Christian Associations rest for their support chiefly on a group of Christian denom- inations (Protestant) and have educational centres at many of the world's chief cities as well as in minor communities. Such centres are numerous especially in Great Britian, Germany, the United States and Canada, but they are also found in many other parts of the world. A Summary of the Associations in all countries follows : 28 PROGRESS MADE, VOLUNTARYISM Country Number of asso- ciations Number of members Paid general secre- taries Buildings owned or occupied by Asso- ciations Value of buildings and grounds North America (includ- ing Mexico and West Indies) South America .... J 2,017 9 5,723 498,146 2,614 353,734 1,079 13 279 698 2 507 $50,928,515 160,000 10,515,805 Asia 297 21 783 126 37 1,044,000 Africa 21 3393 8 4 500,000 21 10,180 16 16 1,054,655 Totals . . . . 8,090 889,850 1,521 1,264 $64,202,975 In its educational work the Young Men's Christian Association seeks to improve both men and industry. It has 2,443 teachers instructing 52,247 employed men and boys, equal in number to nine Harvards or eighteen Yales. They study 140 subjects in com- mercial, industrial and technical lines. They pay $430,000 in tuition fees toward $661,000 annual expenses. In addition 18,000 others study in edu- cational clubs; 430,000 others attend practical talks. The religious bodies constitute a factor in the movement under consideration. During the past century this influence has appeared in the training of teachers, the establishment of schools of all grades, including higher institutions, in the creation of pub- lic opinion which has made state and national edu- cation possible among western nations, and advanced education the world over. The voluntary character and the mobility of religious bodies are favorable elements for educational effort. The work to-day 29 WORLD EDUCATION conducted under their auspices is widely diffused. It comprises educational enterprises, which are of a high order in quality and centres of good influence in many countries, among the backward as well as the foremost peoples. Doubtless all these teaching forces will secure better organization and in conse- quence greater economy and efficiency. The religious body may thus come to a deeper consciousness that it is a world force in education. It is also possible that cooperation among religious bodies which have hitherto been isolated in educational effort may be recognized as necessary to the best results. A closer and more organic cooperation is beginning in the most populous of the oriental cities and at other world centres. It is unnecessary here to enlarge upon these phenomena in modern educational oppor- tunity. When the nature of religion and of edu- cation, conducted from a religious motive, are con- sidered, the future of the religious element of society in education is clearly destined to be noteworthy. Both religion and education are essentially diffusive in their nature. It may be found possible without the sacrifice of cherished convictions for religious leaders who differ in their faiths, as those of the Christian and non-Christian worlds, all claiming to serve the good of humanity, to unite in some areas of educational effort. Among these are the diminu- tion or removal of illiteracy so that all mankind may have access to the learning of the world, and the application of science to the world's work so that the lot of the workers of the world may be 30 PROGRESS MADE, VOLUNTARYISM alleviated. Such cooperation* if practicable, may lead also toward world betterment, an aim which commends itself to men of moral ideals the world over. Under the head of voluntaryism also may be noted numerous organizations of teachers and others more or less directly engaged in the work of education. These are commonly maintained without aid from government or wealthy donors. One of the most conspicuous examples of a great teachers' association is the National Education Association, which meets annually at some point in the United States. It has 7000 permanent active members and annual income of about $40,000, derived mainly from small mem- bership fees. Its accumulated funds are $170,000, and its annual sessions extend over six days. In some years as many as 25,000 to 30,000 teachers have attended its annual sessions. The organization comprises eighteen different departments, which are independent societies with separate sessions, feder- ated in the general organization which holds a cer- tain number of general sessions during the annual meeting. The association has a permanent secre- tary, publishes annual proceedings, a volume of special value as indicating the educational conditions throughout the United States. Persons from ad- jacent countries, as Canada, are connected with the association, which probably represents the English- speaking teachers of North America as adequately as any existing association. The influence of this voluntary body is extensive, but other educational 31 WORLD EDUCATION bodies of great influence, more limited in membership, also hold important annual sessions and render nota- ble service to education. These embrace university, college, secondary school, state, county and other organizations of various kinds, including librarians' associations. In other countries important volun- tary educational bodies flourish. The British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science is a con- spicuous example. Its annual meeting, held in dif- ferent parts of the British Empire, brings together a large number of eminent men of science, and is one of the great annual events of the educational world. Its remarkable mobility is shown by the wide distribution of the places of annual meeting, as South Africa, in 1907; York, England, in 1908; Winnipeg, Manitoba, in 1909. The Ligue Beige de 1'Enseignement and numerous other voluntary societies in different countries are an important element in national education. A closer relation among national societies by international cooper- ation seems probable, if not necessary and in- evitable. Various international associations already exist in the interest of special sciences. Inter- national education congresses and associations, as the International Association of Academies, have been noteworthy in the educational history of recent years. These facts point toward the better organ- ization of teachers and teachers' resources the world over for universal education. The federation on some just plan of the higher educational institutions of the world or their co- 82 PROGRESS MADE, VOLUNTARYISM operation for specific purposes related to the edu- cation of the world is suggested by co-temporary movements which bring these centres of education into closer relations. Among these are the exchange of university lecturers or professors, by which the services of eminent teachers from one university may be secured at other university centres. Already Eng- land, Scotland, Germany, France, Denmark, Scandi- navia, Italy, Japan, and the United States partici- pate in this form of educational interchange with mutual benefit. This international service of learned men is sustained by private endowment, government subsidy, or in other ways. The important sugges- tion is that the plan is capable of enlargement, and by appropriate support may make the higher learn- ing of the world contributory to the intellectual prog- ress of all nations. 1 The relation of the teacher and education to world betterment and politics, to international peace, friendship and cooperation grows more apparent with the progress of the educational idea. Numerous other agencies, voluntary in the sense that they are without government support, exist upon which we may not here enlarge. Among them are schools of correspondence, lyceums, museums, books, periodicals, libraries, the press, organizations of women, of labor, of boards of trade, of agriculture, of the older and newer professions, all of which, as their proceedings demonstrate, set more or less em- 1 SCHUSTER, ABTHTB, International Science, S. I. R., 1906, pp. 495-514. 33 WORLD EDUCATION phasis on education. Business corporations also have in some cases established schools, technical in character, for the better development of their own work. The railways, mechanical, electrical and other establishments have achieved remarkable results in this connection. This is one of the results of new scientific discoveries, mechanical inventions, and the application of science to the world's work which have necessitated improved technical training and have produced new professions. The bearing of these enterprises on the training of human society is evi- dent, and the more remarkable because they spring not from government action but from voluntary initiative. 84, CHAPTER V PROGRESS MADE, GOVERNMENT The commonwealth of mankind. SENECA. Education is the chief defence of nations. BUHKE. The great problems of creation link all humanity together. ABTHUB SCHUSTEB. THE place of government in education is so large that it will be impossible to furnish here an ade- quate statement of its work. It will suffice, however, to suggest some lines and areas of educational effort which government cultivates. The difficulty of classi- fying effort as emanating from governmental, pri- vate, voluntary or religious support or initiative is obvious to every student who seeks to trace the educational movement throughout a generation or longer period. For while these agencies are for- mally separate and independent, they naturally inter- penetrate one another, owing to the complicated nature of human society. Government, especially modern popular government, rests upon the will or voluntary support of the people and is affected by the religious, ethical, social and industrial ideals; it is, in theory, the people organized for certain specific ends ; among these ends education has grown from slender beginnings to vast proportions. To exhibit the part of government in education from 35 WORLD EDUCATION the small civic unit to the state and nation and, fur- ther, the cooperation in a measure of different gov- ernments by international action is too large a mat- ter for our present limits. It is here necessary to compress statements so far as possible. One of the most interesting and common examples of government action in education is that of the smallest civic unit, to cite an illustration from New England, the town unit. Under town government the people, or the legal voters, assemble to act among other things upon the question of public education; to vote their appropriation to be devoted to the cost of buildings, supplies, teachers' salaries and other expenses, to deliberate on the kind of instruc- tion and other matters pertaining to the conduct of the schools. The scope of their action is limited by that of the state or larger civic unit, but much remains subject to town action. The value of these meetings of the people in the interest of education, as well as other functions of government, is obvious, for it brings home to every member of the local body politic the subject of education as a vital and funda- mental matter. It compels thought, discussion, ac- tion, and, what is one of the sovereign features of government, taxation. The city, especially the large city and preeminently the city of the first rank with a population of half a million or more, fills a great place in education. The city stands for a concentration of the population, wealth, talent and resources of an extensive area. Its magnitude is relatively greater than is generally 36 PROGRESS MADE, GOVERNMENT understood. New York City, for example, has a population (1910) of 4,113,043. This much ex- ceeds the population of any of the United States, except four, viz., Illinois, New York, Ohio, and Penn- sylvania. It is 1,109,363 above that of Massachu- setts, and 1,162,936 more than the aggregate of all the rest of New England. The property valuation of New York City is $7,416,838,299 over seventy- five per cent of New York state, greater than any other state of the United States, and above the total valuation of New England. Boston in population exceeds New Hampshire, Vermont, or Rhode Island, and its valuation is greater than any New England state, except Massachusetts, and also exceeds the combined valuations of Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- mont and Rhode Island. 1 Similar comparisons apply to all the great cities of the world. The movement of society toward cities during recent decades has been remarkable. It is illustrated in every modern country, especially where large industries and systems of transportation prevail. The great city makes a unique contribution to education in its local aspects and furnishes impor- tant suggestions for universal or world education. Its contribution touches, among other items: (a) The scope of education. The large numbers of urban youth, their varied needs, adult or supple- mentary instruction, the industrial conditions make a broad type of education imperative, and also lift 1 World Almanac, N. Y., 1911. 37 WORLD EDUCATION the plane of education into the highest areas. Thus ordinary instruction comprises a wider field than in the smaller community and is subject to frequent revision and expansion. Higher education is repre- sented by the college, university, technical schools of many kinds, schools of research and professions. In some cases these are supported by the city govern- ment; in other cases the general advantages of the city furnish the opportunity for the location of the advanced institution. (&) Equality of educational opportunity. The great city furnishes an illustration also of an im- portant principle in education, that of equality of opportunity. The mechanism of the city affords the means for the application of this principle more extensively than the small and scattered community, for the city has wealth, population, facilities of transportation, the intelligence and energy that usually accompany the foregoing conditions, and these favorable conditions exist in a small urban area. The drift toward cities in the last half-century is a world phenomenon and has an obvious bearing on universal education. Whatever the city has of educational advantage, maintained by public tax, is open to all youth equally according to the measure of their aptitude and ability. This principle which prevails in the city is worked out less readily in the small and scattered communities and nations where area and limited resources present difficulties. It is, however, essential to universal education and the tendency is toward its world-wide application. 38 PROGRESS MADE, GOVERNMENT (c) The great cities, especially those which have grown immensely during the past century, subsequent to the abolition or weakening of the feudal system and comparatively free immigration, afford also an example of international education. Many such cities are international in character, possessing large groups of foreign peoples undergoing the process of assimilation, and in addition certain dominant and numerically superior native elements. Boston, for example, has in its population (Massachusetts Census, 1905) 385,633 native born, 209,747 foreign born. The latter represent most of the countries of Europe and to a less degree South America and Asia; also a considerable element of the negro race. New York City has (1909) 37 per cent of foreign born ; Philadelphia, 22.8 per cent ; Chicago, 34.5 per cent. An examination into the composition of other great cities reveals similar conditions, with more or less variations. The application of an educa- tional system to the children of different nationalities, gathered in one civic society, is a striking example of the possibilities of international education, and suggestive of a still wider application of the same idea to all nations by some wise and adaptive educa- tional system; that is, the great city teaches, among other educational lessons, the practicability and ne- cessity of universal or world education. This prin- ciple is not new, for science, literature, music, art, mechanics, invention, government, ethics, religion, all features and possessions of civilization, are interna- 39 WORLD EDUCATION tional in origin and development. They belong not to a part of the planet, but to the whole; not to one or few nations, but to the human race. Passing from the great city to the State as it exists in a federated government, like the United States of America, certain state educational functions appear. The State is the guardian of the educational privileges of its people. Under State law the scope and kind of instruction are specified, educational tax- ation is arranged, supervision within appropriate limits is established. In addition, the State directly participates in education by the founding of schools, especially higher and technical institutions, by grants of funds to schools, and in various other ways ad- vances education within its borders. It may also be said that many departments of the State in a general sense promote education by investigations, experiments, publications and other services which are in the line of research or of the diffusion of knowledge. A democratic state is itself an educa- tional agency, and the conduct of government under a democracy from the simple local functions to the highest national action is conceded to be one of the most pervasive educational forces of society. The nation also has its place in popular education. Every student of government recognizes the intimate connection between popular education and national welfare and efficiency. The United States of America has established a bureau of education, whose reports furnish information as to the educational work in all parts of its territory. They also give a broad 40 PROGRESS MADE, GOVERNMENT world outlook on the work of education as conducted by other leading nations. Besides other departments of the government, notably that of agriculture, pur- sue special lines of inquiry and research, and by publications, and otherwise, give wide diffusion of knowledge. National legislation has rendered important serv- ice to education. One of the historic educational laws in the United States is that named the Morrill Act, which established what are termed " the land grant " colleges, one in each state. These colleges have furnished free instruction in technological, agri- cultural and domestic science lines, and have produced noteworthy results throughout the nation. Other legislation, enacted or prospective, indicates that the nation has a large place to fill in the education of its people. As the state tends to level up the in- equalities among its richer and poorer towns and cities, so the nation is likely to serve as an equalizer of educational advantages among its richer and poorer states and territories. National educational laws to teach the application of science and me- chanics to the work of the people, to advance civic and liberal learning throughout the nation, are among the most effective aids to popular education. For obvious reasons, a wise educational law is in itself a far-reaching and pervasive influence. It expresses, forms and records public opinion, and may mark a new era in educational progress. The resources of a people stand back of its educational system and furnish a mine of support sometimes misused or par- 41 WORLD EDUCATION tially wasted, but which, if administered with wis- dom and economy, benefits the whole people and safeguards the national future. Some remarkable examples of national work in education appear in the territories of the United States, before they are admitted to statehood, and in new possessions, as Porto Rico, Hawaii, the Philip- pines; also in Cuba, for a time under control of the United States. In the latter cases a general system of education was devised and established with a celerity which in former generations would have been impossible. It may be granted that these sys- tems, imposed upon alien races, must have their de- fects and require careful revision and administration, but it remains that the establishment of such systems is a remarkable event illustrating large educational possibilities, the transference of educational power, international or universal education. The establishment of libraries, museums, schools of special kinds, bulletins, reports and other publica- tions of value; participation with other nations in educational enterprises which naturally require inter- national action are familiar examples of the nation as a factor in education. The postal system of a nation has many and varied uses, and its service to education does not receive due recognition. One of its aims is the diffusion of intelligence. In general, facility of intercommuni- cation is in itself an educational factor, but the special and moderate cost at which newspapers and periodicals have mail carriage has aided the spread 42 PROGRESS MADE, GOVERNMENT of knowledge by the periodical press, which without a favorable postal system would have been impos- sible. The further improvement of the postal system to embrace a book or library post is expected. It will make practicable a national library system, which, if extended to the postal union, assures the universal library whereby the reader in any part of the world shall have access to the world library wealth. Government, since the rise of state and national education, ranks among the leading agents in educa- tion, and in some respects the first. An examination into the annual reports of a single nation, showing the scope and the magnitude of its educational func- tion from its smallest unit to its largest institutions, reveals the vast number of persons under training, the great expenditure of public wealth involved, and the extensive character of the training provided. The United States of America (exclusive of de- pendencies) for example, has in its common schools (elementary and high schools) maintained by pub- lic funds, 17,061,962 1 pupils, or 19.62 per cent of the total population; 496,612 teachers; annual ex- penditure of $371,344,410 (1907-8). Great Britain and Ireland have in their elementary schools 7,094,- 414 pupils; France, 5,506,882; Germany, 10,224,- 125; Argentina, 543,881 ; Japan, 5,348,213; Aus- tralasia, 784,008. World statistics present similar conditions in all progressive nations. The educa- tional enterprises of the nations which conduct sys- 1 U. S. Com. E. R., 1908, Vol. 2, pp. 601-5, Washington, D. C. 43 WORLD EDUCATION terns of public education show to what proportions education under public auspices and maintained by public funds has grown. The vastness of the work has in itself certain marked perils, against which civic society must be perpetually on its guard. Perils of extravagance, wastefulness, neglect of the individual in claiming to care for the mass of so- ciety, a delusive conviction that the size of the work may of itself have peculiar value, an arrogance toward other and voluntary agencies in the field, the tempta- tion to a narrow, unethical conception of state edu- cation are among the defects which sometimes ap- pear and require correction. It still remains that education under government control in its magnitude is one of the phenomena and marvels of the world. The transition from national to international action for education is not so long or difficult a pro- cess as is commonly supposed. The leading nations in the conduct of their educational work are deeply influenced to-day by international motives. A vol- ume recently issued to emphasize the need of sec- ondary education in Great Britain pursues a comparative study of that educational area as it appears in three other leading nations, viz., Ger- many, France, and the United States. 1 The argument urges a British national educational policy based on international considerations. Commercial education, as conducted in Germany, contemplates not merely the improvement of domestic commerce, but the neces- 1 WARE, FABIAN, Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry, N. Y., 1901. 44 PROGRESS MADE, GOVERNMENT sity of training German youth to take part in the commerce of the world. Thus, to cite merely the language item, in the program of the German school of commerce, the languages of nations with which Germany cultivates commercial relations, as English, French, Russian, and others, are part of the scheme of instruction. Italy has undertaken an educational plan to train its people, where necessary, to be in- telligent emigrants by furnishing instruction relative to countries desirable for the Italian emigrant, and knowledge useful and necessary for the prospective emigrant. In these and similar efforts it is evident leading nations are passing into a general policy of education where the national idea merges into a world idea. Thus a larger conception of education is fixed in national thought, which looks toward a new period of educational extension where it tran- scends national limitations and becomes universal, or world-wide. The magnitude and variety of the educational work of the leading national governments, and the governmental cooperation of nations in certain functions which affect not one, but all countries, are indicative of a new attitude toward education as a constructive world force. Among examples of such international educational effort may be cited the International Chamber of Agriculture, with head- quarters at Rome, Italy; the Bureau of American Republics, with headquarters at Washington, D. C. ; the Postal Union, with headquarters at Berne, Switzerland; international expositions conducted 45 WORLD EDUCATION under the auspices and cooperation of various governments. The conditions, enumerated in this chapter, and the growth of ideals which affect all human interests, indicate the progress made toward universal or world education by society organized in government, and suggest its further development in the future. CHAPTER VI REASONS FOR GOVERNMENT PROMOTION OF EDUCATION Puerilis institutio mundi renovatio est; haec gymnasia Dei castra sunt, hie bonorum omnium semina latent. Video solum fundamen- tumque reipublicae quod inulti non videant interpositu terrae. SACCHTNI. The Commonwealth requires the education of the people as the safeguard of liberty and order. INSCRIPTION, BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRAEY. rflHE more important reasons for the participation * of government in education may be briefly stated. (a) The police theory. The theory of govern- ment termed the police theory, which regards gov- ernment as instituted for the protection of person and property, is one basis for the establishment of a good public educational system. Ignorance and personal and social inefficiency are a menace to all good government. The cultivation and diffusion of intelligence and virtue are essential to a sound social and civic state, and the foundation of stable and just government. This argument for public education was early recognized and is now generally conceded. Differences of opinion exist as to the extent to which the government should go in supplying educational advantages, but these differences do not lessen the conviction upon which free public education rests. 47 WORLD EDUCATION Such education should reach every member of the body politic, especially the youth, so that the whole people may have suitable training. State and na- tional education are the chief agents to meet these issues. While other agencies, private, religious, cor- porate, are valuable factors in the training of the people, the state and nation alone have the authority and resources requisite in this connection to reach the whole people. This argument has worked its way to public acceptance. All objections rest on subordinate issues, which the civic wisdom of the people will doubtless adjust. (h) The constructive body politic. The police theory of government is conceded to be important, but it alone is partial and inadequate. The indi- vidual member of the civic society must be kept in order and prevented from doing injury to others, but he must also do his part in maintaining and im- proving the civic body. The constructive as well as the preventive and protective ideas are united in a wise scheme of universal public training. If a fairer and better civic fabric is to be built up, all must be fitted to contribute their share to the result. Hereupon rests the wisdom not only of a general educational scheme to reach the body of society, but of provision for higher education, even the highest, in order not only that all men may have oppor- tunity, but that the ablest and exceptional members of society may be trained to the level of their powers. Society requires both the service of the body of the people whose personal resources are ordinary, and 48 PROMOTION OF EDUCATION that of men of genius in science, art, mechanics, litera- ture, and other areas of knowledge and attainment. The constructive idea in education opens new areas of opportunity and aspiration to mankind, and also tends to lessen the. emphasis formerly attached to the police argument for popular education. (c) The economic idea. Professor Thomas Henry Huxley, advocating the scientific training of English youth, said : " I weigh my words when I say that if the nation could purchase a potential Watt or Davy or Faraday at the cost of a hundred thousand pounds down he would be dirt cheap for the money. It is a mere commonplace and every-day piece of knowl- edge, that what these three men did has produced untold millions of wealth in the narrowest economical sense of the word." A new emphasis is now placed on the economic side of the material resources of society. This arises from various causes. The ne- cessity for a reasonable maximum of result for a minimum of outlay touches modern life at every point, personal, social, corporate, governmental. The waste of public wealth, of national resources, the folly of the reckless rich and poor in expenditures, the frequent misplacement of resources designed for charity, education, and religion have been set forth by the political and social economist. Science has shown also how waste products may be utilized ; how by-products may sometimes be as valuable as the direct products of industry. This comparatively new point of view affects the argument for public education. It lays fresh emphasis on the necessity WORLD EDUCATION of universal education and forces the idea of adap- tiveness and discrimination into a public system which otherwise becomes monotonous, mechanical, and repressive. It claims that every human being has potential value, and it is the business of society to search out and utilize that value which might otherwise lie latent. As civic society becomes more conscious of its powers, it aims to bring each mem- ber to himself, to a consciousness of his powers, as an essential part of the public wealth. Its instru- ment in this procedure is chiefly educational. (d) The corporate idea. The argument for pub- lic education has been well stated by Horace Mann l as resting on the corporate idea of society. Society, if well organized, is a perpetual corporation, one commonwealth, extending from generation to genera- tion. It is the duty and interest of society to guard its members, for in so doing it guards itself, and by neglecting this duty, society itself is to a greater or less degree exposed to loss and peril. Public edu- cation in its aim to bring a member of society by appropriate training and development to his best estate adds to the corporate wealth and well-being of the whole. This argument presses the cause of edu- cation close to the whole social body. It is not a benefaction of wealth, nor a necessity of the poor, nor a requirement of a social, industrial, or other class or stratum, but a concern of the body politic as a perpetual corporation, or commonwealth. 1 MANN, HORACE, The Ground of the Free School System, Old South Leaflets, No. 109, Boston. 50 CHAPTER VII FAVORABLE CONDITIONS It is for man to tame the chaos; on every side to scatter the seeds of science and of song, that climate, corn, animals, men, may be milder, and the germs of love and benefit may be multiplied. EMERSON. ri^HE recognition of the idea of universal education 1 as applicable to all peoples in all parts of the earth is probably very general, and at this time awakens little or no serious objection or opposition. Differences of opinion may appear among educational leaders and also among statesmen, men of affairs, and other influential elements in the various nations as to subordinate questions which are of importance but capable of reasonable adjustment. Such issues touch the scope and kind of education requisite in different countries and among different races. What is a natural and effective type of training for back- ward nations, as well as for advanced nations? Do the same classes appear in considering the whole human race educationally as appear in a smaller area of humanity, that is, are there normal and abnormal types, forward, backward, defective, degenerate groups, to be expected in working out the education of the whole race? Will the educational experience of the most civilized nations, accumulated slowly and throughout a long period, furnish some fixed and '51 WORLD EDUCATION satisfactory lines of approach to the world problem of education, or may that experience mislead and prove more or less obstructive? Is there a demand for caution, patience, sympathy, insight, investiga- tion, and careful administration as human society, utilizing what wisdom it may have, addresses itself to the new issues of the training of the human race? It is evident that many questions as well as numer- ous details start up in this connection, but this is simply a repetition in the main and in different forms of the questions of the past and of the issues which in every progressive nation confront each genera- tion. The general conditions of civilized nations and of the world are believed to be favorable for a more concerted and common movement for universal edu- cation. Some of these are here enumerated. The material conditions. Among these we note roads. Some thinkers have set emphasis upon the road as a factor in human progress. Horace Bushnell, one of the ablest of American religious thinkers, has a sermon on " The Day of Roads," 1 in which he shows the intimate connection between the road and civilization, that the great nations have been great road builders. The history of roads which traces the transition from the jungle to the trail, and ultimately to the firm highway, is inter- woven with the social progress of mankind. In the larger sense the present is an age of roads. This statement does not lessen our appreciation of the achievements in road building of earlier periods, 1 BUSHNELL, HORACE, The Day of Roads, Hartford, Conn., 1846'. 52 FAVORABLE CONDITIONS notably those of the Roman Empire by which all parts of the ancient world were connected with the capital, Rome, by a network of great public high- ways. The multiplication of common roads is a^ phenomenon of civilized life. Still further, the appli- cation of steam power, the better working of iron and steel, the mechanical inventions have made the railroad the modern highway. The railroads have increased in number, have developed into systems, have crossed rivers by bridges, have pierced moun- tains by tunnels, have traversed continents, and to- day belt the globe with bands of steel, supplementing the railroad where land fails by the modern steam- ship route, which is another form of road across the oceans. Enterprises of this nature surpass in magni- tude and number the anticipations of leaders of former generations in land and ocean transportation. Of the six continents of the earth, North America, and Europe are traversed by several railway routes ; Asia has one ; South America, Africa and Australia in the near future may have each a through railway route to serve as the base line of many systems. The expansion of local common roads, railroads and electric roads has proceeded by leaps and bounds. In some sections of the world nearly or quite all of the population has immediate connection with the steam or electric road service, both of which reach the whole population in many cities of the world and their environs. This conquest of the land, partly achieved and still progressing, is supplemented by the conquest of the ocean. With the exception of 53 WORLD EDUCATION the North and South polar regions, the waters of the earth have been explored, mapped, routes of pas- sage traced, and regular lines of ocean travel established. In addition, other means of intercommunication have been devised. Chief among these are the tele- graph and the telephone. Our familiarity with these factors in the co-temporary life of the world some- what dulls our sense of their utility and value. They bind together the world in an organism so compact and sensitive that each part is in touch with all parts. The functions of this improved or rather wholly new mechanism of intercommunication appears in the daily press which records the life of the world in its activities and in its bright and tragic features, and makes each reader a citizen of the world, a cos- mopolitan. The British war office touches with tele- graphic finger every part of the empire. Were this possible in 1814 the battle of New Orleans with its loss of life and property would not have taken place. That battle occurred after the signing of the treaty of peace, 1 but the methods of bearing news then ex- isting were slow, and the opposing armies were un- aware that their battle was wholly needless. A disas- ter occurs on a steamer in mid-ocean. The wireless telegraph summons quick relief. The bearing of these means of swift intercourse on world education is evident. Another material and favorable condition is the 1 Treaty of Ghent executed Dec. 24, 1814; battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815. 54, FAVORABLE CONDITIONS postal system, already referred to, which is co-termi- nous with each nation and reaches by the postal union all parts of the world. This puts each indi- vidual in touch with all mankind and lends itself to innumerable uses. We leave this part of the sub- ject with a quotation from Campbell: 1 "Facilities for intercommunication take from human life its iso- lation, and bind the race together in one family. Transcontinental railways, ocean steamship lines, submarine cables, international postal systems strengthen the old and create new human ties. The social organism, the moral and spiritual unity of the race become more than the dream of poet or prophet. The postman thus ranks among the social reformers. As he passes over land and sea, knowledge, commerce, charity, friendship, brotherhood go with him. He blazes a path through the wilderness and bears the torch of a better civilization over the earth." When the present condition of human society throughout the habitable globe is examined, the ma- terial side or the mechanism of society, which has become more conspicuous since the civilization of steam and electricity, presents itself as a favorable factor in the campaign for world education. What has been accomplished by railway management or by railway cooperation with educational forces is prophetic of greater things in the future. The policy of systems of transportation has become more co- operative with the areas of country and the popula- tions they serve. A recognition of the fact that 1 SCOTT, W., A Cheap Library Post, p. 1, Cambridge, Mass., 1901. 55 WORLD EDUCATION with the growth of a country in population, contact with the benefits of civilization, and contentment, the welfare of the great corporations is also promoted, has grown in recent decades. By railway cooperation the teacher, lecturer, learner may be conveyed from point to point, movable libraries, museums, schools may be transported here and there; cities and na- tions may exchange exhibits; universal expositions, reduced in bulk, carefully selected and typical in details, may pass from one part of the world to another. An enlightened policy which shall utilize the world's land and ocean transportation systems to promote the education of human society is likely to be developed more and more in the future. Thus the material forces of civilization may contribute to the higher intellectual and spiritual civilization of mankind. One further favorable material condition may be noted in the tendency to larger units of administra- tion in public affairs, in the general interests of the community, and in the world's work. The business corporation with limited liabilities is a little more than half a century old in English law, but so swift and vast has been the growth of corporations that the nation alone seems competent to supervise and control some of these giant combinations to prevent abuses, and in some cases international control may become necessary. In movements for reform, charity, public health and protection, safeguarding against the propagation of disease, insect pests, the reclama- tion of waste land areas and other public issues, the 56 FAVORABLE CONDITIONS necessity of a larger grasp of the situation is met by correspondingly great organized agencies. The same condition and similar results are apparent in local and worldwide enterprises. The provision for education on the side of expense and administration is subject to the laws of procedure elsewhere de- veloped. The small civic unit, termed in some sec- tions the school district or town, has been affected by or has merged into the town group, county, city ; or has been reinforced by state cooperation; or in national legislation, enacted or prospective, is sup- plemented by national aid. The tendency toward a larger unit as a basis of support is phenomenal, and points to a world unit, to international co- operation on sound and wise plans to promote education. The ideals of society are another favorable ele- ment in the movement toward universal education. It would be foreign to our present purpose to seek to trace the origin and growth of popular ideals, but their pervasive influence is one of the noteworthy elements in human society. These ideals produce, shape or modify public action, customs, institutions, laws, constitutions. Nowhere is this influence more clear than in the history of education. High and lower motives or ideals have combined to set forward the cause of popular education. Selfish and pru- dential reasons both alike dictate such a course; altruism, existent in every age and growing in the present age to more commanding influence, espouses this cause; state and national policy recognize its 57 WORLD EDUCATION insistent claim; the conceptions of the rights of man to equal justice, privilege, and opportunity; the worth and dignity of human nature which transcends the pride of wealth, family or race; the influence of the masses of society by the weight of numbers, growing intelligence and consciousness of power; many elements, originating from various sources as religion, labor, science, experience, history, are wrought into high ideals which will not down, but which find expression gradually or swiftly in human society. These ideals constitute one of the most favorable conditions for universal education. The economic side of civilized life, already referred to in its relation to national education, affects human society as a whole, and is also a factor in universal education. The development of civilization has a material element as an important and essential factor. It involves the product of labor, the distribution of the wealth thus created, and its right use for per- sonal and collective ends. Many of the conflicts of nations, both internal and external, spring from this source, a cause which has not had due con- sideration by the historian and statesman, and still less by society generally. The economic tendency is growing stronger among leading modern nations for many reasons. The necessity of conserving the natural resources of a country, its mines, forests, soil, and other material advantages is generally felt. These forms of natural wealth should benefit the future race as well as the current generation, but they have been often grossly 58 FAVORABLE CONDITIONS abused and wasted. The growth of scientific knowl- edge and habit teaches the utilization of waste prod- ucts and by-products, is both possible and necessary, and leads to greater economy and productive power. The extravagance and waste which tend to increase in the sphere of man's relations, in personal cost of living, in families, in government, in taxation, point to the wisdom of economy. Such a result cannot fail to make life simpler and to lift life to a higher and more rational plane. The extravagance of reckless wealth, the more moderate misuse of earnings by the body of society, and the unthrift of poverty necessi- tate a saner view of the productive functions of society. This economic pressure cannot end with the ma- terial setting of human society, but must go forward to reckon in a broad fashion with man himself. How to secure a maximum of benefit from each human life, how to bring every human being to his best, and in consequence all human groups, whether small like the family or local community, or large as the nation or the whole race, are questions which lift themselves to a commanding place in connection with the present age and the destiny of man. They all point in the direction of education wisely conceived, well administered and universal. The corporate idea of human society, formerly referred to, gains strength from the striking ex- amples of corporate power in the recent history of the business world. That power has grown to tre- mendous bulk. It may command the markets of a 59 WORLD EDUCATION nation and affect the traffic of the world for good or ill. The capitalization and ramifications of many industries handling common necessities as sugar, meat, oil, steel, and the like, are phenomena of modern society. The control of great highway sys- tems, the railway systems, which are essential to the daily life of colossal cities and vast areas, are striking examples of the achievements and power of gigantic corporations. The ability to combine vast capital and the corporate experience in the adminis- tration of great enterprises reveal the power of world capital to aid in financing and administering world education. It has not escaped the attention of thinkers that the corporate . idea is as applicable to humanity as to any of the objects or interests where its operations have been for various reasons forced upon the attention of civilized nations. The human race constitute a corporation whose interests are held in common and are to a remarkable degree identical. The social organism is co-terminous with the race and with the habitable earth. No harm can befall one member which does not in some way, subtle and perhaps untraceable, affect all members. Let a little child be wronged in a remote corner of the globe, behold, all childhood is wronged and humanity suffers; degrade a defenceless woman anywhere, all womanhood is degraded. The solidarity of human society is revealed in its blessings and disasters. This is no new truth but one enforced by the world's best thinkers in ethics and religion. Here, too, a new sanction is discovered for the expansion of edu- 60 FAVORABLE CONDITIONS cation until it reaches every member of the human race. With the growth of intelligence the plane of life is lifted and the path of progress grows clearer. Things, impossible in one generation, become easy of attainment in a more enlightened age. G. W. Liebnitz said : " Give me for a few years the direction of education and I agree to transform the world." The menace of ignorance is lifted from the nations, and national or race prejudice and distrust yield to mutual respect, friendship, peace. The world learns cooperation for the welfare of the human family. The teacher or the educative process assumes a right- ful place in world politics and policies. The number and extent of great private fortunes, already considered, is also a favorable element in world education. Such fortunes exceed in value the property of many of the smaller cities and states, taken separately, and give to the private capitalist or group of capitalists an opportunity to advance the education of the entire human race. The disposition of makers and inheritors of great fortunes in many cases to utilize this opportunity is evident each year from the benefactions made to education and philan- thropy. The individual who is an international man or a world citizen with the power and inclination to advance the education of the human race by a bene- faction of $100,000,000 may not appear; certainly such a combination of resources, purpose and out- look has as yet not appeared in one personality. A group of men, however, by combined effort may take up and successfully inaugurate a work of this 61 WORLD EDUCATION nature. The records of the world's business furnish many examples of corporate resources in excess of the amount above named as initiatory capital for a voluntary association to promote universal education. ,The Canadian Pacific Railroad has total assets, $459,318,424 ; the Union Pacific Railroad and aux- iliary companies, $365,225,500; the United States Steel Corporation, $868,583,600; the Standard Oil Company, $600,000,000 assets; Armour & Com- pany, $124,826,039! Numerous business combina- tions show equal or greater assets. 1 To institute a corporate scheme of men of wealth of one or more nations, or of the world's great capitalists, judging from the temper of the age, might prove less difficult than the combinations or reorganizations of capital frequently effected by leaders in the financial world. Let one or a small group of such leaders espouse this cause, patiently work through the problem of placing the movement on a sound financial basis, and it is possible, if not probable, that, when well planned, many men of wealth, broad human sympathy and forecast, will vigorously cooperate. Here, too, is one of the great, perhaps the greatest, utility of private wealth and economic power, to lay good foundations for a better social order by the promotion and organization of the intelligence of mankind. With progress at this point, the general betterment of the world is for- warded. Minor causes, frequently too isolated, look- ing to human welfare, become parts of a larger i Moody Manual Service, N. Y., 1910. FAVORABLE CONDITIONS scheme and are most effectively advanced by the diffusion of intelligence, productive power, and vir- tue involved in right education. Other forms of voluntary effort, and the place of the state, nation, and national groups, which may be expansive to embrace the family of nations and which are contributory to education, have been dis- cussed in former pages. The favorable conditions to which attention is di- rected in this and earlier chapters point unmistakably to the education of man as a member of world society, to a world unit in education. 63 CHAPTER VIII LINES OF APPROACH, ILLUSTRATIONS The Egyptian and the Chaldean created the ideals of valorous and pleasure-loving men; China, Persia and Judaea, of self -denying and austere men; India of the rationally conscientious man, who in Hindustan is contemplative and compassionate; in Japan, sensitive; in Greece, appreciative of every form of truth and beauty; in Rome, constructive; and in the farther and later West, scientific, in England individualized, hi France socialized, and in America, where West again becomes East, universalized. F. H. GlDDINGS. Ich bin fest ueberzeugt, dass durch das einheitliche Zusammen- wirken von einigen hervorragenden Geistern der civilisierten Welt, diese vielleicht unueberwindlieh scheinende Aufgabe geloest werden kann und damit fuer die ganze Welt eine neue bessere Aera beginnen wird. FRANZ KEM&STY. IT is the aim of this chapter to submit some illus- trations which may show the effective nature of the various agencies cited in the foregoing discussion to advance education as a local enterprise and as a fundamental concern of state and nation. These illustrations in some cases will point directly to edu- cation also as a world process which tends to become universal, and a chief interest of the whole human race. No attempt to gather more than a few illus- trations is proposed, for the reader may readily sup- ply additional examples. In seeking to trace the lines on which a world campaign for education may proceed we may fol- 64 LINES OF APPROACH, ILLUSTRATIONS low the direction of the discussion in the foregoing chapters. The agents in the campaign are in gen- eral the same as those now engaged in the main- tenance, improvement, and diffusion of education. The work proposed is simply the expansion of work now carried on over a considerable portion of the world until with wise modifications it becomes co- terminous with the whole race. In the extension of this work many questions confront society upon which we need not linger, because they are similar to those met in the present conduct of education. The educational experience of mankind will aid in the solution of these questions, and ingenuity and resourcefulness will insure later progress. The sphere of individual influence may be exem- plified first because the individual is the simplest human unit, freest to move 'and to act in any de- sired direction. Individuals are numerous who have aided education in a small locality, as a town ; many also have given notable reinforcement to education in a larger community, as a city; a smaller num- ber have contributed to strengthen the work of the state in education; a still smaller list of benefactors have aided a group of states or a nation; the num- ber, as yet, of those who have undertaken to pro- mote education as an international issue for all mankind constitute the smallest group. That is, international men or citizens of the world are less numerous than local or national men. We cite some examples of benefactions or other services to education by individuals to show how 65 WORLD EDUCATION this element may be related to the small community and may expand until it reaches a world area. It is necessary to limit ourselves to few examples, but the list might be indefinitely enlarged. The power exerted by a single individual is ex- emplified in past history to a remarkable degree. Emerson says, " All history resolves itself very easily into the biography of a few stout and earnest per- sons." The function of great men is noteworthy, whether regarded as the product or formative influ- ence of their age. The long stretch of influence of Csesar is illustrated in his own time, in the history of the Roman Empire; and in the term applied to the sovereigns of two great modern nations, the Kaiser and the Czar of the present age. The influ- ence of great personages is manifest in war, govern- ment, industry, invention, literature, science, music, art and in other fields of human achievement. This influence is shown in a marked degree in connection with the development of education and the expansion of educational opportunity. In connection with a small area, as a town, the family of the Hon. Hiram A. Tuttle erected and gave to the town of Pittsfield, New Hampshire, U. S. A., a beautiful elementary school building in 1910, costing $15,000, as a memorial of a daughter who was a native of the town. This is an example of a large class of gifts to local education under public or private management. A noteworthy instance of benefactions to a city is found in the case of Mr. Andrew Carnegie 66 LINES OF APPROACH, ILLUSTRATIONS (1837 ) and the city of Pittsburg and vicinity in Pennsylvania, U. S. A. These benefactions ex- ceed $21,375,000, and are as follows: Libraries, $6,725,000; Art GaUery, $2,700,000 (with annual endowment of $50,000) ; Technical Schools, $9,000,- 000; Research and Miscellaneous Uses, $2,900,000. What is known as the " Macdonald Movement " in Canada is an illustration of a benefaction which reaches a wide area by a varied and effective service. Sir William Macdonald of Montreal, Canada, has given above $5,500,000, which has been invested as follows: Educational endowments; buildings and law school at McGill University ; Macdonald College, which includes schools of agriculture and household science; and a school for teacher training; rural education to improve small country schools by secur- ing manual training centres, school gardens, study of seed grains, consolidated rural schools, etc. 1 A donation whose operation is as wide as the na- tion is exemplified in the benefactions of Mr. John D. Rockfeller (1839- ) who in 1903 and later gave $42,000,000 to establish and maintain The General Education Board. The purpose of the Board, as stated in its charter, is " the promotion of education within the United States of America with- out distinction of race, sex or creed." In its present administration three principal objects are promoted, viz. : the increase of endowments for higher education, the advancement of secondary education, and the 1 Report of Committee on Agriculture and Colonization, pp. 183- 206, Ottawa, Canada, 1907. 67 WORLD EDUCATION maintenance of demonstration farms in the southern states. Its aim, however, is so broad and compre- hensive as to admit a vast variety of educational service. 1 The Rhodes Scholarship Trust is to a limited ex- tent an international fund, amounting to several millions, established by Cecil John Rhodes (1853 1902) for the education at Oxford University of youth selected from Anglo-Saxon peoples the world over. Each Rhodes scholar receives 300 ($1500) per year for a period of three years. The scholar- ships are irrespective of race or religious opinions, and are awarded to candidates who unite scholarship, athletic skill, manly qualities and moral force of character according to the plan outlined in the be- quest of Mr. Rhodes. 2 An example of a world benefaction is furnished by Alfred Bernard Nobel (1833-1896), who gave $10,- 000,000, the income to be devoted to five annual prizes (each about $40,000) for the most important discoveries in chemistry, physics, and physiology or medicine; for literary work of idealistic tendency; for greatest service to the cause of peace during the year; also for Nobel institute for research and spe- cial grants of funds for the above-named objects. In the administration of this fund all nationalities and both sexes are considered. The inference from a study of the sphere of in- fluence of the individual is that such influence is a 1 Current Topics, Chap. I, 64-5, Washington, 1910. 8 Advance Sheets, U. S. Bureau of Education, Chap. HI, 41-55, Washington, 1907. 68 LINES OF APPROACH, ILLUSTRATIONS permanent and growing factor in the spread of edu- cation, also that a larger number will inevitably enter into the international area to promote the right edu- cation of the whole race. This is obvious, because the world unity of interest is a daily lesson of man- kind and the benefits and perils that flow thence are both indisputable. So far as education is a beneficent and constructive force in human society, its expan- sion is imperative. These conditions may appeal first to one or a group of individuals of large vision and outlook. From the history of personal bene- factions to education it is not unreasonable to look for the appearance at any time of an educational benefactor who will devote many millions to this object. Or a group of capitalists may join their resources for this end and thus show one of the great uses of combinations of capital. As has been said, the educational experience of mankind to-day renders the administration of a world fund or scheme comparatively easy. To pass from individuals to voluntary groups of persons, business, educational, religious and other organizations illustrate the wide expansion of edu- cational effort under private or non-governmental auspices, and suggest future possible developments of such work. Among these the railways of the country have in some cases, of their own motion or as allies to other agencies, participated in the circulation of teachers, lecturers, movable schools, exhibits of science, industry, art, of libraries, and other educational factors. 69 WORLD EDUCATION The Seaboard Air Line Railway has a system of traveling libraries free to the people in its territory. This railway has 542 miles of track from Richmond, Virginia, to Tampa, Florida, and reaches almost every important city, including the capitals of the six states which it traverses, as well as an extensive rural area. The New York Central Railway sustains a model farm project, and the Pennsylvania Railway has undertaken forestry enterprises; forty-two rail- way systems in the western states of the United States haul chapel cars free; railways in various parts of the world cooperate with public education by reduced or free fares, publications, traveling teachers, lecturers, exhibits, and other forms of edu- cational propaganda. These separate efforts point to larger adjustments whereby the railroad system of a state or nation may on a reasonable basis become one of the leading promoters of popular education, serving the whole people in important educational lines, devising a careful scheme of educational diffusion as an element of a wise railway policy. Since such a tendency inevitably grows, the time may not be distant when far-seeing leaders in transportation by land and ocean may extend a similar service to the whole globe. The length of some railway lines is to-day remark- able. The Canadian Pacific, for example, stretches across the North American continent, connects its coast terminals by steamship lines and thus belts the entire globe with its service. Several transconti- nental railway lines in the United States join the 70 LINES OF APPROACH, ILLUSTRATIONS Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Other great continental lines are wholly or partly completed or projected, as the Siberian, Pan-American, Cape-to-Cairo, Aus- tralian railways. Along these vast modern highways, which will constitute the base lines of many railway systems, may pass the traffic of the world ; they may also form a world highway system for the movement of educational forces. Numerous other agencies, primarily of a business nature, give more or less prominence to education as an integral part of their work, because such training is a wise policy of business conservation and de- velopment. Many great businesses require scientific and mechanical skill, research, administration, mas- tery of technique, which involve special training. Educational agencies, non-governmental, are also numerous in small areas as cities, counties or larger areas as states or state groups, or still larger areas as nations. These agencies are extensive, persistent and many-sided in their operation. They utilize the service of well-equipped persons, the printed page, organized effort to create public opinion, to promote educational legislation, to affect private and public action. Each nation has such agencies which have arisen out of national needs and conditions. All nations are entering on an imperial policy or era when world affairs obtain increasing attention. This arises from the necessities of trade, industries, the ease and swiftness of intercommunication, politics and a growing sense of world solidarity. In conse- quence, national associations of education and of 71 WORLD EDUCATION other aims are approaching nearer together for con- ference and mutual service. These conditions point to international cooperation in education on the part of national educational societies of teachers and other bodies. Already numerous international associations of teachers, men of science and institutions are in existence. The proposed International Council of Education, to convene in the near future, is expected to embrace leading educators of all nations. It origi- nates on the initiative of the National Education Association of the United States of America. The printed page is an important approach to universal education. It may appear in the transient form of the daily newspaper, or in the more perma- nent form as the periodical or book. The mechanical production of the printed page is now rapid and immense. In its better forms it is an educational force of inestimable value. Emerson writes : " Con- sider what you have in the smallest "well-chosen library. A company of the wisest and wittiest men that could be picked out of all civil countries in a thousand years have set in best order the result of their learning and wisdom." Carlyle says : " The book is the modern university." The idea of a national library is now familiar ; the idea of a world or universal library is also accepted as practicable by library authorities. The daily journal has a cir- culation in some cases co-terminous with the language in which it is printed. This is particularly true of the representative journals in the various nations. The daily circulation of a leading newspaper in Bos- 72 LINES OF APPROACH, ILLUSTRATIONS ton reaches above 238,000; in Chicago above 325,- 000; in New York, 401,000. A daily circulation of one million is claimed for a European newspaper. The policy of a great daily is illustrated by the in- structions given to its special correspondent, Henry M. Stanley, by the New York Herald on October 16, 1869. " Briefly, these consisted of a report of the open- ing of the Suez Canal; some observations of Upper Egypt, and Baker's expedition; the underground explorations in Jerusalem ; Syrian politics ; Turkish politics at Stamboul; archaeological explorations in the Crimea; politics and progress in the Caucasus; projects of Russia in that region; Trans-Caspian affairs; Persian politics, geography, and present conditions ; a glance at India ; and, finally, a search for Livingstone in Equatorial Africa ! " * Special publications also more or less directly educational are numerous. These allies to education may yield larger returns if society seeks to utilize them on a comprehensive plan. A plan of cooper- ation among the printed publications of different nations may be inaugurated, whereby important knowledge may be diffused, or productions of great value of one nation promptly translated into the languages of other leading nations. By readjustment of the postal union service, books and other publi- cations may pass readily and at small cost from one point to another. Thus libraries may serve 1 The Autobiography of Henry M. Stanley, p. 245, Boston and New York, 1909. 73 WORLD EDUCATION larger areas or districts; the world library or uni- versal library may be developed whereby the libraries of the world shall yield a maximum of benefit to mankind and shall bring the reader and student in any part of the world within reach of the library wealth of civilization. The work of education of the different govern- ments, conducted within their respective territories, and noted in former pages, is already varied and extensive. Public agitation in national and minor legislatures is steadily working out important re- sults. Besides the recognition of education as a national as well as a local interest is big with promise of future development. The former United States Commissioner of Education, Hon. William T. Harris, affirmed that the great need of the nation was educational statesmen. Such leaders in legisla- tion discern the connection between right education and national well-being, and provide ways and means for its furtherance and improvement and safeguard it against perils of perversion. Here also waits the opportunity for international statesmen. How the various governments may join in a world campaign for education is a problem to be undertaken and worked out by the best civic wisdom of mankind. It is evident that every argument which buttresses education in the small civic unit, state and nation is applicable to the larger issues of the education of the human race. The tremendous forces for good or evil which lie in the different races and nations emphasize the pressing nature of this issue. Ignor- 74 LINES OF APPROACH, ILLUSTRATIONS ance is a menace to the peace and safety of the world. Enlightenment is a world builder. Education ap- proaches a world policy. These examples of individual and associated volun- tary effort for education, of the favorable mechan- ism of modern society, of governmental action, point in the direction that has been advocated in the fore- going discussion. They more than suggest, they demonstrate the practicability of a world plan and campaign of education. Such^ examples may be in- definitely multiplied. A world movement in this direction might be promptly organized, and brought to a favorable conclusion. Mankind may thus speedily enter upon the possession of the resultant benefits. These benefits are numerous and inestimable. They lead to the wise use of the resources and wealth of the world or world economics, for, as intelligence is essential to the production of wealth, it is also requisite to its just and adequate distribution. Thus a readjustment of national and world finance or ex- penditures may be practicable. A policy of con- servation and construction may supersede a policy of waste arising from ignorance, selfishness, and the destructive instinct. These benefits directly affect man as well as the material wealth and resources of the world. Ignor- ance is a loss and peril to man individually and col- lectively which the diffusion of education lessens or removes. World education is a guarantee of national safety and the union of liberty and order in all 75 WORLD EDUCATION lands. The mediation of hostile ideas which cause discord, suspicion and war becomes more practicable when intelligence is widespread. Competitive armies, navies and armaments are replaced by better means for protection and justice. A nobler world policy is adopted which aims at the conservation and develop- ment of mankind, as well as of the material wealth of the world, and promotes the organization of the intelligence of the race. The rivalry of nations changes to cooperation and friendship, and merges into a higher unity. The two great ends of civilized life are advanced, the welfare of the individual and of society, and both go forward, if not to their best estate, at least to a fairer social order. 76 CHAPTER IX INTERNATIONAL PLANS Durch Anregung eines souverainen Artzes der Weltglueckseligkeit kam juengst im Haag die int. Friedensconferenz der Staaten zustande. Um wie vieles leichter, gefahrloser und erfolgverheissender waere die Einberufung einer int. Weltculturconferenz, wo sieh alle Staaten durch ihre Vertreter verpflichteten, den neuen Posten der "Welt- cultur" ihren nationalen Budgets einzuverleiben. FRANZ KEM^NY. THE writer ventures to suggest several plans pro- motive of world education, whereby existing agencies and opportunities may be organized in an international or world effort. KEMENY'S WELTAKADEMIE Mr. Franz Kemeny in his treatise on the Welt- akademie (Budapest, 1901) advocates the idea that the federation of national educational organizations may produce a world federation or weltakademie, and indicates also other means to effect a world edu- cational enterprise. He favors such a world organ- ization or weltakademie, with headquarters at some suitable centre in Europe, as the Postal Union is located at Berne, Switzerland, and the International Institute of Agriculture at Rome, Italy, that is, a world organization with local centre or head- quarters. 77 WORLD EDUCATION The following plans rest on the belief that the conditions of the world, on account of the present and growing facilities of intercommunication and the existence of many great city centres, are such that no local world centre is necessary or desirable; that there are now many movements in the world field which may be organized and mutually correlated, but not centralized, and that future world conditions will necessitate readjustments from time to time, all of which are favorable to federation rather than centralization. (1) INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION LEAGUE A plan for an international educational movement is suggested by the experience of a voluntary associa- tion which has for some years conducted an educa- tional work in the New England states. Its object has been to promote equal educational advantages for all New England. This work has been done with the recognition of the idea that local education, as of state or state group, is merely a part of uni- versal or world education. It has used field work, free lectures, loan of art and school exhibits, loan books, publications, quarterly paper, correspondence, interviews, legislative effort and cooperation with other bodies. From Boston as a centre, with the cooperation of persons in New England and other parts of the United States and Canada, it has accom- plished some important results. It has also had the cooperation of leading educational societies of the 78 INTERNATIONAL PLANS United States. The suggestion of its experience is that, to some extent and with suitable modifications of aim and work, a similar plan may be pursued at great centres in all countries by locating at such centres representatives who have the requisite train- ing, ability and character to take a practical part in education, to enlist cooperation and to promote public opinion which may result in educational progress. In carrying out a plan and administration no nation should have undue influence or prominence. The following centres are named: North America Montreal New Orleans Boston Denver New York San Francisco Washington Mexico Pittsburg Havana Chicago South America ^Bogota Rio de Janeiro < Caracas Buenos Aires I Georgetown [Quito fPernambuco -^Lima [Bahia iLa Paz f Monte Video J Santiago [ Asuncion \ Valparaiso 79 WORLD EDUCATION Europe Glasgow Liverpool London Belfast Paris Marseilles Madrid Barcelona Lisbon ("The Hague [ Brussels ( Christiana < Stockholm I Copenhagen Berlin J Munich \ Geneva fRome \ Naples Vienna Budapest (" Bucharest < Belgrade I Sofia f Constantinople \ Athens St. Petersburg Moscow Warsaw Asia Irkutsk fTokio \ Yokohama Osaka Canton Peking Shanghai Bankok Calcutta Madras Bombay f Kabul JKelat f Tabriz \ Teheran f Bagdad \ Damascus 80 INTERNATIONAL PLANS Africa [Tunis Zanzibar s Algiers Tananarive I Fez J Johannesburg J Cairo [Cape Town \ Alexandria Boma Adis Abbeba Monrovia Australia Sydney f Auckland Melbourne \ Wellington (63 Stations) Estimated Cost Each station Salary of representative (averaging) .... $2,000 Incidental expenses (travel, printing, mail, clerical hire) 1,000 Total $3,000 Sixty-three stations ($3,000 each, average) $189,000 Emergency fund . . 10,000 General superintendent and office expenses . . 10,000 Total $209,000 81 WORLD EDUCATION General Endowment The total expenditure as above equals an endow- ment of five millions, two hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars ($5,225,000) at four per cent. Additional Endowments, Subscriptions and Fees Additional endowments may be secured and em- ployed as seems most necessary and advantageous in any part of the world. The administration and council may be international. Part of income may be derived from subscriptions and fees. Incorporation A form of incorporation, adapted from that of a society whose aims are international and which is incorporated under the laws of Massachusetts fol- lows as a suggestion of incorporation. COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS In the Year One Thousand Nine Hundred and AN ACT To create a world corporation for educational purposes. WHEREAS a number of individuals, citizens of the United States were on (day) of 82 INTERNATIONAL PLANS (month) in the year one thousand nine hundred and created into a body politic and corporate by the name, style and title of ; Therefore Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives in General Court assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows: Section 1. The single object of the corporation shall be the diffusion of knowledge throughout the world. Section 2. This corporation shall meet annually on (day) of (month), or at such other date, and at such place, as it may appoint. Section 3. At each annual meeting, the said cor- poration shall have power to elect such officers as may be deemed expedient or proper ; and define their powers and duties ; and to ordain, establish, and put in execution all such by-laws, ordinances and regula- tions for the government of the said corporation, and for the regulation and conducting of the business thereof, as may be deemed needful and proper: Pro- vided, That said by-laws, ordinances and regulations are not repugnant to the Constitution of the United States, nor to the Constitution and Laws of this Commonwealth. Section 4. Any gifts, grants, devises, or bequests made, or that may hereafter be made, to the said corporation, shall enure to, and be held to be made and belong to, the said. ...;.., ; Pro- vided, That the clear yearly value, income, interest, or dividend from messuages, lands, tenements, heridi- 83 WORLD EDUCATION laments and stocks, shall not exceed, in the whole, the sum of dollars. f Speaker of the House 1 of Representatives -. ... , ; . ., . Speaker of the Senate Approved on. .,..,.. (day) of ....... (month), one thousand, nine hundred and. (signed) FEDERATION or NATIONAL EDUCATION SOCIETIES An international conference of leaders in educa- tion, representing national education societies, and like bodies, and of leaders in affairs may be called together. Such a conference may devise a plan for a world federation of national education societies. Such a federation might include societies, as the National Education Association of the United States, the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Deutcher Lehrverein, and others. Already the National Education Association of the United States has taken some measures in the line of study of the international issues of education. A world federation of this kind might be strength- ened by funds or endowments for special or general educational uses. The fact that some national asso- ciations, as the Ajnerican Library Association, to which Mr. Andrew Carnegie has given $100,000, and the National Education Association of the United States, possess large funds suggests that a world 84 INTERNATIONAL PLANS federation, as outlined, might receive similar and even larger support, and bear an important part in world education. The incorporation, investment and administration questions involved in such a federation might readily be arranged. (3) WORLD FEDERATION OF UNIVERSITIES The Association Internationale des Academies, founded in 1901, may be the basis of a broader movement to secure the cooperation of the higher institutions in all countries in the advancement of world education. The institutions of each country may be organized in a national federation. The several national feder- ations may join in an international or world federa- tion. Such federation may proceed in the lines of university extension as conducted in some leading countries, the Universite Populaire in France, and in such other forms of education as may advance the education of the world. (4) FEDERATION OP INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS Already international associations exist in connec- tion with particular sciences, special forms of educa- tion, industries, labor and other widely extended interests. A congress of international congresses is among recent suggestions to bring together and to harmonize the objects and work of the various bodies in the world field and to promote the common inter- 85 WORLD EDUCATION ests of all. This approach to a world harmony and cooperation has also a relation to world education, and may benefit society, as a whole, the specialists as well as the body of society engaged in industry and labor. (5) WORLD UNIVERSITY (RELIGIOUS, INTER- DENOMINATIONAL) The work of education under the auspices of great religious bodies, as leading Protestant, Roman Cath- olic and Greek churches, is extensive. There is a tendency among some of these bodies to extend and improve the educational service rendered by con- solidation or cooperation of agencies within the limits of the respective churches or denominations. How far such a cooperative idea is practicable is not as yet shown by actual experience, but the opinion is widely held that the divisive policy too often prac- tised should be corrected. Besides denominations most closely connected may in the near future enter into plans of cooperation. Whether such plans may be adopted by religious bodies whose differences are greater, as Protestant with Roman Catholic or Greek churches, is a more remote issue. Whether Christian and non-Christian religious bodies may on any plan join in associated effort in any areas of education is perhaps still more remote. In some cases the State serves as a uniting influence by fur- nishing instruction in studies desired by all and leaving other studies to allied schools belonging to 86 INTERNATIONAL PLANS different religious bodies. The University of Toronto, Canada, and affiliated colleges, and the proposed union university in China have suggestions in their plan of organization. A world federation of agencies for education under religious auspices seems to be in process of formation with, it may be added, certain limitations which in our day may be inevitable. (6) WOBXD EDUCATION FUND OR FOUNDATION To the student of educational benefactions the establishment of a fund of $5,000,000, $10,000,000, $50,000,000, or upwards, does not seem improbable ; a fund like that given by John Macie Smithson for the Smithsonian Institution, " for the diffusion of knowledge among men," or the Gilchrist Educational Trust, founded by Dr. John Borthwick Gilchrist (1759-1841), "for the advancement, and propaga- tion of education and learning in every part of the world, as far as circumstances permit." Such a fund or foundation may be the benefaction of a single donor or of a group of donors. It may be incorporated, invested and administered by a board of directors on a plan carefully devised by men of educational experience associated with men of business and administrative training. Great funds, more limited in their use, have been given by men of wealth and philanthropic spirit; besides the private fortunes of a number of wealthy men have now be- come immense. The total valuation of twelve or more 87 WORLD EDUCATION of the smaller states of the United States, taken singly, also of many separate cities, is much less than some private fortunes. The great capitalist, and a group of world capi- talists have thus the resources to make private wealth directly contributory to world education. (7) JOINT FOUNDATION FOR INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION Such a foundation may utilize special funds for educational purposes which seem to donors most useful or necessary. Thus Mr. Andrew Carnegie has given to libraries; Sir William Macdonald to agri- culture, domestic science and related interests; Mr. John D. Rockefeller to higher education and other specific uses; Mr. Cecil John Rhodes for Anglo- Saxon scholarships at Oxford University. Others may promote trades, art, music, physical education, moral instruction, or other educational objects. Such special and separate funds may be grouped and ad- ministered together to promote economy and effi- ciency. Such a world fund may be a joint fund or a fund of funds. (8) INTERMETROPOLITAN EDUCATIONAL ALLIANCE Certain great cities of the United States and Europe have in a limited way exchanged teachers. This idea may be carried further and developed in many profitable lines, as lectures, school exhibits, 88 INTERNATIONAL PLANS portable museums, pupil exchange, cooperation for municipal improvement and other cooperative efforts. The conferences of the mayors of American cities may be cited as a suggestive fact in connection with municipal interests, including education. The great cities of the world, that is, cities of 500,000 and above, by a system of interchange of services and cooperation may benefit both themselves and the areas of which they are the centres, for what is termed the sphere of influence of a city of the first rank extends until it meets the territory outlying another such city. An intermetropolitan alliance, properly arranged and safeguarded, may be an important factor in world education. (9) INTERNATIONAL UNION FOB, EDUCATION ( GOVERNMENTAL ) This approach to world education may be stated in the form of a petition and bill addressed to a national legislative body. We select that of the United States of America, but the initiative may be taken by the national legislative body of any country. PETITION To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America : We, the undersigned, citizens of the United States, do hereby respectfully submit to your honorable body the following petition and bill. 89 WORLD EDUCATION The development of popular education under gov- ernmental auspices during the past few decades has been noteworthy. The right education of the people is now regarded as a fundamental interest of the nation. Self-government under a democracy or con- stitutional government must rest on widely diffused popular intelligence. Ignorance in any nation also is a loss or menace to all nations. Popular intelligence has an intimate relation also to the productive power and efficiency of the individual, nation and race. It is noteworthy also that popular education is not characteristic of any single nation, but common to many nations. The great interests which edu- cation conserves, imparts and transmits are /not the exclusive possession of any nation, but belong to the world intelligence. Thus science, invention, mechanics, trades, professions, commerce, literature, art, music, government are international in their origin and development. The perils of modern na- tions which are closely bound together by the world system of intercommunication are international, and affect all nations. Like the ocean, the migration of birds, the insect pests, the spread of epidemics, they; are continental and worldwide. The tremendous is- sues of war and peace which burden all nations can be met only by the organization of the intelli- gence of the world, for thus the mediation of hostile ideas which produce war panics and actual war and international and interracial disturbances, is made possible. The United States is indebted to all nations be- 90 INTERNATIONAL PLANS cause the ideas which underlie the nation are derived from world experience, and its population has been drawn and increased from all nations. Its great cities are international; thus New York City has 37 per cent foreign born; Philadelphia, 22.8 per cent; Chicago, 34.5 per cent. 1 For such national legislation as is contained in the bill accompanying this petition precedents are furnished by the action of the United States in con- nection with the Court of Arbitration at the Hague on the initiative of Russia; the International Insti- tute of Agriculture on the initiative of Italy; the Postal Union on the initiative of the United States. We, therefore, petition your honorable body to recognize and provide for these world conditions, affecting this and all other nations, by due con- sideration and action in accordance with the follow- ing bill. A BILL To create an international board of education and a fund for international or world education. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives of the United States of America in Con- gress assembled, that an annual fund is hereby created as below described and equal in amount to one-tenth of the appropriation for army and navy for 1910, to be devoted to the following object, viz.: international education or the education of the world. SECTION 2. Said education shall be conducted by 1 Census, 1900. 91 WORLD EDUCATION an international board of education, to consist of the chief educational officer of each nation and one other person appointed by the national legislative body, as congress, parliament, reichstag, corps legislatif, douma, or by whatever other name denominated. SECTION 3. Said education shall proceed along the lines of the removal of illiteracy, industrial train- ing, the applications of science and mechanics, in- struction in civic duty, and such other lines tending to the improvement of society as the international board of education may determine and as may accord with the needs of each nation: Provided, other na- tion or nations join in the effort above-named by a similar appropriation, that is, one-tenth of the army and navy appropriation for 1910 of the other nation or nations respectively. SECTION 4. In determining policy the represent- atives of each cooperating nation shall have a vote or votes equal to its rank in population and its rank in contribution to the fund, divided by two; thus a nation ranking eight in population and giving eight times as much as the unit contribution shall have eight votes. The population unit shall be ten mil- lions, the contribution unit one million dollars. Any nation, however, ranking in population unit and con- tribution unit less than the above-named, shall be entitled to one vote, and each nation shall have veto power within its own territory. SECTION 5. The appropriation of the United States shall continue for ten years, beginning with January 1, 1914. 92 INTERNATIONAL PLANS SECTION 6. Annual reports and plans of opera- tion shall be submitted to the national legislative assembly of each cooperating nation. SECTION 7. This act shall take effect on its pas- sage, at which time in so far that the President of the United States is requested to communicate at once with all other nations inviting them to join in an effort for world education as provided for in this act, to effect preliminary arrangements and to begin the work proposed on January 1, 1914. SECTION 8. That a sum not to exceed $50,000 be appropriated, to be expended subject to the approval of the President of the United States, for the ex- penses incident to the preliminary arrangements. (10) THE WORLD TRAVEL UNIVERSITY A joint policy of all railroad and steamship cor- porations may be conducted on lines already pursued to some extent in different parts of the world. Thus libraries, agriculture, forestry, movable schools, ex- positions, lecturers, excursions, and other features of special and popular education are now promoted by a number of transportation corporations. The further development of such work is full of promise, and such corporations may prove one of the most effective agents or allies of world education. (11) INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS The growth of the postal system, including the Postal Union, of transportation facilities by; land 93 WORLD EDUCATION and water, and of other means of intercommunication, including the printed page, make it possible to reach any person in any part of the habitable globe. The correspondence school with its well-known ad- juncts has passed the tentative stages, and is recog- nized as a useful and effective educational agent. Already such schools with many students enrolled are in existence and some universities of high rank use this kind of service in addition to their localized resources. An international correspondence school may be planned, endowed, and wisely conducted, and may become a factor in world education. (12) WORLD LIBRARY AND MUSEUM The world library and museum may be created by the federation and cooperation of existing insti- tutions. This idea is familiar and requires no en- largement here. A general criticism on libraries is to the effect that library policy is too local and divisive, that on this account it fails of possible usefulness and economy. A cooperative or federative policy is in demand. The object of the world library is to bring the reader in any part of the world in contact with the library wealth of the world. The library experience already accumulated makes it possible with no great difficulty to work out a world library scheme or plan. 94 CHAPTER X STATISTICS (a) World Educational Statistics. (6) International Societies, Congresses, etc. (c) Cities of 250 y OOO population and above. (a) World Educational Statistics 1 3 5 (1) Illiteracy per cent of popu- lation (2) Per cent of popu- lation in schools (3) Erpendi ture per capita of popu- lation for schools . (4) Square miles to each post office (5) Popula- tion to each post office J News- papers NORTH AMERICA Canada .... 19 17 $368 3753 526 1,408 Costa Rica .... Cuba .... 8.54 9.57 298.6 3,286 2 72 Honduras .... 348 Mexico ...... 60.00 48 .23 467 7,690 459 Nicaragua .... 2.93 3 96 Porto Rico . . 11 02 Salvador 205 United States * . . SOUTH AMERICA Argentina .... Bolivia 11.80 50.50 19.62 9.6 25 3.90 2.45 .14 56.3 833.2 24025 887 3,005 8,563 22,730 189 Brazil 2.1 Chile 6 65 474 2 5778 Colombia ... 37 .22 Equador ..... 5.5 6.5 Peru 2 3 08 20584 9 144 Uruguay . . 4646 71 .76 1130 1 375 Venezuela .... 1.5 .21 1 Compiled from U. S. Commissioner of Education Report, 1908, vol. 2, pp. 1016-1021 and 1899-1900, p. 785; Report of Superintendent of Foreign Mails, Washington, 1899; Statesman's Year Book, London, 1910. * Illiteracy in United States ranged from 2.3 in Nebraska to 38.5 in Louisiana. * Statistics have been gathered with care but world statistics are incomplete. 95 WORLD EDUCATION World Educational Statistics (continued) (1) Illiteracy per cent of popu- lation (2) Per cent of popu- lation in schools (3) Expendi- ture per capita of popula- tion for schools (4) Sauare miles to each post office (5) Popula- tion to each post office () News- papers EUROPE Austro-Hungary . . Belgium 25.95 12.80 15.2 12.2 .44 1.08 25.4 12.7 4,257 7,876 956 Bulgaria 9.9 19.2 1,605 054 IS 18.7 2 681 France 4 90 14 2 1 06 66.5 4 320 6,681 Germany * . . . . Great Britain and Ireland . . . 0.11 8.79 17.0 16.5 2.05 2.15 6.0 5.7 1,521 1,883 8,049 9,500 Greece 80.00 8.7 67.8 6,723 ISO Italy 39.30 8.1 .39 14.4 4,096 Netherlands . . . Norway 4.00 0.11 15.0 15.8 1.80 1.22 9.8 60.2 3,876 1,035 980 Portugal 79 00 4 4 14.8 2110 Roumania .... Russia .... 89.00 61 70 8.3 37 .... 20.3 922.3 1,766 13753 1,000 Finland 1.60 11.8 328 Servia 8600 4.5 .28 12.1 Spain 68.10 10.3 .27 76.5 5,991 1,000 Sweden 0.11 14.2 1.41 70.4 2,082 Switzerland .... ASIA British India . . . China .... 0.30 18.6 2.92 8.28 .032 4.6 135.5 848 24,959 1,005 1,540 200 Japan 11.2 .27 39.5 11,817 2,800 The Philippines . . 7.5 AFRICA Cape of Good Hope Egypt . 94 2 7.4 0094 .84 294.0 2678 2,116 12962 Natal . . 138 1.95 Orange River Colony 12.4 Transvaal .... 12.3 8 AUSTRALASIA New South Wales . New Zealand . . . Queensland .... 15.3 15.9 188 2.75 3.71 3.04 151.6 68.3 647 505 .... South Australia . 15.0 2.01 Tasmania .... 13.1 1.63 Victoria 16.0 2.18 55.5 740 West Australia 163 3 43 1 Many German states have DO illiteracy. 96 * Whites only. STATISTICS Institutions of Higher Learning *, 2 Country Uni- ver- sity Poly- tech- nica Others Country Uni- ver- sity Poly- tech- nica Others Argentina. . Australia . . Austria . . Belgium . . Brazil . . . Bulgaria . . Canada . . Cape Colony Chile . . . China . . . Cuba . . . Denmark . . Ecuador . . Egypt . . . England . . France . . . Germany . . Greece . . . Hungary . . India . . . Ireland . . Italy . . . 3 5 8 4 1 8 1 1 1 1 10 20 22 1 3 5 2 21 7 3 2 2 1 7 11 1 1 1 3 16 10 10 5 1 1 1 5 1 4 51 42 3 18 88 6 26 Japan 2 5 1 1 1 1 1 2 9 4 1 1 10 4 1 6 1 1 2 13 1 1 2 1 1 2 5 3 30 14 2 8 6 1 5 1 Mexico Netherlands . . Norway .... Palestine .... Paraguay .... Persia Peru . . . Porto Rico . . . Philippine Islands Portugal .... Roumania. . . . Russia Scotland .... Servia Siberia .... Spain Sweden Syria Switzerland . . . Turkey Uruguay .... United States has 573 universities, colleges and technological schools 178 normal schools for teachers 558 professional schools 1 From U. S. Com. of Education Report, 1908. * The statistics may give a general impression as to the work of higher education, but it must be borne in mind that in the United States the distinction between college and university is not definite; also, that a univer- sity in the European sense may embrace a large group of institutions. It is difficult to classify higher institutions of education on account of the varying standards in different countries. (b) International Societies, Congresses, etc. {Part List) Amerika Institut, Berlin, 1911. International Aeronautical Exposition, Frankfort-on-Main, 1909. International Agricultural Congress, Budapest, 1896. 97 WORLD EDUCATION International Archaeological Congress, 2d, Cairo, 1909. International Association of Academies, 4th, Rome, 1910. International Association for the Advancement of Science, Arts and Education, 1900. International Botanical Congress, Geneva, 1892. International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, Central Bureau, London. International Commission on the Teaching of Mathematics, Rome, 1908. International Conference on Elementary Education, 2d, Paris, 1910. International Congress on Administrative Science, 1910. International Congress for the Advancement of Drawing and Art Teaching, 3d, London, 1908. International Congress on Aerial Law. International Congress against Alcohol. International Congress of Americanists, 16th, Venice, 1908. International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 7th, London, 1908. International Congress of Architects, 9th, Rome, 1911. International Congress on Child Welfare, Washington, 1908. International Congress on Entomology, Brussels, 1910. International Congress on Esperanto, 6th, Washington, 1910. International Congress on Geodesy. International Congress of Geologists, 8th, 1900. International Congress on Higher Technical Education, Brussels, 1910. International Congress on the History of Religions, 3d, Oxford, 1909. International Congress on Historical Sciences, Berlin, 1908. International Congress on Household Economy and Arts, Fribourg, 1908. International Congress on Home Education, 3d, Brussels, 1910. International Congress on Hygiene and Demography, Berlin, 1908. International Congress of Mathematicians, 4th, Rome, 1908. International Congress for Moral Education, London, 1908. International Congress of Music, Rome, 1911. International Congress of Orientalists, 15th, Copenhagen, 1908. International Congress on Photography, Dresden, 1909. International Congress on Physical Education, Rome, 1911. International Congress on Popular Education, Paris, 1908. International Congress of Press Associations, 15th, Rome, 1911. International Congress for Public Relief and Private Charity, 5th, Copenhagen, 1910. International Congress of Public Works and Buildings, 3d, Rome, 1911. International Congress of Railway Engineers, 8th, Rome, 1911. International Congress on School Hygiene, 3d, Basel. International Congress on Stenography and Typewriting, Rome, 1911. 98 STATISTICS International Congress on Tuberculosis, Washington, 1908. International Fisheries Congress, Washington, 1908. International Geographical Congress, Geneva, 1908. International Industrial Exposition, Tokio, 1912. International Institute of Agriculture, Rome. International Institute of Sociology, Rome, 1911. International Library Conference, 2d, London, 1897. International Polar Commission, Brussels, 1908. International Reform Bureau, Washington. International Sanitary Congress, Venice, 1892. International School of Peace, Boston. International Statistical Institute, 1885. Loan Exhibition of British Art in Berlin (Emperor William's 50th Anniversary), 1908. Pan-American Scientific Congress, 1st, Santiago, 1908. Universal Peace Congress, 18th, Stockholm, 1910. Universal Postal Congress, Washington, 1896. World's Campaign of International Associations, Brussels, 1910. International Educational Projects (The following are given by Mr. Franz Kemeny in his treatise, " Entwurf einer Internationalen Gesammt-Akademie : Weltakademie," pp. 28-47, Budapest, 1901.) Grand college european de Richelieu, (1642). Academic Universelle de Colbert (1666). Voltaire's Palais des Sciences (1739). Le Licee Francois d'un anonyme (1772). "Die deutscher Gelehrtenrepublik" von Klopstock (1773) . Das "patriosche Institut" von Herder (1795). Un nouveau Port-Royal de M. le br. de Gerando (1807). Int. Stiftung fur int. wissensch. Bestrebungen in Stockholm (1815). Int. Intellecten-Congress von Ste. Beuve. Smithsonian Institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men (1846). Bibliotheque Internationale Universelle (1869). Association litteraire et artistique Internationale (Paris, 1878). William Galingnani's Stiftung (1882). Das "Institut fur hohere Literatur" von Leo Xm (1886). Trianon als Schriftsteller-Asyl (1886). Bureau fiir den Schutz des liter, und Ktinstlerischen Eigenthums (Berne, 1887). 99 WORLD EDUCATION Literaturarchiv-Gesellschaft in Berlin. Bibliographisches Bureau in Berlin (1888) . Eine "Anstalt flir grosse Manner" in Passy (1890). Bureau international de la Paix (Berne, 1891). Ein Ideal-Asyl von Berthold Auerbach. Internationale Correspondenz-Association (1893),. Union Intellectuelle Internationale par H. LaFontaine (1894). Institut International de Bibliographie (1895). Societe d'fitudes Internationales (Paris, 1895) . Correspondence Internationale (Paris, 1896). Eine-Universal-Academie von Dr. Ludw. Stein (1897),. Phalanges d'harmonie intellectuelle von M. E. Potonie-Pierre (1897). Internationale Academic von L. v. Bar (1897). Int. Institut ideal de M. M. F. Gans (1898). Le Parlement international d'arbitrage de M. A. Trachsel (1899). Association int. des Academies (1899) . Association int. pour le developpement de la science, des arts et de 1'education (Paris, 1900). Instituts Nobel (Christiania, 1901). (c) Cities of 250,000 Population and Above City Census Popula- year tion Alexandria, Egypt 1907 332,246 Amsterdam, Netherlands 1905 557,614 Antwerp, Belgium 1905 291,949 Baltimore, U. S. A 1910 558.483 Bankok, Siam est. 600,000 Barcelona, Spain 1900 533,090 Belfast, Ireland 1901 349,180 Berlin, Germany 1906 2,040,148 Birmingham, England 1901 522,182 Bombay, India 1901 776,006 Bordeaux, France 1906 251,917 Bradford, England 1901 279,809 Breslau, Germany 1905 470,904 Bristol, England 1901 339,042 Brussels, Belgium 1905 612,401 Bucharest, Roumania 1900 276,178 Budapest, Hungary 1901 732,322 Buenos Aires, Argentina 1909 1,246,532 Buffalo, U. S. A 1910 423,715 1 With Suburbs. 100 Boston, U. S. A. 1910 670,585 STATISTICS City Census year Popula- tion Cairo, Egypt 1907 651,476 Calcutta, India * 1901 1,026,987 Canton, China est. 1,600,000 Chicago, U. S. A 1909 2,185,283 Cincinnati, U. S. A 1910 364,463 Cleveland, U. S. A 1910 560,663 Cologne, Germany 1905 428,722 Constantinople, Turkey est. 1,125,000 Copenhagen, Denmark l 1901 476,805 Detroit, U. S. A 1910 465,766 Dresden, Germany 1905 516,996 Dublin, Ireland 1901 290,638 Dusseldorf, Germany 1905 253,274 Edinburgh, Scotland 1901 316,479 Frankfort-on-Main, Germany .... 1905 334,978 Fuchau, China 1904 624,000 Glasgow, Scotland 1901 735,906 Haidarabad, India l 1901 448,466 Hamburg, Germany 1906 802,793 Hangchau, China 1904 300,000 Hankau, China 1904 870,000 Hanover, Germany 1905 250,024 Havana, Cuba 1907 297,159 Hongkong, China 1901 283,905 Jersey City, U. S. A 1910 267,779 Kiev, Russia 1897 319,000 Kioto, Japan 1903 380,568 Kobe, Japan 1908 345,952 Leeds, England 1901 428,953 1910 585,743 Lisbon, Portugal 1900 356,009 Liverpool, England 1901 702,247 1897 351,570 London, England 1901 6,581,372 Lucknow, India 1901 264,049 Lyons, France 1906 472,114 Madras, India 1901 509,346 1900 539,835 Manchester, England 1901 606,751 Marseilles, France 1906 517,498 Melbourne, Australia l 1901 496,079 Mexico, Mexico 1900 344,721 1 With Suburbs. 101 City \VORLD EDUCATION Census Popula- tion Milan, Italy 1901 491,460 Milwaukee, U. S. A 1910 373,857 Minneapolis, U. S. A 1910 301,408 Montevideo, Uruguay 1904 298,127 Montreal, Canada 1901 267,730 Moscow, Russia 1907 1,359,254 Munich, Germany . 1910 595,053 Nagoya, Japan 1903 288,639 Naples, Italy 1901 563,541 Newark, U. S. A 1910 347,469 New Orleans, U. S. A 1910 339,075 New York, U. S. A 1910 4,766,883 Ningpo, China 1904 260,000 Nuremburg, Germany 1910 332,539 Odessa, Russia 1900 449,673 Osaka, Japan 1908 1,117,151 Palermo, Italy 1901 309,694 Paris, France 1906 2,763,393 Peking, China est. 1,600,000 Philadelphia, U. S. A 1910 1,549,008 Pittsburgh, U. S. A 1910 533,905 Riga, Russia 1897 256,197 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 1905 811,265 Rome, Italy 1901 462,783 Rotterdam, Netherlands 1905 370,390 St. Louis, U. S. A 1910 687,029 St. Petersburg, Russia 1905 1,678,000 San Francisco, U. S. A 1910 416,912 Santiago, Chile 1904 334,538 Sao Paulo, Brazil 1902 332,000 Shanghai, China est. 1,000,000 Sheffield, England 1901 409,070 Stockholm, Sweden 1907 337,460 Suchau, China 1904 500,000 Sydney, Australia 1901 481,830 Teheran, Persia est. 280,000 Tokyo, Japan 1909 2,168,151 Tunis, Tunis est. 250,000 Turin, Italy 1901 335,656 Vienna, Austria 1909 2,085,888 Warsaw, Russia 1901 756,426 Washington, U. S. A 1910 331,069 Yokohama, Japan 1903 326,035 102 CHAPTER XI BIBLIOGRAPHY ABBREVIATIONS: U. S. Com. E. R. = United States Commissioner of Education Report. S. I. R. = Smithsonian Institution Report. ADAMS, H. B., Educational Extension in the United States, U. S. Com. E. R., Washington, 1909. AGRICULTURE, INTERNATIONAL CHAMBER OF, Proclamation of H. M. Victor Emanuel III, King of Italy, with documents, Roma, 1905. ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DES ACADEMIES, Premiere assemblee generale tenue a Paris, 1901. BALCH, THOMAS, International Courts of Arbitration, Philadelphia, 1896. BEACH, C. F. Jr., Educational Reciprocity, North American Review, Oct., 1906. BLODGETT, J. H., Sunday Schools of the United States, U. S. Com. E. R., 1896-7, Vol. 1, pp. 349-425. BOARDMAN, G. D., Disarmament of Nations or Mankind One Body, Philadelphia, 1898. BRACE, C. L., Gesta Christi, a History of Humane Progress, N. Y., 1893. BRIDGMAN, R. L., World Organization, Boston, 1905. BRITISH ACADEMY OF LEARNING, Reprint from Quarterly Review, The Living Age, March 15, 1902, Boston. BURRITT, Elihu, Life of, N. Y., 1879. CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON, Scope and Organization, Washington, 1909. CATHOLIC DIRECTORY, THE OFFICIAL, United States and Canada, N. Y., 1910. CHURCH (DENOMINATIONAL) SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES, U. S. Com. E. R., 1904 and 1908. COWLES, J. L., A General Freight and Passenger Post, N. Y., 1898. DARBY, W. EVANS, International Tribunals, The Peace Society, London. DRAPER, A. S., New York Colleges and the State System of Educa- tion, Albany, N. Y., 1910. 103 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA (llth edition) articles: Education, Uni- versities, Brahmanism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Mahomme- danism, and other non-Christian religions for their educational work. FOCK, A., The Economic Conquest of Africa by the Railroads, Wash- ington, 1905. FOREIGN UNIVERSITIES AND OTHER FOREIGN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION, U. S. Com. E. R., 1908. FOSTER, JOHN, An Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance, London, 1819. FRIEDENWALD, HERBERT, The American Jewish Year Book, Phila- delphia, 1911. GIDDINGS, F. H., Democracy and Empire, N. Y., 1900. OILMAN, D. C., University Problems, N. Y., 1898. HARRIS, ISIDORE, The Jewish Year Book, London, 1910. HARTSHORN, W. N., and PENNIMAN, G. W., American Negro since his Emancipation, 1863-1910, Boston, 1910. HAZELL'S ANNUAL FOR 1911, London, 1911. HUGO, VICTOR, Address at Paris Peace Congress, 1849. INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL RELATIONS, U. S. Com. E. R., Wash- ington, 1910. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE, REPORT ON, S. I. R., Washington, 1910. INTERNATIONAL LAW ASSOCIATION, Annual Reports, London. INTERNATIONAL PARLIAMENTARY PEACE UNION, Conference, Berne. INTERNATIONAL PEACE BUREAU, Berne. KELTIE, J. SCOTT, Statesman's Year Book, London, 1910. KEM^NY, FRANZ, Entwurf einer internationalen Gesammt-Akademie, Budapest, 1901. LEMONNIER, CHARLES, Les etats-unis d'Europe, Paris, 1872. LOCKYER, NORMAN, On Brain Power in History, Reprint, Cambridge, Mass., 1904. MINERVA, Strasburg, 1908. MONROE, W. S., Bibliography of Education, N. Y., 1897. MOSELY EDUCATIONAL COMMISSION TO THE UNITED STATES, London, 1904. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, Annual Reports, Winona, Minn. NEWCOMB, SIMON, Evolution of the Scientific Investigator, S. I. R., Washington, 1904. NEW YORK CENTRAL RAILROAD, and other railroad publications, on agriculture, forestry, school trains, etc. NOBEL PRIZES, U. S. Com. E. R., Washington, 1904. PAN-AMERICAN UNIVERSITY or Bureau of Education, Boston, 1908. READER'S GUIDE TO PERIODICAL LITERATURE (under international), Minneapolis, Minn., 1910. RIPLEY, W. Z., The European Population of the United States, S. I. R., Washington, 1909. 104 BIBLIOGRAPHY SCHUSTER, ARTHUR, International Science, S. I. R., Washington, 1907. SEDGWICK, ADAM, The Relation of Science to Human Life, S. I. R., Washington, 1909. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Annual Reports, Washington. SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE, The Penny Magazine, London. STETSON, W. W., A study of waste and kindred evils in the admin- istration of our public schools, Augusta, Me., 1907. TALLETRAND-PERIGORD, Projet de Decrits sur 1'Instruction Publique a Paris, 1791. TRUEBLOOD, BENJAMIN, The Federation of the World (with Bibliog- raphy) Boston, 1899. UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, Annual Reports, Washington. UNIVERSAL LIBRARY, leaflet, International Education Conference, Boston, 1904. UNIVERSAL PEACE CONGRESS, Reports 1889-1897, Berne. UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, Correspondence Study-Department, Chi- cago, 1910. UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO, Reports on Organization, Toronto, Canada. WALDEYER, WILLIAM, On the relations between the United States and Germany, especially in the field of science, S. I. R., Washington, 1905. WORLD'S MISSIONARY CONFERENCE, 1910 (Vol. Ill, Education), Edinburg, 1910. WORLD TOURS of leading travel agencies. YEAR BOOKS of Baptist, Congregational, Episcopal, Lutheran, Meth- odist, Presbyterian and other denominations for educational in- stitutions and missionary societies for schools abroad. 105 APPENDIX PART I GERMAN SYNOPSIS WELTERZIEHUNG Eine Erorterung der giinstigen Bedingungen fur eine Welterziehung von W. Scott, Sekretar des Erziehungs- Verbandes von New England (New England Educa- tional League) und der Internationalen Erziehungs- Konferenz (International Education Conference). KAPITEL I DER CHARAKTER DES XIX. JAHRHUNDERTS Das eben abgeschlossene 19. Jahrhundert hat die Summe der Kenntnisse vermehrt und neue Wissen- schaften geboren, aber sein hervorstechender Zug ist eine nach alien Richtungen hin sich erstreckende Tatig- keit. Die personliche Freiheit ist gefordert worden, die Leibeigenschaft, der fremde Sklavenhandel und die Sklaverei sind in den fiihrenden Landern abgeschafft. Der Lauf der Freiheit war unaufhorlich und hat dazu beigetragen, die soziale Lage zu verbessern. Unter den bemerkenswerten Tatsachen des Jahrhunderts nennen 107 APPENDIX wir den Fortschritt des Handels, die Beforderungsmittel zu Lande und zu Wasser, die Erleichterung des gegen- seitigen Verkehrs, Veranderungen in der Regierungs- f orm und grossere nationale Einheiten, die Entwicklung der Presse, die Circulation von Biichern und periodischer Literatur, die Verbreitung und das vergleichende Stu- dium der Religion. Der offentliche Unterricht ist in den fiihrenden Landern zu ungeheuren Proportionen angewachsen; die Revolution in der b'ffentlichen Mei- nung und die bessere Erziehung sind ebenso bemerkens- wert wie irgend eine andere Bewegung des Jahrhunderts. Dies sind vielversprechende Anzeichen fiir die Zukunft der Menschheit und eroffnen eine neue Ara. KAPITEL n DER GEGENSTAND DEB DISCUSSION Die moderne Erziehungstendenz wird von Talleyrand, dem franzosischen Minister des offentlichen Unterrichts im Jahre 1791 gut ausgedriickt: Wahrend es fiir irgend einen unmb'glich ist, alles zu lernen, so sollte es einem in einer gut organisierten Gesellschaft moglich sein, irgend etwas zu lernen. Das Resultat ist, die Sehule im wei- teren Sinne des Wortes lehrt alles und jeden, der zu lernen sucht, innerhalb der Grenzen seiner natiirlichen Fahigkeiten. Die einfachste Sehule ist eine Sehule uni- versaler Gelehrsamkeit, denn die sogenannten drei R's sind typisch und symbolisch fiir alles Wissen. Die Sehule und die Schiiler sollen nicht auf Ort, Klasse, Nation, oder bevorzugte Rasse beschrankt sein, sondern die gesamte Menschheit umfassen. 108 GERMAN SYNOPSIS KAPITEL IH HlNDEENISSE Die herrschenden Klassen haben tief die Erziehung beeinflusst. Verschiedene herrschende Klassen sind in der Geschichte aufgetreten, wie die der Priester, Sol- daten, Gelehrten, Kaufleute, Schriftsteller und anderer. Diese haben die Erziehung gestaltet und ihr Vorschriften gemacht. Allmahlich hat sich eine grossere und um- fangreichere soziale Einheit entwickelt, und die Theorie der Erziehung wird universaler. Zu den Hindernissen der Erziehung gehorten Rasse, Klasse, Geschlecht, Armut, Ortlichkeit, Tradition. Diese sind durch die Ausdehnung der Gelegenheiten zur Erziehung und dureh das Streben nach einer Schule des Volkes oder der modernen Demokratie bedeutend modifiziert oder vollig beseitigt worden. KAPITEL IV DEB FORTSCHBITT, VOLUNTABISMUS Am Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts sprechen John Foster in England und andere in anderen Landern zu Gunsten eines elementaren Unterrichts fur das Volk oder die Masse der Gesellschaft. Im Laufe des Jahr- hunderts wird Elementarunterricht in den fiihrenden Landern eingefuhrt, und in vielen Staaten und Landern steht alien ausserdem sekundarer und hoherer Unter- richt offen. Freiwillige Bemiihungen seitens hervorra- gender Personlichkeiten, wie Peter Cooper, Ezra Cor- nell, George Peabody, John D. Rockefeller, John Macie 109 APPENDIX Smithson, Mary Lyon, John R. Vincent, Dwight L. Moody und viele andere, in den Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika und zahlreiche Philanthropen in anderen Landern haben zum Fortschritt der Erziehung beige- tragen; die erzieherische Arbeit religioser Korperschaf- ten ist auch ein wichtiger Faktor gewesen; grosse erzieh- erische Organisationen, wie die Nationale Erziehung Assoziation (National Educational Association) in den Vereinigten Staaten, die Britische Assoziation (British Association for the Advancement of Science), und Korperschaften in anderen Landern haben viel getan, die Erziehung zu heben. Zahlreiche andere freiwillige oder nicht von der Regierung abhangige Krafte haben Erziehung auf lokalen, nationalen und internationalen Gebieten gefordert. KAPITEL V FORTSCHRITT, REGIERUNG Die Regierung nimmt einen wichtigen Platz in der Erziehung ein. Ihre Arbeit wird besonders unter der modernen Volksregierung von den religiosen, ethischen, sozialen und industriellen Idealen des Volkes beein- flusst. Die kleinste politische Einheit, in einigen Landern Dorf oder Distrikt genannt; die Stadt, be- sonders Stadte ersten Ranges mit einer Bevolkerung von einer halben Million oder mehr, der Staat und die Nation nehmen einen Anteil an der Erziehung. Der tJbergang von nationaler zu internationaler Arbeit fur Erziehung ist kein langer oder schwieriger Prozess. Solche Arbeit ist schon unter verschiedenen indirekten 110 GERMAN SYNOPSIS Formen und durch Internationale Kooperation begon- nen. Die weitere Entwicklung solcher Arbeit seitens der Regierung in der Zukunft erscheint unvermeidlich und weist auf Welterziehung bin. KAPITEL VI GRUNDE FUR FORDERUNG DER ERZIEHUNG DURCH DIE REGIERUNG Die wicbtigsten Griinde fur die Teilnahme der Regie- rung an der Erziehung sind (a) die Polizeitheorie, nacb der die Regierung eingesetzt ist, um Person und Eigen- tum zu schiitzen. Ein weises System einer Universal- erziehung gibt Schutz, weil sie die Volksintelligenz hebt, die die Grundlage der Regierung ist. (b) Der kon- struktive politische Korper. Die Biirger miissen erzogen werden, damit jener seine Aufgabe, die burgerliche Gesellschaft zu erhalten und zu verbessern, erfiillen kann. (c) Die volkswirtschaftliche Idee. Erziehung vermehrt die Erwerbsquellen und den Wert jedes Btirgers. (d) Die Korporationsidee. Die Gesellschaft, wenn gut organisiert, ist eine dauernde Organisation und muss sich durch geeignete Erziehung jedes ihrer Mitglieder schiitzen. Das ist die Pflicht des ganzen Gesellschaftskorpers. Erziehung ist nicht eine Wohltat des Reichtums, noch eine Notwendigkeit der Armen, weder ein Erfordernis einer sozialen, industriellen oder einer anderen Klasse, sondern eine Angelegenheit des Staates als einer dauernden Korporation oder eines dauernden Gemeinwesens. Ill APPENDIX KAPITEL VII UMSTANDE Zu den gUnstigen Umstanden einer Welterziehung gehoren die erf olgreiche Erf ahrung grosser Gemeinwesen und Nationen in Erziehung; die materiellen Merkmale der zivilisierten Welt das ist der "Tag der Wege": die gewohnliche Strasse, die Dampf- und die elek- trischen Bahnen, die Dampf erlinien; die Erleichterungen des gegenseitigen Verkehrs, wodurch die ganze Welt mit jedem ihrer Teile in Beriihrung ist; die grosseren Verwaltungseinheiten der offentlichen Angelegenheiten, die in einigen Fallen jetzt iiber die nationalen Grenzen hinausgehen und sich auf die ganze Erde erstrecken. Die friiher bemerkten volkswirtschaftlichen, korpora- tiven, konstruktiven, etc. Tendenzen zielen auch auf Welterziehung. Alle Griinde, die die lokale und nation- ale Erziehung stiitzen, gelten auch fiir die Erziehung der ganzen Rasse. KAPITEL VIII ANNAHERUNGEN, BEISPIELE Dieses Kapitel will die wirksame Natur der friiher erorterten Krafte zeigen, die lokale, staatliche, nationale und Internationale Erziehung oder die Erziehung der Menschheit heben, und eine Welteinheit in der Erzie- hung bewerkstelligen. An vielen Beispielen wird per- sSnlicher Einfluss in dem kleinen Dorfe oder Distrikte gezeigt; hi einer Stadt, an den Schenkungen, die Herr 112 GERMAN SYNOPSIS Andrew Carnegie, Pittsburg, Pa. gemacht; auf einem grosseren Gebiete an der Macdonald-Bewegung in Canada, die auf den Schenkungen Sir William Macdon- alds beruht; and den Gaben des Herrn John D. Rocke- feller, der die allgemeine Erziehungs-Kommission (Gen- eral Education Board) einsetzte; an der Rhodes-Stiftung die von Cecil John Rhodes zur Erziehung angelsach- sischer junger Manner auf der Universitat Oxford gegriindet worden ist; an der Schenkung des Herrn Alfred Bernhard Nobel f iir philanthropische und erzieh- erische Zwecke, bei deren Verteilung alle Nationali- taten und beide Geschlechter berlicksichtigt werden. Man muss aus dem Studium der Sphare des individuel- len Einflusses f olgern, dass hervorragende Philanthropen ein wichtiges Element in der Welterziehung sind. Freiwillige Gruppen von Personen, wie Verbande, Ver- einigungen von Fiihrern in der Erziehung und anderer sind gleichfalls vielversprechende Faktoren. Das Erziehungswerk der fiihrenden Nationen, das bereits das internationale oder Weltgebiet in Angriff nimmt und in seiner Ausdehnung unbegrenzt ist, hat einen grossen und wachsenden Anteil an der Erziehung iiber die ganze Welt. Weltwirtschaftslehre, die Erhaltung der Menschheit und der materiellen Hilfsquellen ge- horen zu den Frtichten universaler Erziehung. Welt- erziehung verbiirgt die Sicherheit der Nationen und die Vereinigung von Freiheit und Ordnung. Feindliche Ideen, die Verdacht, Streit und Krieg verursachen, lassen sich vermitteln, wo Intelligenz verbreitet ist. Die Organisation der Intelligenz der Menschheit kann nationale Rivaltitat in Kooperation und Freundschaft 113 APPENDIX umwandeln und so zu einer vollkommenen socialen Ordnung ftihren, in der die beiden grossen Ziele der Civilisation: das Wohlergehen des Individuums und der Gesellschaft naher gebracht sind. KAPITEL IX INTERNATIONALE PLANE Verschiedene Plane werden hier dargelegt, iiber die wir uns nicht eingehender aussern mogen, wie (1) der Internationale Erziehungs-Bund (International Edu- cation League); (2) die Vereinigung der Nationalen Erziehungs-Gesellschaften (Federation of National Ed- ucation Societies), (3) der Weltverband der Universi- taten; (4) der Verband Internationaler Assoziationen; (5) Weltuniversitat (religios, konf essionslos) ; (6) Welt- erziehungsfond oder Stiftung; (7) Vereinigte Stiftung fiir Internationale Erziehung; (8) Hauptstadtische Erziehungsalliance (Intel-metropolitan Educational Al- liance); (9) Internationale Vereinigung fiir Erziehung (unter der Regierung); (10) die Weltreise-Universitat; (11) Internationale Korrespondenzschulen; (12) Welt- bibliothek und Museum. KAPITEL X STATISTIC Dieser Abschnitt enthalt (a) Welterziehungsstatistik; (b) Internationale Gesellschaften, Kongresse, etc.; (c) Stadte von 250,000 Einwohnern und daniber. 114 GERMAN SYNOPSIS KAPITEL XI BlBLIOGRAPHIE Die Bibliographic enthalt eine Liste von gedrucktem Material, das sich auf viele Seiten des Gegenstandes bezieht. Die Liste konnte bedeutend vermehrt werden. 115 PART II FRENCH SYNOPSIS L'EDUCATION MONDIALE Discussion des conditions f avorables a une campagne pour 1'education raondiale, par M. W. Scott, secretaire de la Ligue de TEducation de la Nouvelle-Angleterre et de la Conference Internationale de 1'Education. CHAPITRE I TRAITS CARACTERISTIQUES DTT XIX. SIECLE Le dix-neuvieme siecle, qui vient de s'achever, a ajoute a la somme des connaissances et a mis au jour des sciences nouvelles; mais ce qui le distingue le plus, c'est la diffusion de son energie. La liberte personnelle s'est accrue; le servage, le commerce des esclaves et 1'esclavage ont ete abolis dans les pays les plus avances. La marche du progres a ete continuelle et s'est dirigee vers de meilleurs conditions sociales. Au nombre des f aits les plus remarquables du siecle se placent le progres du commerce, les transports par terre et par mer, les facilites des communications, les changements operes dans le gouvernement et la formation de nationalites plus grandes, le developpement de la presse, la circula- tion des publications periodiques et des livres, la propa- 116 FRENCH SYNOPSIS gation de la religion et de son etude comparative. La revolution operee dans I'opinion publique et 1'accrois- sement des chances qu'offre 1'education sont aussi re- marquables que tout autre mouvement du siecle. Us sont pleins de promesses pour 1'avenir de Thumanite, et ils lui ouvrent une ere nouvelle. CHAPITRE II LA QUESTION POSEE La tendance de Peducation moderne est bien exprimee par Talleyrand, ministre de 1'Instruction publique en France en 1791: "Comme il est impossible a qui que ce soit d'apprendre toutes choses, il devrait etre possible a tout le monde dans une societe bien organisee d'appren- dre quoi que ce soit." Le resultat est que 1'ecole, con- sideree d'une maniere large, enseigne tout et a tous ceux qui desirent apprendre, dans les limites de leur habilite naturelle. L'ecole la plus simple est une ecole de savoir universel, car les trois R, comme on les ap- pelle, sont le type et le symbole de tout savoir. L'ecole et Televe ne sont limites ni a la localite, ni au rang social, ni a la nation, ni a la race favorisee, mais contiennent toute rhumanite. CHAPITRE III OBSTACLES Les classes dirigeantes de la societe ont exerce une action puissante sur 1'education. L'histoire nous en montre de diverses sortes, telles que les classes sacer- dotale, militaire, professionnelle, commerciale, litteraire 117 APPENDIX et autres. Elles se sont fait leur education et lui ont dicte leurs termes. Peu a peu s'est formee une unite sociale plus grande et plus etendue, qui a rendu la theorie de 1'education plus universelle. Parmi les ob- stacles que 1'education a rencontres sont ceux de la race, de la classe, du sexe, de la pauvrete, de la localite, de la tradition. Us ont ete bien amoindris et meme supprimes du fait que les chances de s'instruire sont devenues plus nombreuses, et que le peuple ou la demo- cratic moderne est en faveur de 1'ecole. CHAPITRE IV PROGRES REALISES VOLONTARISME Dans la premiere partie du dix-neuvieme siecle, John Foster en Angleterre et autres dans d'autres pays, de- manderent une education elementaire pour le peuple ou le corps de la societe. Dans le cours du siecle, 1'educa- tion elementaire s'est etablie dans les principaux pays, et de plus 1'education secondaire et superieure sont ac- cessibles a tous dans beaucoup d'Etats et de pays. Les efforts volontaires de personnalites eminentes telles que Peter Cooper, Ezra Cornell, George Peabody, John D. Rockefeller, John Macie Smithson, Mary Lyon, John R. Vincent, Dwight L. Moody et de beaucoup d'autres aux Etats-Unis d'Amerique, ainsi que de nombreux philanthropes dans d'autres pays, ont contribue au progres de 1'education. Les travaux faits par les corps religieux pour 1'education ont ete un facteur important de ce progres. Enfin les grandes organisations d'edu- cation comme 1'Association Nationale d'Education aux 118 FRENCH SYNOPSIS Etats-Unis, 1'Association Britannique pour le develop- pement de la Science, et d'autres societes dans d'autres pays, ont beaucoup fait pour promouvoir 1'education. Bon nombre d'autres organisations volontaires, en dehors du gouvernement, ont pousse en avant 1'educa- tion sur des territoires locaux, nationaux et de plus grands encore que celui d'une nation. CHAPITRE V PROGRES REALISES GOUVERNEMENT La place que tient 1'education dans le gouvernement est tres grande. Son oeuvre subit 1'influence de Fideal religieux, ethique, social et industriel du peuple, surtout sous le gouvernement populaire de nos jours. La plus petite unite civile, appelee dans quelques pays le bourg ou le district; la ville, surtout la ville de premier ordre contenant au moins un demi-million de population, 1'Etat et la nation ont leur part dans 1'education. La transition de 1'action nationale a Faction internationale pour 1'education est un precede qui n'est ni long ni difficile. Une telle action a deja commence dans di verses formes indirectes et par la cooperation internationale. II semble inevitable que Faction gouvernementale donne dans Favenir d'autres developpements qui visent a 1'education mondiale. CHAPITRE VI MOTIFS DU DEVELOPPEMENT DE L'EDUCATION PAR LE GOUVERNEMENT Les raisons les plus import antes de la participation du gouvernement a 1'education sont: (a) la theorie de sur- 119 APPENDIX veillance qui considere le gouvernement comme une institution destinee a proteger les personnes et les pro- prietes. Un bon plan d'education universelle est une protection, parce qu'il favorise le developpement de Tintelligence du peuple, qui est la base du gouvernement. (b) Le corps politique constucteur. On doit instruire le citoyen pour le mettre a meme de faire sa part du maintien et de 1'amelioration du corps civil, (c) L'idee economique. L'education augmente les ressources et la valeur de chaque citoyen. (d) L'idee corporative. La societe, bien organised, est une corporation perpetuelle et doit assurer sa protection par 1'education de chacun de ses membres. C'est la le devoir de tout le corps social. L'education n'est pas un bienfait du riche, ni une necessite du pauvre, ni une obligation d'une classe sociale, industrielle ou autre, mais une question que interesse le corps politique comme corporation perpe- tuelle ou communaute. CHAPITRE VII CONDITIONS FAVORABLES Parmi les conditions f avorables a 1'education mondiale sont les experiences que font avec succes sur ce. sujet les grandes communautes et les nations; les traits ma- teriels du monde civilise, c'est le "jour des chemins," les chemins ordinaires, les chemins de fer et les chemins electriques, les grandes voies de 1'ocean, les facilites des communications qui mettent le monde entier en rela- tions avec chacune de ses parties; les unites d'adminis- tration des affaires publiques devenues plus grandes, 120 FRENCH SYNOPSIS et qui dans quelques cas depassent maintenant les frontieres nationales pour devenir mondiales. Les ten- dances economiques, de corporation, de construction et autres deja remarquees s'appliquent aussi a 1'education mondiale. Toutes les considerations qui conviennent a 1'education locale et nationale sont bonnes aussi pour 1'education de toute la race humaine. CHAPITRE LIGNES D'APPROCHE ILLUSTRATIONS Ce chapitre vise a montrer la nature effective des moy ens deja discutes pour promouvoir 1'education locale, d'Etat et nationale et de plus 1'education internationale, ou 1'education du genre humain en totalite, pour former une unite mondiale en education. L'influence individu- elle est illustree dans une petite ville ou un petit terri- toire par de nombreux exemples; dans une ville par les liberalites de M. Andrew Carnegie a Pittsburg, Pa.; dans un territoire plus grand par le " Mouvement Mac- donald" au Canada, base sur les liberalites de Sir William Macdonald; par les donations de M. John D. Rockefeller, qui etablit le Bureau d'Education Generale des Etats-Unis d'Amerique; par le Fonds des bourses Rhodes, constitue par Cecil John Rhodes pour 1'educa- tion de la jeunesse anglo-saxonne a 1'universite d'Ox- ford; par les donations au monde entier de M. Alfred Bernard Nobel pour des fins de philanthropic et d 'edu- cation, et dans 1'administration desquelles toutes les nationalites et les deux sexes sont considered. En etudiant la sphere d'influence individuelle, on en vient 121 APPENDIX a la conclusion que les eminents philanthropes consti- tuent un element important de 1'education mondiale. Les groupes volontaires de personnes comme les cor- porations, les associations des chefs de 1'education et autres sont aussi un facteur plein de promesses. Les travaux des premieres nations qui entrent deja dans Parene internationale ou mondiale et lesquels sont des- tines a une grande expansion, tiennent une part de plus en plus considerable dans 1'education de rhomme par tout le monde. Les economies du monde, la conserva- tion des ressources materielles et de 1'humanite sont au nombre des fruits de 1'education universelle. L'educa- tion mondiale assure la securite des nations et 1'union de la liberte et de 1'ordre. Les idees hostiles, qui causent le soupgon, la discorde et la guerre, peuvent ceder a 1'arbitrage la, ou 1'intelligence est bien repandue. L'or- ganisation de 1'intelligence de 1'humanite peut changer la rivalite en cooperation et en amitie, et ainsi nous conduire a un meilleur ordre social ou nous approcherons de plus pres des deux grands buts de la civilisation: le bien-etre de 1'individu et celui de la societe. CHAPITRE IX PLANS INTERNATIONAUX On presente ici plusieurs plans que nous ne pouvons pas developper comme: (1) Ligue Internationale de 1'Education; (2) Federation des Societes Nationales d'Education; (3) Federation Mondiale des Universites; (4) Federation des Associations Internationales; (5) Uni- versite Mondiale (religieuse, de toutes denominations) ; 122 FRENCH SYNOPSIS (6) Fonds ou Fondations de 1'Education Mondiale; (7) Union de Fondations pour 1'Education Internatio- nale; (8) Alliance d'Education Intermetropolitaine; (9) Union Internationale de 1'Education (Gouverne- mentale); (10) Universite de Voyage Mondiale; (11) Ecoles par Correspondance Internationales; (12) Bibli- otheques et Musees Universels. CHAPITRE X STATISTIQUES Cette division comprend (a) Statistiques de 1'Edu- cation Mondiale; (b) Societes Internationales, Congres, etc.; (c) Villes ayant une population de 250,000 et davantage. CHAPITRE XI BlBLIOGRAPHIE La bibliographic a une liste d'imprimes traitant beaucoup de phases du sujet. La liste pourrait etre etendue de beaucoup. 123 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OP 25 CENTS WILL. BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. JAN 19 tS45 FEG 28 1945 4UG 26 !946 NOV O in^ 9 I94g v DsiflStP (V ; , C^ LD 21-100m-12, '43 (8796s) v.... YB 04360 321453 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY