BERKELEY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 EARTH 
 
 SCIENCES 
 
 MBRARY 
 
OUTLINES 
 
 GEOLOGY: V 
 
 INTENDED AS A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE 
 
 MOST INTERESTING PARTS OF THE SCIENCE. 
 
 TOGETHER 
 WITH AN EXAMINATION OF THE QUESTION, 
 
 WHETHER THE DAYS OF CREATION WERE 
 INDEFINITE PERIODS. 
 
 ' 
 
 DESIGNED FOR THE USE 
 
 GENERAL READERS. 
 
 BY J. L. COMSTOCK, M. D. 
 
 AUTHOR OP AN INTRODUCTION TO MINERALOGY, ELEMENTS OP CHEMISTRY, 
 A SYSTEM OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, AND INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 ROBINSON, PRATT, & CO. 
 
 259 PEARL STREET. 
 
 1836. 
 
ENTERED according to Act of Congress, January, A. D. 1834, by J. 
 L. COMSTOCK, M. D. in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Con- 
 necticut. 
 
 9' / 
 
 W 
 
 
 
Qf.2. 
 
 a 
 
 EARTH 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 GEOLOGY is peculiarly adapted to impress the mind of the 
 student with ideas of the Wisdom and Power of the Creator, 
 and to lead him to the acknowledgment of a Great First Cause, 
 In addition to this, it is applicable to various, and highly impor- 
 tant practical purposes. Millions have been expended in boring 
 for salt, in mining for coal, and in searching for metallic veins, 
 when even a slight knowledge of the nature, and geological po- 
 sitions of rocks, as indicated by external appearances, would 
 have shown that such explorations would he fruitless. 
 
 In the sinking of wells, in excavations for canals, roads and 
 buildings, and for a great variety of other purposes connected 
 with both civil, and military engineering, a knowledge of geol- 
 ogy is often of the highest importance to the contractor, and not 
 less so, to the contracting party. 
 
 Is it not time then, that we should begin the study of the 
 earth on which we live, and from which, in common with all 
 terrene animals, we derive our subsistence? And can it be 
 doubted, that the knowledge to be derived from this source, is 
 fully as important to the youth of this great, and unexplored 
 country, as that pertaining to the names and sources of rivers, 
 the extent and situation of seas, and the boundaries of nations, 
 states, and towns, which our scholars spend so much time in 
 committing to memory? 
 
 To supply the deficiency of books on this subject, adapted to 
 general readers and to our higher schools, is the object of this 
 work. 
 
 Possibly the clergy of our country, who have no time to read 
 extensive geological works, and thus to collect the scattered 
 facts which shew the coincidence, and connection between the 
 Scriptures and geology, may rind this little volume an accepta- 
 ble assistance. At the present day, when infidelity looks almost 
 exclusively among the higher departments of science for aid, 
 ought not theologians, at least, to understand the ground of 
 such hopes, in order to make good their own defence? An ex- 
 perienced soldier always looks well to the strength of his out- 
 
 With respect to the matter of the following treatise, it is per- 
 haps sufficient to say, that almost every recent systematic geo- 
 logical writer in the English language, as well as many periodi- 
 cal publications, have been consulted. The plan has been to 
 treat of the most interesting and important parts of the science, 
 as a whole, and hence particular notices on American geology 
 have been admitted, only in conformity to this design. 
 
 To those acquainted with the present state of geology, it 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 hardly need be said, that to have prepared a volume which 
 should embrace, and unite, the opinions of even the most recent 
 and respectable authors on many subjects contained within its 
 outlines, would have been impossible: and to those who are not 
 acquainted with this science, it may be proper to state, that from 
 the very nature of many of its subjects, there must always exist 
 a variety of theories to account for the same facts, until more is 
 known concerning them. This arises from the circumstance, 
 that the causes of many phenomena which the earth exhibits, 
 have long since ceased, and therefore, these causes must remain 
 matters of conjecture. Thus coal is found in the earth, in great 
 abundance,, but none is formed at the present day, and therefore 
 the causes which have produced this substance, or at least, the 
 circumstances under which it was formed, remain a subject of 
 theory. 
 
 In other instances, the causes still exist, but their effects only 
 are apparent, as in the case of volcanoes and earthquakes. 
 
 In these instances, the leading facts are admitted by all, hut 
 men have chosen to account for them in different ways, and thus 
 different theories have been proposed, to solve the same phe- 
 nomena. 
 
 Again, in many things connected with the natural history of 
 the earth, the chief circumstance in question, may rest on a va- 
 riety of collateral facts, of the bearing of which, geologists differ 
 in opinion Thus fossil plants, belonging to orders which at 
 present only grow in tropical climates, and the remains of ani- 
 mals whose species are now found, only in the hottest regions 
 of the earth, occur in many parts of Europe, and even in frozen 
 Siberia. Hence some have supposed that the climate of Europe 
 has changed since the deposition of these remains, and that the 
 plants grew, and the animals lived, where their relics are now 
 found: while others, reasoning from what they consider con- 
 flicting facts, maintain that no change of climate has taken 
 place, and that the main circumstance may be accounted for, 
 by supposing that these remains were transported from hot cli- 
 mates. 
 
 At the present day, geological writers profess to maintain 
 their theories only by facts, and fair deductions from them, and 
 thus investigations are constantly going on, and new facts are 
 perpetually accumulating, so that ultimately, it may be expect- 
 ed that this science will consist of deductions from truths which 
 are generally admitted. But in its progress towards such a 
 state, hypothetical reasonings, under the restrictions which the 
 present advanced state of the sciences impose, are not to be de- 
 precated, since this is often almost the only means by which 
 men are stimulated to that thorough investigation of facts and 
 phenomena, which characterizes the practical geologists of the 
 present day. 
 
 It must not, however, be understood, that geology consists 
 chiefly of the conflicting opinions of different authorities. On 
 
FREFACB. V 
 
 the contrary, though of so recent an origin, it already embraces 
 numerous series of highly interesting, curious and instructive 
 facts, many of which seem destined to be of great importance to 
 mankind; while others are calculated to excite profound con- 
 siderations. 
 
 An examination of the earth shows that its crust has under- 
 gone great, and sometimes repeated mutations. The strata 
 which once corresponded, are now completely dislocated, one 
 portion being thrown up, broken, and distorted, while the other 
 is depressed, and equally mutilated; the whole indicating the 
 effects of an enormous force acting from beneath, and at an un- 
 known depth. 
 
 Every part of the earth, except the most recent deposites pre- 
 sent similar phenomena, more or less striking, and in this man- 
 ner, the original disposition and direction of all ancient stratified 
 rocks, have become changed. In some instances, the changes 
 have been so great, as to repeat the original number of strata 
 many times. In one locality, this effect has been such, as to 
 produce from 30 to 40,000 strata, where the original number was 
 only four. 
 
 We shall find that these dislocations are marks of wisdom 
 and beneficence, as well as of power; and that this earth would 
 have been but poorly fitted for the residence and comfort of man, 
 had these strata remained in a horizontal position. 
 
 The organic remains of plants and animals, the relics of a 
 former world, are not only objects of great curiosity, but afford 
 to the mind, subjects of the deepest contemplation. Here we 
 have before us, the remains of vegetables and animals which 
 covered, and inhabited the earth thousands of years ago; and 
 some of them are so unlike any existing species, that no living 
 analogues are any where to be found. 
 
 Other remains prove, that monstrous reptiles, sixty or seventy 
 feet ia length, once crawled among canes and rushes, which 
 emulated in height, the forests of the present day; while huge 
 quadrupeds of unknown tribes, inhabited the higher grounds, 
 where they reigned lords of the creation. 
 
 Probably these are the remains of animals which were known 
 to Noah and his family; and possibly some of them belonged to 
 the identical beasts to which Adam gave names. 
 
 Thus has the earth preserved, for our examination and in- 
 struction, natural bodies of the earliest growth, and with which, 
 no works of art can compare in antiquity. Even the remains 
 of Babylon and Egypt, are infants in age, when compared with 
 these things. 
 
 With respect to what has been advanced, on the subject of 
 the days of creation, we are aware that the opinions of several 
 American, and some foreign geologists of high standing, are 
 against us. But having examined several learned expositions 
 of the original text, both for, and against the admissibility of a 
 different translation from the common one, we are fully satisfied 
 
 A* 
 
that the word rendered day, connected as it is, in the history of 
 the creation, admits of no other meaning. This, if so, ought 
 forever to settle the question; for the necessity, which geology, 
 or the Hindoo tables, or the Egyptian Zodiacs, or the strata at 
 Etna, seem to present, ought never for a moment, to be admit- 
 ted in the mind of a believer, as an excuse for misinterpreting 
 the plainly intended meaning of the Scriptures. Both the In- 
 dian tables and the Egyptian Zodiacs presented much stronger 
 apparent proofs against the veracity of Moses, than any which 
 geology now opposes to his literal meaning. 
 
 We have only to add on this subject, that when it can be 
 shown, that the roots in philology admit of a different transla- 
 tion, and the substrata in geology require it, we will cheerfully 
 relinquish the opinion here attempted to be maintained. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 In the preface to the former edition of this work, it was stated 
 that the plan being to treat of the most important and interest- 
 ing parts of the science, articles of American geology had been 
 admitted only so far as might be necessary in conformity to this 
 design. The author has however become convinced by the com- 
 munications of Professors of Colleges, and the Principals of 
 other institutions where the work has been introduced, that fur- 
 ther illustrations from the geology of our own country would 
 make the work more acceptable as a class book; and in con- 
 formity to such hints, the present edition will be found much 
 improved in this respect. For these notices the author is in- 
 debted to a variety of American publications, but more particu- 
 larly to Professor Hitchcock's " Report on the Geology of Mas- 
 sachusetts," and Dr. Hildreth's Communication on the Valley 
 of the Ohio, contained in the 59th No. of Silliman's Journal. 
 
 The article on the length of the creative days has also been 
 particularly examined, most of it re-written, and several new 
 objections answered. On this part of his work, the author takes 
 pleasure in acknowledging the assistance of the Rev. S. F. Jar- 
 vis D. D. Professor of Oriental languages and Literature in 
 Washington College, Dr. Jarvis has not only had the kindness to 
 collate many passages of the Hebrew text with reference to the 
 meaning of the word yom : but also to translate for his use, the 
 theory of Paradisi, an abstract of which he has given in this 
 work. 
 
 Besides these additions, the author has made many others, 
 as the subjects seemed to require, the whole amounting to near- 
 ly forty pages, with twelve new illustrations by wood cuts. 
 
 It is hoped, therefore, that this edition will be found much 
 more worthy of public patronage than the former one. 
 HARTFORD, CT., Jan. 1836. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Adit, great Cornish, - - k J04 
 Age of the world according to 
 Orpheus, .'-. 
 Cassander, 
 
 Aleutian Islands, - - 112 
 American deluge, - - - 34 
 coal fields, - - - 183 
 Animals, destroyed by the 
 deluge, - - - 
 extinct, not living species, 235 
 by what means did the an- 
 cient ones perish, - 237 
 fossil amphibious, - - 249 
 Antiquity of Nations, preten- 
 ded, - - - - 8) 
 Ark, Noah's, ... 84 
 its dimensions, - - 84 
 * Atmosphere, temperature of the, 23 
 Anthracite, ... 177 
 
 Arrangement of shells in strata, 297 
 marine and fresh water, 299 
 Astronomical table, Indian, 358 
 
 Breccia, osseous, ... %\ 
 
 Grande on the fossils of Essex, 230 
 
 on those of Sheppey, 231 
 
 2 Buckland on the Deluge, 68 
 
 on the Kirkdale cavern, 216 
 
 on boulders, - 68 
 
 on caverns in Germany, 256 
 
 Bufibn's Theory, - 13 
 
 79-86 Burnet's Theory, - - 13 
 
 ialamites approximatus, - 274 
 
 !averns, bone, - - 255 
 
 of Germany, - - 257 
 
 of the Morea, - - 267 
 
 !avern of Kirkdale, - - 216 
 
 bones found there, 217 
 Dr. Buckland on, - 216-219 
 
 of Gaylenreuth, - 257 
 
 of Durfort, - - - 264 
 
 of Kosritz, - - 266 
 
 /limate, change of, - - 212 
 
 Bagnes, flood of 37 
 
 Bakewell on the fall of Mount 
 
 Grenier, 56 
 
 Baltic, accumulations in, 47 
 
 whether this sea has chan- 
 ged its level, - 48 
 Basalt, - - - - 159 
 Basaltic rocks, - 158 
 
 veins, ... 19C 
 
 Basalt, columnar, - - 19$ 
 
 of Staffa, 
 Baths of San Vignone, - 4( 
 
 of San Filippo, 40 
 
 Beds of shells formed by sea cur- 
 rents, - - - - 345 
 Bivalves, - 
 Big-bone-lick, bones found 
 
 there, - - - - - 245 
 Bone caverns, - 25f 
 
 Boulders, - * ' .-; 74-75 
 
 De la Beche on, 72 
 
 of Massachusetts, - -- 7( 
 
 large one at East Lyme, 75 
 
 from Norway, 
 
 of the Alps, - - - 69 
 
 Dr. Buckland on, 
 
 not so hot as formerly, 214 
 causes which have chan- 
 ged, - -'" 221 
 Herschell on, - . 221 
 change not owing to astro- 
 nomical causes, - 222 
 Dr. Ure on > 222 
 changed by the Deluge, 226 
 change sudden, - - 225 
 Lyell on, ... 221 
 further remarks on, - 226 
 Celcius on the Baltic, - - 47 
 194 Central heat, ... 133 
 Lyell on, - 121 
 Baron Fourier on, - 122 
 M. Cordier on, - - ]23 
 
 does exist, - - - 124 
 
 its volcanic agency, - 124 
 proved by the quantity of 
 
 lava from volcanoes. 126 
 
 Chalk, - - . . : 155 
 
 not found in America, 155 
 Chinese, their false pretensions, 
 
 to antiquity, 81 
 
 Cirknitzersee lake, - - 269 
 ontinents elevated from the 
 
 sea, ": * - 127 
 
 68 Coal fields, - ffi ^ 151 
 
 74C 
 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Coal, beds of, ... 170 
 
 searching for - - 171 
 
 indications of 172 
 
 minerals found with, - 173 
 
 of Ohio, - - - 174 
 
 anthracite, - - 177 
 
 origin of coal, - - 177 
 
 American coal fields, 183 
 
 wood coal, - - 178 
 
 marine fossils above, - 179 
 
 Columnar basalt, - - 193 
 
 Coral reefs and islands, - 62 
 
 Conchology, ... 280 
 
 Creation, Mosaic history of, 303 
 
 of heaven and earth, - 303 
 
 days of, - 317 
 of the firmament, 
 
 of the sun and moon, - 309 
 
 of the creeping things, 311 
 
 mammalia and man, - 312 
 Faber's history of the, 319-24 
 
 Crocodile, fossil, 
 
 Cryptogamous plants, 
 
 Cuvier on the Deluge, - 78 
 on distinguishing fossil 
 
 bones, - - - 233 
 on ancient species of ani- 
 mals, - 232 
 thinks there are no new 
 
 species, - - 236 
 
 his arrangement of fossils, 23 
 on the bone caverns of 
 
 Germany, - - 25G 
 
 on Genesis, - 355 
 
 Page, 
 
 Deluge, proofs of, - - 69-70 
 change of climate by, 78-222 
 animals destroyed by, 79 
 
 historical proofs of, 80 
 
 traditions of, 82 
 
 was it universal, 84 
 
 did it destroy all the primi- 
 tive animals, 86 
 Buckland on, 59 
 Ureon, 69 
 Cuvier on, - - 78 
 valleys formed by the, 71 
 effects of in Massachusetts, 75 
 - 348 Denon on sand downs, - 61 
 Density of the earth, 19 
 Diluvial action, - - 76 JL 
 Diluvium, - 160 r 
 305 Dicotyledonous plants, 308 
 Dip, - - - - 165 
 Dodo, extinct, - - 237 
 Downs, .... 60 
 De Luc on, 61 
 249 Doctrine of successive creations, 352 
 307-309 Durfort, cavern of, - - 264 
 human bones found in, 264 
 Dyke, 167 
 
 Delambre on Indian astronomy, 362 
 
 Days of Creation, - - 317 
 
 Faber's theory of, - 319 
 
 Silliman's theory of, 325 
 
 indefinite periods, - - 328 
 
 of common length, - 333 
 
 Stuart's criticism on, - 334 
 
 Penn's criticism on, - 336 
 
 Tire on, > - - 354 
 
 Macculloch on, 354 
 
 Cuvier on, - 355 
 
 Delta of Geneva,. .-*> - 45 
 
 of the Rhone, - - 49 
 
 ofthePo, 51 
 
 j^ of the Ganges, - - 51 
 
 Deltas in lakes, 45 
 
 in the sea, 47 
 
 Deluge, Noah's, 
 
 time of, - - |r 
 
 Earth, density of the, - - 19 
 temperature of, 22 
 
 internal heat of, - - 121 
 
 has suffered changes, 230 
 diameter of, - - - 19 
 newness of proved, - 55 
 
 Earthquakes of Calabria, - 105 
 
 effects on the obelisks, 106 
 
 Prince of Scilla killed by, 1 10 
 
 of Lisbon, - - 110 
 
 theory of - - - 119 
 
 Monte Nuovo formed by, 113 
 
 elevation of Chili by, 1 13 
 Aleutian islands elevated 
 
 by, - - - 113 
 island raised from the sea 
 
 by, ... no 
 
 Egyptian Zodiacs, - - 364 
 
 Elephant, fossil, - 79-238 
 
 African, 239 
 
 Siberian, - - - 240 
 
 bones found in England, 217 
 
 could now live in Siberia, 220 
 found in the ice, - 224-241 
 
 with long hair, - - 227 
 
 different species of - 238 
 
 his form of jaw, - - 239 
 
 68 Equisetums, fossil, - - 214 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 Eruptions, volcanic, 91 
 
 Gneiss, - 
 
 Page. 
 136 
 
 of Vesuvius, - - 93 
 
 Globe, constitution of, -*/. 
 
 19' 
 
 of Skaptar Jokul, - 101 
 
 density of, - 
 
 19 
 
 of Etna, ... 98 
 
 Great Lizard, - 
 
 215 
 
 of Sumbawa, - - 103 
 
 Greywacke. 
 
 148 
 
 ofJorullo, - - 102 
 
 Granite, - 
 
 135 
 
 Etna, eruptions of, 98 
 
 composition of, 
 
 135 
 
 beds of lava at, - - 369 
 
 igneous origin of, 
 
 139 
 
 ice found on, - - 100 
 
 of cape Wrath, 
 
 140 
 
 Extinct shells, ... 292 
 
 of Actworth, 
 
 141 
 
 encrinite, - 292 
 
 pasing into basalt, 
 
 143 
 
 belemnites, - - 293 
 
 of Glen Tilt, - 
 
 145 
 
 ammonites, - 293 
 
 of different ages, - 
 
 145 
 
 orthroceratites, - - 249 
 
 veins of, - 
 
 143 
 
 nautilus, - 294 
 
 Greenstone, ... 
 
 159 
 
 
 protrusion of, 
 
 195 
 
 Faber's history of the Mosaic 
 
 Gypsum, .... 
 
 154 
 
 days, - - 319-324 
 
 
 
 on the lava beds, - 372 
 
 Haldon hill, geology of 
 
 73 
 
 Fall of Mount Grenier, - 56 
 
 Hildreth on Ohio coal, 
 
 174 
 
 of the Alps, 57 
 
 on fossils found in, 
 
 170 
 
 ^ Falls of Niagara, - - 30 
 Fish, fossil, of Monte 
 
 Heber, Bishop, sees a hairy 
 elephant, - 
 
 227 
 
 Bolca, - - - 297 
 
 Henderson on the geysers, 
 
 42 
 
 Fault, - 167 
 
 Historical proofs of the deluge 
 
 80 
 
 Firmament, creation of, 305 
 \ Fossil, definition of, - - 229 
 
 Hitchcock on granite rocks, 
 of Con way, 
 
 141 
 142 
 
 Fossils, division of, 
 
 the protrusion of green- 
 
 
 particular, ... 238 
 
 stone, ... 
 
 145 
 
 Fossil quadrupeds, 
 
 on the diluvium of Mas- 
 
 
 amphibia, - 249 
 
 sachusetts, - v ^- : ' 
 
 75 
 
 crocodile, ... 24 fi 
 
 History of plants, Mosaic, 
 
 
 elephant, - 238 
 
 and natural, - 
 
 306 
 
 mastodon, - - 243 
 
 Hooke on earthquakes, 
 
 8 
 
 hippopotamus, - - 246 
 rhinoceros, - - 247 
 
 Home on the deluge, 
 Hutton's theory, - m>* 
 
 80 
 17 
 
 megatherium, - - 247 
 
 Human bones, fossil, - 
 
 963 
 
 human bones, - - 263 
 
 how came they in caverns 
 
 , 267 
 
 plants and shells, - - 270 
 
 Hyena's bcmes at Kirkdale, 
 
 217 
 
 plants, ... 272 
 
 
 
 shells, - .--.- - 292 
 
 Ichthyosaurus, - 
 
 252 
 
 fishes, 295 
 
 Iguanadon, - - 215-252 
 
 trilobite, - 295 
 
 Igneous, origin of granite, 
 
 139 
 
 Tt 
 
 rocks, difference in, 
 
 146 
 
 Ganges, delta of, 51 
 
 origin of trap, - - .^ 
 
 188 
 
 sediment from its water, 54 
 T Geology, meaning of 1 
 
 Iceland, geysers of, 
 Ignatius Paradisi, his theory, 
 
 42 
 355 
 
 objects of, - - - 1 
 
 Indian astronomical tables, 
 
 358 
 
 coincides with sacred his- 
 
 Islands raised from the sea, 
 
 112 
 
 tory, - - - 301 
 
 Islands, coral, formation of 
 
 G2 
 
 Genesis, geology coincides 
 
 
 
 with, - - 313-16 Jorullo, eruptions of, 
 
 102 
 
 what facts contradict, 3377upiter Serapis, 
 
 115 
 
 Geography of volcanoes, - 89 
 
 
 
 Geysers, ... 42iKepler's theory, - - 
 
 14 
 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Kirkdale, cave, - - 216 
 
 bones found in, - 217 
 
 Kosritz, human bones found in, 266 
 
 Land and sea, proportions of, 21 
 
 Lava, 160 
 
 Lake Cirknitzersee, - - 269 
 
 Leibnitz's theory, 12 
 
 Lias, - - -N - 156 
 
 Limestone, primitive, - 138 
 
 secondary, - - 138-152 
 
 transition, - - 148 
 
 now forming, - 50 
 
 cannon covered with, 50 
 
 formations, - - 344 
 
 Limestone, - - - 304 
 
 secondary not always 
 
 formed of shells, - 350 
 Light, where did it first eman- 
 
 tte, .... 304 
 
 Lithodomus, - 11 
 
 "Lyell on Niagara Falls, - 3 
 
 on American lakes, - 35 
 
 on change of climate, 221 
 
 on the Rhone, - - 48 
 
 on the geysers, 44 
 Ji on the water of the Ganges, 54 
 on the eastern coasts of 
 
 England, 58 
 
 Macculloch on the earth's di- 
 ameter, ... - 19 
 on the destruction of rocks, 55 
 
 62 
 - 279 
 
 on coral islands, 
 
 on petrifactions, 
 
 his 40,000 strata, 
 
 on the length of creative 
 
 days, - - 354 
 
 Mantel on the saurians, - 25] 
 
 on the Portland formation, 326 
 Marcet, Dr. on sea water, 
 Mastodon fossil, 
 
 form of his grinders, 
 
 found in America, - 345 
 
 first account of, from 
 
 Cotton Mather, - 224 Petrifactions, 
 Marine worms, 
 Megalosaurus, 
 Megatherium, 
 Megalonyx, 
 Metallic veins, 
 
 Mineral veins, - ,.j-> - 195 
 Mines and miners, - - 20 
 Mica-slate, - 
 |*lonte Nuova formed, - 113-125 
 
 131 
 
 215-25C 
 
 - 24" 
 
 249 
 
 Monte Bolca, fossil fish of, 
 Vlonocotyledonous plants, 
 VIorea, caverns in the, - 
 Vlosaic history of the deluge, 
 coincidence of geology 
 with, ... 
 and natural history of 
 plants, - - - 
 Mosaic days, ... 
 Faber's theory of, - - 
 Silliman's theory of, - 
 indefinite periods, - - 
 Stuart's criticism on, - 
 Penn's criticism on, - 
 of common length, 
 VIountTom, - - - 
 Holyoke, - - - 
 Grenier, fall of, - 
 VIountain slides, 
 Mukivalves, - 
 
 Noah's ark, 
 Septunian doctrines, 
 Sew-Holland, animals, 
 Sew- Jersey, marl and shells 
 
 found in, - - 
 Niagara, account of, - 
 
 Organic strata, inferences from. 340 
 Oolite, - - - 156 
 
 osseous breccia, - - 261 
 outcrop, - - - 165 
 outlier, - - - 167 
 
 Page, 
 297 
 307 
 
 268 
 67 
 
 301 
 
 306 
 317 
 319 
 325 
 328 
 334 
 336 
 333 
 193 
 193 
 
 56 
 
 36 
 281 
 
 94 $ 
 15 
 
 236 
 
 31 
 
 Paradisi, Ignatius, his theory, 335 
 Parkinson on fossil plants, 276 
 
 fishes, - - - 295 
 
 Pachydermata, . . 283 
 
 Parker's report on Pennsylva- 
 nia coal, ... 183 
 Peat, - - - - 185 
 
 bodies preserved in, - 186 
 244 Penn, his criticism on the word 
 
 day, . . . _ 
 Pennsylvania coal fields, - 
 
 Phytolithus varrucosus, 
 
 caucellatus, 
 
 Pittsburg, coal used there, 
 Plastic nature, 
 
 196 Playfair on Indian astronomy, 
 Plesiosaurus, 
 Plott, Dr., plastic nature, 
 Plutonians, 
 
 336 
 183 
 
 278 
 274 
 276 
 185 
 6 
 
 359 
 
 252-254 
 7 
 15 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Poles, how long are the days 
 
 at the, - - - -332 
 Po, river, effects of, 28 
 
 delta of in the Adriatic, 51 
 
 Pompeii, destruction of, - 96 
 Porphyry, - - - - 138 
 Primary rocks, - - 135 
 
 Quadrupeds, fossil, - - 231 
 
 Ravenna, formerly a sea port, 51 
 
 Rafts of Red river, - - 180 
 
 of New-Orleans, - - 228 
 
 Red sea, coral reefs of, - 6i 
 
 Remains, organic, - - 228 
 
 division of, - - 22S 
 
 Rennell on the water of the 
 Ganges, - - - 54 
 
 Rhone, sea and land shells, at 
 the mouth of, - - 5C 
 
 delta of in Geneva lake, 45 
 in the sea, 49 
 
 Rhinoceros fossil, 79 
 
 species of, - - 247 
 
 found on the Lena, - 227 
 
 Rock salt, - - - 152 
 
 origin of, - 153 
 
 Rocks, distribution of, - 55 
 classification of, 134-161 
 
 primary, - - - 135 Sienite 
 
 transition, - - 147 
 
 secondary, - 150 
 
 basaltic, ... 159 S 
 
 tabular view of, - - 161 
 
 different ages of, - 164 
 
 trap, origin of, - - 188 Slate 
 
 Romans, animals exhibited 
 
 by the, - 236 
 
 Sumbawa, volcano of, 
 Sand hills, - 
 
 newness of the earth 
 
 proved from, 61 
 
 Sandstone, - - - - 149 
 
 Saurians, - 250-2 
 
 Sea, destroying effects of, 57 
 
 on the English coasts, 
 
 mine under the, 
 
 level of unchanged, - 55 
 
 Sea-water, composition of, 21 
 
 Secondary rocks, - - 150 
 
 limestone, - 152 
 
 / Sediment in river water, 53 
 
 Shells, - - . 1 .280 
 
 beds of formed by the sea, 345 
 
 Shells, vast number of, - - 347 
 marine and fresh water. 299 
 
 fossil, 
 Encrinite, 
 Belemnite, 
 Ammonites, - 
 Orthraceratites, - 
 Nautilus, 
 recent, Bivalve, 
 Univalve, 
 Multivalve, 
 Barnicle, 
 Mya, 
 Cardium, 
 Patella, 
 Pholus, 
 Mytillus, - 
 Ostrea, - 
 Argonauta, 
 Dentalium, - 
 Bulla, 
 Voluta, 
 Buccinum, 
 Strombus, 
 Murex, 
 Turbo, 
 Conus. 
 Helix, 
 Nerita, 
 
 292 
 
 - 292 
 293 
 
 - 293 
 294 
 
 - 294 
 281 
 
 281-283 
 281-285 
 
 - 281 
 282 
 
 - 283 
 285-287 
 
 286 
 
 - 286 
 287 
 
 - 288 
 288 
 
 - 289 
 289 
 
 - 289 
 290 
 
 - 290 
 291 
 
 - 291 
 292 
 
 - 137 
 Signs and seasons, days and 
 
 years, .... 310 
 illiman, Prof, his theory of 
 the days of creation, - 325 
 
 his remark about the poles, 333 
 mica, 136 
 
 clay, - - - 137-149 
 structure of, - - 169 
 Steno, his work on fossils, 7 
 
 102 Skaptar Jokul, eruption of, 101 
 60 Springs, changes caused by, - 39 
 phenomena of, - - 205 
 m hills, - - - - 211 
 silicious, 42 
 
 of St. Michael, - - 42 
 of Iceland, ... 42 
 58 Stonesfield, remains found in, 252 
 203 Strata, arrangement of shells 
 
 in, 292 
 
 more ancient than Genesis 
 
 allows, - - 339 
 
 our ignorance concerning, 340 
 diluvial, - - - - 131 
 proofs of their elevation, 132 
 tertiary, - - - 158 
 
xii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Strata, and stratification, 
 
 horizontal, - 
 
 inclined, - ,.-.' 
 
 conformable, 
 Stuart, Prof, his criticism on 
 
 the word day, - 
 Sun and moon appear, 
 
 Table of coincidences between 
 
 revelation and geology,. - 
 Tapir, fossil 
 Temperature of the sea, - v 
 
 of lakes, - 
 
 of the earth, 
 
 of the atmosphere, 
 
 at various heights, 
 Tertiary strata, 
 
 of Long Island, - 75 
 
 Tiger killed on the Lena, - 226 
 Theory of volcanoes, - -119! 
 
 of veins, - - - 198, 
 
 Button's, - - - 1981 
 
 Werner's, - 
 Theory of the earth, Burnet's, 
 
 Woodward's, 
 
 Whiston's, 
 
 Leibnitz, .'-.- 
 
 Buffon's 
 
 Kepler's, 14j 
 
 Plutonian, - 15 
 
 Werner's, - - - 15 
 
 Button's, 
 Transition rocks,. 
 
 Page. 
 
 - 165 Ure, on the plesiosaurus, - 
 165 on the creative days, 
 
 - 165 Veins, mineral, 
 167 theory of, 
 
 of granite, - 
 
 - 334 f of basalt, 
 309 metallic, - 
 
 of greenstone, - 
 Vegetable fossils, calcareous, 
 313 silicious, - 
 
 - 79 Verona fossils, 
 
 22 Vesuvius, eruptions of ? ^S 
 22 destroyed Pompeii, - 
 
 22 Volcanoes and earthquakes, 
 
 23 connection between, 
 
 24 elevation of land by, 
 
 - 158 Volcanoes, geography of, 
 
 geological connections of, 
 
 proximity of to the sea, 
 
 of Iceland, - 
 
 elevation of land by, 
 
 attributed to metallic ele- 
 ments, - 
 
 attributed to ignition of 
 pyrites, 
 
 quantity of lava thrown 
 from, 
 
 - 13 Volcano of Suinbawa, 
 of Jorullo, - 
 of Vesuvius, - 
 
 - 17 Water, effects of running, - 
 147 transporting power of, 
 
 - 295 composition of sea, 
 188 Wells, Artesian, - 
 
 - 193 ofModena, - 
 190 of London, - 
 
 - 277 Wernerian theory, 
 
 White mountain, slide of, 
 Univalves, - 283 Whiston's theory, 
 
 Ure, Dr. on fan palms, - - 215 wants more time, - 
 his tabular view of rocks, 161 Willey fami'y destroyed, 
 on the megatherium, - 148 Woodward's theory, 
 on the cooling of the de- I 
 luge, - - - 222 Zodiacs, Egyptian, 
 
 Trilobite. 
 Trap, origin of, 
 
 mountains of, - 
 
 veins of, 
 Tree, fossil at Glasgow, - 
 
 Page, 
 254 
 354 
 195 
 198 
 140. 
 191 
 196 
 
 - 195 
 278 
 278 
 
 - 4 
 93 
 
 - 96 
 84 
 
 - 125 
 113 
 
 - 89 
 91 
 
 - 91 
 100 
 
 - 113 
 
 119 
 
 - 119 
 
 126 
 103 
 102 
 93 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 205 
 
 207 
 
 209 
 
 15 
 
 36 
 
 11 
 
 302 
 
 37 
 
 10 
 
 364 
 
OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY. 
 
 THE term GEOLOGY comes from the Greek ge, the 
 " earth, " and logos, " reason," or " discourse," and signi- 
 fies the doctrine, or science of the Earth. 
 
 The object of Geology is to investigate the phenomena 
 of the external and internal parts of the earth to inquire 
 into the modifications and changes which have taken place 
 in the crust of the globe since its creation, and to account 
 for these phenomena in a rational and scientific manner. 
 
 This science, though of very recent date, has already 
 been the means of offering to the consideration of the 
 world, most important information, both of a physical and' 
 moral nature. Many important geological facts, it is true, 
 have been long known; but in attempting to account for 
 them, theorists have indulged themselves, until recently, 
 in the wildest imaginations, and the most unfounded and 
 singular fancies. 
 
 No subject of importance has come down to the philos- 
 ophers of the present age, so incumbered with false theo- 
 ries, false reasonings, and whimsical vagaries, as Geology. 
 
 It is true, that a few writers of early date have reasoned 
 correctly from the facts then known, but the great mass of 
 authors on this subject, seem to have had no other object 
 in view, but to establish theories founded on plausibilities, 
 without the aid of facts, or observations. 
 
 From the earliest antiquity men have been inquisitive 
 in relation to the origin and duration of the earth; and the 
 mutations which it has undergone already, or is likely to 
 undergo in future times. In the absence of knowledge 
 concerning the Earth's structure, or of observations on the 
 phenomena which its surface exhibits, it was easier to 
 found theories, and reason for the ignorance then existing, 
 than to undertake long excursions in order to observe 
 facts, from which to reason correctly, and draw just con- 
 clusions. 
 
 It appears from the remotest records of profane history, 
 that philosophy had assigned to this Earth a perpetual se- 
 ries of mutations, either by fire, or water, or by both. 
 
^ GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 
 
 Some supposed that this fair world was occasionally, or 
 periodically destroyed, and again renovated under a new 
 aspect; and that a new creation of men and animals took 
 place after every such renovation. The ancient Egyp- 
 tians believed that this world was subject to occasional 
 deluges and conflagrations, and that the gods by such aw- 
 ful judgments arrested the career of human wickedness, 
 and purified the habitation of man from his own guilt. It 
 was supposed that all the wicked were destroyed by such 
 disasters, and that the few who escaped, were the wise, 
 virtuous, and happy, but that their descendants gradually 
 became wicked, and were in like manner swept away by 
 the wrath of the gods. 
 
 Baron Humboldt states, that after the destruction of a 
 large portion of the inhabitants of Cumana, in South 
 America, by an earthquake, in 1766, an extraordinary fer- 
 tility ensued, in consequence of the rain which had accom- 
 panied the convulsion. On this occasion says he, the In- 
 dians celebrated, in conformity to an ancient superstition, 
 by festivals and dancing, the destruction of the world, and 
 the approaching epoch of its renovation. 
 
 The Egyptian priests assigned certain periods of time 
 for the destruction and renovation of the world. Accord- 
 ing to Pritchard, in his Egyptian Mythology, the cycles, 
 or periods of these catastrophes were variously estimated. 
 Orpheus supposed their duration to be 120,000 years; Cas- 
 sander, 300,000 years, &c. The Greek philosophers and 
 stoics also believed that the Earth was liable to be afflict- 
 ed by periodical catastrophes, both by flood and fire. The 
 first, they supposed destroyed the whole human race, and 
 annihilated all animal and vegetable productions, and that 
 the second dissolved the Earth itself, but that this was 
 afterwards renovated, or re-produced. 
 
 The connection between the doctrine of successive ca- 
 tastrophes, and repeated deteriorations in the moral char- 
 acter of the human race, is more intimate and natural to 
 the minds of men than might at first be imagined. For 
 in a rude state of society, all great calamities are regarded 
 by the people as the immediate judgments of God on the 
 wickedness of man. Thus says Mr. Lyell in our own 
 times, the priests persuaded a large part of the population 
 of Chili, and perhaps believed themselves, that the great 
 earthquake of 1822, which convulsed that country was 
 
GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 
 
 a sign of the wrath of heaven on them, for the great polit- 
 ical revolution just then commencing in South America. 
 
 We may observe from the accounts of travellers, and 
 voyagers among barbarous tribes in the South Sea Isl- 
 ands, and in India, that earthquakes are almost universally 
 considered among these people as judgments sent by a 
 supreme, or superior being, on the wickedness of men. 
 In countries not subject to earthquakes, as among the 
 Egyptians, there are still traditions, or forebodings of con- 
 flagrations, as we have already seen; and so far as is 
 known, all nations and tribes, whether civilized or barba- 
 rous, are not without their notions, however vague, of a 
 flood of water which destroyed at least most of the inhabi- 
 tants of their own country. Were it not most probable 
 that this idea has been handed down by tradition from the 
 time of Noah, it would often appear as though it were an 
 innate moral sentiment, designed by divine authority to 
 impress all mankind with the fear of punitive justice. 
 
 This subject will come under consideration when we 
 come to treat of the Deluge, and we will only remark fur- 
 ther at present, that it is believed, neither the ancient phi- 
 losophers, nor modern barbarians ever entertained any 
 idea of the final' destruction of the Earth, this belief being 
 derived exclusively from the sacred scriptures. We have 
 seen that several ancient nations held to the doctrine of 
 perpetual changes, consisting of the alternate destruction 
 and renovation of the Earth. A similar doctrine is said 
 to have been taught by the Gerbanites, a sect of astrono- 
 mers who flourished before the Christian era. They be- 
 lieved that after every period of 36,000 years, there were 
 produced twenty-five pair of every species of animals, 
 male and female; and that these multiply and spread over 
 the face of this lower world. But that when a circulation 
 of the heavenly orbs was completed, which is finished in 
 the above named space of time, then other species of 
 animals are created, together with new plants and other 
 things, and so it goes on forever and ever. 
 
 It is the light of revelation alone, to which we are in- 
 debted, at the present day, for that knowledge and under- 
 standing which places us above a belief in the false doc- 
 trines of heathen philosophy. Civilization and experience 
 never yet corrected the speculative philosophy, or the re- 
 ligious opinions of heathenism. 
 

 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 
 
 With respect to the knowledge which the ancients pos- 
 sessed of geology, nothing of importance can be said. The 
 Greek naturalists, arid the Arabian physicians and philos- 
 ophers have recorded some few geological facts, and seve- 
 ral Latin writers have noticed phenomena connected with 
 earthquakes and volcanoes, especially the rising of islands 
 out of the sea. But the geologist will search in vain, for 
 any facts or speculations concerning the history of the 
 Earth, worthy his notice, until the beginning of the 16th 
 century; when some shells dug out of the Earth at Vero- 
 na, in Italy, became the subject of a controversy which 
 may be considered as having laid the foundation of geolo- 
 gical knowledge. 
 
 These fossil, or petrified shells were found in 1517, in 
 consequence of some excavations which were made for 
 the purpose of repairing some part of the city of Verona. 
 Such remains it is true, had long before been discovered 
 in various places; but no persons of learning or judgment 
 seem previously to have troubled themselves about such 
 matters. The idea seems to have prevailed, that these 
 were the products of what was then termed '* plastic na- 
 ture;" that is, that shells, and other organic remains, found 
 in the solid earth, above the sea, were not the exuviae of 
 animals, but were formed in the rocks where they were 
 discovered, and that they were nothing more than imita- 
 tions of real shells and bones. This idea was probably 
 suggested, for the purpose of accounting for the appear- 
 ance of shells in places where it was supposed impossible 
 the sea should ever have been; the idea that the sea had 
 changed its bed, or that the strata had been elevated by 
 subterranean forces, being then entirely unknown. At 
 present, such phenomena are readily accounted for on the 
 hypothesis that many parts of the earth, have been thrown 
 up from the bottom of the sea by volcanic force. 
 
 The shells at Verona furnished matter for much specu- 
 lation, and many writers gave their opinions concerning 
 them, as well as of other fossils found in similar situations. 
 Among these, one writer named Fracastoro, gave it as his 
 settled conviction that these and other fossil shells, wher- 
 ever they were found, had once belonged to living animals, 
 and at the same time ridiculed the notion that the "plas- 
 tic force" of nature ever formed them, or any other such 
 like productions. He also maintained that these belong- 
 ed to animals which grew and multiplied in the places 
 
GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 5 
 
 where they were found, and that the time of their growth 
 was before Noah's flood, All this no doubt was true; but 
 such new and strange doctrines raised against Fracastoro 
 many bitter opponents. His clear and philosophical views 
 were disregarded, his ideas concerning plastic nature corn- 
 batted, and the passions, as well as the arguments and 
 learning of the times were arrayed against him. 
 
 The questions discussed, were, first, whether fossil re- 
 mains had ever belonged to living animals; and second, 
 if this be admitted, whether all the phenomena concerning 
 them can be explained in consequence of the changes 
 which took place by the waters of Noah's flood. 
 
 At this period, the idea prevailed in the Christian world, 
 that the earth had undergone no considerable changes, ex- 
 cept those produced by the general deluge, and that, there- 
 fore, to attempt to show that fossil remains had been ele- 
 vated by any other catastrophe, would be opposing physi- 
 cal appearances against Christian faith. The clergy, on 
 this ground entered warmly into this dispute, but at the 
 same time, it appears that they allowed the subject to be 
 canvassed with considerable freedom, though the argu- 
 ments on both sides were often such as would have little 
 effect on the mind of a geologist at the present day. 
 
 " The system of scholastic disputation" says Mr. Lyell, 
 (speaking on this subject,) " encouraged in the universi- 
 ties of the middle ages, had unfortunately trained men to 
 habits of indefinite argumentation, and they often prefer- 
 red absurd and extravagant propositions, because greater 
 skill and acuteness was required to maintain them; the end 
 and object of such intellectual combats, being victory, and 
 not truth." 
 
 No theory at that period, was so whimsical as not to 
 find advocates, and as theories of the earth were chiefly 
 founded in opinions ami conceits, rather than on facts and 
 observations, the greatest latitude was indulged in the dis- 
 play of ingenuity and imagination in their support. Some 
 of the inventions brought forward in the shape of argu- 
 ments, against the doctrine that shells once belonged to 
 living animals, were indeed quite too ridiculous to have 
 come from any source claiming to possess the power of 
 reasoning. Thus one of the opposers of Fracastoro, by 
 name Mattioli, professed to account satisfactorily for the 
 facts in the case of the shells at Verona, and other such 
 like appearances, by supposing that a certain materia pin- 
 1* 
 
6 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 
 
 gwis, or fatty matter, set into fermentation by the heat on 
 the earth, gave form and substance to these objects. Ano- 
 ther author, Fallopio, of Padua, Professor, &c., conceived 
 that petrified shells, had been generated by fermentation, 
 in the places where they were found, and that in some ca- 
 ses, at least, they had acquired their forms by the " tumul- 
 tuous movements of terrestrial exhalations" Fallopio 
 was the renowned professor pf anatomy at the celebrated 
 school of Padua, and whose name, on account of his dis- 
 coveries, is seen in every book of anatomy, to this day. 
 Yet this learned man taught his pupils, from the chair of 
 that famous university, that certain elephants' tusks which 
 were dug up in some part of Italy, were nothing more 
 than earthy concretions. And agreeably to the same doc- 
 trines, he intimated, that in his opinion, some ancient va- 
 ses which were disinterred at Rome, were natural impres- 
 sions, formed by the plastic force of nature, and that they 
 were not the artificial works of man. To the same school 
 of reasoners belonged Mercati, who published a book in 
 1574, containing some good figures of fossil shells, preser- 
 ved in the Pope's museum, at Rome. In explaining these 
 subjects, the author has no doubt that the fossils there 
 represented, are not real shells, but mere stones, which 
 had assumed the appearances of shells, " through the influ- 
 ence of the heavenly bodies." Olivi, a contemporary author, 
 after much reasoning on these subjects, satisfied himself 
 that fossil shells, bones, and such like things, were nothing 
 more than the " sports of nature." 
 
 In the midst of those who entertained such fanciful no- 
 tions, which indeed were characteristic of the age, there 
 was not wanting a few, who like Fracastoro, saw their 
 folly, and ridiculous tendency, and who dared to assert the 
 truth on the subject of fossils. Among these was Palissy, 
 a Frenchman, who in 1580, undertook to show that shells 
 and bones, found in rocks, were really animal remains, 
 and that they had been deposited there by the universal 
 deluge, &c. 
 
 Although similar doctrines, as we have seen, had before 
 been advanced in Italy, it appears that in France they 
 were entirely new, for Fontanelle, who pronounced an 
 eulogy on Palissy before the French Academy, fifty years 
 afterwards, says that he was the first who " dared to as- 
 sert in Paris, that the remains of testacea and fish, had 
 once belonged to marine animals." See Lyell, vol. i. p. 26. 
 
GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 7 
 
 At about this period a host of writers of various merit, 
 arranged themselves on both sides of the question, " whe- 
 ther fossils were real organic substances; and if so, how 
 they came in the places where they are found?" and other 
 such like subjects. The consequence was, that these wri- 
 ters began to investigate facts in proof of their theories? 
 and from this period may be dated the commencement 
 and dissemination of just opinions on the subject of geolo- 
 gy. At this time, Steno, a Dane of considerable reputa- 
 tion, demonstrated that some fossil teeth found in Tusca- 
 ny, were those of a species of shark still living in the 
 Mediterranean. Steno's work " On Gems, Crystals, and 
 organic Petrifactions inclosed in solid Rocks," was pub- 
 lished in 1669. He also maintained that fossil vegetables 
 had been living plants,* and hinted that these remains 
 might indicate the distinction between marine and river 
 deposites. 
 
 Steno, as well as some, other writers on these subjects, 
 although anxious to make their doctrines and statements 
 agree with the Mosaic history, alarmed the clergy by their 
 deductions, and hence many theologians again entered the 
 field of controversy. The points which these reverend 
 men were chiefly desirous of protecting from the intrusion 
 of philosophy and physics, were, as before, the Mosaic 
 history, especially that of the Deluge; and knowing little 
 of geology, they accounted those as nearly confirmed 
 heretics, who could not ascribe all marine organic re- 
 mains found in rocks, to the effects of the flood. We 
 shall see that the Mosaic history, is, however, not contra- 
 dicted by supposing the shells in solid strata were de- 
 posited long before that catastrophe occurred. 
 
 In the mean time, among popular writers, the old doc- 
 trine that petrified shells had never belonged to real ani- 
 mals, still maintained its ground. Even so late as 1677, 
 the famous Dr. Plott, in his ' Natural History of Oxford- 
 shire," attributes the origin of fossil shells and fishes to 
 11 a plastic virtue latent in the earth." 
 
 Our limits will not allow us to enlarge on this curious 
 subject, and to detail the different opinions which were 
 
 * Fossil strictly signifies any thing dug out of the earth, but in geolo- 
 gy this term is restricted to organic bodies which have been petrified, or 
 mineralized by long residence in the ground. Most fossils are supposed 
 to be of antediluvian origin. 
 
8 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 
 
 offered to the world by more of the early geological wri- 
 ters, nor is this perhaps necessary, since the specimens 
 already given are examples of the prevailing opinions of 
 the times. The light of truth however, gradually follow- 
 ed the accumulation of facts, and the doctrine of " plastic 
 nature" became obsolete, and ridiculous, in proportion as 
 men reasoned on what they saw. 
 
 About this time, the celebrated Robert Hooke, a name 
 well known in the annals of Mathematics and Natural 
 Philosophy, published his " Discourse on Earthquakes." 
 Hooke was at least a century before his contemporaries, 
 on this subject, and it appears that his discourse did more 
 to induce others to think and reason correctly on geologi- 
 cal subjects, than all who had written before him. He 
 ridiculed most effectually, the old notion that fossil shells 
 were mere stones, so shaped by nature as to imitate such 
 remains, or to use his own words, " formed for no other 
 purpose than to play the mimic in the mineral kingdom." 
 He maintained, also, that many species of shells might be 
 extinct, or not now living; for it was known at that time, 
 that several fossils had been found, of kinds not known in 
 the Jiving state. 
 
 At the present day, many hundred species of shells are 
 found, which are considered extinct, no living specimens 
 of the same having any where been discovered. But in the 
 days of Hooke this idea was considered as improper, and 
 even heretical, since as was claimed, it derogated from the 
 wisdom and power of the Creator, inasmuch as it was 
 declaring a want of perpetuity in his works. But Hooke, 
 in his defence, declared that such an opinion was not re- 
 pugnant to holy writ, for the scriptures taught that there 
 should be a final dissolution of all things, " and as when 
 that happens, all the species will be lost, why should not 
 some become extinct at one time, and some at another." 
 
 It will be observed that the early writers of Geology 
 admitted only the two epochs, the creation, and the del- 
 uge, as producing all the appearances which the globe ex- 
 hibits. They did not estimate the effects of earthquakes, 
 running streams, and mountain slides, which in the course 
 of ages have undoubtedly produced very considerable chan- 
 ges on the earth's surface. Hence early theorists attempt- 
 ed to make their doctrines agree with the changes which 
 they attributed to the flood, but which in many instances 
 
GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 9" 
 
 were undoubtedly to be assigned to causes now in opera- 
 tion. There was a prevailing timidity with respect to the 
 conclusions to be drawn from geological facts, lest they 
 should be brought to contradict the Mosaic history. But 
 this apparent want of confidence in the triumph of the 
 scriptures, was rather a desire to keep from the hands of 
 designing men any excuse to deny the veracity of Moses, 
 and which arose partly from want of geological knowl- 
 edge, and partly from the religious character of the times. 
 
 Under such circumstances, geological theorists directed 
 their efforts to account for the present actual appearances 
 of the earth, by allowing it a certain form at the creation, 
 and then ascribing the changes since made, to theNoachi- 
 an deluge. 
 
 We will now present the student with a short account 
 of several of the most celebrated early systems, or theo- 
 ries of the Earth; at the same time premising that although 
 some of them are from the pens of those who ranked 
 among the most talented men of the age, still as theories 
 of the earth, they are devoid of any probable foundation 
 in truth. 
 
 Burners Theory. This was published in 1695,* and 
 its title is strikingly characteristic of that age. It runs 
 thus. " The Sacred Theory of the Earth, containing an 
 account of the original of the Earth, and of all the gene- 
 ral changes which it has undergone, or is to undergo, till 
 the consummation of all things." 
 
 Burnet supposed that the primeval earth, down to the 
 time of the flood, enjoyed a perpetual spring, and accounts 
 for this assumed fact by assuming that the plane of the 
 ecliptic was then coincident with the earth's axis, and that 
 the commotions during the flood turned the earth into its 
 present position, and thus produced the vicissitudes of the 
 seasons. He endeavors to show, that the original form 
 of the Earth as it rose out of chaos, was so contrived, as 
 to contain within itself the water necessary to produce the 
 deluge. A smooth crust of earth is made to conceal the 
 waters of the abyss from the time of the creation, but the 
 rain on the outside, together with the expansion of the 
 
 * Professor Brande quotes Burnet's book as being published in 1726, 
 but this was probably a second edition. 
 

 !0 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 
 
 waters beneath by heat, rent this crust, which falling down 
 into the abyss, caused the universal flood, and at the same 
 time, by the inequality of the fragments, formed the moun- 
 tains of the earth as we now see them. 
 
 " Not satisfied with these themes, he derived from the 
 sacred scriptures, and from heathen authorities, prophetic 
 views of the future revolutions of the globe; gave a terrific 
 description of the final conflagration, and proved that a 
 new heaven, and a new earth will rise out of a second cha- 
 os, after which will follow the blessed millenium." 
 
 This was called, and is known to the present day as the 
 " Sacred Theory," and as absurd, and utterly void of all 
 foundation as it appears at the present time, it was receiv- 
 ed in that day with great applause. King Charles II. com- 
 manded it to be translated out of the Latin, in which it 
 was written, into English. Addison eulogised it in Latin 
 verses; Steele praised it in the Spectator, and Warton 
 ranked its author among the " first for understanding, 
 judgment, imagination and memory." These encomiums 
 show that Burnet, though ignorant of geology, was no or- 
 dinary writer, and that it was his fine taste, and his inven- 
 tive genius that caught the admiration of men, who, though 
 judges of these qualities, knew nothing of the science 
 about which he wrote. 
 
 Woodward's Theory. In 1695, another celebrated 
 theory of the earth was laid before the public. It was 
 entitled " An Essay towards a Natural History of the 
 Earth and Terrestrial Bodies, especially Minerals; as 
 also of the Sea, Rivers and Springs, with an account of 
 the Universal Deluge, and of the effects it had on the 
 Earth. By Dr. Woodward, Professor of Medicine at the 
 University of Cambridge." 
 
 Professor Brande thinks that Woodward must be con- 
 sidered the first geological theorist who professed to have 
 minutely examined the crust of the earth, and to have 
 founded his system on the facts thus developed. He 
 made geological tours into different parts of England, and 
 examined strata, and collected specimens with a view to 
 illustrate his intended work. He also appears to have been 
 the first who drew up a series of geological inquiries, 
 which he sent to his friends abroad for the purpose of ob- 
 taining more extensive information on these subjects. 
 
 From these circumstances it might have been expected 
 
GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 11 
 
 that Woodward's views would have been more sound and 
 enlarged than any of his predecessors or contemporaries; 
 but it was the fashion of that day to form theories rather 
 than to state facts, and he fell into this common error. 
 
 His theory supposes that the whole terrestrial globe fell 
 in pieces and was dissolved by the waters of the flood, and 
 that the strata of the earth settled down from this promis- 
 cuous mass. In corroboration of this view, he insisted 
 that marine bodies, as shells, are lodged in the strata ac- 
 cording to the order of gravity, the heavier shells in stone, 
 arid the lighter ones in chalk, and so of the rest. But this 
 doctrine was immediately contradicted by the fact, that 
 fossil bodies are often, however, mixed, the heavy with 
 the light, in the same stratum. 
 
 Although Woodward's Theory is not founded on any 
 grounds, even of plausibility, still his book contains many 
 important facts, and in this respect he was greatly in the 
 advance of any of his contemporaries. 
 
 Whiston's Theory. The next famous work of this 
 school, and equally characteristic of that period, was that 
 of Whiston. Its title was, '* A New Theory of the earth 
 wherein the Creation of the World in six days; the Uni- 
 versal Deluge, and the General Conflagration, as laid down 
 in the Holy Scriptures, are shcrwn to be perfectly agreea- 
 ble to reason and philosophy." Published in 1696. 
 
 Whiston was originally a disciple of Burnet, ana adopt- 
 ed his views, until Sir Isaac Newton showed there was 
 no probability that the earth's axis had changed its direc- 
 tion, and consequently that the cause of perpetual spring 
 before the flood, as assumed by Burnet. was without foun- 
 dation, on which this part of his master's system was re- 
 linquished. 
 
 It seems to have been a principal point in all the geolo- 
 gical theories of that day, to account for the general de- 
 luge by the action of some extraordinary natural cause. 
 In conformity to this fashion, Whiston in the first place 
 shows how this earth was originally a comet, which being 
 modified, or re-modelled, was brought into its present 
 shape. The great heat which the earth retained, owing to 
 its igneous origin, inflamed the passions of the whole 
 antediluvian race, so that " every imagination of the 
 thoughts of man's heart was evil continually." The aw- 
 ful catastrophe which swept this wicked race, with the 
 
1-2 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 
 
 exception of Noah and his family from the face of the 
 earth, was occasioned by the train of a comet, which passing 
 near the earth, was condensed upon it in the form of a de- 
 luge of waters. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to say that such a supposition is 
 without a single circumstance in favor of its probability, 
 and therefore, being entirely hypothetical, is unworthy of 
 arguments either for or against it. 
 
 ^ Whistori was the first_who proposed that the first book 
 of Genesis should bcTmterpreted differently from its ordina- 
 ry -acceptation, so that it should not be heretical to believe 
 that the earth had existed for an indefinite period, before 
 the creation of animals, and man. He had the art to throw 
 an air of truth or probability over the most whimsical and 
 improbable assumptions, and by absorbing the mind of the 
 reader with mathematical calculations, to make him assent 
 to propositions, which in themselves were utterly false. 
 
 Theory of Leibnitz. Leibnitz was one of the most pro- 
 found mathematicians of his time. His theory was pub- 
 lished in 1680, and is another curious specimen of imagi- 
 nary cosmogony. He supposed that this globe was ori- 
 ginally a luminous burning mass, and that from the time 
 of the creation it had been gradually cooling. When the 
 water which surrounded it in the form of steam, became 
 condensed by the cooling of the earth, then the sea was 
 formed, which at first entirely surrounded it in every part, 
 and was of such depth as to cover the highest mountains. 
 Further consolidation of the earth by cooling, produced 
 rents, which opening into caverns beneath the crust, ad- 
 mitted a part of the universal ocean, thus leaving a por- 
 tion of the earth dry land, preparatory to the creation of 
 man, and for his habitation. He imagined, also, that the 
 temperature of the earth was continually diminishing, and 
 that the level of the sea was constantly sinking. The first 
 idea was considered as entirely groundless by succeeding 
 .geologists, but recently the doctrine of subterranean heat 
 I has been embraced by several respectable naturalists, and 
 I is now the prevailing foundation of the theories of earth- 
 ' quakes and volcanoes. The gradual sinking of the sea, 
 is a*~cfoctrine which has had many strong advocates, and is 
 still supposed to have been proved by various tests. But 
 it will be seen in the progress of this volume, that facts 
 have decided against this hypothesis. 
 
: if 
 
 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES, 13 
 
 We might occupy our whole volume with the different 
 theories which have been proposed, to account for the 
 present appearances of this earth, but we must close this 
 part of our subject, by an epitome of those of Buffon, and 
 Kepler, and with a short account of the Neptunian and 
 Plutonian doctrines. 
 
 Bufon's Theory. This is principally an extension of 
 that of Leibnitz. He adds another comet, which by a 
 violent blow upon the sun, struck off the mass of which 
 our earth is composed in a liquid state, and with the earth, 
 all the other planets which composed our system. 
 
 From such suppositions, Buffon was enabled to assume 
 data, by which he arrived at several important conclusions. 
 Thus by estimating the heat of the sun (the earth being 
 originally of the same temperature) and comparing it with 
 the present heat of the earth, it could be told) by assum- 
 ing a rate of cooling) how long it had taken to cool down 
 thus far. Then as the other planets had come from the 
 sun at the same time with the earth, it could be calculated 
 by the same rules how many ages it still required to cool 
 the larger ones, so as to admit of their being inhabited, 
 and how far the smaller ones were now frozen, so as to 
 have destroyed all animal life. 
 
 He accounts for the spherical form of the earth and 
 other planets from their 'being set in motion while ip a 
 semi-fluid state. With Leibnitz, Buffon supposed that the 
 ocean once enveloped the whole earth, covering the high- 
 est mountains, and hence the appearance of shells far 
 above the level of the sea. The water afterwards ran into 
 caverns which opened into the earth, and thus the ocean 
 subsided to its present level. Soon after Bulfon's theory 
 was published, he received an official letter from the Fac- 
 ulty of Theology, at Paris, dated January, 1751, stating 
 that some of his propositions were reprehensible, and 
 contrary to the creed of the Church. One of these propo- 
 sitions were as follows. '* The waters of the sea have 
 produced the mountains and valleys of the land the wa- 
 ters of the Heavens reducing all to a level, will at last de- 
 liver all, over to the sea, which successively prevailing 
 over the land, will leave dry, new continents like those 
 which we inhabit." The objectionable doctrine seems to 
 have been that in the opinion of Buffon, the present moun- 
 tains and valleys of the earth are due to secondary causes* 
 2 
 
14 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 
 
 and that the same causes will destroy all the continents, 
 hills, and valleys, and re-produce new ones, and so on 
 i perpetually, while the scripture doctrine warns us that 
 f there shall be an end of all created things, &c. 
 
 Buffon was invited to a conference with the Faculty in 
 order to make an explanation, or rather a recantation of 
 his errors. To this he submitted, and having satisfied that 
 body of his Orthodoxy in a written instrument, called his 
 ** Declaration," he was required to publish the same in the 
 next edition of his work. This declaration begins thus. 
 " I declare, that I had no intention of contradicting the 
 text of the Scriptures: that I believe most firmly all there- 
 in related about the creation, both as to the order of time 
 and matter of fact; and I abandon every thing in my book 
 respecting the formation of the earth, and generally all 
 which may be contrary to the narrative of Moses," &c. 
 
 Kepler's Theory. Kepler, one of the profoundest math- 
 ematicians and astronomers the world has ever seen, offer- 
 ed a theory of the earth more singular and whimsical than 
 any of his contemporaries, or predecessors. His notions, 
 indeed are so odd, and void of common sense, that it 
 might be supposed he intended to ridicule his brother the- 
 orists, by going beyond them in improbabilities, rather 
 than to offer the world his sober opinions. 
 
 Kepler supposed, or pretended to suppose, that the 
 earth contained a circulating vital fluid, and was possessed 
 of living powers and that a process of assimilation goes 
 on in it as well as in other animals. Every particle of 
 1 |T|pt.tfir. according to him, is alive, and possesses volition 
 and instinct: hence these particles attract and repel each 
 other according to their several sympathies, or antipathies. 
 Thus the particles of water will repel those of oil because 
 they have an antipathy to each other, but each fluid will 
 readily unite with another portion of the same kind be- 
 cause the particles possess mutual sympathies. Each kind 
 of mineral substance is capable of converting masses of 
 other matter into its own peculiar kind, as animals con- 
 vert their aliment into blood. The burning mountains 
 are the respiratory organs of the globe; and the slates 
 are the organs of secretion, as the glands are those of the 
 animal. The slates decompose the waters of the ocean, 
 in order to prepare its elements to produce earthquakes 
 and volcanic eruptions. The metallic veins in the strata 
 
GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 15 
 
 of the earth, are caries or abscesses of the mineral king- 
 dom, and the metals themselves are the products of decay 
 and disease, and hence the offensive odor of some of these 
 products. 
 
 These several theories, and a great variety of others 
 have been invented in order to account for the same phe- 
 nomena, and to solve the same problem, viz. in what 
 manner or by what changes, or events, are we to account 
 for the present appearances, or condition of the earth's 
 surface? The reader w r ill observe in general, that these 
 theorists, instead of taking the trouble to observe facts 
 and to draw just conclusions from them, have in the first 
 place formed their systems, and supported them in the 
 best manner they could, calling to their aid, ingenuity, 
 plausibility, and false argument. 
 
 The science of Geology never progressed, until men saw 
 the folly of forming theories which had no concern with 
 facts. To record facts is the first business of the geolo- 
 gist, and if he cannot account for them in a rational and 
 scientific manner, to let them stand recorded until further 
 investigations. " 4 
 
 Plutonian and Neptunian Doctrines. We shall close 
 this part of our volume by an abstract of the theories of 
 Werner and Hutton, commonly entitled the Neptunian and 
 IPhitonian doctrines. 
 
 The" theories of these two distinguished philosophers 
 for the last half century, have divided the opinions of geo- 
 logical writers, each side insisting in the most positive and 
 uncompromising terms, on the truth of their adopted 
 cause. 
 
 The Plutonians or Hultonians, attribute most of the 
 present appearances ol 1 the globe, and the changes it has 
 undergone to the agency of fire, not, however, entirely 
 rejecting that of water. 
 
 The Neptunians or Wernerians on the contrary, affect to 
 prove in as positive terms that these same changes, and 
 appearances may, with the exception of volcanic products, 
 be traced entirely to the agency of water " to aqueous 
 solution, disintegration, and deposition. 
 
 There is one difficulty in attempting to expound the 
 doctrines of Werner, which is, that we are obliged to take 
 them second handed, from the writings of others, he hav- 
 ing never himself published them in a connected view. In 
 
16 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 
 
 speaking therefore of Werner's theory, we can only avail 
 ourselves of such transient glimpses as he has himself 
 thought fit to give us, and must fill up the various chasms 
 with materials derived from the more extended sketches 
 and illustrations of his pupils.* 
 
 Werner's theory may be thus stated. The matter of 
 our globe was once in a soft, or semi-fluid state, or at 
 least its nucleus was once enveloped by a chaotic aqueous 
 solution, of such a nature as to retain the various earthy 
 bodies found in the lowest strata in chemical combination; 
 but this state of things was of short duration, and during 
 which, there was deposited from the water a variety of 
 crystalline aggregates, such as the different species of 
 granite, and what are called primitive slate, and primitive 
 limestones. These constitute the primary rocks, or form- 
 ations of the Wernerian school, and are supposed to have 
 had their origin before the creation of animated beings, 
 and hence no organic remains, such as shells, are found 
 in these rocks. The second class of rocks are supposed 
 to have been formed during the transition of the earth 
 from its chaotic, to its habitable state, and hence are 
 called transition rocks. These are partly crystalline 
 aggregates, and partly mechanical deposites from water: 
 they contain the fragments of pre-existing rocks cemented 
 together, and sometimes contain imperfect remains of the 
 lower orders of animals and plants, as shells and impres- 
 sions of ferns. Certain kinds of limestone and sandstones 
 belong to this class. These rocks are derived from the 
 fragmentary remains and the disintegration of the primi- 
 tive rocks. 
 
 The third class of rocks are supposed to have been form- 
 ed by the action of the natural elements on these, and by 
 which they have been broken down, and mechanically 
 diffused in water. The action of frost, water, and attri- 
 tion are supposed to have chiefly produced this effect, 
 after which the materials were deposited in horizontal 
 strata. These are the Floetz, or flat rocks of Werner, 
 and the Tertiary, or secondary rocks of later authors. 
 They abound in vegetable and animal remains, as ferns, 
 shells, fish, and bones. The newer limestone, red sand- 
 stone, and coal strata, belong to this clsss. 
 
 Brand's Outlines of Geology, p. 2l 
 
GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 17 
 
 Above these rocks we find depositions of sand, and 
 gravel, and clay; accumulations of peat, and other sub- 
 stances now in the progress of deposition, and which are 
 included under the general term of alluvial formations. 
 These constitute the fourth class. The fifth class con- 
 tains the products of volcanoes, whether the result of fu- 
 sion or not, such as rocks thrown out without melting, 
 volcanic mud, &c. 
 
 It is supposed that all the formations as they are term- 
 ed, or all the different kinds of rocks and strata now found 
 on the earth, will fall under one or another of these clas- 
 ses. But it will be seen hereafter, that this theory is, in 
 many respects, unsatisfactory, and that there are several 
 rocks, such as basalt and greenstone, which certainly are 
 not of aqueous origin, and which do not come within 
 Werner's volcanic class. 
 
 Werner was appointed professor of mineralogy, at the 
 school of Mines, in Saxony", in_1775, and was undoubtely 
 a man of ^ITeTiighest orcler of Talents. His mind was at 
 once sound, imaginative, and richly stored with miscella- 
 neous knowledge. He had a great aversion to the me- 
 chanical labor of writing, and could never be persuaded 
 to pen more than a few brief sketches, and which never 
 contained a connected developement of his geological 
 views. Although the natural modesty of his disposition 
 was excessive, approaching even timidity, yet he indulged 
 in the most bold and sweeping generalization, and he inspi- 
 red all his pupils, some of which became writers of great 
 eminence, with the most implicit faith in his doctrines. 
 
 " Their admiration," says Mr. Lyell, " of his genius, and 
 the feelings of gratitude and friendship which they all felt 
 for him, we^e not undeserved; but the supreme authority '\ 
 which he usurped over his contemporaries, was probably in \ 
 the event prejudicial to the progress of science. 
 
 The Plutonic, or Huttonian Theory owes its origin to 
 Dr^Hutton, of Edinburgh. It was published in 1788 y but 
 has Been more recently Illustrated and defendeH irra re- 
 publication by Professor Playfair, also of Edinburgh. 
 
 We have already stated mat the Plutoniahs attributed 
 the same phenomena to fire, which the Neptunians did to 
 water. The Plutonian?, however, suppose that most stra- 
 ined rocks were deposited from water. 
 
 Hutton's Theory may be stated shortly, as follows. 
 The materials which compose the present surface of the 
 2* 
 
18 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 
 
 globe, have been derived from the ruin of ancient rocks, 
 which have been disintegrated and pulverized by the con- 
 tinued action of torrents and currents of water; and by the 
 same means these materials have been transported to the 
 bottom of the ocean. Here they have been consolidated, 
 partly by time, and partly by the pressure of the water, but 
 chiefly by the effects of subterranean heat. By the same 
 cause, more powerfully exerted, that is, by the expansive 
 power of volcanic heat, the strata thus formed, have been 
 elevated from the bottom of the ocean, to occupy the situ- 
 ations under which they now appear. Thus the strata are 
 thrown into different degrees of inclination to the horizon; 
 or are broken and dislocated; or appear in nearly a verti- 
 cal position, depending on the degree offeree, or the point 
 of its application. Sometimes, also, where the heat has 
 been most intense, an entire fusion of the materials has 
 been effected. The rocks which are not stratified, or not 
 composed of layers, as granite, are supposed to have un- 
 dergone complete fusion, while those which consist of 
 layers, as mica slate, are supposed only to have been soft- 
 ened by the heat. The same disintegration, and corrosion, 
 and the same transportation to the sea, is constantly going 
 on with respect to the present rocks, so that finally these 
 materials will again be restored to the sea, to be again 
 raised above its surface by volcanic fire, as before; and as 
 the present continents were formed by the destruction of 
 ancient rocks, so future continents will be formed in their 
 turn, by rocks now preparing for that purpose. 
 
 It is generally acknowledged at the present day, that 
 Mutton's theory will account for a much greater number 
 of geological phenomena than Werner's. It is impossible, 
 for instance, to account for the present situation of strati- 
 fied rocks containing sea shells, unless we suppose, either 
 that the sea occupied the earth for ages, or that these stra- 
 ta were formed under the ocean, and elevated by some 
 mighty force; and as we know that islands are thrown up 
 from the sea, by volcanic force at the present day, it is 
 reasonable to attribute the same effect to the same cause, 
 anciently. 
 

 FORM AND CONSTITUTION OF THE GLOBE. 
 
 GENERAL FORM AND CONSTITUTION OF TUB GLOBE* 
 
 Although in a popular sense the form of the earth is 
 that of a globe, yet science has long since determined, 
 that its figure is not that of a perfect sphere, but of an 
 oblate spheroid, the diameter at the equator being greater 
 than at the poles. This difference has been variously es- 
 timated, but if we consider the polar, to the equitorial di- 
 ameter in the proportion of 304 to 305, we shall perhaps 
 corne as near the truth as the present state of observations 
 will warrant. This allows the poles a compression equal 
 to 1-305, and the two diameters as follows. 
 
 Equitorial diameter, about 7,924 miles. 
 
 The Polar diameter - 7,898 miles. 
 
 
 
 Difference, 26 miles. 
 
 This estimate is from the authority of Daubuisson. Dr. 
 Macculloch makes the difference somewhat greater, but we 
 need not here go into comparisons on a point where no 
 two authors agree, the difference of a few miles being a 
 matter of no consequence to our present purpose. 
 
 This form of the earth is precisely such an one as it 
 would have taken had it been a homogenous semi-fluid 
 with a rapid motion around its axis. This form may be 
 illustrated by fixing a ball of soft clay on a spindle and 
 setting it in motion. The ball will be flattened at the poles 
 or axis of motion, and elongated or thrown out, at the cir- 
 cumference, or equator. This is obviously the conse- 
 quence of the greater centrifugal force at the circumfer- 
 ence than at the centre of motion. 
 
 Density of the Earth. It has been attempted to esti- 
 mate the density of the whole earth from that of a par- 
 ticular mountain. For this purpose Dr. Maskelyne made 
 an experiment on mount Schihallien, a high precipitous 
 cliff in Scotland, in order to ascertain the force of its at- 
 traction, on a suspended plummet; with the view of de- 
 ducing the density of the whole earth by comparing its 
 
20 CONSTITUTION OF 
 
 attraction with that of the mountain. From such data it 
 was found that the mean density of the earth was to that 
 of the mountain as 9 to 5; and from hence it was conclud- 
 ed that the interior of the globe must be composed of 
 substances, whose density was about double that of the 
 mass of the mountain. But it was subsequently found 
 that the specific gravity of the mountain, an item in these 
 calculations, had been estimated too high, and by the cor- 
 rections made by Mr. Playfair, the density of the earth 
 obtained in this way was found to be only 5. That is, the 
 whole earth, bulk for bulk, is five times the weight of 
 water. This estimate, which is most generally received 
 at the present day, makes it necessary to suppose that the 
 interior of the earth is much more dense than its surface; 
 for the heaviest rock with which we are acquainted has a 
 density of only 3, and the lightest about 2i, while the 
 specific gravity of the ocean is a little more than 1. The 
 specific gravity of the earth's surface including the water, 
 therefore cannot be much above 2i But the mean densi- 
 ty of the whole earth being 5, is more than double that of 
 its surface, and hence the interior of the earth must have a 
 greater density than 5, to counterbalance this want of 
 weight at the surface. 
 
 From these considerations, it has been supposed that 
 the interior of the earth, instead of being composed of 
 rocks, like the surface, must consist of metallic substances. 
 It has also been shown from mathematical calculations 
 that there is a gradual increase of density towards the 
 centre of the earth, and hence it has been thought still 
 more probable that its nucleus is of a metallic nature. 
 
 La Place, with this view of the earth's structure, has 
 estimated its density at the centre. If 5, 4 be taken as its 
 mean density and its superficial densities be assumed as 
 3, 13; 3, 2; 2, 79; and 2, 60, then on the theory of com- 
 pressibility, the density at the centre will be 13, 25; 14, 54; 
 15, 78; and 20, 10, respectively. The least of these is 
 about double the density of iron and the greatest exceeds 
 that of gold, being about equal to that of hammered 
 platina, the most ponderous of all known substances. 
 But both philosophy and conjecture are alike useless on 
 this subject, for in spite of both, we must remain entire- 
 ly ignorant concerning the composition of the earth's 
 centre. 
 
THE GLOBE. 21 
 
 Distribution of Sea and Land. Nearly three fourths 
 of the whole surface of the globe is covered by water. 
 The surface of the Pacific Ocean alone, is estimated to be 
 somewhat greater than all the dry land with which we are 
 acquainted. 
 
 The greatest elevation of land is about 25,000 feet above 
 the level of the sea; but its greatest depression, being con- 
 cealed by the water, cannot be ascertained, and hence the 
 quantity of water which the oceans contain, cannot be es- 
 timated with any degree of accuracy. La Place, however, 
 has made a computation of the mean depth of the sea, 
 founded on the theory of the tides, by which he concludes 
 that it is about twelve miles. Concerning the bottom of 
 the sea, we know little more than that it consists of moun- 
 tains and valleys, like the surface of the land. This is as- 
 certained by the rocks, and islands which rise above the 
 surface of the water, and the reefs and deep water, which 
 are known to exist alternately, below it. The sounding 
 line of the mariner not only detects this unevenness of 
 the submarine surface, but also the steep acclivities of its 
 mountains and the gradual risings of its sand banks. 
 
 Composition and specific gravity of the Sea. The whole 
 ocean is composed of salt water, though it varies con- 
 siderably with respect to the quantity of solid matter it 
 contains. At the mouths of rivers, and in bays which 
 receive streams from the land, it is obvious that the water 
 cannot be so fully saturated with salt, as it is where the 
 sea is not thus diluted. There is also a difference with 
 respect to the quantity of salt which different oceans con- 
 tain, independently of any such circumstance. This is 
 ascertained, not only by the analysis of their waters, but 
 also by their different specific gravities. 
 
 It will be remembered that the standard, or unity, by 
 which specific gravities are estimated, is distilled water, 
 which is 1; and therefore the greater the quantity of solid 
 matter any water contains, the greater will be its specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Dr. Marcet instituted a series of experiments on sea 
 water from different parts of the world, from which he 
 obtained the following results and conclusions. 
 
 1. "That the Southern Ocean contains more salt than 
 the Northern, in the ratio of 1.02919, to 1.02757." 
 
 2. " That the mean specific gravity of sea-water, near 
 
22 CONSTITUTION OF 
 
 the equator, is 1.02777, intermediate between that of the 
 northern and southern hemispheres." 
 
 3. "That there is no notable difference in sea-water, 
 under different meridians." 
 
 4. " That there is no satisfactory evidence that the sea 
 at great depths, is more salt than at the surface." 
 
 5. " That the sea, in general, contains more salt where 
 it is deepest and most remote from land; and that its salt- 
 ness is always diminished in the vicinity of large masses 
 of ice." 
 
 6. " That small inland seas, though communicating with 
 the ocean, are much less salt than the ocean itself." 
 
 7. " That the Mediterranean contains a larger propor- 
 tion of salt than the ocean." 
 
 Temperature of the Earth. The superficial tempera- 
 ture of the earth, if not entirely due to the heat of the sun, 
 is greatly influenced by it. Still, local circumstances cause 
 considerable variations in different places situated under 
 the same latitudes. These circumstances will be noticed 
 in their proper place. 
 
 Geological investigations have proved that the tempera- 
 ture of the earth has not always remained the same; but 
 that the climates of different countries, and probably the 
 superficial heat of the entire globe have greatly deteriorat- 
 ed, since the time when the elephant inhabited Siberia, 
 and the mastodon, the forests of North America. This 
 subject will be examined under the articles *' Change of 
 Climate," and " Organic Remains." 
 
 With respect to the internal temperature of the Earth, 
 the prevailing opinion among geologists of the present 
 day, appears to be that the heat increases in some propor- 
 tion to the distance of descent from the surface. That 
 this is the case, seems to be proved by the experiments 
 made in mines, situated in different parts of the world, an 
 account of which will be given hereafter. 
 
 Temperature of the Sea and of Lakes. The maximum 
 density of fresh water is at the temperature of 40 degrees 
 of Fahrenheit, and it has been considered that sea-water 
 follows a similar law of condensation. Now water being 
 free in its motions, arranges itself according to its density; 
 that which is at, or near the temperature of 40, occupy- 
 
THE GLOBE. 23 
 
 ing the lowest place, while that which is warmed by the 
 sun, is superincumbent on this. 
 
 In 1819 and 1820, Mr. De la Beche made numerous ex- 
 periments, with great care, on the temperature of the Swiss 
 lakes, and from which he found that between the surface 
 and the depth of 40 fathoms, there was a material varia- 
 tion of temperature. From one to five fathoms, in the 
 month of September, the heat was from 64 to 67 ; but 
 below this, the temperature decreased down to 40 fathoms. 
 From 40 to 90 fathoms, the thermometer stood almost uni- 
 formly at 44 ; and from 90 to 164 fathoms, it invariably 
 stood at 43.5. 
 
 In the winter, these experiments were repeated, and it 
 was found that the temperature of the water followed the 
 same law. 
 
 The temperature of the sea at different depths, accords 
 sufficiently well with the observations already made ; the 
 temperature diminishing to the depth where the fluid attains 
 its greatest density, below which it remains the same, or at 
 a similar temperature. It appears, however, that there is 
 considersble difference in the temperature of different seas 
 at similar depths. Thus Capt. Kotzebue, in latitude about 
 36 N. and longitude 148 W. when the surface of the 
 water was nearly 73, found the temperature 57, at 25 
 fathoms; 52.8, at 100 fathoms; and 44 at 300 fathoms. 
 While the same observer in lat. 30 39' S. found a tem- 
 perature of 49 5' at 35 fathoms ; and in a similar latitude 
 S. 38 8' in 196 fathoms. It will be observed, however, 
 that the same law is maintained, both in salt and fresh 
 water, viz. a decrease of temperature downwards. But 
 this fact is not at variance with the probability of an in- 
 ternal, or central heat, since the waters arrange themselves 
 in the order of their densities, and this would take place, 
 whether the bottoms of deep seas were cold or warm. 
 
 Temperature of the Atmosphere. -The atmosphere is 
 composed of two gaseous substances, called oxygen and 
 nitrogen, and in the proportion of 20 parts of the first, to 
 80 of the last. From its refractive powers, it has been 
 calculated that the atmosphere reaches to the height of 
 about 45 miles above every part of the earth. 
 
 The heat which is constantly radiating from the earth, 
 is absorbed by the atmosphere, so that its temperature in 
 hot climates often exceeds that of the human system. That 
 

 24 CONSTITUTION OF 
 
 the temperature of the air is dependent on the heat of the 
 earth's surface, is proved by the well known fact, that it 
 constantly diminishes as we ascend upwards, or recede 
 from the earth. Hence in the hottest climates, there is a 
 region a few thousand feet above the earth, to which its 
 heat never ascends in such quantity as to prevent perpetu- 
 al congelation. 
 
 The line of perpetual snow, we should suppose would 
 differ in elevation, (under equal circumstances,) accord- 
 ing: to the distance from the equator. It is, however, 
 liable to considerable variations, probably from local cau- 
 ses. 
 
 The following table, from Encyc. Brittanica, article Cli- 
 mate, presents the different elevations at which there is 
 constant frost, under different latitudes. 
 
 Lat. Height in feet. Lat. Height in feet. 
 
 15,207 45 7,671 
 
 5 15,095 50 6,334 
 
 10 ' 14,761 55 5,034 
 
 15 14,220 60 3,818 
 
 20 13,478 65 2,722 
 
 25 12,557 70 1,778 
 
 30 11,484 75 1,016 
 
 35 10,287 80 457 
 
 40 9,001 85 117 
 
 From this table, we learn that there is no regular cor- 
 respondence between the latitude and the height of per- 
 petual frost, and that the difference in this respect is much 
 greater than might have been expected from the influence 
 of local causes. Thus the difference between the freez- 
 ing height at the equator, and in latitude five degrees, is 
 only one hundred and twelve feet; though at the other 
 extreme, from eighty to eighty-five degrees, this differ- 
 ence is upwards of three hundred feet. Much the great- 
 est difference is in the temperate latitudes, as between 
 thirty-five degrees and forty degrees, where the elevation 
 is from 10,287, down 9,001, making a difference of 1,286 
 feet in five degrees. Whether these differences are en- 
 tirely dependent on local causes, we have no means of 
 deciding. 
 
 In the elevation of mountains to the region of perpetual 
 
THE GLOBE. 
 
 frost, and in such a disposition of things, as that their 
 summits should constantly be covered with snow, there is 
 a striking display of wisdom and design. Such mountains 
 in ardent climates, not only temper the atmosphere below, 
 but serve as perpetual reservoirs of water, during the sum- 
 mer, from the melting of the ice, and thus become the pa- 
 rents of innumerable streams, without which, many re- 
 gions would be uninhabitable. 
 
 EFFECTS OF CAUSES NOW IN OPERATION ON EARTH S 
 SURFACt. 
 
 The earth almost every where presents appearancef 
 which cannot be traced to causes now existing, or which 
 have existed since the historical era. No high mountains 
 have been elevated, or deep valleys formed, within the age 
 of history, nor can these great effects be attributed to the 
 slow causes now in operation. It is true that occasional 
 excavations by uncommon floods of water, are made, and 
 now and then there happens a subterranean convulsion, 
 which elevates a small portion of earth ; but such effects, 
 though supposed to have operated constantly, from the re- 
 motest period which the imagination can suggest, will nev- 
 er account satisfactorily, for the changes which the sur- 
 face of the earth has undergone since the creation. We 
 may hence conclude either, that the causes which produ- 
 ced such mighty effects, have entirely ceased, and are un- 
 known to us, or that they operated with infinitely greater 
 force formerly than at present. 
 
 If we attribute the elevation of mountains, to subterra- 
 nean fire, and the excavation of the great valleys, to floods 
 of water, it is obvious that these causes must have been 
 infinitely more powerful at some remote period than at 
 present. 
 
 It being one of the great objects of Geology to point out 
 the changes which the crust of the earth has undergone, 
 and if possible to account for them; it becomes necessary 
 that the causes now operating, and the effects of which are 
 apparent, should be distinguished from those, the effects 
 only of which, are certainly known at the present day. 
 
 We begin with the " Effects of causes now in operation," 
 that we may be enabled to judge how far they have been 
 
26 EFFECTS OF RUNNING WATER. 
 
 the instruments of producing the changes which it is evi- 
 dent the earth has undergone, and how far with more time, 
 or greater force, they might account for the phenomena 
 which the earth presents. 
 
 General effects cf running water. It is well known that 
 mountains, or lands elevated far above the level of the sea, 
 attract the moisture of the atmosphere, in some propor- 
 tion to their elevation. By this provision, the higher re- 
 gions of the earth become perpetual reservoirs of water, 
 which descend and irrigate the plains and valleys below. 
 Thus a great proportion of the water which falls upon the 
 earth, is canied first to the higher regions; and then made 
 to descend, often by steep declivities towards the sea, so 
 that it acquires a rapid velocity, and removes a greater 
 quantity of soil than it would do, if the rain was equally 
 distributed on the mountains and plains. Thus without 
 reference to the disintegration or decay of rocks, the wa- 
 ter constantly transports more or less soil and gravel from 
 the hills to the plains. 
 
 Among the most powerful agents in effecting the decay 
 of rocks, is the mechanical action of water, especially in 
 cold climates. It is well known that water expands in the 
 act of freezing. The effect of this expansion is so pow- 
 erful as to burst bomb-shells, and large cannon, when 
 closely confined in them. When, therefore, water falls 
 into the fissures of rocks, and there freezes, the rocks are 
 rent apart with the force of a powerful lever, and the more 
 porous ones are divided into small pieces. These are often 
 further divided by the frequent fall, and consequent crush- 
 ing and grinding motion of one rock on another, on the 
 declivities of the mountains. Water also has the power 
 of dissolving considerable quantities of some kinds of 
 rocks, especially those of the limestone and gypsum kinds. 
 The oxygen of the atmosphere is another cause of the de- 
 cay of rocks. " This element is gradually absorbed by all 
 animal and vegetable substances, arid by almost all miner- 
 al masses exposed to the open air. It gradually destroys 
 the equilibrium of the elements of rocks, even the hardest 
 aggregates belonging to our globe." Sir H. Davy. 
 
 When earthy matter has been once mixed with running 
 water, a new mechanical power is obtained by the attrition 
 of sand and pebbles, borne along by the violence of the 
 stream. Rapid streams charged with foreign matter, and 
 thrown against their rocky sides, will in the course of time, 
 
EFFECTS OF RUNNING WATER. 2? 
 
 produce excavations, in consequence of which, rocks are 
 often undermined and precipitated into their beds. The 
 water being thus obstructed, accumulates, and cuts for it- 
 self a new channel, taking with it an additional quantity of 
 earth. In this manner, also, the stream is often made to 
 take a new direction, perhaps obliquely across the valley 
 through which it runs. The unequal hardness of the soil 
 is another cause of change in the direction of streams, and 
 so also are logs of wood, leaves, and other matters with 
 which streams are often charged. When from these, or 
 other causes, a current is made to deviate from its course, 
 it gradually wears a curve into the opposite bank, where 
 the water for a moment accumulates, and then receiving 
 a different direction from the lower side of the curve, 
 shoots across to the opposite side, where a similar curve 
 is soon formed, and the water made to re-cross the channel 
 as before. Thus we often see brooks and rivers crossing 
 and re-crossing the valleys through which they run, many 
 times ; and sometimes, after taking a wide sweep, return- 
 ing again nearly to the point where the same water had 
 passed, an hour, or many hours before. When this hap- 
 pens, and every one has seen 
 such instances, it is often the 
 case that during some over- 
 flow of the stream, the water 
 cuts across the isthmus at A, 
 as seen in the diagram, and 
 thus forms an island. In con- 
 sequence of this, the water not only takes a new direction 
 at that particular point, but often the foundation is thus laid 
 for considerable changes below the island. 
 
 These serpentine windings, not only take place in trout 
 brooks, but in the largest rivers, and thus become the 
 means of leveling and fertilizing tracts of country of 
 greater or less extent. The Mississippi through a consid- 
 erable part of -its course, cuts across its immense valley 
 in the manner here described, and sometimes after run- 
 ning ten or twenty miles, returns back again nearly to the 
 same point. The fertile valley of the Connecticut has 
 been formed in a great measure, by the same means. The 
 rich meadows, now every year irrigated by its waters 
 have been formed in the course of time, by the changes of 
 its bed. This is shown by the logs of wood uncovered 
 in its banks by every new change its current makes at 
 the present time. Charcoal and other organic substances 
 
550 THE RIVER PO. 
 
 have been found 20 feet below the present surface of its 
 banks. 
 
 In estimating the transporting power of water we are 
 apt to forget its buoyancy, and on which indeed it$ power 
 of moving heavy substances, such as rocks in a great mea- 
 sure depends. The specific gravity of many rocks is little 
 more than twice that of water, that of granite and lime- 
 stone being about 2.50, that is two and a half times, bulk 
 for bulk, the weight of water. Hence a stone weighing 
 twenty-five pounds in the air or under ordinary circum- 
 stances, will weigh only fifteen pounds when immersed in 
 water. Those who have never tried the experiment of 
 lifting a stone under water, will be surprised to find with 
 what ease, he can raise a block of granite to the surface, 
 above which, however, with all his efforts he cannot lift it. 
 If a man can lift a stone weighing one hundred pounds 
 whose specific gravity is two, in the air, he can lift one 
 weighing two hundred pounds in the water, because the 
 fluid lifts just one half of its weight. It is from our not 
 taking this circumstance into account, that we are often 
 surprised at the power of torrents to move stones of great 
 size. 
 
 According to experiments recorded in the Encyclopedia 
 Britannica, a velocity of water equal to three inches per 
 second is sufficient to tear up fine clay, six inches per 
 second, fine sand twelve inches per second fine gravel ; 
 and three feet per second, small stones. It is obvious, 
 however, that the depth of the water will influence these 
 results, and that the power of moving bodies will be in 
 proportion to its depth and velocity. 
 
 Since the time of historical records, the power of run- 
 ning water has produced many, and great changes in va- 
 rious parts of the world. In some instances, lakes have 
 been filled up, in others, deep ravines have been formed, 
 in others whole districts have been ruined in consequence 
 of rivers having changed their beds, and in others, conside- 
 rable tracts of land have been accumulated, or sometimes 
 swept away by the force of mountain torrents, 
 
 Effects of the River Po. The Po affords a grand exam- 
 ple of the manner in which a great and rapid stream bears 
 down to the sea, the alluvial matter poured into it by a 
 multitude of tributaries, descending from lofty chains of 
 mountains. The changes gradually produced by this riv- 
 er in the great plains of Northern Italy, since the time 
 
THE RIVER PO. 29 
 
 of the Roman Republic, have been exceedingly disastrous 
 to some parts of that country. Extensive lakes, and 
 marshes have been slowly filled up, as those of Placentia, 
 Parma and Cremona, while others have been drained by 
 the same cause. Since 1390, the Po deserted its bed through 
 a part of the territory of Cremona and invaded that of 
 Parma, its old channel being still obvious, and retaining 
 the name of Po morto, or dead Po. The town of Bres- 
 sello, which formerly stood on the left bank of the river, 
 now stands, on the right, the river, not the town having 
 changed its locality. In the ancient parish records it is 
 stated, that several churches were taken down and after- 
 wards rebuilt at a greater distance from the new bed of 
 this devastating stream, and in 1471 the friars of a monas- 
 tery pulled down their edifice, and erected it at a greater 
 distance from the Po. 
 
 To keep this wild stream within bounds, a general sys- 
 tem of embankment, through the plains of Northern Italy, 
 was commenced in the thirteenth century, which has con- 
 tinually been increased until the present time. The in- 
 creased velocity of the river, in consequence of its being 
 thus confined, causes it to transport to the sea a much 
 greater quantity of alluvial matter than it would other- 
 wise do, because there are no sluggish intervals where its 
 waters can deposit their sediment. Hence the delta of 
 the Po, even since the memory of man has greatly increas- 
 ed. The ancient city of Adria was originally a sea port 
 of the Adriatic, but it is now twenty miles from the shore. 
 In the twelfth century, Adria was about six miles from the 
 shore, the Po having added fourteen miles of alluvial soil 
 since that period. 
 
 But notwithstanding more alluvial matter is carried into 
 the sea in consequence of this embankment, more is also 
 deposited in its bed; for that which would be spread upon 
 the plains during an overflow is now confined within the 
 narrow limits of its banks. In consequence of this con- 
 stant deposition, it is found necessary every year to re- 
 move the mud and sand from the bed of the river, and 
 place it on the embankment, otherwise the water would 
 be in danger of breaking through, and destroying the 
 whole plain below. 
 
 This system has been so long continued, that at the 
 present day, the Po crosses its plains to a considerable dis- 
 tance, on the top of a high and continued mound like the 
 3* 
 
30 FALLS OF NIAGARA. 
 
 waters of an aqueduct, and to the great hazard and terror 
 of the people in the valleys, every spring. 
 
 M. de Prony, who has recently been employed by gov- 
 ernment, to examine the present condition of this river, 
 and if possible to suggest some method of security against 
 a catastrophe which every year threatens the lives and pro- 
 perty of so many inhabitants, ascertained that the bed of 
 the Po is now higher than the roofs of the houses, in the 
 city of Ferrara, near which it runs. The magnitude of 
 these barriers, already so immense, it is found necessary 
 to increase every year, to prevent an inundation. Lyell 
 and Cuvier. 
 
 When we consider that the smallest stream breaking 
 through or running over this embankment, would, if not 
 discovered within a few seconds, destroy in spite of all 
 human power, many cities, towns, and villages, with all 
 their inhabitants, we may in some degree conceive of the 
 constant anxiety which those must feel who reside within 
 the danger. 
 
 Falls of Niagara. This is the most magnificent water- 
 fall in the world. It is situated between lake Erie above, 
 and lake Ontario below, the cataract being formed by the 
 passage of the water, from one lake to the other. The 
 distance between the nearest shores of these lakes is about 
 thirty-seven miles, and the height of Erie above Ontario 
 is, according to Mr. Featherstonhaugh, 322 feet. On 
 flowing out of the upper lake, the river is almost on a lev- 
 el with its banks, so that if it should rise perpendicularly 
 eight or ten feet, it would lay under water the adjacent 
 flat couutry of Upper Canada on the west, and part of the 
 State of New- York on the east. The river where it issues, 
 is about twenty-five feet deep, and three quarters of a 
 mile wide. Its descent is fifty feet in half a mile. Goat 
 Island at the very verge of the cataract divides the water 
 into two parts. The stream on the American side is 1,072 
 feet wide; and the curvature of the great Horse-shoe fall 
 is 2,376 feet wide, making the width of the whole at the 
 falls, 3,448 feet. 
 
 Although the aggregate descent from Erie to Ontario is 
 322 feet, the perpendicular fall at the cataract is less than 
 one half this distance. 
 
 The following particulars are from Mr. Featherston- 
 haugh's journal. 
 
FALLS OF NIAGARA. 31 
 
 feet. miles 
 
 Fall from Erie to the rapids above the Cata- 
 ract of Niagara, 15 in 23 
 Fall of the rapids to the edge of the Cata- 
 ract, 51 4 
 Fall of the Horse-shoe Cataract, 150 
 From Horse-shoe fall to Lewistown, 104 ) . 
 From Lewistown to Ontario, 2 $ 
 
 322 36^ 
 
 There is no doubt but the Falls of Niagara at some re- 
 mote period, were at Queenstown, which is about seven 
 miles below there present situation. The breadth of the 
 gorge or excavation made by the waters, is, on approach- 
 ing the falls, about 1200 feet, but is much narrower to- 
 wards Queenstown. $ 
 
 The kind of rock through which it passes consists of 
 limestone and shale, the latter a dark colored shelly form- 
 ation, 80 feet thick, lying under the limestone. The lime- 
 stone is 70 feet thick, above which is the ordinary soil of 
 the country. 
 
 The limestone is hard and lies in horrizontal strata at 
 the edge of the falls; but the shale is soft, and is acted up- 
 on with much greater facility than the limestone, so that 
 the latter rock often overhangs the former perhaps 40 feet 
 at the edge of the precipice. 
 
 The blasts of wind charged with spray, which rise out 
 of the pool into which this enormous cascade is projected, 
 strike against the shale beds, so that their disintegration 
 is constant; and the superincumbent projecting limestone 
 being left without a foundation, falls from time to time in 
 immense rocky masses. When these enormous fragments 
 fall, a shock is felt, often at considerable distances, ac- 
 companied by a noise resembling a distant clap of thunder. 
 
 The waters which expand at the falls, where they are 
 divided by the island, are contracted again after their union, 
 into a stream averaging not more than 500 feet broad. In 
 the narrow channel, immediately below this immense rush 
 of waters, a boat may pass across the stream with safety. 
 The pool into which the cataract is precipitated being 170 
 feet deap, the descending water sinks down and forms an 
 under current, while a superficial eddy carries the upper 
 
32 FALLS OF NIAGARA. 
 
 stratum back towards the main fall. See Mr. Bakewelt, 
 Jr., on the Fa.lls of Niagara, London Magazine, 1830. 
 
 There is no doubt but the falls of Niagara were once at 
 Queenstown, as above stated, and have gradually cut their 
 way through the rock to their present situation. 
 
 Mr. Lyell who refers all the changes which have taken 
 place on the earth's surface "to causes now in operation," 
 states that the recession of the falls have been at the rate 
 of fifty yards in forty years, and therefore a little more than 
 three feet on an average in each year. 
 
 " If the ratio of recession," says he, " had never exceeded 
 fifty yards in forty years, it must have required nearly 
 ten thousand years for the excavation of the whole ravine; 
 but no probable conjecture can be offered as to the quan- 
 tity of time consumed in such an operation, because the 
 retrograde movement may have been much more rapid, 
 when the whole current was confined within a space not 
 exceeding a fourth, or a fifth part of that which the falls 
 now occupy. Should the erosive action not be accele- 
 rated in future, it will take upwards of thirty thousand 
 years for the falls to reach lake Erie, (twenty-five miles 
 distant) to which they seem destined to arrive in the 
 course of time, unless some earthquake changes the rela- 
 tive levels of the districts. The table land extending from 
 lake Erie, consists uniformly of the same geological form- 
 ations as are now exposed at the falls. The upper stra- 
 tum is an ancient alluvial sand varying in thickness from 
 10 to 140 feet; below which is a bed of hard limestone 
 about 90 feet in thickness, stretching nearly in a horizon- 
 tal direction over the whole country, and forming the bed 
 of the river above the falls, as do the inferior shales below. 
 The lower shale is nearly of the same thickness of the 
 limestone." 
 
 " Should lake Erie remain in its present state until the 
 period when the ravine recedes to its shores, the sudden 
 escape of that great body of water would cause a tremen- 
 dous deluge, for the ravine would be more than sufficient 
 lin depth we suppose,] to drain the whole lake, of which 
 the average depth was found, during the late surveys to be 
 ten or twelve fathoms." LyeWs Geology, vol. i. page 
 179_182. 
 
 Such is the tenor of Mr. LyelPs reasoning, when at- 
 tempting to " explain the former changes of the earth's 
 
FALLS OF NIAGARA. 33 
 
 surface by reference to causes now in operation;" and 
 thus to deny the Mosaic history of the creation, and of the 
 deluge. 
 
 Although he owns that no probable conjecture can be 
 afforded, with respect to the time which has elapsed since 
 the falls of Niagara were at Queenstown, still, it is obvious 
 that the impression intended to be left on the mind of the 
 reader is, that it was about 10,000 years ago; that is about 
 4000 years before the creation of the world according to 
 Moses, these falls were at Queenstown. And at some fu- 
 ture period, say 30,000 years hence, there will be a great 
 flood in America, just as there have happened great floods 
 at different periods according to what he calls the " uui- 
 formity of the order of nature." 
 
 Now let us see, in the first place, whether the data sta- 
 ted by the author, can possibly warrant the supposition 
 that the falls of Niagara have been 10,000 years, or even 
 half that time in passing from Queenstown to their present 
 location, 
 
 Mr. Lyell, who quotes Capt. Basil Hall for his authori- 
 ty, makes the falls 800 yards wide at the verge of the pre- 
 cipice; viz. the American fall 2CO yards, and the Horse- 
 shoe fall 600 yards wide. The channel below the falls 
 towards Queenstown, according to the same authority, is 
 160 yards wide. Mr. Featherstonhaugh, (Monthly Ameri- 
 can Journal, No. 1,) we have already seen, makes all these 
 widths more considerable. But we will take Mr. Lyell's 
 own account. 
 
 The old channel being 160 yards wide, is exactly one 
 fifth the width of the present falls. Now supposing the 
 retrograde movement of the cataract had been in propor- 
 tion to its width, then according to Mr. Lyell's estimate it 
 could have been only 2000 years in travelling from 
 Queenstown to its present place; for 160 being a fifth of 
 800, and allowing the present movement to be at the rate 
 of seven miles in 10,000 years, then, being only a fifth as 
 wide, anciently as now, there is reason to believe that it 
 moved at least five times as fast. But reasoning from the 
 data before us, the time must have been even less than 
 2000 years, for it is plain that a given quantity of water, 
 say a yard in breadth, would perform the work of ex- 
 cavation more than five times as rapidly as it would if 
 spread over five yards in breadth. It is however but fair 
 to state that the falls at Queenstown were not so high a& 
 
34 TALLS OF NIAGARA. 
 
 they are at present, and therefore, estimating the quantity 
 of water the same as at present, the movement must have 
 been slower than now. For, we know that the denudat- 
 ing, or excavating power of water, bears not only a pro- 
 portion to its depth and rapidity, but also to the height 
 from which it falls, so that cataracts of little elevation pro- 
 duce no perceptible effects for centuries, while, if the same 
 quantity of water were precipitated from a height of seve- 
 ral hundred feet, the whole precipice would gradually re- 
 trograde up the stream. Allowing, therefore, that the falls 
 moved only at half the rate above estimated, this would 
 fix the time at 4000 years since they were at Queenstown. 
 Now, without giving any opinion as to the real epoch, 
 when this cataract was at Queenstown, for there are no 
 grounds on which such an opinion ought to be formed; 
 still we must be permitted to say that according to the 
 data Mr. Lyell has given us, it is quite plain that the cata- 
 ract of Niagara could not have been more than 3 or 4000 
 years in moving from Queenstown to its present place, 
 instead of 10,000 years, which impression, if any, he con- 
 veys. 
 
 American Deluge. With respect to the deluge which 
 Mr. Lyell predicts will happen about 30,000 years hence 
 in North America, we will state the grounds on which his 
 profoundly scientific vision presages a catastrophe so aw- 
 ful to this devoted country. 
 
 " It was," says he, " contrary to analogy to suppose 
 that nature had been at any former epoch, parsimonious 
 of time, and prodigal of violence, to imagine that one dis- 
 trict was not at rest while another was convulsed that 
 the disturbing forces were not kept under subjection, so 
 as never to carry simultaneous desolation over the whole 
 earth, or even over one great region. **." " In specu- 
 lating on catastrophes by water we may certainly expect 
 great floods in future, and we therefore presume that they 
 have happened again, and again in past times. The ex- 
 istence of enormous seas of fresh water, such as the North 
 American lakes, the largest of which is elevated more than 
 600 feet above the level of the ocean, and is in part 1200 
 feet deep, is alone sufficient to assure us, that the time will 
 come, however distant, when a deluge will lay waste a 
 considerable part of the American continent. No hypo- 
 thetical agency is required to cause the sudden escape of 
 
FALLS OF NIAGARA. 35 
 
 the confined waters. Such changes of level and opening 
 of fissures, as have accompanied earthquakes since the 
 commencement of the present century, or such excava- 
 tions of ravines as the receding cataract of Niagara is now 
 effecting, might break the barriers. Notwithstanding 
 therefore that we have not witnessed within the last 3000 
 years the devastation by deluge of a large continent, yet 
 as we may predict the future occurrence of such castas- 
 trophes, we are authorized to regard them as part of the 
 present order of nature, and they may be introduced into 
 geological speculations respecting the past, provided we 
 do not imagine them to have been more frequent or gene- 
 ral, than we expect them to be in time to come." Prin- 
 ciples of Geology, vol. i. p. 88. 
 
 It is on such grounds, that one of the most voluminous 
 and learned among the recent English geologists disputes 
 the Mosaic history of the deluge; and we have introduced 
 the above extract to shew, that even men of argument on 
 other subjects, often reason in the most ridiculous man- 
 ner, and on grounds totally false, when they undertake to 
 deny the truth of the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 Mr. LyelPs argument runs thus. " Because there are 
 great lakes in North America situated 600 feet above the 
 sea, and because the cataract of Niagara is receding to- 
 wards these lakes at the rate of fifty yards in forty years; 
 therefore we may anticipate great flobds in future, and we 
 therefore presume that they have happened again and 
 again in past times." Consequently we must presume 
 that all the changes the earth has undergone by water, 
 have been produced by such catastrophes, and therefore 
 Noah's flood never happened, and so the Mosaic history is 
 not to be believed. 
 
 It is plain that Mr. LyelPs zeal to show that there has 
 been no universal deluge made him forget, that in another 
 part of his volume he states that the quantity of sediment 
 which is every year deposited in lake Erie is such, that it 
 will finally be filled up and become dry land, and as he 
 does not expect the cataract of Niagara will drain this lake 
 until the end of 30,000 years, we may hope that it will 
 become solid within that period. 
 
 But independently of this oversight, no person of the 
 least reflection, whether geologist or not, would for a mo- 
 ment believe that a lake, formed like a dish, and surround- 
 ed on all sides by solid limestone rocks ninety feet thick. 
 
dO WHITE MOUNTAINS. 
 
 as Erie is, could be drained to its bottom in a few hours by 
 the action of its own waters. Suppose the cataract of 
 Niagara now at the outlet of lake Erie and moving into it 
 at the rate of fifty yards in forty years, or a little more 
 than a yard per year, we would inquire of Mr. Lyell how 
 long a period would be consumed in draining it to the bot- 
 tom, and whether the escape of its waters thus sudden, 
 " would cause a tremendous deluge," as he asserts. 
 
 The title of Mr. LyelPs book being, ' An attempt to ex- 
 plain the former changes of the Earth's surface, by re- 
 ference to causes now in operation" is itself an attack on 
 the sacred Scriptures, but we are happy to believe that 
 Christianity is in little danger from his arguments. 
 
 Mountain Slides. Instances have happened in various 
 parts of the world, where considerable changes have been 
 produced in the surface of the globe, by the sliding of 
 large portions of earth, together with fragments of rocks, 
 from the declivities of mountains. These changes are 
 readily distinguished from those occasioned by the gene- 
 ral deluge, not only by their local and more recent ap- 
 pearance, but also by the direction in which these precipi- 
 tated rocks remain with respect to the range of the moun- 
 tain from which they have fallen. For the great currents 
 of the deluge left their effects in lines corresponding with 
 the ranges of most of the high mountains and considerable 
 valleys, where they are still to be seen; whereas occasion- 
 al slides leave their effects at the feet of the mountains, in 
 piles, or in downward ranges. 
 
 Slide of the White Mountains. The White Mountains 
 are situated in New Hampshire, and are the highest land 
 in New England. The slide to be described took place in 
 August, 1826, and was in consequence of the fall of an 
 immense quantity of rain on the mountain. 
 
 On both sides of the river Saco, innumerable rocks and 
 stone, many of them of sufficient size to fill a common 
 apartment were detached, and in their descent swept down 
 before them in one promiscuous and frightful ruin, forest 
 shrubs, and the earth in which they grew. No tradition 
 existed of any similar catastrophe at former times, and the 
 growth of the forests on the flanks of the mountain clearly 
 proved, that at least for a long interval, nothing similar 
 had occurred. One of these moving masses was after- 
 
FLOOD OF BAGNEfi. 37 
 
 wards found to have slid three miles, consisting of rocks, 
 earth, trees, &c., with an average breadth of a quarter of 
 a mile. The excavations commenced generally in a trench 
 a few yards in depth, and a few rods in width, and descend- 
 ed the mountain, widening and deepening until they be- 
 came vast chasms. Forests of spruce and hemlock were 
 apparently prostrated with as much ease as if they had 
 been fields of grain. The valleys of the rivers Amunoo- 
 suck and Saco presented for many miles, an uninterrupted 
 scene of desolation ; all the bridges being carried away 
 and the ground strewed with the wrecks of trees and 
 rocks, and in many instances large quantities of soil. In 
 some places the road was excavated to the depth of 15 or 
 20 feet ; and in others it was covered with rocks, trees and 
 soil to as great a height. In various places, as shown by 
 the remaining marks, the water rose to the height of 25 
 feet above its ordinary level. 
 
 But these things are of little consequence when com- 
 pared with the human suffering which this catastrophe 
 occasioned, for a family of nine persons were destroyed on 
 the night of the 28th, and not one lived to relate the cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 This family, named Willey, occupied a house at the 
 foot of the mountain, a most lonely place, six miles from 
 any other human habitation. It was a resting place for 
 travellers. On the morning of the 28th, the house was 
 found standing but not a human being was there. In the 
 course of a few days, seven out of the nine bodies were 
 found at a short distance below the house buried under 
 the ruins of the mountain, and most of them shockingly 
 mangled. It appeared that one of the heaviest slides 
 from the top of the mountain had rushed in the most im- 
 petuous manner towards the house, but when within six 
 feet of it had divided, and passed on each side, leaving the 
 house untouched, but sweeping away the stables and hors- 
 es. At this time it is supposed that the family left the 
 house, and met their destruction ; had they remained, all 
 would have been safe. Silliman's Journal for January, 
 1829. 
 
 Flood in the Valley of Bagnes, in 1818. The Valley of 
 
 Bagnes forms a part of the main valley of the Rhone, 
 
 above the lake of Geneva, in Switzerland. Through thi* 
 4 
 
38 FLOOD OF BAGNES. 
 
 valley passes the river Dranse, which falls into the Rhone 
 above the lake. In 1818, in consequence of the fall of 
 avalanches, the Dranse was completely damned up, so that 
 a barrier of ice remained across its channel, until the melt- 
 ing of the snow in the spring, formed a lake in its bed, a 
 mile and a half in length, about seven hundred feet wide, 
 and in some places, two hundred feet deep. To prevent 
 the consequences apprehended from the sudden bursting of 
 this barrier, the people cut a tunnel through it, several 
 hundred feet in length, before the water had risen to any 
 considerable height. When the water had accumulated 
 so as to reach this tunnel or gallery, it ran through, and 
 melting the ice it drained oft* about one half of the lake. 
 But at length, on the approach of the hot season, the cen- 
 tral portion of the remaining mass of ice gave way with a 
 tremenduous crash, and the residue of the lake was emp- 
 tied in half an hour. In the course of its descent, the wa- 
 ter encountered several narrow gorges, and at each of these 
 it rose to a great height, and then bursting its barriers, rush- 
 ed forward with increased violence, sweeping along rocks, 
 houses, trees, bridges, and cultivated lands. For the 
 greater part of its course, the flood resembled a moving 
 mass of rocks and mud, rather than of water. Some 
 fragments of primary rock of enormous magnitude, and 
 which from their dimensions, might be compared, without 
 exaggeration, to houses, were torn out of a more ancient 
 alluvion, and borne down for a quarter of a mile. The ve- 
 locity of the water in the first part of its course, was thir- 
 ty-three feet per second, which diminished to six feet, be- 
 fore it reached the lake of Geneva, where it arrived in six 
 hours, the distance being 45 miles. 
 
 This flood left behind it on the plains of Martigny, thou- 
 sands of trees torn up by the roots, together with the frag- 
 ments of many buildings. Some of the houses in the 
 town of Martigny were filled with mud up to the second 
 story. After expanding in the plain, where the town stands, 
 it passed into the Rhone and did no further damage. Ma- 
 ny lives were destroyed by this flood, and the bodies of 
 several persons were found on the surface of the Geneva 
 lake, thirty miles from the place where they were swept 
 away. 
 
 Inundations precisely similar, and from the same cause, 
 are recorded to have happened in former periods. In 
 1595, the town of Martigny was destroyed by such a flood 
 
CHANGES EFFECTED BY SPRINGS. 39* 
 
 and from sixty to eighty persons perished; and in a simi- 
 lar catastrophe which took place, fifty years before, one 
 hundred and forty persons lost their lives. 
 
 For several months after the debacle just described, the 
 river Dranse, having no settled channel, shifted its posi- 
 tion continually from one side to the other of the valley, 
 carrying away newly erected bridges, undermining houses, 
 and continuing to be charged with as large a quantity of 
 earthy matter as the fluid could hold in suspension. 
 See Ed. Phil. Jour. vol. i. p. 187: and LyeWs Geology, 
 vol. i. p. 194. 
 
 Now although we have no disposition to deny that great 
 changes have been wrought on the face of the earth by 
 the power of running streams, the bursting of lakes, &c. 
 yet all these effects combined, utterly fail to account for 
 the appearances enumerated under the article " Deluge." 
 The phenomena presented by the great valleys of the Alps, 
 the Pyrenees, and the Jura, cannot be attributed to any 
 cause, but a sudden and mighty torrent of water, such as 
 no one has thought fit to ascribe to the bursting of a lake, 
 and of which history contains no account, except that of 
 the Noachian deluge. 
 
 CHANGES EFFECTED BY SPRINGS. 
 
 The theory of springs will be reserved for another place. 
 At present, our object will be to show the effects which 
 springs have had in changing the surface of the globe. 
 
 It is obvious that springs of pure water, unless uncom- 
 monly powerful, will produce but little effect on the sur- 
 face along which they run, and with a few exceptions, their 
 excavating effects are scarcely to be taken into account. 
 But springs which contain carbonic acid gas, often hold 
 considerable quantities of calcareous matter in solution, 
 and which is deposited along their courses, producing what 
 geologists term calcareous tufa, or travertine. 
 
 These deposites are generally porous, and mixed with 
 leaves, bits of wood, mud, &c. but when more pure, they 
 are so solid as to be employed for building stones. Ma- 
 ny of these springs are thermal, or warm, and abound 
 chiefly in volcanic countries. 
 
 In those parts of France and Italy which skirt the Ap* 
 
40 SAN FILIPFO. 
 
 penines, innumerable mineral springs, chiefly containing 
 carbonate of lime, issue from the ground. As the water 
 evaporates, the lime is left on the surface, and thus the 
 ground in some parts of Tuscany, is covered to a conside- 
 rable extent with the kind of deposite called Travertine, 
 already noticed. In some places these deposites are solid 
 and smooth on the surface, much resembling currents of 
 lava. 
 
 Baths of San Vignone. This spring is also in Tusca- 
 ny, and affords a striking example of the rapid precipita- 
 tion of carbonate of lime from thermal waters. The spring 
 issues from near the summit of a hill about one hundred 
 feet high. The water is hot, but Mr. Lyell, from whom 
 this account is taken, does not give its temperature. 
 
 So rapid is the deposition from this water, that a pipe 
 leading from the spring to the baths, and inclined at an 
 angle of thirty degrees, is found to contain a coat of solid 
 limestone half a foot thick every year. A mass of solid 
 rock below the hill, formed by this water, is two hundred 
 feet thick. This is employed as a building stone, and in 
 quarrying it, Roman remains of art, such as tiles, have 
 been found five or six feet below the surface, being cover- 
 ed by the deposite. 
 
 Baths of San Filippo. These baths are situated only 
 a few miles from those already described. The waters 
 which supply them are impregnated with carbonate of 
 lime, and sulphate of lime, (gypsum.) They flow from 
 the spring immediately into a pond, where in twenty years 
 a solid rock has been deposited thirty feet thick. A curi- 
 ous manufactory, which produces medallions in basso-re* 
 lievo is carried on at this place. 
 
 The water is first allowed to stand in a cistern where 
 the sulphate of lime is deposited. It is then conveyed to 
 a chamber through a tube, from the end of which it falls 
 ten or twelve feet, the current being broken by numerous 
 small sticks crossing each other, and by which means the 
 spray is dispersed around the room. Here are placed the 
 moulds of the medallions to be formed, which are firsi 
 rubbed over .with a little soap. The water striking on 
 these moulds leaves particles of carbonate of lime, which 
 gradually increasing, leaves exact and beautifully white 
 casts of their figures, 
 
SILtCIOUS SPRINGS. 4l 
 
 The solid matter left by this spring, is a mass of lime- 
 stone and gypsum rock, a mile and a quarter long, the 
 third of a mile in breadth, and in some places at least two 
 hundred and fifty feet in thickness. The length of this 
 deposite terminates abruptly, being crossed by a small 
 stream, which carries away the undeposited matter with 
 the waters of the spring, otherwise it would have been 
 much more extensive. 
 
 The quantity of matter deposited from these springs, 
 show the newness of the earth, or at least of the present 
 order of things on its surface; for had they existed at the 
 period when Mr. Lyell supposes the cataract of Niagara 
 was at Queenstown, and discharged their waters, and form- 
 ed depositions as they do at the present day, and which it 
 is certain they did at the time of the Romans, these strata 
 ought to have been at least ten thousand feet thick. It is 
 true, however, that these thermal springs being caused by 
 volcanic heat, might have been formed within the last two 
 thousand years. 
 
 It is apparent from what has been stated concerning cal- 
 careous springs, that in the lapse of ages, considerable 
 changes must have been made in the earth's surface from 
 this source. But it must not be forgotten that this cause 
 is local in its nature, being confined chiefly to volcanic 
 districts: and that even such districts seldom contain 
 springs which work such changes as are above described. 
 
 Silicious Springs. Although we possess no chemical 
 process by which water can be made to dissolve pure silex, 
 or flint, yet in the great labratory of nature, this effect is 
 produced. There is, however, a process in chemistry, in 
 which, by a previous combination, silex becomes soluble 
 in water, and which, perhaps, affords an analogy to the 
 process employed by nature. If silex be finely pulveri- 
 zed, and then melted with a quantity of common alkali, the 
 whole becomes soluble in hot water. Now springs con- 
 taining any considerable quantity of silex, are always of 
 high temperatures; and it is to the great degree of heat 
 which exists at their sources, together with small portions 
 of alkali which volcanic rocks contain, and which the wa- 
 ter dissolves, that we are to attribute the property these 
 waters possess, of holding silex in solution. Springs con- 
 taining any considerable quantity of silex, are however, 
 exceedingly rare, and are mentioned here, rather on this 
 4* 
 
42 GEYSERS. 
 
 account, than for the changes they have produced on the 
 earth's surface. 
 
 Springs of St. Michael. The hot springs of St. Mi- 
 chael, one t of the Azores, have been long celebrated. 
 These waters rise from among volcanic rocks and hold 
 large quantities of silex in solution. As the waters de- 
 scend from the fountain, they deposite their silex in the 
 form of what is termed silicious sinter, which may be con- 
 sidered as answering to the travertine, or tufa of calcare- 
 ous springs. 
 
 The herbage and leaves along the course of the stream 
 are more or less encrusted with silex, and exhibit all the 
 successive steps of petrifaction, from a soft state to a com- 
 plete conversion into stone. Branches of ferns, such as 
 now grow in the vicinity, are thus changed, still preserv- 
 ing their appearance of vegetation, except that they have 
 acquired an ash grey color. Dr. Webster, Ed. Phil. 
 Journal. 
 
 Geysers of Iceland. But the Geysers of Iceland afford 
 the most remarkable examples of the deposition of silex. 
 These springs are situated in a volcanic district; the sur- 
 face of the ground out of which they rise being covered 
 with streams of ancient lava, through the fissures of which, 
 steam and hot water are emitted in various places. 
 
 The great Geyser, which has excited so much interest, 
 on account of the singular phenomena which it exhibits, 
 rises out of a basin at the summit of a circular mound, 
 composed of silicious incrustations deposited from the 
 spray of its waters. The diameter of this basin or crater 
 is 56 feet in one direction, and 46 in the other. 
 
 In the centre of this basin is a natural pipe seventy- 
 eight feet in perpendicular depth, and from eight to ten 
 feet in diameter, gradually widening as it opens into the 
 basin. The basin, as the spring intermits, is sometimes 
 empty, but is more commonly filled with beautifully trans- 
 parent boiling hot water, which is often in a state of vio- 
 lent ebullition. During the rise of the water up the pipe, 
 especially when the ebullition is most violent, subterra- 
 nean noises are heard, like the distant firing of cannon, 
 and a slight tremor of the earth is felt near the place. 
 The sound then increases, and the motion of the earth be- 
 comes more violent, until at length a column of water is 
 
GEYSERS. 43 
 
 thrown up from the pipe in a perpendicular direction, to 
 the height of from one to two hundred feet, attended with 
 loud explosions. This is continued, with interruptions 
 like an artificial fountain r for a few minutes, the water at 
 the same time giving off immense quantities of steam, and 
 vapor, when the pipe is evacuated by the discharge of 
 its whole contents of water, and there follows an immense 
 column of steam, which rushes up with amazing force and 
 a loud thundering noise, after which the eruption, or par- 
 oxysm terminates, and the Geyser becomes quiet. 
 
 If stones are thrown into the pipe, or crater, during an 
 eruption, they are instantly ejected, and such is the explo- 
 sive force of the steam, that masses of hard rock thrown 
 in, are returned into the air, shivered into small fragments. 
 Mr. Henderson late a resident in Iceland, and well ac- 
 quainted with these phenomena, states that by throwing 
 stones into the pipe of the Geyser, he could bring on an 
 eruption in a few minutes, and that in such cases the frag- 
 ments of stone as well as the water, were thrown much 
 higher than usual. When an eruption had been brought 
 on in this manner, and the water had been ejected, the 
 steam continued to rush up, with amazing force, and at- 
 tended by a deafening roar, for nearly an hour; but the 
 Geyser as if exhausted by this effort, did not give symp- 
 toms of a fresh eruption when its usual interval had 
 elapsed. 
 
 In the different explanations which have been offered to 
 account for phenomena so singular, and astonishing, and 
 which have been no where else observed, most writers 
 agree in supposing a subterranean cavity, where water 
 and steam collect, and where the free escape of the steam 
 is interrupted at intervals, or until it acquires sufficient 
 force to overcome the resistance occasioned by the pres- 
 sure of the water. This will be readily understood by the 
 annexed diagram, reduced from Mr. Lyell, and we may 
 remark that the theory is the same with that of intermit- 
 ting springs, only that the Geyser acts by steam, while the 
 other is explained on the principle of the syphon, See the 
 Author's Nat. Philosophy, p. 107. 
 
44 
 
 GEY3ER8. 
 
 In explain- 
 ing this cut, 
 suppose wa- 
 ter percolat- 
 ing from the 
 surface of the 
 earth, or from 
 springs below, 
 finds its way 
 into the sub- 
 terranean cav- 
 ity d, by the 
 fissures / /, 
 while at the 
 same time 
 steam of an 
 
 extremely high tempeiature, emanates from volcanic rocks 
 into the same cavity through the fissures c c. A portion 
 of the steam in the first place would be condensed into 
 water, but its temperature continuing to increase by the 
 latent heat of the steam, the lower part of the cavity would 
 soon be filled with the boiling fluid, while the upper part 
 would be filled by steam under considerable pressure. 
 The steam continuing to form, the water being now too 
 hot to condense it, would soon by its expansive force, 
 drive the water up the pipe or fissure e, 6, what ever 
 might be its height, and thus the basin at the surface 
 would be filled and an eruption take place. When the 
 pressure is thus diminished, the steam in the upper part of 
 the cavity a, would expand, or probably a portion of the 
 boiling water under diminished pressure would be instant- 
 ly converted into steam, and the passage being free, would 
 rush up the pipe in the same manner as is seen and heard 
 on opening the safety valve of a steam boiler. If the 
 pipe be choaked up artificially with stones, even for a few 
 minutes, a great increase of heat would be occasioned, 
 since the steam would thus be prevented from escaping, 
 so that the water would be made to boil in a few minutes, 
 and thus an eruption would be brought on, as stated by 
 Mr. Henderson. 
 
 This explanation accounts for all the phenomena ob- 
 served in the Geysers, and although we cannot be certain 
 of its truth, still there is every reason to believe that such 
 
LAKE OF GENEVA. 45 
 
 a cavity exists, and it is certain that steam is the moving 
 power. 
 
 Mr. Lyell forms a theory of earthquakes on this expla- 
 nation. See Seat and Theory of Earthquakes. 
 
 DELTAS IN LAKES. 
 
 Considerable changes have taken place by causes now 
 going on, in consequence of the deposition of earthy mat- 
 ter at the mouths of rivers where they enter lakes, or 
 seas. We have already given an account of the accumu- 
 lation of land along the shores of the Adriatic, in conse- 
 quence chiefly of depositions from the river Po. The 
 quantity of matter thus carried down by different rivers, 
 of similar magnitudes, differs exceedingly; this difference 
 depending much on the rapidity of the stream, and its 
 liability to overflow its banks at certain seasons. 
 
 Delta of the Lake of Geneva. The Lake of Geneva is 
 thirty-seven miles long, and from two to nine miles broad* 
 The Rhone enters at one end of this lake and the city of 
 Geneva stands at the other. The water where it dis- 
 charges itself near the city is exceedingly clear and trans- 
 parent, but at the upper end it is commonly turbid, in con- 
 sequence of the matter brought down by the Rhone. 
 
 Mr. De La Beche, after numerous soundings, found that 
 the depth of the water in the middle of the lake was from 
 one hundred and twenty, to one hundred and sixty fathoms; 
 but on approaching the mouth of the Rhone, the water 
 began to grow shallower at the distance of a mile and 
 three quarters from that end of the lake. It may be sta- 
 ted therefore that the strata annually produced by the 
 river are about two miles in length. From soundings it 
 has been ascertained, that in some places the deposites 
 from the Rhone are probably from six to nine hundred 
 feet in thickness; and from the remains of some Roman 
 buildings on the border of the lake, Mr. Lyell judges that 
 this accumulation has taken place within the last eight 
 hundred years. "If," says he, "we could obtain the 
 depth of this accumulation formed in the last eight centu- 
 ries, we should see a great series of strata, probably from 
 
46 LAKE OF GENEVA 
 
 six to nine hundred feet thick, and nearly two miles in 
 length, inclined at a very slight angle." 
 
 Mr. Lyell proposes a plan for estimating the time when 
 the Lake of Geneva, or the Leman Lake, will become dry 
 land by the accumulations from the Rhone. 
 
 The capacity of the lake being obtained, " it would," 
 says he, " be an interesting subject of inquiry, to deter- 
 mine in what number of years the Leman lake would be 
 converted to dry land. It would not be difficult to obtain 
 the elements for such a calculation, so as to approximate 
 at least to the quantity of time required for the accom- 
 plishment of this result. The number of cubic feet of 
 water annually discharged by the river into the lake being 
 known, experiments might be made in winter and summer 
 to determine the proportion of matter held in suspension, 
 or in chemical solution by the Rhone." 
 
 Such calculations, however, after all the data that could 
 be obtained, would be exceedingly uncertain, and since 
 the elements, proposed by the author, have not been 
 obtained, we do not extract his speculations on this subject. 
 
 But were it ascertained exactly how much alluvial mat- 
 ter is carried down by the Rhone at the present day, still 
 this would decide nothing definitely with respect to the 
 time during which this accumulation has been forming. 
 According to Mr. Lyell's supposition above cited, a part 
 of the delta has formed at the rate of about a foot in a year, 
 namely, from six to nine hundred feet in eight hundred 
 years. Now allowing that the Rhone has, on an average, 
 deposited a foot of matter a year in the lake, and has con- 
 tinued to do so ever since the deluge, then the accumula- 
 tion ought to be at least four thousand feet thick, which 
 would long ago have filled up the Leman lake, and made 
 it solid ground. The phenomena of this lake, therefore 
 clearly shews that either it has not received the Rhone 
 for so many years, or if so, that its waters contained less 
 solid matter anciently than at present. In either case, it 
 is quite certain that no argument can be derived from the 
 present condition of this delta, in favor of the high an- 
 tiquity of the present form of the earth. But on the con- 
 trary, if any conclusions can be drawn from this source, 
 they are in direct coincidence with the idea that the pre- 
 sent order of things are of recent origin, and therefore in 
 confirmation of the truth of the sacred history of the de- 
 luge. 
 
BALTIC SEA. 47 
 
 DELTAS IN THE SEA. 
 
 Accumulations in the Baltic. The question whether 
 the waters of the Baltic sea have been sinking, or whether 
 they have remained stationary, has been a subject of con- 
 troversy since the middle of the last century. Celcius, a 
 Swedish astronomer, attempted to prove that the waters 
 of this sea had suffered a depression at the rate of about 
 forty-five inches in a century, from the earliest times. He 
 contended that the proof of this change rested not only 
 on modern observations, but also on the authority of the 
 ancient geographers, who stated that Scandinavia, now a 
 peninsula, was formerly an island. But most of the argu- 
 ments of Celcius and his followers, show that they did not 
 sufficiently distinguish between the shallowing of the water 
 by the deposition of sediment, and the actual lowering of 
 the sea. It appears that the sinking of the waters, on 
 which estimates were chiefly made, were at the mouths of 
 rivers, and in bays, where in the one case inland sediment 
 might be expected, and in the other where loss of depth 
 might be occasioned by the shifting of sand bars by the 
 current of the sea. But the facts stated concerning the 
 gradual conversion of the Gulf of Bothnia into dry land 
 merit more attention. .Thus it was shown that at Pitea, 
 half a mile of land had been gained in forty-five years, and 
 that at Lulea a mile of ground had been added in twenty- 
 eight years. Ancient ports on the same coast had become 
 inland cities. Considerable portions of the gulf were also 
 shown to have become three fet shallower in the course 
 of fifty years many old fishing grounds had been 
 changed into dry land, and small islands had been joined 
 to the continent. Besides these changes, it was asserted 
 that along the coast of West Prussia, and Pomerania, an- 
 chors, and the hulls of old ships had been discovered far 
 inland. 
 
 But since it was possible that all these facts might be 
 accounted for by the accumulation of land, instead of the 
 depression of the waters, Celcius derived a stronger ar- 
 gument still for his theory, from the exposure of certain 
 insular rocks in the gulf of Bothnia, which were once 
 entirely covered by water. These rocks, it was shown, 
 had risen in the course of a hundred and fifty years, from 
 below the water to the height of eight feet above its sur- 
 
48 BALTIC SEA. 
 
 face, and there they stood, the most certain and permanent 
 of all witnesses, that the sea was so much lower than for- 
 merly. To this it was opposed, that this island consist- 
 ed of sand and drift stones, and that during great tem- 
 pests, not only more sand, but additional stones, also, were 
 thrown upon it. Besides this, icebergs, heavily laden 
 with stones and rocks, sometimes floated in this sea, when 
 the ice was breaking up in the spring, and the fact that 
 this low island had gradually increased in height, was readi- 
 ly accounted for, by supposing that the stranded ice fields 
 had forced these stones above the level of the water, where 
 of course they would remain after the ice was melted away. 
 
 This question, about which volumes were written in 
 the course of half a century, was finally settled by a curi- 
 ous, but conclusive proof, brought forward by the oppo- 
 sers of Celcius. On the Finland side of the Baltic, there 
 grew, close to the water's edge, some large pine trees. 
 Some of these were cut down, and by counting the con- 
 centric rings of annual growth, it was found that they had 
 stood there four hundred years. Now according to Cel- 
 cius, the sea had sunk fifteen feet during that period, so 
 that were this the case, these trees must have commenced 
 their growth in at least two fathoms of water, a thing ab- 
 solutely impossible. It was also proved that the walls of 
 several ancient castles, as those of Sonderburg and Abo, 
 reached the edge of the water at the present day, and 
 therefore, had the water sunk, these foundations must have 
 originally been laid below the level of the sea. Very 
 ample proofs from other sources have also been adduced, 
 that the level of the Baltic has suffered no change for 
 eight hundred, or a thousand years. 
 
 But notwithstanding the proofs are quite positive that 
 the hypothesis of Celcius can only be substantiated by de- 
 ceptive arguments, drawn from progressive accumulations 
 of solid matter in the water; still there are many intelli- 
 gent men who maintain that the waters of the Baltic are 
 Buffering a constant diminution. So lately as 1821, sev- 
 eral Swedish officers, belonging to the pilotage depart- 
 ment, declared in favor of this opinion. The weight of 
 evidence is, however, entirely opposed to the theory of 
 Celcius, and there can be little doubt but the Baltic Sea 
 has remained at its present level from time immemorial. 
 Geology, vol. i. p. 227. 
 
 We have been thus particular in this account, that the 
 
DELTA OF THE RHONE IN THE SEA. 49 
 
 geological student might observe how much difficulty some- 
 times occurs in deciding questions of this nature, and con- 
 sequently how much experience and judgment ought to 
 be exercised before any positive opinion is advanced on 
 some geological points, in themselves apparently of the 
 most simple kind. The great question, also, whether the 
 waters of the ocean are diminishing, as has been maintain- 
 ed by several writers, is involved in the question of the 
 Baltic; for since this sea communicates with all other seas, 
 and oceans, its' gradual depression would prove a corres- 
 ponding diminution of the sea all over the earth. But from 
 the above account there is no doubt, that the supposed 
 sinking of the Baltic is entirely a deception, arising from 
 alluvial accumulations brought down by rivers, and the oc- 
 casional shifting of sand banks by the currents of that sea. 
 
 Delta of the Rhone in the Sea. We have seen that the 
 Rhone deposits large quantities of sediment in the lake of 
 Geneva, and have noticed with what crystalline trans- 
 parency the waters of that lake are discharged, to continue 
 the same river towards the sea. But says Mr. Lyell, 
 44 scarcely has the river passed out of the Leman Lake, be- 
 fore its pure waters are again filled with sand and sedi- 
 ment by the impetuous Arve, descending from the highest 
 Alps, and bearing along in its current the granitic detri- 
 tus [broken rocks] annually carried down by the glaciers 
 of Mount Blanc." The Rhone, also, afterwards receives 
 vast contributions of transported matter from the Alps of 
 Dauphiny, and the primary and volcanic mountains of 
 central France, so that when it reaches the Mediterranean, 
 it discolors the waters of the sea to the distance of many 
 leagues. 
 
 The advance of the delta of the Rhone into the sea, is 
 proved by many circumstances, and particularly by the 
 facts that an island described by Pomponius Mela, an an- 
 cient Latin geographer, is now far inland, and that a loca- 
 tion which was a harbor in 898, is now three miles from 
 the shore. It is also known that Psamodi, which was an 
 island in 815, is at the present time six miles from the sea. 
 
 As the Rhone enters the sea by several mouths, at con- 
 siderable distances from each other, a large tract of coun- 
 try is brought within its influence, and thus besides ex- 
 tending the land along the shore, marshes of great extent 
 5 
 
50 DELTA OF THE RHONE IN THE SEA. 
 
 have, during the lapse of ages been filled up by its annual 
 deposites. 
 
 In the course of this river, it receives the waters of a 
 vast number of springs containing carbonate of lime in so- 
 lution, and which mixing with the waters of the Rhone, 
 is not deposited until it reaches the sea. Hence the Delta 
 of this river, instead of consisting of loose, incoherent sedi- 
 ment, like the deposites from most other rivers, consists 
 chiefly of solid rock; the carbonate of lime acting as a ce- 
 ment to the sediment, when this exists, or in its absence, 
 forming limestone nearly pure. This is a well ascertain- 
 ed fact, for large masses of this rock are quarried for va- 
 rious purposes, and are found to consist of sand consolida- 
 ted by a calcareous cement, and mixed with broken shells. 
 After the sand has been deposited, the waters still hold a 
 portion of the carbonate in solution, which is thrown down 
 in a purer state, and even sometimes in the form of crys- 
 talline masses. As an example, there exists a cannon in 
 the museum of Montpelier, taken up from near the mouth 
 of this river embedded in crystalline limestone. 
 
 Thus *we see that solid limestone is now copstantly 
 forming, in which are embedded shells as in the ancient 
 marbles, which some geologists have contended were thou- 
 sands of years older than the creation according to Moses. 
 This circumstance is important and will be adverted to in 
 another place. 
 
 In a late survey of the coast of the Mediterranean, the 
 ships employed at the mouth of the Rhone were obliged 
 to quit their moorings, when the wind blew strongly from 
 the south-west. Captain Smith, one of the officers on 
 this service, states, that when the ships returned after 
 such a wind, the new sand banks in the Delta were found 
 covered with a great abundance of marine shells, which 
 were swept there by the current caused by the wind. 
 This circumstance appears to explain phenomena of some 
 importance in geology. In some ancient strata it has 
 been claimed that marine and fresh water shells alternate 
 with each other, and hence it has been supposed that at 
 least in such places, the sea had retired for a time, 
 while fresh water occupied its place; after which the sea 
 again resumed its former bed; and so alternately, as often 
 as the different kinds of shells were repeated. But it ap- 
 .pears from the above statement, that the explanation of 
 .such appearances is very simple, and that it is unnecessary 
 
DELTA OF THE GANGES. 
 
 51 
 
 to believe that the ordinary course of nature was changed 
 in order to produce such effects: for,, at the mouth of the 
 Rhone, a strong south-west wind only is required, to oc- 
 casionally mix the shells of the sea with those which are 
 brought down by the fresh water, or which live in its cur- 
 rent. 
 
 Delta of the Po in the Adriatic. We have already de- 
 scribed the effects which the Po has produced and is now 
 producing, in some parts of the country through which it 
 passes. But we must notice more particularly the chan- 
 ges which this mighty torrent, assisted by the Adige, has 
 produced at its delta in the Adriatic. 
 
 These two rivers with numerous smaller streams, drain 
 some of the loftiest ridges of the Appenines, together 
 with one side of the great Crescent of the Alps. The 
 combined influence of these rivers have produced an enor- 
 mous increase of alluvial matter along the coast of that 
 sea. From the northernmost point of the gulf of Trieste 
 where the river Isonzo enters, down to the south of Ra- 
 venna, there is an uninterrupted series of recent alluvial 
 deposited, forming dry land, more than*one hundred miles 
 in length, and from two to twenty miles in breadth. 
 There is evidence that this great alluvion has been formed 
 within the last two thousand years. Adria a city which 
 gave name to the Adriatic, was originally a sea-port; it 
 is now twenty miles from the sea. Ravenna and Spina 
 were also built on the sea, but, at the present time, the 
 first is four, and the last ten or twelve miles from the 
 water. 
 
 Delta of the Ganges. The Ganges and the Burram- 
 pooter descend from Himmala mountains, the most lofty 
 on the globe. The latter river may be considered as a 
 branch of the former, and falls into it long before their 
 united waters reach the sea. The Ganges is discharged 
 into the Bay of Bengal, which forms a vast indenture into 
 the continent of more than two hundred miles in length. 
 The Delta of the Ganges commences more than 203 miles 
 from the Bay of Bengal in a direct line, and 300, if the 
 distance be estimated along the windings of the river. 
 That part of the Delta which borders on the sea, is divi- 
 ded by a vast number of rivers, or creeks, all of which 
 are salt except those which communicate with the pric> 
 
52 DELTA OF THE GANGES. 
 
 cipal arms of the Ganges. This tract is famous under the 
 name of Sunderbunds being the common haunt of tigers 
 and alligators. Its extent, according to the account of 
 Major Rennell, is equal to the whole principality of Wales. 
 Its base, bordering on the sea, is about two hundred miles 
 in length, and, on each side, it is enclosed by an arm of 
 the Ganges. Besides these, through which the water of 
 this immense river is now discharged, there are six other 
 great openings through the Delta into the sea, each of 
 which has evidently at some ancient period, been the 
 principal bed of the river. During the period of overflow 
 the greater part of this vast Delta is covered with the 
 water of the river, so that the Ganges appears to be flow- 
 ing into a vast lake, instead of itself inundating, and sweep- 
 ing a whole territory of India. So great is the quantity 
 of mud and sand carried down by this immense current, 
 at such seasons, and so vast the quantity of water it dis- 
 charges, that the ocean is discolored by it to the distance 
 of sixty miles from its mouth. 
 
 In various parts of this delta great accumulations, or 
 islands are formed in the course of a few years, and per- 
 haps as soon swept away, and similar ones formed in oth- 
 er places. Some of these, which are islands during fresh- 
 ets, Major Rennell states, are equal in extent to the Isle of 
 Wight, and thickly inhabited. The people are however, 
 always in danger of being swept away by floods of un- 
 common height. In 1763 such an inundation happened, 
 the water rising six feet above ordinary floods; and conse- 
 quently the inhabitants of one of these districts of con- 
 siderable extent, were, with their horses and cattle totally 
 engulfed, and perished in the water. 
 
 These examples of the effects of running water in 
 changing the surface of the globe are sufficient for the 
 purposes intended. In all parts of the world, such effects 
 are constantly taking place, to a greater or less extent. 
 
 The aggregate accumulation of solid ground by the for- 
 mation and extension of deltas on the surface of the whole 
 earth, must be very considerable during every year; and 
 yet these effects are hardly appreciable in relation to the 
 changes they produce on the entire surface of the globe. 
 It is true, that the course of navigation is in a few instan- 
 ces obstructed, or changed by these accumulations, but in 
 general the same sea ports of which the earliest records 
 of history give any account, are still accessible. 
 
c 
 
 SEDIMENT IN RIVER WATER. 53 
 
 Had their accumulations commenced at very remote 
 periods as some have contended, and continued to the 
 present time, it is quite certain that many lakes now exist- 
 ing would have become dry land, and that the deltas of 
 rivers falling into the sea, would have been far more ex- 
 tensive than we find they are. All the facts therefore, 
 which are connected with the effects of rivers in the 
 formation of dry land, tend to show that the present 
 form of the earth has not existed more than a few thou- 
 sand years, and that it has suffered no considerable chan- 
 ges from running streams, as one of the causes now in 
 operation. 
 
 QUANTITY OF SEDIMENT IN RIVER WATER. 
 
 Having in the preceding pages given such an account 
 of the effects of rivers in forming solid depositions, as our 
 limits will allow, it is proper here to present the geologi- 
 cal student with an account of the estimates and experi- 
 ments, which have been made to ascertain the quantity of 
 solid matter, water is capable of holding in suspension. 
 
 It is proper, however, that we should also state that 
 few, if any of these estimates can be considered as more 
 than approximations to the truth; still they are such as are 
 quoted by the best writers, and are probably as accurate 
 as any in existence at the present day. Major Rennell 
 states that a glass of water taken out of the Ganges during 
 the height of its annual flood, yields about one part in 
 four of mud. ' No wonder then," says he, " that the sub- 
 siding waters should quickly form a stratum of earth, or 
 that its delta should encroach upon the sea." The same 
 writer, who resided many years in the vicinity of the Gan- 
 ges, computed with great care the quantity of water 
 which that river discharges into the sea, and which by his 
 estimate amounted, during a year, on an average, to eighty 
 thousand cubic feet, for every second of time. When the 
 river is at its greatest height during its annual inundation, 
 and consequently its motion much accelerated, the quan- 
 tity discharged, by the same estimate, was four hundred 
 and jive thousand cubic feet per second. 
 
 Mr. Lyell has made a computation of the quantity of 
 solid matter carried down by the Ganges, taking as hi& 
 5* 
 

 54 SEDIMENT IN RIVER WATER. 
 
 data, the experiment of Major Rennell, and his estimate of 
 the quantity of water it discharges. " If it were true," 
 says he, " that the Ganges in the flood season contained 
 one part in four of mud, we should then be obliged to sup- 
 pose that there passes down every four days, a quantity of 
 mud equal in volume to the water which is discharged in 
 the course of a day, or twenty-four hours. If the mud be 
 assumed to be equal to one half the specific gravity of 
 granite, (it however is more,) the weight of matter daily 
 carried down in the flood season would be about sixty 
 times the weight of the great pyramid of Fgypt. If the 
 Ganges discharges 405,000 cubic feet of water per second, 
 which was the estimate of Major Rennell, then, in round 
 numbers the quantity of mud discharged per second, 
 would be 100,000 cubic feet, which being multiplied by 
 86,400, the number of seconds in 24 hours, would give 
 8,640,000,000 cubic feet of rnud going down the Ganges 
 per day. The weight of this, (allowing as above,) would 
 be equal to that of 4,320,000,000 cubic feet of granite. 
 Now about twelve and a half cubic feet of granite weigh 
 a ton, but throwing out the half, the matter discharged by 
 the Ganges every day 360,000,000 of tons. This is sixty 
 times the weight of the great pyramid of Egypt, which if 
 solid is computed to weigh 6,000,000 of tons." 
 
 But although the Ganges may be supposed to transport 
 a much greater quantity of mud, even according to its 
 size, than any other river, sttH there can be little doubt 
 but Major Rennell very far over-rated the quantity of 
 solid matter its waters contained. The Rhine when most 
 flooded, has been computed to contain one part of mud in a 
 hundred of water, and Sir George Staunton by several 
 observations, calculated that the water of Yellow River, 
 in China, contained earthy matter in the proportion of 
 one part to two hundred. In this proportion he estimated 
 that the waters of that river brought down 48,000,000 of 
 cubic feet of solid matter daily. 
 
 According to the calculations of Manfredi, the celebrat- 
 ed Italian hydrographer, the average amount of sediment 
 in all the running streams on the globe, is one part in 175. 
 From such data, he estimates that it would take a thou- 
 sand years to raise the general bed of the sea a single foot, 
 provided none of this sediment was thrown back again 
 upon the shores. 
 
 From what has been stated, the reader will observe that 
 
DESTRUCTION OF ROCKS. 56 
 
 although a considerable number of experiments have been 
 made on this difficult subject, there remains much more to 
 be done before satisfactory results can be offered. It is 
 however certain, that great quantities of solid matter are 
 transported by running streams; and with respect to lakes 
 and ponds there can be no doubt, but they are gradually 
 filling up, and that if the same causes continue which we 
 have described, all these bodies of water will finally be 
 re-placed by dry land. 
 
 But there can be no possible estimate made of the time 
 required for such an event, since the quantity of solid 
 matter which streams transport, must be constantly de- 
 creasing in proportion as lakes and ponds approach the 
 level of the country in which they are. In a flat country 
 therefore, a lake may remain for centuries without any 
 appreciable elevation of its bottom. 
 
 The great depth of some lakes at the present day, when 
 these circumstances are considered, is a good proof of the 
 newness of the present order of things on the earth, and 
 consequently of the truth of the Mosaic history of its cre- 
 ation. 
 
 With respect to the level of the sea, it has been shown 
 that no change has taken place in the Baltic, and we may 
 also state at this place, that it will be seen hereafter, that 
 the remains of Roman buildings show that the Mediterra- 
 nean sea has not changed its level for the last 2000 years. 
 We may therefore conclude, that either the quantity of 
 matter carried into the sea has made no appreciable differ- 
 ence with its general level, or that as much solid matter is 
 thrown on the land at one place as is carried into U in an- 
 other. 
 
 DESTRUCTION OF ROCKS- 
 
 The causes now described which have produced chang- 
 es on the surface of the earth, are chiefly such as transport 
 loose materials from one place to another. But there is 
 another cause of change, which although noticed in the 
 first part of this article, must be more particularly descri- 
 bed. This is the destruction of rocks. 
 
 " If in contemplating," says Dr. Macculloch, * the tow- 
 ering peaks, and the solid precipices of an alpine region, 
 braving the fury of the elements and the floods of winter, 
 
66 FALL OF MOUNT ORENIER. 
 
 the spectator is at first impressed with the character of 
 strength and solidity, which nature here seems to have 
 conferred on her works, it requires but a moment's reflec- 
 tion, to show that every thing around him bears the marks 
 of ruin and decay. Here he learns to withhold his regret 
 at the perishable nature of all human labors, at the fall 
 of the strong tower, and the solid pyramid, when he sees 
 that the most massive rocks, those mountains which seem 
 calculated for eternal duration, bear alike the marks of 
 vicissitude and the traces of ruin." 
 
 " In these great revolutions, however, other agents 
 must co-operate; and the first here to be considered is the 
 power of frost. Expanding as it freezes, the water which 
 has entered the fissures acts with irresistible force, and 
 detaches those enormous masses, which in the seasons of 
 winter and spring, daily fall from the mountains. In 
 Greenland, it is said that these effects often take place 
 with a noise emulating thunder; but if less conspicuous, 
 they are sufficiently common in all alpine regions that are 
 subject to the extreme vicissitudes of heat and cold.'* 
 Geology, Vol. i. p. 248. 
 
 To this cause in a great measure is to be attributed the 
 ruin of sea cliffs, which on some coasts present such stri- 
 king and singular appearances. The constant action of 
 the ocean lashing the inferior parts of these cliffs, also 
 produces its effects, and is often the cause of large masses 
 being precipitated into the water. The perpetual rubbing 
 of the smaller stones against the larger, on the borders of 
 the sea, is another cause which in the course of time pro- 
 duces considerable effects; and hence all such stones have 
 lost their angles and become completely smooth and 
 rounded. 
 
 Fall of Mount Grenier. The fall of a part of Mount 
 Grenier, one of the calcareous mountains of Savoy, illus- 
 trates the effects of frost, and the gradual undermining of 
 rocks by torrents. Mount Grenier is upwards of 4000 
 feet high, and rises abruptly above the plain on which it 
 stands. The top, or cap, is an immense mass of lime- 
 stone, 600 feet thick, below which are strata of a softer 
 kind, and it is to the decay of the latter that the fall is at- 
 tributed, the cap being undermined by the gradual erosion 
 and removal of the under strata. The fall took place in 
 the year 1248. The larger masses, says Mr. Bakewell, 
 
DESTROYING EFFECTS OF THE SEA. 5T 
 
 evidently came from the upper, or highest part of the 
 mountain, and the velocity they acquired by the fall must 
 have been at least 300 feet per second, before they reach- 
 ed the ground. As these immense masses struck oblique- 
 ly against the base of the mountain, they thus acquired a 
 projectile force which spread them far into the plain. 
 These masses were in such quantity, and were projected 
 to such distances, as to cover nine square miles of surface, 
 and to entirely bury five parishes, together with the town 
 and church of St. Andre. In the course of years the 
 rains, or currents of water from dissolving snow, have fur- 
 rowed channels between the larger masses of stone, and 
 washing away part of the loose earth, have left an im- 
 mense number of conical hills still remaining. So deep 
 and vast was the mass of ruins which covered the town of 
 St. Andre, and the other parishes, that except a small 
 bronze statue, no individual article belonging to any of them 
 has been found to this day BakeweWs Geology. 
 
 Fall of Rocks from the Alps. A part of a mountain near 
 Servos, belonging to the Alpine range, and on the road to 
 Chamouny, fell down in the year 1751. This continued 
 several days, mass after mass being precipitated, while an 
 immense volume of dust, the consequence of friction, by 
 the sliding of the rocks on each other, rose so high, and 
 was so dense as to have been seen at the distance of twen- 
 ty-five miles. A succession of reports, like the firing of 
 heavy cannon, announced the fall of these masses day 
 and night. The aggregate amount thus precipitated was 
 estimated by Donali at 3,000,000 of cubic fathoms, or 
 fifteen millions of cubic feet, a quantity suiKcient to form 
 a large hill. 
 
 DESTROYING EFFECTS OF THE SEA. 
 
 Mr. Lyell has adduced many instances of the power of 
 sea waves to move large masses of solid rock. In the 
 Shetland Isles this effect has been quite surprising. In 
 1818, during a storm, a mass of granite, nine feet by six, 
 was thrown by the waves up a declivity to the distance 
 of 150 feet; and, in the winter of 1802, a mass of rock 
 
58 INROADS OF THE SEA. 
 
 eight feet by seven, and five feet thick, was moved to ths 
 distance of ninety feet, by the same force. 
 
 The reader who remembers the immense power which 
 velocity gives a sea wave, as above illustratt d, will be at 
 no loss to comprehend why the strongest ships are some- 
 times reduced to fragments in a few minutes; nor will he 
 wonder at the destroying effects which a wide ocean must 
 produce on a coast, which is not guarded by a strong bar- 
 rier of solid rocks. 
 
 Destruction of the Village of Mathers. The village of 
 Mathers, on the east coast of Scotland, was destroyed by an 
 inroad of the sea, in 1795. This town was guarded by a 
 barrier of limestone rock next the shore; but during a 
 storm the waves of the ocean broke through this barrier, 
 and in one night destroyed and swept away the whole vil- 
 lage. The sea penetrated 150 yards inland, where it has 
 maintained its ground ever since. 
 
 Eastern Coasts of England. The eastern coasts of 
 England are constantly suffering from the inroads of the 
 sea. On the old maps of Yorkshire, many spots are 
 marked, as the sites of towns which are now sand banks in 
 the ocean. A greater or less portion of the coasts of Nor- 
 folk and Suffolk are every year swallowed up by the sea. 
 The town of Sherringham, on this coast, exhibits a melan- 
 choly proof of this fact. With respect to this town, Mr. 
 Lyell states, that at one point there is now a depth of 
 water of 25 feet, (sufficient to float a frigate) where only 
 48 years ago, there stood a cliff fifty feet high, with houses 
 upon it. Further to the south are cliffs more than 200 
 feet high; more or less of which are ever> year precipita- 
 ted into the ocean, in consequence of being undermined 
 by the waves. The whole site of the ancient town of 
 Cromer now forms a part of the bed of ihe German ocean, 
 the inhabitants having gradually pulled down their houses 
 and removed inland as the sea encroached upon them; 
 and, from their present situation, they are in danger of 
 being dislodged by the same cause. From this neighbor- 
 hood, in the year 1822, a mass of earth and rocks was 
 precipitated into the sea, to the extent of twelve acres, 
 the cliffs being 250 feet high; and on the same coast, three 
 ancient villages, several manors, and large portions of a- 
 
INROADS OF THE SEA. 59 
 
 fcumber of parishes have, from the same cause, gradually 
 disappeared, and been replaced by the ocean. 
 
 Since the time of Edward the Confessor, as appears by 
 the records, the sea-coast town of Dunwich has lost in 
 succession, a monastery at one time; at another, several 
 churches; at another, 400 houses; and, subsequently, ano- 
 ther church; the town hall and jail, together with many 
 other buildings, all precipitated into the sea. 
 
 These are given as specimens of the devastating effects 
 of the sea in different parts of the world, and, by which, 
 it appears that if on the one hand, large tracts of coast 
 are forming, and encroaching upon the ocean in one part 
 of the world, as in the Baltic, and on the coasts of Italy, 
 so on the other hand, the sea is encroaching on the land 
 in other parts, probably to an equal extent. 
 
 In many instances, inundations from the sea, have been 
 the means of effecting, not only great changes in the sur- 
 face of the earth, in a short period of time, but also of de- 
 stroying vast numbers of human beings. On the coast ot 
 Holland these disasters have been peculiarly destructive, 
 as well as on the coast opposite. 
 
 A considerable peninsula which lay between Groningen 
 and East Friesland, and was thickly inhabited, was partly 
 overwhelmed in 1277, and a considerable portion of the 
 land carried away, with many houses and inhabitants. 
 During the fifteenth century, other portions were destroy- 
 ed by the same cause, and a part of the town of Forum, a 
 place of considerable size, was swept away. In 1507, not 
 only the remainder of Forum was engulphed, in spite of 
 the erection of dams, but also several market towns, villa- 
 ges and monasteries, were entirely destroyed, together 
 with their inhabitants. 
 
 Further to the north, anciently lay the district of North 
 Friesland. This was a peninsula; but in 1240.. the sea 
 destroyed the land next the coast, and thus formed an 
 island called Northstrand. This island was originally of 
 considerable extent, but the sea, from time to time, swept 
 away small portions of it, until the inhabitants became so 
 concentrated, that when the island was only four geogra- 
 phical miles in circumference, their number was still nine 
 thousand. At last, on the night of the 1 1th of October, 
 1634, a flood from the sea swept over the whole island, 
 and destroyed at once a great proportion of the inhabi- 
 tants, all the houses, churches and cattle, carrying away 
 
DOWNS. 
 
 even the land that had sustained them. By this dreadful 
 calamity, there was swept away 1300 houses, with all the 
 churches, 50,000 head of cattle, and more than 6000 
 people. 
 
 We might continue these accounts with regard to the 
 changes which have taken place on the same coasts to 
 great length; but our design being chiefly to give exam- 
 ples, rather than general details, we will here conclude 
 this part of our subject. 
 
 DOWNS, OR SAND HILLS. 
 
 In some sections of country, the fine sand that is thrown 
 up by the sea, is carried by the wind to considerable dis- 
 tances, and in such quantities as to cover the land entirely, 
 and to fill up lakes and estuaries. Occasionally, also, 
 there are sand plains at a distance from the sea, where ve- 
 getation seems never to have taken root, and where con- 
 sequently, there is nothing to prevent the sand from 
 spreading in all directions by the force of the winds. 
 
 On the coasts of France and Holland, long chains of 
 sand hills have been formed from the sea, which have ef- 
 fected important geological changes, by barring up the 
 mouths of rivers and bays, and thus preventing the ingress 
 of tides, and changing the course of currents. 
 
 On the north coast of Cornwall, in England, a conside- 
 rable extent of country has been inundated by drifting 
 sand and pulverized shells from the sea shore. Some of 
 the hills thus formed are several hundred feet high. By 
 the shifting of these sands, the ruins of several ancient 
 buildings have been discovered, shewing that these chan- 
 ges have been in progress for many centuries. In some 
 places this sand has become so compact as to be employ- 
 ed for architectural purposes, the cementing agent being 
 oxide of iron, which the water carries, in solution, from 
 the upper to the lower strata. 
 
 But it is in the East, and especially on the borders of 
 Egypt, that the devastating effects of sand has produced 
 the most calamitious consequences. In Egypt, these are 
 called sand floods, and of their effects De Luc has given 
 the following statement: 
 
 *' The sands of the Lybian," he says, " driven by the 
 
DOWNS. 61 
 
 west winds, have left no lands capable of tillage on any 
 parts of the western banks of the Nile, not sheltered by 
 mountains. The encroachment of these sands on districts 
 which were formerly inhabited and cultivated is evidently 
 seen. M. Denon informs us in his Travels in Lower and 
 Upper Egypt, that summits of the ruins of ancient cities, 
 buried under these sands still appear externally; and that 
 but for a ridge of mountains called the Lybian chain, 
 which borders the left bank of the Nile, and forms, in the 
 parts where it rises, a barrier against the invasion of these 
 sands, the shores of the river, on that side, would long 
 since have ceased to be habitable. '* Nothing- can be more 
 melancholy," says Denon, ** than to walk over villages, 
 swallowed up by the sand of the desert, to trample under 
 foot their roofs, to strike against the summits of their 
 minarets, to reflect that yonder were cultivated fields, that 
 there grew trees, that here were even the dwellings of 
 men, and that all have vanished." 
 
 De Luc draws an argument from these sand floods in 
 favor of the newness of the earth, and of the truth of the 
 Mosaic history of the Creation. 
 
 *' If then," he continues, " our continents were as an- 
 cient as has been pretended, no traces of the habitation of 
 men would appear on any part of the western bank of the 
 Nile, which is exposed to this scourge of the sands of the 
 desert. The existence, therefore, of such monuments at- 
 tests the successive progress of the encroachment of the 
 sand; and these parts of the bank formerly inhabited, will 
 forever remain arid and waste." 
 
 " It is, therefore, riot solely to her revolutions and 
 changes of sovereigns, that Egypt owes the loss of her 
 ancient splendor; it is also to her having been thus irre- 
 coverably deprived of a tract of land, by which, before the 
 sands of the desert had covered it, and caused it to disap- 
 pear, her wants had been abundantly supplied. Now, if 
 we fix our attention on this fact, and reflect on the conse- 
 quences which would have attended it, if thousands, or 
 only some hundreds of centuries had elapsed since our 
 continents first existed above the level of the sea, does it 
 not evidently appear, that all the country on the west of 
 the Nile would have been buried under this sand before 
 the erection of the cities of ancient Egypt, how remote 
 soever that period may be supposed; and that in a coun- 
 try so long afflicted with sterility, no idea would even 
 6 
 
62 CORAL ISLANDS. 
 
 have been formed of constructing such vast and numerous 
 edifices? When these cities, indeed, were built, another 
 cause concurred in favoring their prosperity. The navi- 
 gation of the Red Sea was not then attended with any 
 danger on the coasts; all its ports, now nearly blocked up 
 with reefs of coral, had a safe and easy access; the vessels 
 laden with merchandise and provisions could enter them 
 and depart without risk of being wrecked on these shoals, 
 which have risen since that time, and are still increasing 
 in extent." " Thus the reefs of coral which have been 
 raised in the Red Sea, on the East of Egypt, and the sands 
 of the desert which invade it on the west, concur in attest- 
 ing this truth, That our continents are not of a more re- 
 mote antiquity than has been assigned to them by the sa- 
 cred historian, in the Book of Genesis, from the great era 
 of the Deluge." 
 
 FORMATION OF CORAL ISLANDS. 
 
 It is but recently that any observations tending to in- 
 terest or inform the naturalist, have been made on the 
 production of Coral Islands. But the great extent to 
 which these islands have been formed, together with the 
 rapidity with which it has been said they are increasing, 
 give this subject a considerable degree of interest, not 
 only in respect to geology, but also as it regards com- 
 merce. 
 
 On this subject Dr. Macculloch says, " The production 
 of the Coral Islands of the great Pacific ocean, which en- 
 danger this navigation and that of the Indian Archipelago, 
 and are tending fast to destroy that of the Red Sea, is a 
 fact completely distinguished from all other subjects of 
 geological investigation. It also forms a most interesting 
 branch of the present inquiries; and it is the more indis- 
 pensible to examine it, because it has hitherto been unac- 
 countably neglected by other geological writers." 
 
 " It is sufficient here," he continues, ' to speak in the 
 most general terms of a tribe of animals, for whose de- 
 scription, works on Zoology must be consulted. In a 
 popular view, a coral is a calcareous structure inhabited 
 by numerous small animals or polypi; and each form of 
 coral possesses its own species. Each, therefore, forms 
 
CORAL ISLANDS. 63 
 
 a sort of colony, the inhabitants of which are disposed in 
 minute cells, which they construct themselves, thus pro- 
 ducing the general structure, by their joint labors as if all 
 were actuated by one design and one mind." 
 
 44 This is the obvious appearance. But in reality the 
 entire coral plant is one animal. A continuous animal 
 structure pervades the whole, and the calcareous matter in 
 whatever form, must be viewed as the shell, being a secre- 
 tion, or deposition of earth in its substance." Geology, 
 vol. i. p. 337. 
 
 The coral insects, of which there are many species, 
 belong to the class POLYPI and order Coralliferi, of Cu- 
 vier. See Animal Kingdom, vol. iv. p. 387 95. They 
 are a singular and curious tribe of animals, some of which 
 are too minute to be examined by the naked eye. 
 
 The Coralliferi constitute that numerous suite of species 
 which were formerly considered as marine plants, and of 
 which the individual are in fact united in great numbers 
 to constitute compound animals, mostly fixed like plants; 
 either forming a stem or simple expansions, by means of 
 a solid internal substance. The individual animals are all 
 connected by a common body, and are nourished in com- 
 mon, so that what is eaten by one goes to the nourish- 
 ment of the general body of all the other polypi. Animal 
 Kingdom, ib. v-v; 
 
 The common coarse white coral, full of pores may be 
 considered as an aggregate of the shells, or habitations of 
 one family of these animals. On inspecting a piece of 
 this substance while growing, or building under water, 
 when these animals are at work, small whitish protuber- 
 ances may be seen projecting from these pores, which 
 being touched, or on removing the coral from the water, 
 are seen to contract and disappear, but re-appear again 
 when the coral is returned to the water. These are the 
 animals which construct the coarse coral only. Those 
 which build the compact kinds, as the red, white, and 
 black, and which, (particularly the red,) are so much valu- 
 ed for ornamental purposes, are of a different species from 
 these, and are so exceedingly minute as to be of difficult 
 detection. 
 
 Many species of this tribe are free, and swim with the 
 current, but those which produce the mighty effects about 
 to be described are fixed in their cells. For an account of 
 
64 CORAL ISLANDS. 
 
 these species, see Parkinson's Organic Remains, and Cv- 
 vier's Animal Kingdom. 
 
 It is for geography, not for a work of this nature, to 
 describe the islands and rocks produced by the coral 
 tribes. It is here sufficient to mention the islands south 
 of the equator, between the West Coast of America, and 
 New-Holland, crowding the whole of that sea, under a 
 rapid increase, accompanied by still more numerous rocks, 
 destined perhaps to become the seats of vegetations, and 
 the habitations of man; perhaps at length to form a conti- 
 nent in the Pacific Ocean. To these, abounding particu- 
 larly between New-Holland, New-Caledonia, and New- 
 Guinea, I may add those of the Indian Archipelago, inclu- 
 ding Cosmoledo, Chagos, Juan de Nova, Armante, Cocos, 
 and the Maldive, and Laccadive islands. 
 
 When we consider the feebleness of the means, and the 
 minuteness of the agents, the extent of these reefs and 
 islands is a subject of equal curiosity and surprise. 
 Among these, Tengataboo is sixty miles in circumference 
 and is elevated ten feet above the water. But this is but 
 an insignificant work, when compared with the great coral 
 reef on the eastern coast of New-Holland, which extends 
 in an uninterrupted course the distance of three hundred 
 and fifty miles. This together with several islands of the 
 same, form a continuous line of one thousand miles or 
 more in length, varying from twenty to* sixty miles in 
 breadth. To form a just conception of such a production, 
 we should imagine it exposed from the foundation. It is 
 a mountain ridge, which bears comparison with many of 
 the larger tracts of terrestrial limestone in height; the 
 soundings in that sea being generally from 1000 to 1500 
 feet deep; and with respect to extent of range, it would 
 far exceed any limestone formation known. Macculloch, 
 vol. i. -337. 
 
 But though we may be astonished at the vast produc- 
 tions of these diminutive animals, it is their instinct which 
 ought still more to interest and surprise us. For, when 
 we remember that in many other instances, numbers do 
 compensate for individual weakness, and that there are 
 myriads of millions of these constantly at work, our aston- 
 ishment rather arises from a consideration of their num- 
 bers than the amount of their labors. And here we can- 
 not but admire the beneficence of the Creator in having 
 
CORAL ISLANDS. 65 
 
 given the pleasures of existence to such hosts of instinct- 
 ive beings, and though buried in the depths of the ocean, 
 their enjoyments are not less than if watched by the in- 
 quisitive eye of man. 
 
 From the very low order of these animals in the scale 
 of being, we should have little reason to expect they 
 would exhibit any evident signs of intelligence; and yet 
 as in other cases, we can here trace the most positive 
 marks of design in the Great First Cause, in the adapta- 
 tion of the means to the end proposed. 
 
 These animals cannot work above the water, and as 
 they chiefly inhabit an ocean, where the wind constantly 
 blows from one quarter, they raise their structure in a per- 
 pendicular direction on the windward side, so that when 
 they come near the surface of the water, where the rolling 
 of the sea would a part of the time leave them naked, the 
 waves are thus broken and they can continue their labors 
 to the leeward. The effect of this arrangement is the 
 erection of a barrier on the one side, so that these little 
 animals can work with facility and comfort on the other, 
 and under similar circumstances, all the reasoning and ex- 
 perience of man would have answered no better purpose, 
 than the instinct of these little worms. 
 
 After the windward side has been protected, the next 
 part raised to the surface is at some distance to the lee- 
 ward. The whole, when first seen, consists of a chain of 
 detached rocks usually placed in a circular form, including 
 an area of various dimensions, but often of several hun- 
 dred feet in diameter. In the progress of the work, the 
 intermediate parts, whether circular or straight, are grad- 
 ually filled up, so that on the outside, the walls are per- 
 pendicular, and the water deep, but within, the water 
 grows deeper from the margin towards the centre, produ- 
 cing a solid mass of rock, the upper part of which is in 
 the form of a basin. This cavity is at first a kind of salt 
 lake, but is gradually filled up by the labors of the ani- 
 mals, until finally the sea is so far excluded, that during 
 calm weather the rain freshens the water in it, and thus 
 at once end the labors and lives of these industrious 
 creatures. 
 
 In process of time, when these animals continue their 
 
 work around such a basin, so as to prevent the sea from 
 
 dashing into it, and the rain has washed away all the salt, 
 
 it becomes a pond of fresh water, forming a supply per- 
 
 6* 
 
66 CORAL ISLANDS. 
 
 haps, for the otherwise perishing mariner, who happens 
 to be wrecked on these bold shores. And this undoubt- 
 edly is but a part of that beneficent design and foresight, 
 for which such myriads of these animals were brought 
 into life. 
 
 The highest parts of these reefs being towards the 
 wind, at certain seasons of the year, when the tides are 
 low, these parts will be exposed to the force of the waves, 
 which will break off the most slender parts, and wash them 
 to the leeward, where the animals are still at work, and 
 by whom these fragments are welded to the principal 
 mass. In this manner, an island is raised permanently 
 above the water, and by a continuance of the same pro- 
 cess, considerable islands are gradually elevated above 
 high water mark in the midst of the ocean. 
 
 It is not difficult to imagine how such islands may be 
 clothed with vegetation. The seeds of plants are known 
 to float thousands of miles, and still retain their vegetative 
 powers. Such seeds taking root in the crevices of these 
 rocks produce plants, which by their annual decay, to- 
 gether with the decomposed coral, soon form a soil fit for 
 others. These in their turn decay, and in that warm cH- 
 mate, where vegetation is luxuriant, there is formed in a 
 few years, a soil fit for shrubs and trees. 
 
 Many of these Islands are only four or five feet above 
 high water mark; and it is apparent; that the mode of for- 
 mation above described, would require many centuries U> 
 elevate them to any considerable height. Indeed, it is not 
 probable that the parts near the shore would ever acquire 
 any additional elevation, since occasional high tides 
 would carry away the vegetable matter deposited there. 
 But as some of these islands are far above the level of 
 the sea, we must look for some other cause of elevation 
 besides the waters of the ocean; and the decay of vegeta- 
 tion. Tongataboo is ten feet above high water, at the 
 water's edge, and even this is higher than can be account- 
 ed for from the causes described. But this is a slight ele- 
 vation when compared with that of many others; for one 
 of the Tonga islands formed entirely of coral, is in some 
 parts more than 300 feet high. It is hardly necessary to 
 remark that this elevation cannot he accounted for by 
 supposing a depression of the ocean, since this cause 
 would have given all the other islands in that sea a simi- 
 lar height, and besides, it is well known that the sea has 
 
THE DELUGE. 67 
 
 not materially changed its level for the last 2000 years. 
 We must therefore attribute the elevation of these islands 
 to some force acting beneath them; and as we are unac- 
 quainted with any power, equal to such an effect, except 
 that of volcanoes, so there can be little doubt but the force 
 of submarine fire, was the active cause of their elevation. 
 One of these islands, indeed, contains a volcano always 
 on fire. 
 
 THE DELUGE. 
 
 No part of the Mosaic history has produced more ridi- 
 cule, among infidels, or has been attacked with greater 
 hopes of success, than that of the universal deluge. 
 
 "That the whole earth, (say these men,) was ever sur- 
 rounded with water so deep as to cover all its mountains, 
 is a supposition not only unphilosophical, but absolutely 
 impossible. It is unphilosophical, because even admitting 
 that there is a sufficient quantity of water in the sea to 
 produce such a deluge; still no adequate cause can be as- 
 signed for the production of such mighty effects. But 
 allowing a cause which might have moved the whole 
 ocean out of its bed, and cast it upon the land, still such 
 an effect could not have been produced as a universal 
 flood, since it would have required many times more wa- 
 ter than exists on the whole earth, to have covered all its 
 mountains at the same time." 
 
 We shall not stop to answer these objections, but pro- 
 ceed to show, that notwithstanding these and many more 
 have been urged against the probability of the Noachian 
 flood, still no fact can be better established, since it has 
 the concurrent testimony of sacred, natural, and civil his- 
 tory in its favor. 
 
 The period of the deluge is fixed by chronological 
 writers at the year 1656, after the creation, corresponding 
 to the year 2348 before the Christian era. These two 
 sums make the period of the creation, 4004 years B. C. 
 According to Mr. Blair, on the 10th day of the second 
 month, which was on Sunday, Nov. 30th, B. C. 2347, God 
 commanded Noah and his family to enter into the ark; 
 and on the next Sunday, December?, it began to rain, and 
 continued to rain forty days, after which the deluge pre- 
 
OS THE DELUGE. 
 
 vailed 110 days, making its continuance 150 days from 
 the beginning. On Wednesday, May 6th, 2348 B. C. the 
 ark rested on Mount Arrarat. The tops of the moun- 
 tains became visible on Sunday, July 19th, and on Friday, 
 November 18th, Noah and all they that were with him 
 came forth out of the ark. 
 
 Without reference to sacred history, we never could 
 have known the time, when this great flood happened 
 the fact itself, although we ought to require nothing more 
 than the word of that history to establish its truth, is still 
 capable of the strongest proof from the appearance of the 
 earth's surface. Baron Cuvier, after having spent a large 
 portion of a long life in investigating the natural history 
 of the earth, comes to the following conclusions on the 
 subject of the universal deluge. 
 
 " I can concur," says he, " with the opinions of M. M. 
 De Luc and Dolomieu, thalif^here be any thing deter- 
 mined in geology, it is that the surface of our globe has 
 been subject to a vast and sudden revolution, not longer 
 ago than five or six thousand years; that this revolution 
 has buried and caused to disappear, the countries former- 
 ly inhabited by man, and the species of animals now most 
 known; that, on the contrary, it has left the bottom of the 
 former sea dry, and has formed on it the countries now in- 
 habited; that since this revolution those few individuals 
 whom it spared, have propagated and spread over the 
 lands newly left dry, and consequently it is only since this 
 epoch, that our societies have assumed a progressive 
 march; .have formed establishments; raised monuments, and 
 combined scientific systems." Cuvier Revolu. Globe, 180. 
 
 The effects of that grand and awful cataclysm are still 
 to be traced in every country, and in nearly every section 
 of country on the globB. Vast accumulations of rounded, 
 or water worn pebbles, huge blocks of granite, and im- 
 mense beds of sand and gravel, are found in places where 
 no causes now in operation ever could have placed them: 
 and still that they have been moved is evident from the 
 circumstances, or the places where they occur. " In the 
 whole course of my geological travels," says Prof. Buck- 
 land, " from Cornwall to Caithness, from Calais to the 
 Carpathians; in Ireland, in Italy, I have scarcely ever 
 gone a mile without finding a perpetual succession of de- 
 posites of gravel, sand or loam, in situations that cannot 
 be referred to the action of modern torrents, rivers or 
 

 THE DELUGE, 69 
 
 lakes, or any other existing causes. And, with respect to 
 the still more striking diluvial phenomena of drifted mass- 
 es of rock, the greater part of the northern hemisphere, 
 from MOBCOW to the Mississippi, is described by various 
 geological travellers, as strewed on its hills as well as its 
 valleys, with blocks of granite, and other rocks of enor- 
 mous magnitude, which have been drifted (mostly in a di- 
 rection from north to south,) a distance, sometimes many 
 hundred miles from -their native beds, across mountains, 
 valleys, lakes and seas, by a force of water, which must 
 have possessed a velocity to which nothing that occurs, in 
 the actual state of the globe, affords the slightest parallel." 
 See Reliquia Diluviana. 
 
 If it be inquired how it can be ascertained that blocks 
 of granite have been transported from a distance, and 
 that they do not belong to disrupted mountains in the 
 vicinity, it is answered that there is a peculiarity in every 
 formation or range of rocks or mountains, by which the 
 mineralogist can readily distinguish them. Thus the cal- 
 careous rock of Gibraltar, and the iron ore of Elba, spe- 
 cimens of which every collection contains, are readily 
 distinguished even by the most common observer from all 
 other minerals. To the practised eye of a mineralogist, 
 combined with the analysis of the chemist, no difficulty 
 occurs in identifying any specimen with the rock to which 
 it belongs. 
 
 On the secondary mountains o^ jura, particularly on 
 the slopes facing the Alps, a great many loose fragments 
 of primitive rock, some of them containing a thousand 
 cubic yards, occur. These are strewed over the surface, 
 at the height of two thousand, five hundred feet above the 
 level of the lake of Geneva. They no where stand high- 
 er, or are more numerous than opposite to the largest, 
 and deepest valleys of the Alps. They have undoubtedly 
 travelled across the line of these valleys, their compose 
 tion proving clearly, the mountain ridges from which they 
 came. We may hence infer, that at the period of their 
 transfer from the Savoy Alps, the lake of Geneva did not 
 exist, otherwise they must have remained at its bottom, in- 
 stead of being found on its opposite boundary mountain. 
 Ure's Geology, p. 362. 
 
 In estimating the transporting power of water, it must 
 not be forgotten, as already noticed, that a solid, when 
 immersed in a fluid, becomes lighter by the weight of the. 
 
70 THE DELUGE. 
 
 bulk of the fluid which it displaces. Thus, if a rock be 
 twice as heavy, bulk for bulk, as water, then when im- 
 mersed in that fluid, it loses just one half its weight. A 
 man may lift a stone under water with great ease, but if 
 not aware of the above fact, he will be astonished to find 
 that he cannot, with all his might, raise it above the sur- 
 face. 
 
 There is no difficulty in conceiving that immense blocks 
 of rock may be moved by water, since the weight lost by 
 immersion, is in exact proportion to the bulk; and there- 
 fore if a little brook will move a pebble, by the same law, 
 a great flood will transport a mountain. The blocks of 
 granite found on the opposite side of the lake of Geneva, 
 were probably carried there by the action of the deluge, 
 after which the retiring- waters scooped out the lake, and 
 left both in the situation in which they are now found. 
 Many of the plains in the north of Europe, exhibit on their 
 surfaces, large blocks of granite, called boulders^ with their 
 sharp angles worn ofT, showing that they have been rolled 
 from a distance. Their surfaces never exhibit the smooth- 
 ness of sea-worn pebbles, nor do their forms shew the ef- 
 fects of long-continued friction, like rocks which are found 
 on the shores of the ocean, a proof that the catastrophe 
 which forced them from their original situations was not 
 of long continuance. Sir James Hall has even discovered 
 the traces of such movements on rocks now in their ori- 
 ginal situations in the vicinity of Edinburgh. That dis- 
 trict consists of hills and valleys, the surfaces of which are 
 strewed with the wrecks of former rocks, which have been 
 moved from their ancient positions by some mighty pow- 
 er. Channels, or furrows may be observed on the surfa- 
 ces of solid rocks, across which these have been forced. 
 The clay, covering the surfaces of these rocks, being re- 
 moved, they are found to resemble a road along which ma- 
 ny heavy bodies have been recently dragged, as if every 
 heavy fragment had made a scratch of greater or less 
 depth as it passed. These furrows are parallel to the gen- 
 eral direction in which the diluvial current passed, as shewn 
 by the forms of the hills and valleys. 
 
 That the diluvial waters reached the summits of lofty 
 mountains, is evident from the boulder 
 
 Blanc, being thrown over on the high acclivities of Mount 
 ^Tura. " Professor Buckland says, that the Alps and Car- 
 pathians, as well as every other mountainous region which 
 
THE DELUGE. 71 
 
 he has visited, bear the same evidence of having been 
 modified by the force of water, as do the hills of the lower 
 regions. 
 
 Besides the evidence which the situations of rocky 
 masses exhibit of a great flood, there are proofs of the 
 same, to be found almost every where among the hills 
 and valleys. Thus many hills have been formed by the 
 removal of the earth, which forms the valley between 
 them, circumstances proving that such valleys did not 
 always exist, but that the strata forming the two hills 
 were once continuous. 
 
 Suppose that on digging wells, on two hills separated 
 by a valley, there should be found a bed of gravel ten feet 
 thick, then a layer of clay, then a bed of chalk, &c., and 
 that these formations should correspond exactly with each 
 other, both in respect to kind, direction and thickness; 
 then the inference would be unavoidable, that these strata 
 once continued through the valley, and that both the hills 
 and valley were formed by the removal of the earth from 
 the latter, and that this must have been effected by a 
 stream of water now existing, or by a great flood. But 
 in the cases to which we refer no such streams exist, nor 
 from appearances ever did exist, there being no sources of 
 water by which they could be supplied. 
 
 No adequate cause can therefore be assigned for such 
 an effect, except it be the Noachian deluge. The adjoin- 
 ing cut shows the two hills; the correspondence of the 
 strata through each, and the wells by which they are 
 pierced. Such examples it is believed are of very com- 
 mon occurrence, and would often be observed were due 
 notice taken of the strata when digging wells on opposite 
 hills. 
 
 Immense beds of sand and water-worn pebbles are 
 found deposited in places and situations which cannot be 
 accounted for on any supposition, except that of a tempo- 
 rary and sweeping flood of waters. 
 
72 THE DELUGE. 
 
 Mr. de la Beche under the head 
 of " Erratic Block Group,'' 1 " Geolo- 
 gical Manual," p. 157, has described 
 and figured a deposition of gravel 
 which occurs at Warren Point, near 
 Dawlish, and which we copy as an 
 illustration of the subject. The fig- 
 ure is a section of the point, and is a 
 mixed example of a fault, and of 
 transported gravel upon it, b 6, con- 
 glomerates, or pudding stones, and 
 
 c c, strata of the red sandstone formation, fractured or 
 broken into faults, by the dykes//, so that continuous 
 strata are displaced as seen in the cut. Upon these frac- 
 tured strata rests a bed of gravel a a, composed of chalk, 
 flints, and green flinty sand, mixed with a few pebbles 
 similar to those in the conglomerates b b. This sand has 
 evidently been deposited since the fracture, for it rests 
 quietly upon it, and appears never to have been disturbed 
 since its deposition. The chalk arid green sand of this 
 district have once covered very considerable spaces, 
 though the latter is now seen only on Haldon Hills, near 
 this section, but separated from it by an intervening val- 
 ley. There are many other dislocations so covered on 
 the same coast, (Plymouth); where these appearances 
 can be observed with the greatest ease, especially at low 
 water. 
 
 " It might be supposed," says Mr. De La Beche, " that 
 thesse chalk flints and pieces of chert, (a flinty stone,) were 
 merely the remains of superincumbent masses of chalk 
 and green sand, which have been destroyed, by meteoric 
 agents, the harder parts falling down on the top of the 
 fracture. We can scarcely consider this physically pro- 
 bable, or even possible; for it supposes the removal of 
 more than 600 feet of sandstone and conglomerate, (for 
 not until that height above this section would the green 
 sand and chalk come on,) without scarcely leaving any of 
 the pebbles, or large masses of the red sandstone, while 
 the flints and cherts, which belonged to the upper, and 
 consequently first destroyed rocks, remain." 
 
 " Let us now consider," continues our author, " ano- 
 ther class of appearances. Over the whole of this district, 
 (Plymouth,) where transported gravel occurs, the sur- 
 face of the rocks, (it being of no importance what they 
 
THE DELUGE. 73 
 
 happen to be,) is drilled into cavities and holes, similar 
 to those well known on the chalk of the east of England. 
 The following sections will illustrate this. 
 
 a, a, gravel, principally of flint 
 and chert, resting in a hollow of 
 the red sandstone, >, b, between 
 Teignmouth and Dawlish, the 
 lines in the gravel following the 
 outline of the cavity. 
 
 a, a, in the next figure, is gra- 
 vel composed in a great mea- 
 sure of flints, among which are 
 some large rounded pieces of 
 silicious breccia, resting on ca- 
 vities in pipe-clay. 
 
 " Other examples might easily be adduced, but these are 
 here given, because the geological student can easily ob- 
 serve them. They seem to point to some general agent, 
 which in its passage over the land, has produced similar 
 effects on various rocks, forming cavities and depositing 
 fragments, transported from greater or less distances." 
 
 Mr. De La Beche further remarks, " that the form of 
 the valleys in that district are gentle and rounded, and 
 such as no complication of meteoric causes, that inge- 
 nuity can imagine, seems capable of producing; that nu- 
 merous valleys occur on the lines of the faults; and that 
 the detritus, (broken rocks,) is dispersed in a way that 
 cannot be accounted for by the present action of mere 
 atmospheric waters. I will more particularly remark," 
 says he, "that on Great Haldon Hill, about 900 feet 
 above the sea, pieces of rock which must have been de- 
 rived from levels not greater than 700 or 800 feet, and 
 even less, occur in the superficial gravel. They certainly 
 are rare, but may be discovered by diligent search. I there 
 found pieces of red sandstone, porphyry, and a compact 
 silicious rock, not uncommon in the greywacke of the 
 vicinity, where all the rocks occur at a lower level than- 
 the summit of Haldon, and where certainly they could not 
 have been carried by rains or rivers, unless the latter be 
 supposed to delight in running up hill." 
 
 In continuing this subject with respect to the lowlands 
 of Sidmouth and Lyme, Mr. De La Beche says, " it may 
 sometimes be possible, with the aid of ingenuity, to pro- 
 duce a case of transport by a long continuance of such 
 7 
 
74 THE DELUGE. 
 
 natural effects as are now seen, but in other situations, 
 such explanations seem altogether valueless, and unphilo- 
 sophical. 
 
 Not only are gravels brought from various distances, 
 but even huge blocks, the transport of which, by actual 
 causes, into their present situations seem physically im- 
 possible. Professor Buckland mentions that he found 
 among the transported gravel of Durham, twenty varieties 
 of slate and greenstone, which do not occur in places 
 nearer than the lake district of Cumberland. Professor 
 Sedgwick remarks that the boulders of Shap granite, 
 which is so peculiar as not to be confounded with any 
 other rocks in the North of England, are not only drifted 
 over the hills of Appleby, but have been scattered over 
 the plain of new red sand stones; rolled over the great 
 central chain of England into the plains of Yorkshire; 
 embedded in transported matter of the Zees; and even 
 carried to the eastern coast of the Island. Ann. of Phil. 
 1825. 
 
 Between the Thames and the Tweed, pebbles, and even 
 blocks of rock, are discovered, of such a character that 
 they have been considered, we believe, by all competent 
 judges, as having been derived from the coast of Norway, 
 where only similar rocks are known to exist. 
 
 Mr. Phillips states, that the diluvial accumulation in 
 Holderness, on the coast of Yorkshire, is composed of a 
 base of clay, containing fragments of pre-existing rocks, 
 varying in roundness and size. The rocks from which 
 the fragments appear to have been transported are found, 
 some in Norway; others in the Highlands of Scotland, 
 and in the mountains of Cumberland others, in the north 
 western and western parts of Yorkshire; and no incon- 
 siderable portion appears to have come from the sea- 
 coast of Durham, and in the neighborhood of Whitby. 
 In proportion to the distance they have travelled is the 
 degree of roundness they have acquired. Phillips 1 Illus. 
 Geol. Yorkshire. 
 
 In this country, similar phenomena almost every where 
 present themselves to the eye of the observer. Beds of 
 water- worn pebbles, such as are now found only on the 
 borders of the sea; and immense blocks of granite lying 
 in situations to which it is evident they must have been 
 transported, and where no causes now in operation, could 
 possibly have placed them, are not uncommon occur- 
 rences. 
 
THE DELUGE. 75 
 
 The whole of Long Island is either a diluvial or a ter- 
 tiary formation, and in which bones are sometimes found. 
 Near the east end of that island lies the skeleton of a whale, 
 a mile from the shore. A part of the bones are, or were, 
 a few years ago, in a good state of preservation. The 
 same formations extend to various distances from the sea, 
 along the coasts of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, 
 and the other maritime States to Alabama. Through the 
 greatest part of this immense tract, diluvian deposites, 
 with shells are found. In New Jersey, from ten to twenty 
 feet below the surface of this formation, is found a 
 greenish blue marl, containing various shells, as Ammo- 
 nites, Bellemnites, Chama, Ostrea, Terebratula, &c. 
 (These will be found figured and described towards the 
 end of this volume.) 
 
 Boulders of various sizes are seen in many places. In 
 East Lyme, Ct. near the road leading from Rope Ferry 
 to Saybrook, at a location called Keeney's hill, there is a 
 huge block of granite, weighing by estimate, nearly four 
 hundred tons. Any person, after a moment's considera- 
 tion, would conclude that this rock must have been trans- 
 ported from a distance; for its present situation is in an 
 open field, on or near the summit of a considerable hill, 
 there being no rocks of the same, or indeed of any kind on 
 the surface near it. On examining the neighborhood, 
 however, the inquirer will soon find that it came from a 
 granite hill, of small elevation, situated about two miles in 
 a north west direction, and therefore must have been mov- 
 ed towards the south east, and this is confirmed by the di- 
 rection of the hill on which the rock stands, and of the val- 
 ley below. The erratic rocks of Europe have all been 
 moved in the same direction. 
 
 Professor Hitchcock, in his report on the Geology of 
 Massachusetts, appears to have examined the diluvial de- 
 posits of that State, with much attention, and has shown 
 that the current there, was also from the north and north 
 west, towards the south east. " The conclusion," says 
 he, " to which I have been irresistibly forced by an exam- 
 ination of this stratum in Massachusetts, is that all the di- 
 luvium, which, had been previously accumulated by various 
 agencies has been modified by a powerful deluge, sweeping 
 from the north and north west, over every part of the State, 
 not excepting' the highest mountains; and that since that 
 deluge, none but alluvial agencies have been operating to 
 change the surface." 
 
76 
 
 THE DELUGE. 
 
 " The diluvium of Plymouth and Barnstable," he conti- 
 nues, " consists almost entirely of white sand, some peb- 
 bles, and a very large number of boulders of primary 
 rocks. These boulders consist chiefly of granite, sienite, 
 and gneiss, with occasional masses of greywacke conglo- 
 merate, common felspar and porphyry. They all corres- 
 pond with the rocks found in place along that coast, in the 
 vicinity of Boston and cape Ann: and no one, it appears to 
 me, can see the marks of degradation along that coast, 
 who will not be convinced that a large portion of the peb- 
 bles and boulders of Plymouth and Barnstable counties, 
 came from thence." p. 142 3. 
 
 Some of the boulders are from ten to twenty, and even 
 thirty feet in diameter, and frequently occupy nearly the 
 whole surface, so that one can hardly persuade himself, 
 when he examines them at a distance, that they are not 
 genuine ledges. 
 
 In various parts of the State, the diluvium is piled up 
 in elevations of various extent and height; leaving corres- 
 ponding depressions. Near the extremity of Cape Cod, 
 the hills and valleys thus formed, are of astonishing height 
 and depth, the elevations being sometimes 300 feet; and 
 yet these inequalities are obviously the results of currents 
 of water, since they are precisely of the same shape of 
 those seen in the dry beds of rivers. 
 
 Examples of the diluvial action, if not equalled in the 
 magnitude of its effects, are still as apparent to the observ- 
 er in almost every part of the State, 
 
 Another class of effects, from which professor Hitch- 
 cock not only concludes that a mighty current of water 
 once swept over the surface of Massachusetts, but from 
 which he also infers its direction, is the existence of 
 
THE DELUGE. 77 
 
 grooves, furrows, and scratches upon the surfaces of the 
 rocks that have never been moved from their places. 
 
 The adjoining sketch, fig. 4, exhibits a rock of this de- 
 scription, near the turnpike from Boston to Chelmsford, 
 near the line between Bedford and Billerica, and not far 
 from the sixteenth mile stone from Boston. The rock is 
 intermediate between gneiss and mica slate. Its strata 
 seams run in the direction of a a; and the grooves and 
 scratches in the direction b b. The direction of these 
 grooves is nearly north and south; and this is their gener- 
 al course in every part of the State, east of Hoosac moun- 
 tain. Commonly, however, they run a few degrees east of 
 south and west of north, 
 
 A great number of other instances are adduced, present- 
 ing similar phenomena, in different parts of the State, all 
 of which correspond with the above, in respect to the di- 
 rection of the furrows. 
 
 Mr. De La Beche, after having described the various 
 facts which exist in many parts of Britain, indicating the 
 transportation of rocks, stones and sand, comes to the fol- 
 lowing conclusions. " The probability, therefore, as far as 
 the above facts seem to warrant, is, that a body of water 
 has proceeded from north to south over the British isles, 
 moving with sufficient velocity to transport fragments of 
 rock from Norway to the Shetland isles, and the eastern 
 coast of England: the course of such a body of water hav- 
 ing been modified and obstructed among the valleys, hills, 
 and mountains, which it encountered; so that various mi- 
 nor and low currents having been produced, the distribu- 
 tion of detritus has been in various directions.'! 
 
 If the supposition of a mass of waters having passed 
 over Britain be founded on probability, the evidences of 
 such a passage, or passages should be found in the neigh- 
 boring continent of Europe, and the general direction of 
 the transported substances should be the same. Now this 
 is precisely what we do find. In Sweden and Russia, 
 large blocks of rock occur out of place, in great numbers; 
 and no doubt can be entertained, that they have been trans- 
 ported southward from the north. The same phenomena 
 are observed in Germany, the Netherlands, and indeed in 
 nearly every part of the old world, where observations 
 have been made. The lower parts of the last named 
 countries contain huge blocks of transported rock, which 
 
 7* 
 
78 THE DELUGE. 
 
 are proved by their mineralogical characters, to have been 
 derived from the northern regions. 
 
 South of Germany and the Netherlands, various obstruc- 
 tions arise in the form of mountains; and if the supposition 
 of a mass of waters be correct, it would be thrown out of 
 its original course, in various directions, and from lofty 
 mountain ranges, such as the Alps, there would be a re-ac- 
 tion, and a back wave retrograding through the valleys, 
 would leave deposites, perhaps in the form of small hills, 
 as is often seen in various parts of the world. M. Elie de 
 Beaumont has described, probably, the effects of such a 
 backward action, in an imrnense quantity of debris which 
 has been driven from the central chain of the Alps, out- 
 waras. 
 
 A question of importance now presents itself, with re- 
 spect to the general changes which were produced on the 
 surface of the earth by this moving mass of waters. Did 
 the valleys exist as they do now, when this deluge began, 
 or were they formed by its action? De Luc, Von Bush, 
 Beaumont, and several other geologists of the first class, 
 have presented the world with a detail of facts, from which 
 they all infer that the great valleys existed previously to 
 the catastrophe which tore the rocks from the Alps, and 
 scattered them on either side of that chain of mountains. 
 It is most probable that the same conclusion ought to be 
 drawn, with respect to all other great yalleys, there being 
 no good reason to believe, that they were excavated by the 
 waters which transported the rocks and sand banks above 
 described. Still as we have already noticed, there is no 
 doubt but the mass of waters which moved rocks weighing 
 hundreds of tons, often to the distance of many leagues, 
 produced great changes on the surface of this globe, and 
 that many, or perhaps most of the smaller valleys, as well 
 as the beds of rivers may be attributed to its effects. 
 
 From the facts and circumstances thus thrown togeth- 
 er, there is sufficient evidence that the earth has been de- 
 luged by a flood of water, which in its course transported 
 great masses of rock from one place to another; excavated 
 valleys, formed hills of diluvial detritus, and finally left 
 its effects on the surface of the globe, which are almost ev- 
 ery where apparent at the present day. Geologists gene- 
 rally agree that this deluge could not have takan place at 
 a very remote period of time; perhaps four or five thou- 
 sand years ago, and therefore this period corresponds suf- 
 
THE DELUGE* 79 
 
 ficiently near to that at which the Mosaic history states the 
 Noachian deluge to have happened, to convince any un- 
 prejudiced mind that the effects of water above described, 
 can only be imputed to that flood, an account of which is 
 given in the book of Genesis. 
 
 Animals destroyed by the deluge. The animals suppos- 
 ed to have been destroyed by the deluge, and whose re- 
 mains have been discovered in diluvial deposites, are the 
 following. It is not certain, however, that the destruction 
 of the whole list was contemporaneous, but the bones of 
 all are found in superficial gravels, sands or clays, which 
 believers in the Mosaic account consider as belonging to 
 the effects of the general and punitive deluge. 
 
 1. Elephas primigenius, (Blumenbach,) Primitive Ele- 
 phant. Remains found in various parts of Europe. Ve- 
 ry common in Siberia, Russia, and most northern parts of 
 Asia, where the tusks are uninjured, and are dug up and 
 sold for ivory to a great extent. It is also found in the 
 northern parts of North America. This is the mammoth 
 of the Russians. 
 
 2. Mastodon maximus 1 (Cuvier,) Great Mastodon. 
 Found in Ohio, Kentucky, New York, and other parts of 
 North America. It has tusks like the Elephant, but was a 
 larger animal. It is the mammoth of the Americans. Of 
 this animal, there are six species, differing chiefly with 
 respect to size. The M. maximus is found only in North 
 America. The other species occur in various parts of Eu- 
 rope, and in South America. 
 
 3. Hippopotamus major, (Cuvier,) Great Hippopotamus. 
 Found in various parts of England, and in Bavaria. 
 
 Hippopotamus minutus. Little Hipppopotamus. It is 
 found in France. 
 
 4. Rhinoceros. Cuvier has determined four species of 
 this animal in the fossil state, none of which belong to ei- 
 ther of the three living species. These fossil bones are 
 common in some parts of Europe, but none of them have 
 been found in America. 
 
 5. Tapirus giganteus. The bones of the gigantic Ta- 
 pir are found in many parts of France, and in Bavaria, and 
 Austria. 
 
 6. Cervus giganteus. Great Elk. Found in Ireland, 
 Silesia, banks of the Rhine, and near Paris. 
 
 7. Cervus. Several species of extinct deer are found 
 in various parts of Europe. 
 

 80 THE DELUGE. 
 
 Bos. The Ox. . The bones of the ox tribe are common 
 in several parts of Europe. 
 
 8. Hyina. The fossil remains of this animal, are also 
 common in Europe. 
 
 9. Equus. The Horse. Common in many places. 
 
 10. Megalonyx. (Jefferson,) Green Briar. Virginia. 
 Not yet found in any other place. 
 
 11. Megatherium. Buenos Ayres. 
 
 Historical proofs of the Deluge. Notwithstanding the 
 abundant proofs, which, in the opinions of most geologists r 
 the earth presents, of a general deluge, there are still some 
 respectable writers on that subject, who, giving no credit 
 to the Mosaic History, seek out other causes, to which they 
 attribute the effects generally assigned to that catastrophe. 
 
 It is a point of great importance in geology, to show 
 clearly, that this earth was once drowned by a flood of wa- 
 ters, because if this be not a truth, few facts in the natural 
 history of the earth can be depended upon, since few are 
 better established, than that there was a deluge. This be- 
 ing in relation to our subject, merely a question of science, 
 we at present claim nothing for the truth of the Mosaic his- 
 tory, as an argument in its favor. 
 
 The fact of a universal cataclysm is not only shown by 
 the appearance of the earth, but by civil history, by tradi- 
 tion, and by the condition and number of its inhabitants. 
 
 The paucity of mankind, and the vast tracts of unin- 
 habited land which are mentioned in the history of the 
 primitive ages, show that the human race at present on 
 the earth, are but of recent origin, and that they sprung 
 from a small stock ; and to this may be added that the 
 great number of petty kingdoms and states in the first 
 ages, concur to the same purpose. Hornets Introduction, 
 vol.i. p. 170. 
 
 The existing population in North America, is in itself 
 sufficient to show the recent origin of the present race of 
 man. Had the millions of people which existed before 
 the deluge, continued to increase in the same ratio that 
 the Americans have, during the last two hundred years, 
 and this without reference to immigration, is it probable 
 that any part of this earth would now remain uninhabited? 
 Were we to make an estimate of the number of inhabitants 
 which North America will contain two thousand years 
 hence, taking the last two hundred as data, where should 
 
THE DELUGE. 81 
 
 we find a vacant spot, during the existence of such count- 
 less millions; and yet the present race have continued to 
 increase, we suppose, for more than four thousand years. 
 If there was no catastrophe which destroyed the great 
 body of mankind, and had they continued to increase from 
 the creation, is there not every reason to believe, nay, is it 
 not quite certain that their numbers would have been vast- 
 ly more numerous than they actually are ? 
 
 Pretended Antiquity of some Nations. It has been 
 said, that several nations could trace their antiquity to pe- 
 riods before the historical date of the deluge. These pre- 
 tensions, when carefully examined, have been found, in 
 every instance, to be entirely groundless. 
 
 It is well known that the Hindoos claim the highest an- 
 tiquity for their nation and their learning. Sir William 
 Jones, who examined the authorities on which these high 
 claims were founded, became convinced, that such preten- 
 sions were without the least foundation in truth. " We 
 find," says that eminent scholar, " no certain monuments, 
 or even probable tradition, (among these people,) of na- 
 tions planted; empires and states raised; laws enacted; cit- 
 ies built; navigation improved; commerce encouraged; 
 arts invented; or letters contrived, above twelve, or at 
 most, fifteen or sixteen centuries before the birth of 
 Christ." Indeed, it is known from the researches of those 
 who have made the literature and antiquities of that nation 
 a subject of study, that they possess no authentic history 
 which dates anterior to the third or fourth century of our 
 era. 
 
 There is a popular opinion that the Chinese are able to 
 trace the history of their nation to a very remote antiqui- 
 ty; and yet, on examination, they do not pretend to pos- 
 sess any knowledge of their own nation, anterior to the 
 eleventh century before the Christian era, and even this is 
 probably, almost, if not entirely fabulous. 
 
 We shall notice further on this pointy that the preten- 
 sions which the Egyptians have made to the great antiqui- 
 ty of their nation, appear to have been founded on their 
 mode of reckoning time, by which a year consisted of a 
 lunar month, or thirty days, instead of 365 dajte; and that 
 the claims of the Chaldeans to profound science and re- 
 mote antiquity, are equally unfounded. According to Be- 
 rosus they knew so little of Astronomy, the oldest of the 
 
82 
 
 THE DELUGE. 
 
 sciences, as to consider the moon a luminous body, which 
 sheds its own light instead of borrowing it from the sun. 
 
 In fine, so far as examination has been made, the histo- 
 ry, the arts, the antiquities, and the languages of all na- 
 tions concur to prove the comparatively recent origin of 
 the present races of men. 
 
 Tradition proves the Mosaic account of the Deluge. 
 A tradition of the deluge, in many instances very nearly 
 coinciding with the account given of that catastrophe by 
 Moses, has been almost universally preserved among the 
 ancient nations. It is indeed a very remarkable fact con- 
 cerning that event, that the memory, or traditions of most 
 nations ends with some traces of its history, however im- 
 perfect. This is even the case with several of the nations 
 recently discovered, and before unknown to the civilized 
 world, and which therefore could not have derived this 
 tradition from the history of Moses, or from the communi- 
 cations of travellers. 
 
 Without reciting in detail the abundant proof which au- 
 thors contain on this subject, we must content ourselves 
 by adverting to a few of these traditions. 
 
 Josephus affirms that Berosus, the Chaldean historian, 
 has related the circumstances of a great deluge in which 
 all mankind perished except a few, and that Noachus, the 
 preserver of the human race, was carried in an ark to the 
 summit of an Armenian mountain. Josephus also testi- 
 fies that Hieronimus, the Egyptian historian, who wrote 
 the antiquities of the PhoBnicians, and Nicholas of Da- 
 mascus, together with other writers, in common with Be- 
 rosus, speak of this same deluge. Likewise there is a 
 fragment preserved of Abydemus, an ancient Assyrian 
 historian, in which it is said, not only that there was a 
 deluge, but that it was foretold before it happened, and 
 that birds were sent forth from the ark three different 
 times to see whether the waters had abated. This frag- 
 ment also states that the ark was driven to Armenia. It 
 is hardly necessary to observe how nearly these accounts 
 agree with that of Moses, and yet it is by no means sup- 
 posed, that they were derived from the sacred writings, 
 but from the traditions of the nations among whom these 
 historians resided. 
 
 Among the Greeks, Plato mentions the great deluge, 
 in which cities were destroyed and the useful arts lost. 
 
THE DELUGE. 83 
 
 And Diodorus affirms that there was a tradition among 
 the Egyptians, that almost all animals perished by a gen- 
 eral deluge, which happened in Deucalion's time. 
 
 Now commentators and scholars inform us, that Deu- 
 calion's flood, and that of Noah's are the same. Plutarch 
 in his account of the sagacity of animals says, that a dove 
 was sent out by Deucalion, which coming back to the ark 
 again, was a sign that the flood continued, but afterwards 
 flying away, proved that there was dry land. 
 
 Lucian mentions Deucalion's flood, and states that 
 only a remnant of the human family was saved from its 
 effects. He also says that the present race of man was 
 not the first, but that all were destroyed, except Deuca- 
 lion and his family, and that this destruction was caused 
 by the wickedness of man. 
 
 Many more examples of a similar kind are noted by 
 authors, but we shall only mention that traditions of the 
 flood, more or less mixed with fable, are retained by the 
 Hindoos, Burmans and Chinese. The tradition of the 
 latter refers not only directly to the deluge itself, but also, 
 to the cause of it, viz. the wickedness of man. Similar 
 traditions are also traced among the ancient Goths and 
 Druids, as well as among the recent Mexicans, Brazilians, 
 and Nicaraguans ; to which may be added the newly dis- 
 covered people of Western Caledonia, the Otaheitans, be- 
 fore their conversion to Christianity, and the Sandwich 
 Islanders. See Bishop Newton's works and Home's Intro- 
 duction, vol. i. 
 
 From these various facts it is manifest that the heathen 
 were not only acquainted by tradition with the fact of a 
 universal deluge, but also with many of its circumstances, 
 and that these traditions often bear a striking analogy to 
 the account given by Moses. 
 
 In closing this part of our subject, we may remark, that 
 few facts stated in history, can bring to its support so much 
 concurrent testimony, as that of a universal deluge. 
 The face of the earth almost every where records its ef- 
 fects, and often in the most eloquent and striking man- 
 ner, so that the rocks themselves are everlasting witness- 
 es against the folly of unbelievers. Profane history- 
 is not silent on this subject, but brings forward her testi- 
 mony in quantity more than sufficient to establish an or- 
 dinary fact. Tradition though blunted by fable clearly 
 testifies to the same truth. And lastly the Sacred Scrip- 
 
84 THE DELUGE, 
 
 lures, written by the express command of Divine Authori- 
 ty, have not only described in the most simple and lucid 
 terms this awful catastrophe, but have explained the reason 
 why swell a calamity was brought upon our race. 
 
 The Ark ef Noah. It has been objected against the 
 Mosaic history, with confidence, and undoubtedly often 
 with considerable effect, that it is very improbable, Noah, 
 at that period of the arts, could have constructed an ark 
 of sufficient capacity to contain specimens of all the ani- 
 mals on the earth, together tvith his own family, and such 
 a quantity of provisions as to sustain the whole for the 
 term of 150 days. But this objection will instantly vanish 
 when the dimensions of this vessel are considered. 
 
 The dimensions of Noah's ark were three hundred cubits 
 in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty in height, and con- 
 sisted of three decks, stories or floors. Reckoning the 
 cubit at a foot and a half, or eighteen inches, Dr. Hales 
 has proved that the ark was of the burthen of 42,413 tons, 
 as we compute the tonnage of ships at the present day. 
 A first rate man of war is between 2,200 and 2,300 tons, 
 and consequently the ark had a capacity of stowage equal 
 to eighteen such ships, the largest now in use. It might 
 therefore have carried 20,000 men with provisions for six 
 months, besides the weight of 1,800 cannon, and other 
 necessary equipments and military stores for such an 
 armament Can it be doubtful therefore whether this 
 vessel had sufficient capacity to contain eight persons, 
 and about 200 or 250 pairs of four footed beasts, a num- 
 ber, to which according to Buffon, all the various dis- 
 tinct species may be reduced, together with pairs of such 
 fowls, reptiles, and creeping things, as cannot live under 
 water, and provisions for the whole, even for a year.* 
 
 Was the Deluge Universal? We have stated at the 
 
 *Dr. Hale's Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. p. 328. The reader \vho 
 desires to pursue this subject, will find a good summary in Home's In- 
 troduction to the Critical study of the Scriptures, voL i. But the books 
 which treat the subject more at large and in connection with Geology,, 
 are Howard's History of the Earth and Man, 4to. Buckland's Reliquiae 
 Diluvianae. Cuvier's Theory of the Earth. Ure's New System of 
 Geology, and Penn's Comparative Estimate of the Mineral and Mosaical 
 Geologies. 
 
THE DELUGE. 85 
 
 beginning of this article that an objection had been raised 
 against the truth of the Mosaic history, on account of there 
 not being supposed a sufficient quantity of water now on 
 the earth, to cover the mountains as there represented. At 
 the epoch of the creation, the whole earth was surrounded 
 with water, otherwise there is no meaning in the com- 
 mand, " Let the waters under the heavens be gathered to- 
 gether unto one place, and let the dry land appear." If it 
 be objected that this was before the elevation of the hills 
 and mountains, and that the earth at that time was a 
 smooth ball, and therefore might be entirely covered by a 
 thin stratum of water, it requiring much less to cover a 
 smooth, than an uneven surface, still, until it can be shown 
 to what depth the earth was then covered, it cannot be 
 proved that there- was not a sufficient quantity to cover 
 the mountains as they now exist. As there have been no 
 new creations, the quantity of water now existing, is un- 
 doubtedly the same that it was when it surrounded the 
 whole earth. It is now chiefly collected into one continu- 
 ous ocean, the depth of which is in general entirely un- 
 known. Calculations, it is true, have been made, on the 
 quantity of water the oceans, seas and lakes contain, with 
 a view of estimating the aggregate amount on the earth. 
 But it is obvious, that not even an approximation to the 
 truth can be offered on this subject, until more is known 
 concerning the depths of the different oceans, than at 
 present. Besides, it is not necessary to suppose that all 
 the mountains were covered on the same day, or even 
 week, for the deluge might have swept the earth from one 
 country to another, in a manner similar to the great tides 
 of the present day. The only difficulty in the way of 
 such a hypothesis, is the length of time which the moun- 
 tains continued covered where the ark rested. But as 
 there is every reason to believe that the eastern portion 
 of the globe was the only one then inhabited, and as the 
 deluge was a punitive measure, brought on by the wick- 
 edness and violence of man, we may reasonably suppose 
 that it began first, and continued longest in the countries 
 where he dwelt. Perhaps the " windows of heaven" 
 were opened only over that devoted portion of the earth, 
 and from thence the flood swept in all directions to other 
 parts. It is certain that all parts of the earth which have 
 been examined, contain monuments of a sweeping deluge; 
 and that the mountains in various countries were covered 
 8 
 
86 
 
 THE DELUGE. 
 
 by it, is proved not only by the removal of great masses 
 rock from their places, but also by the organic remains 
 of quadrupeds and fish, found buried at great heights 
 above the sea, and under such circumstances as to show 
 that they were deposited there by water. 
 
 It is not however supposed that in every instance where 
 such remains are found far above the sea, they were de- 
 posited by the deluge, as it will be seen in another place, 
 that limestone and other strata containing shells have been 
 elevated by subterranean forces. 
 
 The universality of the deluge is sufficiently proved, 
 therefore, by the appearance of the earth, and that it cov- 
 ered the mountains, at least many of them, there is good 
 reason to believe, independently of the assertions of 
 Scripture, though the physical evidence on this point is 
 perhaps not conclusive. 
 
 Were all the animals existing in the primitive world 
 preserved in the ark? It is certain that there once existed 
 quadrupeds on the earth, which are unknown at the pre- 
 sent time, and which it is nearly as certain do not any 
 where exist. The remains of these extinct species as we 
 have already shown, are found in almost every part of the 
 world. Did these races perish at the time of the deluge, 
 or did they gradually become extinct, before or since, that 
 catastrophe? 
 
 Many fossil bones are in such a state of preservation,- as 
 to prove that their races were in existence at no very re- 
 mote period. This is especially the case in cold climates, 
 as in Siberia, where the tusks of elephants are undecayed. 
 Still, time produces the decomposition and total destruc- 
 tion of all organized substances, when exposed to the at- 
 mosphere, or buried in the ground, and among the Sibe- 
 rian bones, there are some which shew its effects much 
 more than others. These, therefore, we may suppose, 
 other circumstances being equal, are the most ancient. 
 But in general, the Siberian bones of quadrupeds, as well 
 as those found in other countries, and attributed to the 
 flood, appear to be of about the same antiquity, and be- 
 sides, these remains, or those of similar species, wherever 
 found, appear to have been buried under similar circum- 
 stances. The kind of deposite in which they are found is 
 every where similar, and apparently of the same age, and 
 hence geologists have generally come to similar conclu- 
 
THE DELUGE. 87 
 
 sions with respect to their antiquity, and the manner in 
 which the animals were destroyed. A sudden, violent, 
 and general catastrophe, appears to have destroyed these 
 ancient races, and at the same time, to have buried them 
 in its effects. The deposites in which the bones are in- 
 terred, are what geologists term diluvial, that is, belonging 
 to the deluge. This is the latest formation, with the ex- 
 ception of the alluvial, which is constantly deposited at 
 the present time. 
 
 Taking these circumstances in connection, it is thought 
 that there are sufficient reasons to conclude, that the lost 
 species of quadrupeds became totally extinct at the epoch 
 of the general deluge, the history of which is given by 
 Moses, and that they perished by the same catastrophe 
 which destroyed every individual of the human race, ex- 
 cept Noah and his family. 
 
 A comparison of the bones of the fossil species, with 
 those of present ones, show that they generally were of a 
 different species. Hence we must come to the conclusion, 
 that not all, or every species of quadrupeds existing be- 
 fore the deluge, were preserved in the ark, but that many 
 races perished by its waters. 
 
 The divine command to Noah, that he should take into 
 the ark " of every living thing, of all flesh, two of every 
 sort," must therefore be understood as a universal term, 
 with a limited signification, as is often the case in scrip- 
 ture language, and particularly with respect to the word 
 which we translate all. Thus Dr. Hammond, in his note 
 on Cor. i. 13, says that this word is not always to be ta- 
 ken in its utmost extent; " but according to the use in like 
 phrases, in all languages, wherein the universal sign, affix- 
 ed, either to persons, or times, or places, or things, signi- 
 fies only a greater number, but not all, without excep- 
 tion." 
 
 In like manner, Schleusner observes that the word all, 
 every, in scripture, is often employed indefinitely, to sig- 
 nify various of different kinds; and often, also, to denote 
 many, a great number. 
 
 In the narrative of the deluge, this word is repeatedly 
 employed in this indefinite manner. Thus, Gen. vi. 17, 
 " And behold I, even I, do bring a flood of waters npon 
 the earth, to destroy all flesh wherein is the breath of life, 
 from under heaven. 11 And in another verse, " for all flesh 
 had corrupted his way upon the earth." Now it does not 
 
VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 appear that it was the intention of the Almighty, literally 
 to destroy all flesh, since Noah and his family, together 
 with the animals which he took into the ark, were saved: 
 nor does it appear that every individnal had corrupted his 
 way, for " Noah found grace in the eyes of the Lord." 
 
 Precisely similar language is used with respect to the 
 animals to be taken into the ark. Thus, verse 19, " And 
 every living thing, of all flesh, two of every sort shalt thou 
 bring into the ark." Now no one will contend that the 
 fish of the sea were intended to be included in this, com- 
 mand, and yet the terms employed " every living thing," 
 would include these, equally with terrestrial animals. 
 
 The terms of the Mosaic history, therefore, give us lib- 
 erty to conclude, that all the antediluvian species, without 
 exception, were not admitted into the ark; and conse- 
 quently we may consider the extinct species, whose bones 
 are found in the earth, as exceptions to the general terms 
 of the divine command, without the least violation of the 
 intended meaning of the sacred scriptures. 
 
 The more ancient bones, or those of the same species 
 which are more decayed than others, we may suppose be- 
 longed to animals which died natural deaths, before the 
 time of the catastrophe which destroyed the remainder of 
 the race; while those in a similar state of preservation, and 
 found under similar circumstances, may be considered as 
 having belonged to animals which perished by the same 
 catastrophe. 
 
 VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 Having, in the preceding pages, given such a history 
 of the changes produced by water, as our limits would 
 allow, we now come to those which have been produced 
 by fire, as the great cause of volcanic phenomena, the 
 most tremendous and startling exhibitions, of which the 
 experience of man can conceive. 
 
 The effects of water, in changing the form of the earth, 
 we have seen, are, with a few exceptions, gradual, and 
 sometimes so slow, as even to require centuries to pro- 
 duce any considerable results. The changes produced by 
 earthquakes, on the contrary, are often as sudden as 
 they are calamitous and fearful, sometimes in a single 
 
VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. 89 
 
 hour, or even in a moment, not only reducing to frag- 
 ments the most solid and costly monuments of man, but 
 also mutilating the face of the earth itself tearing down 
 mountains elevating islands in the depths of the ocean, 
 or burying whole territories under inundations of liquid 
 fire. 
 
 Geography of Volcanoes. It is a striking circumstance, 
 in the history of volcanoes and earthquakes, that these 
 awful exhibitions of nature have hitherto been almost en- 
 tirely confined to certain regions of country. At present 
 the Andes of South America are among the best defined 
 of these regions. Beginning with Chili, in the 46 of south 
 latitude, and proceeding north to the 27 of the same la- 
 titude, we shall find a line of volcanoes so uninterrupted, 
 that hardly a degree is passed without the occurrence of 
 one of these agents in an active state. About twenty are 
 enumerated within that space, and there is no doubt but 
 many more exist, some of which are dormant, and per- 
 haps some have become extinct. How long an interval 
 of rest entitles a volcano to be considered as extinct is not 
 determined. Those which have always been inactive 
 since the era of history, may perhaps be so considered. 
 The volcano of Ischia, in Italy, was silent for a term of 
 1700 years, after which it again commenced a series of 
 eruptions. 
 
 The volcanoes of Chili have their chimneys pierced 
 through mountains of granite, thus exhibiting the effects 
 of a degree of force, of which man, without the existence 
 of such phenomena, could have no where gained the least 
 conception. Villarcia is one of the principal volcanoes of 
 this district. It is so elevated as to be visible at the dis- 
 tance of 150 miles, and burns without intermission. Every 
 year the inhabitants of this province experience shocks of 
 earthquakes. In 1822, the whole coast of Chili, to the 
 extent of 100 miles, was elevated several feet by a sub- 
 terranean convulsion, of which we shall give an account 
 hereafter. 
 
 Proceeding to the north, where the Andes attain their 
 greatest elevation, we find in the province of Quito, G0- 
 topaxi, Antisana, and Pichinca, all of them in an active 
 state, and frequently emitting flames. Tunguragua, is 
 also in the same district. This mountain, in 1797, threw 
 out a deluge of mud, which filled valleys a thousand feet 
 8* 
 
VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 wide, and six hundred deep, forming barriers by which 
 rivers were dammed up and lakes formed. North of Quito, 
 in the provinces of Pasto and Popyan, occur six other 
 volcanoes; and in the provinces of Guatimala and Nica- 
 ragua, which lie between the isthmus of Panama and 
 Mexico, there are no less than twenty-three volcanic 
 mountains, all of them situated between the 10 and 15 
 of north latitude, some of which are constantly in an ac- 
 tive state. 
 
 This great volcanic chain, after being thus extended 
 from south to north, nearly in a direct line, is continued 
 through a great part of Mexico, from west to east. Here 
 are five active volcanoes, known by the several names of 
 Tuxtla, Oribaza, Popocatepetl, Jorullo and Colima. Still 
 north of Mexico, in the peninsula of California, there are 
 at least three, and according to some, five burning moun- 
 tains. 
 
 Thus we see that this volcanic chain extends nearly in 
 an uninterrupted course from Chili to the north of Mexico, 
 a distance of nearly 4000 miles. 
 
 Another continuous volcanic range, of nearly equal 
 extent, begins at the Aleutian Islands, belonging to Rus- 
 sian America, and by a circuitous route, passes to the 
 Molucca Islands. Through this whole extent, earthquakes 
 of the most terrific description are common. 
 
 But our limits will not permit the enumerrtion of all the 
 volcanic tracts described by authors. Besides those al- 
 ready mentioned, Kamtschatka has seven burning moun- 
 tains; the island of Java contains thirty-eight great vol- 
 canoes; the Molucca Islands contain several, and among 
 them that of Sumbawa, which, in 1815, suffered one of 
 the most tremendous eruptions recorded in history. The 
 Islands of Jesso and Niphon, and Sumatra, contain more 
 or less volcanoes; and from the Caspian sea, to the 
 Azores is a volcanic range. Of Sicily and Italy, it is 
 hardly necessary to speak in this enumeration, since the 
 descriptions of Etna and Vesuvius; of Herculaneum and 
 Pompeii, are well known, and are sufficient to indicate the 
 volcanic disposition of that part of Europe. The West 
 India Islands have occasionally suffered great calamities 
 from this cause; and Iceland contains many burning 
 mountains, among which is Skaptar Jokul, which in 1783, 
 suffered an extraordinary eruption, which we shall de- 
 scribe. 
 
VOLCANIC ERUPTION*, OT 
 
 The whole number of volcanoes known is about 200. 
 See Von Hoff*s Geology, vol. ii, and LyeWs Geology, voL 
 i. Article " Geography of Volcanic Regions" 
 
 General Characters and Geological Connections of Vol- 
 canoes. The forms of volcanic mountains are generally 
 so peculiar as to be distinguished from all others. They 
 are commonly of considerable height, and sometimes very 
 lofty. When solitary they are of a conical form, and 
 more or less truncated, that is, bearing the appearance of 
 having been cut off' at the top. "When active, or but re- 
 cently extinguished, the truncation has within it a cavity 
 of greater or less size, called the crater. . 
 
 The accurate form of a perfect crater is an inverted co- 
 noid, and on Cotopaxi and Teneriffe, they are surrounded 
 by walls of lava, but most commonly this part is composed 
 of ashes which have fallen down during eruptions. The 
 size of the crater does not necessarily bear any propor- 
 tion to that of the mountain. In some mountains both 
 the size and shape varies with every eruption. 
 
 Proximity of Volcanoes to the Sea. In nearly all in- 
 stances, volcanoes are seated near the sea, or in the vi- 
 cinity of a large body of water, and it was formerly 
 thought that proximity to the water, was absolutely ne- 
 cessary to their action; nor is it certain that this is not 
 the case. The only exception to this general fact, is Jo- 
 rullo, one of the burning mountains of the Andes, which 
 is situated more than a hundred miles from the ocean, nor 
 does it appear that any considerable body of water is near 
 it. It has, however, been suggested, from some circum- 
 stances observed with respect to this mountain, that it 
 may possibly communicate with the sea by a deep fissure. 
 
 In many instances, volcanoes have thrown out mud or 
 water, instead of lava, and ashes; and in some instances, 
 fish of various kinds have been found in the water thus 
 emitted, though no previous suspicion had existed, of a 
 communication between the mountain and the sea. 
 
 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. 
 
 The action of most volcanoes is periodical, or inter- 
 mitting, though this is not the case with all. Vesuvius 
 
92 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS, 
 
 and JEtna are sometimes dormant for a series of years, 
 but Stromboli, in the vicinity of the former, has been con- 
 stantly burning, ever since two hundred and ninety-two 
 years before the Christian era, being upwards of two 
 thousand years. Jorullo has continued to emit flames 
 ever since 1759, at which time it was elevated from the 
 plain on which it stands. But Vulcano suffered no erup- 
 tion for eleven centuries, and we have already noticed that 
 Ischia lay dormant for seventeen hundred years. 
 
 The appearances which attend volcanic eruptions, are 
 various. In some instances, flames issue suddenly and 
 silently from the cone, affording only splendid picturesque 
 phenomena. But in others, the scene is the most terrific 
 and appalling of which the imagination can conceive. For 
 these descriptions we must, however, refer to particular 
 eruptions, an account of which will follow. 
 
 The eruptions of Vesuvius and JEtna, these mountains 
 being in the midst of a highly cultivated people, are best 
 described. Indeed, from the time of Pliny, to the present 
 day, these have been the subjects of interesting and learn- 
 ed dissertations. 
 
 In general the first appearance of an eruption consists 
 in a column of smoke rising to a great height, and then 
 spreading out in the form which Pliny compared to that 
 of a pine tree. This is followed by explosions from the 
 craters; by trembling of the earth, or perhaps by its alter- 
 nate rising and falling; the whole being attended by a 
 rumbling, subterranean sound, forming both an eruption 
 and an earthquake. Flame is then seen to issue from the 
 cone, attended by red hot stones, often thrown to the 
 height of several hundred feet, producing in the night, 
 those brilliant and terrific phenomena, so often described. 
 During the emission of the black smoke, and before the- 
 flame issues, there are often the most vivid flashes of 
 lightning, which add greatly to the splendor of the scene. 
 After these phenomena have existed for a longer or a 
 shorter time, the melted lava, rising to the edge of the cra- 
 ter, flows over it, and runs down the side of the mountain 
 into the plain below. This is in the form of a torrent of 
 liquid fire, often narrow, but sometimes many miles in 
 width. It sometimes proceeds rapidly, but more often 
 slowly, the last portions of lava passing over the first, in 
 small cascades. Sometimes, or from some mountains, 
 there is much smoke, and but little lava; while from oth- 
 
PARTICULAR ERUPTIONS. 93 
 
 ers, or at other times, the crater vomits rivers of melted 
 matter, without smoke or flame. 
 
 The eruption of lava is often followed by showers of 
 ashes, which consist of finely divided particles of lava, 
 and which are often wafted by the wind, to the distance of 
 several hundred miles. 
 
 The quantity of matter ejected by some volcanoes, is 
 astonishingly great. Brieslak, an Italian geologist, calcu- 
 lated that the quantity of lava which flowed from a volca- 
 no in the island of Bourbon, in 1796, amounted to 45,- 
 000,000 of cubic feet; and that the quantity from the same, 
 in 1797, was 60,000,000 of cubic feet; and during one 
 eruption from a mountain in Iceland, the lava flowed 
 about ninety miles, having a width of at least twenty miles, 
 and in some places, a depth of several hundred feet. 
 
 PARTICULAR ERUPTIONS. 
 
 We shall describe a few volcanic eruptions, selecting 
 only those which have been the subjects of peculiar, or 
 scientific interest, or which have produced extraordinary 
 effects, either with respect to the destruction they have 
 caused, or the quantity of lava they have ejected. 
 
 Eruptions of Vesuvius. The most ancient eruption of 
 this Italian mountain, of which there is any particular de- 
 scription, was in A. D. 79, at which time, the cities of Her- 
 culaneum and Pompeii were destroyed. It does not ap- 
 pear that any lava, or melted matter was emitted at this 
 eruption; the ejected substances being sand, ashes and 
 mud. But it is certain that this mountain had previously 
 emitted lava, since the streets of these cities are paved 
 with this substance. The first stream of lava, of which 
 there is any account, was in 1036, being the sixth or sev- 
 enth eruption on record. From this period, all the erup- 
 tions which have taken place, are recorded, and many of 
 them described by scientific men, and at great length. 
 
 Some of them produced considerable changes, not only 
 in the form and appearance of the mountain itself, but also 
 of the country in the vicinity. That of 1538, elevated 
 the land along the coast of Naples many feet, destroyed 
 many villages, and produced Monte Nuovo, which is still 
 
94 PARTICULAR ERUPTIONS. 
 
 440 feet in height. A description and figure of this 
 mountain will be given hereafter. 
 
 From about the end of the 18th century to 1822, the 
 great crater of Vesuvius had been filling up gradually, 
 with lava which boiled up from below, so that the bottom 
 of the cavity presented a kind of rocky plain covered with 
 blocks, crags, and hillocks of volcanic matter. But dur- 
 ing the latter year, in the month of October, the form and 
 appearance of the ancient crater was entirely changed. 
 The explosions at that time were so violent during twenty 
 days, as to break up, and throw out the whole of that ac- 
 cumulated mass, leaving an immense gulf, or chasm about 
 three miles in circumference, and in some parts 2000 feet 
 deep. At the same time about 800 feet in height, of the 
 original cone or top of the ancient crater, was carried 
 away by the explosions, so that Vesuvius became reduced 
 in height from about 4200 to 3400 feet. Forbes in Ed. 
 Journal and Scrope in Jour, of Science. 
 
 In ascending this mountain, its sloping sides are found 
 to be covered with loose materials intermixed with each 
 other without the slightest order, and just as they fell from 
 the crater. But on arriving at the crater itself, the be- 
 holder is surprised to find that every thing is there ar- 
 ranged in the most perfect symmetry, and that the materi- 
 als are disposed in regular undulating strata. These con- 
 sist of alternate layers, composed of lava, sand, ashes, and 
 scoria, lying in distinct beds, and alternating with each 
 other. These have resulted from the different colors, and 
 coarseness of these materials, and which severally remain 
 in the same situation and succession as they fell from the 
 air during the different eruptions. 
 
 In some parts of the crater, are seen dykes, or veins 
 of more compact matter intersecting the above described 
 strata. These are on the outside of the cone, and being 
 harder than the volcanic matter through which they have 
 passed, they have resisted decomposition, and therefore 
 project above the surface. 
 
 These have undoubtedly been formed by the filling up 
 of open fissures with liquid matter forced up from below. 
 At what period they were formed is unknown, but if such 
 fissures are formed by the cooling, and consequent shrink- 
 ing of the crater, after an eruption, it is probable that at 
 the next eruption, these are filled with the fused matter, 
 
PARTICULAR ERUPTIONS. 
 
 95 
 
 so that some of these veins may be formed at every 
 eruption. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 In the adjoining diagram, fig. 5, from Lyell's Geology, 
 these veins or dykes, are represented, as also is the cone 
 and crater of Vesuvius, and a part of the ancient Somma, 
 as they appeared in 1828. er, Mount Somma, or the re- 
 mains of the ancient cone of Vesuvius; b, the Pedamentina, 
 a terrace-like projection, enclosing the base of the recent 
 cone of Vesuvius on the south side; c, Atrio del Cavallo, 
 so called because travellers leave their mules there, when 
 they prepare to ascend to the cone, on foot; d, e, the crater 
 of Vesuvius left by the eruption of 1822; /, a small cone 
 in the bottom of the crater, thrown up in 1828. In the 
 bottoms of many craters there are several of these small 
 cones, which are constantly emitting steam, or smoke, 
 and sometimes throw up lava; g g, dykes intersecting the 
 ancient strata of Somma; h h, dykes intersecting the re- 
 cent cone of Vesuvius. 
 
 Immense volumes of steam, or aqueous vapor, are 
 evolved from the craters of volcanoes, during eruptions. 
 These vapors, being condensed by the surrounding at- 
 mosphere often fall down in torrents of rain. The rain 
 precipitates the volcanic dust from the air, and sweeps 
 that along which had fallen on the declivity of the moun- 
 tain, until a torrent of mud is produced. Such torrents 
 are as much to be dreaded as the inundations of mud 
 which are sometimes thrown from the volcano, and with 
 the exception of the heat, are more disastrous than burn- 
 ing lava, being much more rapid in their descent In 
 1822, one of these mud streams descended from Vesuvius, 
 and after destroying a district of cultivated ground, sud- 
 
 
W PARTICULAR ERUPTIONS. 
 
 denly flowed into the villages of St. Sebastian, and Massa, 
 where filling the streets, and some of the houses, it suf- 
 focated seven persons. 
 
 Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. These cities 
 were overwhelmed, and destroyed in the year A. D. 79, 
 and most probably either by an alluvion of mud, such as 
 we have just described, or by an emission of the same 
 kind of matter from the mouth of the volcano. 
 
 It has been supposed, that it was by an eruption of lava 
 that these cities were destroyed; but Lippi, an Italian wri- 
 ter, has shown that many facts presented by their ruins 
 are incompatible with this opinion. Thus the casts, or 
 impressions of persons which still remain, especially of a 
 woman, found in a vault at Pompeii, cannot be accounted 
 for on the supposition of flowing melted lava, nor of fall- 
 ing volcanic ashes, for the first would have utterly destroy- 
 ed the form of the body, and the second could not have 
 reached through the roofs of the buildings. 
 
 " There is decisive evidence," says Mr. Lyell, " that 
 no stream of lava ever reached Pompeii since it was first 
 built, although the foundations of the town stand upon the 
 old lava of Mount Somma, several streams of which have 
 been cut through in making excavations. At Hercula- 
 neum, the case is different, although the substance which 
 fills the interior of the houses and vaults, must have been 
 introduced in a state of mud, like that found in similar 
 situations in Pompeii : the superincumbent strata differ 
 wholly in composition and thickness. Herculaneum was 
 situated several miles nearer to the volcano, and has, 
 therefore, been always more exposed to be covered, not 
 only by showers of ashes, but by alluvions, and streams 
 of lava. Accordingly, masses of both have accumulated 
 on each other above the city, to a depth of no where less 
 than seventy, and in some places 112 feet. The tuff or 
 mud, which envelopes the buildings, consists of comminu- 
 ted volcanic sand mixed with pumice. A mask imbedded 
 in this matter has left a cast, the small lines and angles of 
 which are quite perfect, nor did the mask present the least 
 indication of heat." 
 
 These cities were both sea ports, and Herculaneum is 
 still near the shore, but Pompeii is at some distance from 
 it, the intervening land -having been made, at various 
 times, by volcanic matter. 
 
PARTICULAR ERUPTIONS. 97 
 
 Herculaneum was discovered 1713, by the accidental 
 circumstance of a well being dug, which came directly 
 upon the theatre, where the statues of Hercules and Cleo- 
 patra were found. These cities are mentioned by ancient 
 authors, as being among the seven flourishing towns of 
 Campania; they were originally settled by Greek colo- 
 nies. 
 
 Both at Herculaneum and Pompeii, temples have been 
 found with inscriptions, commemorating the event of their 
 rebuilding after having been overthrown by an earthquake. 
 This earthquake happened in the reign of Nero, sixty- 
 three years after the Christian era, and sixteen years be- 
 fore the catastrophe by which they were finally destroyed. 
 
 It is supposed that about/me-fourth of Pompeii is un- 
 covered, presenting streets, walls, temples, houses, and 
 monuments of art, many of them in the same condition 
 as they were nearly 2000 years ago. Being covered with 
 a deluge of mud, even the paintings have been preserved, 
 and the wood remains in a perfect state. In some in- 
 stances the walls of the buildings are rent, probably by 
 the earthquake which happened before the fatal eruption, 
 but the edifices chiefly remain entire. 
 
 Circumstances of great interest and curiosity are every 
 where indicated among these ruins. Columns have been 
 found lying upon the ground half finished, showing that 
 the workmen were driven from their labors; and the tem- 
 ple for which they were designed, remains unfinished. In 
 some places the pavement in the streets has sunk down, 
 but, in general, it remains entire, consisting of great flags 
 of lava, in which two immense ruts have been worn by 
 the constant passage of wheel carriages. When the 
 hardness of this stone is considered, the continuity of 
 these ruts, from one end of the town to the other, is not 
 a little remarkable, for there is nothing like it in the oldest 
 pavements of modern cities. 
 
 Only a very small number of skeletons have been 
 found in either city, and it is therefore certain, that most 
 of the inhabitants had time to escape, and also to take 
 with them most of their valuable effects. In the barracks 
 of Pompeii, were the skeletons of two soldiers chained to 
 the stocks; and, in the vault of a house, in the suburbs, 
 were the bones of seventeen persons, who appear to have 
 fled there to escape the shower of ashes. They were 
 found enclosed in indurated tuff or mud, which flowed 
 9 
 
98 ERUPTIONS OF ETNA. 
 
 from the mountain. In this was preserved the cast of a 
 woman, perhaps the mistress of the house, with an infant 
 in her arms. Though her form was impressed in the 
 rock, nothing but her bones remained. To these bones 
 a chain of gold was suspended around the neck, and 
 rings, with precious stones, were found on the finger 
 bones of the skeleton. 
 
 The writings scribbled by the soldiers, on the walls of 
 the barracks are still visible; and the names of the 
 owners, over the doors of their houses are often easily 
 read. 
 
 The colors of fresco paintings on the stuccoed walls, 
 in the interior of the buildings, are frequently almost as 
 vivid as if they were just finished. Some of the public 
 fountains have their pavements decorated with shells, 
 laid out in patterns, still retaining, in all respects, their 
 original condition; and, in the room of a painter, who 
 was, perhaps, also a naturalist, was found a large collec- 
 tion of shells, comprising a great variety of the Mediter- 
 ranean species. These were in as good a state of preser- 
 vation, as if they had remained the same number of years 
 in a museum. 
 
 The wooden beams of the houses at Herculaneum are 
 black on the exterior, but when cleft open, they appear 
 to be nearly in the state of ordinary wood, and the pro- 
 gress made by the whole mass towards the state of lignite, 
 [mineralized wood,] is hardly appreciable. Even small 
 substances, of vegetable origin, are often found in a state 
 of entire vegetation. Fishing nets are abundant in both 
 cities, and often quite perfect; and in a fruiterer's shop 
 were found vessels lull of almonds, chesnuts, and wal- 
 nuts, all in perfect shape. And what is still more extra- 
 ordinary, in a baker's shop was discovered bread, with 
 the name of the maker stamped upon the loaf, thus, 
 Eleris Q. Crani Riser. On the counter of an apothecary 
 was a box of pills, converted into a fine earthy substance, 
 and, by its side, a small cylindrical roll, evidently pre- 
 pared to be cut into pills. Lyell's Geol. vol. i, p. 350 
 360. Forbes' Ed. Journal, Jan. 1829. 
 
 Eruptions of Etna. Etna appears to have been peri- 
 odically active from the earliest times of history, for 
 Diodorus Siculus mentions an eruption of it, which caused 
 a district of country to be deserted by its inhabitants be- 
 
" .':; *'-. ' :<* 
 
 ERUPTIONS OF ETNA. 99 
 
 fore the Trojan war; and Thucydides informs us that be- 
 tween the time when Sicily was colonized by the Greeks, 
 and the commencement of the Peloponesian war, that is 
 in 431 B. C., there had occurred three eruptions of this 
 mountain. 
 
 But notwithstanding notices of this mountain were re- 
 corded thus early, the first eruption which has been par- 
 ticularly described, was the great one of 1669. An earth- 
 quake previous to this eruption, had levelled many of the 
 villages and towns in the neighborhood, and at the com- 
 mencement of which, an extraordinary phenomenon 
 happened in the plain of St. Lio; Here a fissure, six feet 
 wide, and of an unknown depth, opened in the ground, 
 with a loud, terrific, crashing noise, and ran in a tortuous 
 course nearly to the top of Etna. Its direction was from 
 north to south, and its length twelve miles. This fissure, 
 as it opened, emitted vivid flashes of light. Five other 
 parallel fissures of considerable length, afterwards open- 
 ed, one after the other, emitting smoke, and giving out 
 the most horrid bellowings, which were heard to the dis- 
 tance of forty miles. 
 
 This case may, perhaps, explain the manner in which 
 the dykes were formed in the cone of Vesuvius, already 
 described and figured, for the light emitted by these 
 fissures, would seem to indicate, at least in some instances, 
 that they were to a certain height filled with glowing lava. 
 
 The lava, during this eruption, having overwhelmed 
 and destroyed fourteen towns, some of them containing 
 three or four thousand inhabitants, at length arrived at 
 the walls of Catania, a populous city, situated ten miles 
 from the volcano. These walls had been raised sixty feet 
 high, towards the mountain, in order to protect the city, 
 in case of an eruption. But the burning flood accumulat- 
 ed against the wall so as to fill all the space around and 
 below that part, and finally poured over it in a fiery 
 cataract, destroying every thing in that vicinity. 
 
 From Catania the lava continued its course until it 
 reached the sea, a distance of fifteen miles from its source, 
 in a current about 1800 feet broad, and forty feet deep. 
 While moving on, its surface was, in general, a mass of 
 solid rock, or cooled lava, and it advanced by the pro- 
 trusion of the melted matter, through this hardened crust. 
 
 As an illustration of the intense heat of volcanic mat- 
 ter, the Canon Recupero relates, that in 1766, he ascend- 
 
100 VOLCANOES IN ICELAND. 
 
 ed a small hill, composed of ancient volcanic matter, in 
 order to observe the slow and gradual manner in which 
 a current of liquid fire advanced from Etna. This cur- 
 rent was two and a half miles broad; and, while he stood 
 observing it, two small threads of lava, issuing from a 
 crevice, detached themselves from the main stream, and 
 approached rapidly towards the eminence where he and 
 his guide were standing. They had only just time to 
 escape, when they saw the hill on which they had stood a 
 few minutes before, and which was fifty feet high, entire- 
 ly surrounded, and, in about fifteen minutes, entirely 
 melted down into the burning mass, so as to be incorpo- 
 rated with, and move on along with it. 
 
 Discovery of Ice on Mount Etna. A remarkable dis- 
 covery of a great mass of ice on Mount Etna was made 
 in 1828. In that year, in consequence of the protracted 
 heat of the season, the supplies of ice at Catania and the 
 adjoining parts of Sicily, failed entirely, and the people 
 suffered considerably for the want of an article, considered 
 as necessary to health as well as comfort in that hot 
 climate. 
 
 In this dilemma, the magistrates of Catania directed 
 search to be made for some crevice or natural grotto, on 
 Mount Etna, where drift snow might possibly still be 
 preserved. During this search it was discovered that near 
 the base of the highest cone there lay a vast mass of ice, 
 covered by a lava current. At what period this current 
 was emitted is unknown, nor can it be conjectured what 
 proportion of the ice was melted by the burning matter, 
 but it appears that nothing but the flowing of the lava over 
 this glacier, can account for its preservation. 
 
 A large number o workmen were immediately em- 
 ployed to quarry this ice for the use of the Catanians; 
 but, it is said, that its hardness rendered the expense of 
 obtaining it so great, that there is no probability of a simi- 
 lar undertaking, unless under similar circumstances. 
 
 VOLCANOES IN ICELAND. 
 
 Iceland is both a volcanic country, and a country of vol- 
 canoes. A considerable proportion of its surface is cov- 
 
VOLCANOES IN ICELAND^ 101 
 
 ered with ancient or modern lava, and it is now subject to 
 the most terrible calamities from this source. 
 
 With the exception of Etna and Vesuvius, the most 
 complete chronological records of volcanic eruptions are 
 those of Iceland. From these it is ascertained, that from 
 the 12th century, there has never been an interval of 
 more than 40 years, and rarely more than twenty, without 
 eruptions and earthquakes in some part of that country. 
 Single eruptions of Mount Hecla have sometimes contin- 
 ued for six years. In many instances the whole island 
 has been convulsed by earthquakes, during which moun- 
 tains were rent asunder, hills sunk down, and rivers have 
 deserted their former channels. 
 
 Eruption of Skaptar Jokul. In 1783, this volcanic 
 mountain suffered one of the most extraordinary erup- 
 tions recorded in history, both with respect to the quantity 
 of lava it threw out, and the calamities it occasioned. 
 
 The river Skapta, a considerable stream, was for a time, 
 completely dried, by a torrent of liquid fire from this 
 mountain. This river was about 200 feet broad, and its 
 banks from four to six hundred above the level of the 
 water. This defile was not only entirely filled to a con- 
 siderable extent by the lava, but it also crossed the river 
 by the dam thus formed, and overflowed the country be- 
 yond, where it filled a lake of considerable extent, and 
 great depth. 
 
 This eruption commenced on the llth of June, and on 
 the 18th of the same month, a still greater quantity of lava 
 rushed from the mouth of the volcano, and flowed with 
 amazing rapidity, sometimes over the first stream, but 
 generally in a new course. The melted matter having 
 crossed some of the tributary streams of the Skapta, com- 
 pletely dammed up their waters, and caused great destruc* 
 tion of property and lives by their overflow. The lava, 
 after flowing for several days, was precipitated down a 
 tremendous cataract, called Stapafoss, where it filled a 
 profound abyss, which that great water-fall had been exca- 
 vating for ages, and thence the fiery flood continued its 
 course. 
 
 On the third of August, a new eruption poured forth 
 fresh floods of lava, which taking a different direction 
 from the others, filled the bed of another river, by which 
 
 9* 
 
102 VOLCANOES IN ICELAND. 
 
 a large lake was formed, and much property and many 
 lives destroyed. 
 
 The effects of this dreadful calamity may in some meas- 
 ure be imagined, when it is known, that although Iceland 
 did not, at that time, contain more than fifty thousand in- 
 habitants, there perished nine thousand human beings by 
 this single eruption, making nearly one in five of the 
 whole population. Part of them were destroyed by the 
 burning lava itself, some by drowning, others by noxious 
 vapors which the lava emitted, and others in consequence 
 of the famine, caused by the showers of ashes which cov- 
 ered a great proportion of the island, and destroyed the 
 vegetation. The fish also, on which the inhabitants de- 
 pended, in a great measure for food, entirely deserted 
 the coast. 
 
 The quantity of lava which Skaptar Jokul emitted 
 during this eruption, was greater than is recorded of any 
 other volcano. The two principal branches or streams 
 of lava, flowed chiefly in different directions. The length 
 of the smallest was forty miles, and of the other fifty miles. 
 The breadth of that branch which filled the Skapta, was 
 from twelve to fifteen miles, and the other about seven 
 miles. The ordinary depth of each was about 100 feet, 
 but in narrow defiles it was more than 600 feet deep, and 
 in many places from 200 to 300. 
 
 Allowing that the united breadth of this vast lava stream, 
 was 20 miles, and the whole length 90 miles, then this 
 mountain, at a single eruption, threw out a quantity of 
 lava which covered a surface of 1800 square miles, an 
 area equal to the fourth part of the State of Connecticut, 
 and nearly one half the size of Rhode Island. 
 
 When it is considered that the depth of the whole might 
 average 150 feet, we may go into calculations concerning 
 the quantity of matter thrown out, but we can have no 
 conception of the force required to elevate such a stream 
 of melted rock through the crust of the earth. 
 
 Eruption of Jorullo, in 1759. Jorullo is situated in the 
 interior of Mexico, about 100 miles from the nearest sea. 
 This mountain, as already stated, affords the only known 
 instance of a volcano, at a distance from some ocean. It 
 also affords an instance of the production of a new vOl- 
 canic mountain, within the memory of man. 
 
VOLCANO OF SUMBAWA. 103 
 
 In June, 1759, subterranean sounds of an alarming kind 
 were heard by the inhabitants of this district, and these 
 were followed by earthquakes, which succeeded each 
 other for two months. In the month of September, flames 
 were seen to issue from fissures in the ground, and from 
 the same place, red hot rocks were thrown to an immense 
 height. Soon after, six volcanic cones were formed of 
 lava and the fragments of rock, thrown up from the earth, 
 in the same neighborhood. The least of these was three 
 hundred feet in height. In the midst of these cones, rose 
 Jorullo, which was formed in the same manner, and soon 
 rose to the height of 1600 feet by the accumulation of lava 
 and fragments of rock. The small cones ceasing their 
 action, Jorullo became the great outlet of volcanic matter, 
 and continued to emit lava and large fragments of primi- 
 tive rock, for many months. Jorullo has continued to 
 emit flames ever since its formation. 
 
 Volcano of Sumbawa. Sumbawa is one of the Molucca 
 Islands; and the mountain from which occurred, on 
 some accounts, the most extraordinary volcanic eruption 
 of which any accounts have been recorded, is called 
 Tomboro. 
 
 This eruption commenced on the 5th of April, 1815, but 
 was most terrific on the llth and 12th of that month, nor 
 did it cease entirely, until sometime in the following July. 
 The explosions so much resembled the firing of heavy can- 
 non at a distance, that the people of many vessels at sea, 
 supposed there was a great naval engagement within hear- 
 ing, but could not imagine what nations were engaged. 
 
 The commanders of some ships, and of several English 
 forts, gave orders to prepare for battle, though they were 
 several hundred miles distant from the mountain. At Su- 
 matra, these tremendous explosions were distinctly heard, 
 though not nearer than 900 miles from Tomboro. They 
 were also heard at Ternate, in the opposite direction from 
 Sumatra, at the distance of 720 miles from the mountain. 
 
 So immense in quantity, was the fall of ashes, that at 
 Bima, forty miles from the mountain, the roof of the Eng- 
 lish Resident's house was crushed by the weight, and many 
 other houses in the same town were rendered uninhabita- 
 ble from the same cause. At Java, 300 miles distant, the 
 air was so full of ashes, that from this cause, at mid day, 
 it is said the darkness was so profound, that nothing like 
 
104 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 it had ever before been experienced, during the most 
 stormy night. 
 
 Along the coast of Sumbawa, the sea was covered with 
 floating lava, intermixed with trees and timber, so that it 
 was difficult for vessels to sail through the mass. Some 
 captains, though at a long distance at sea, mistook this 
 mass for land, and sent out their boats in order to ascertain 
 the safety of their situations. The sea, on this and the 
 neighboring coasts, rose suddenly to the height of twelve 
 feet, in the form of immense waves, and as they retired, 
 swept away trees, timber, and houses with their inhabi- 
 tants. All the vessels lying near the shore, were torn from 
 their anchorings, and cast upon the land. Violent whirl- 
 winds carried into the air men, horses, cattle, trees, and 
 whatever else was in the vicinity of the mountain. Large 
 trees were torn up by the roots, and carried into the sea. 
 But the most calamitous part of the account still remains; 
 for such were the tremendous effects of the burning lava; 
 the overflowing of the sea; the fall of houses; and the vio- 
 lence of the whirlwind, that out of 12,000 inhabitants on 
 this island, only twenty six individuals escaped with their 
 lives, all the rest being destroyed in one way or another. 
 
 The whole island was completely covered with ashes, or 
 other volcanic matter. In some places, the bottom of the 
 sea was so elevated, as to make shoals, where there was 
 deep water before; and in others, the land sunk down, and 
 was overflown by the sea. 
 
 The details of this awful calamity were collected, and 
 published by Sir Stamford Raffles, then Governor of Java, 
 who required all the residents in the various districts un- 
 der his authority, to send him a statement of the circum- 
 stances which fell under their several observations. Sec 
 hs\ Hist, of Java; and Brande's Quart. Jour. vol. i. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 Having thus given a short history of a sufficient num- 
 ber of volcanic eruptions, to acquaint the geological stu- 
 dent with the phenomena, and of the tremendous as well 
 as calamitous effects of these mighty agents, we will next 
 refer to the subject of earthquakes, as resulting from the 
 same cause. 
 
EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. 105 
 
 Earthquake of Calabria. "Of the numerous earth- 
 quakes," says Mr. Lyell, "which have occurred in different 
 parts of the globe, during the last 100 years, that of Cala- 
 bria, in 1783, is the only one of which the geologist can 
 be said to have such a circumstantial account, as to enable 
 him fully to appreciate the changes which this cause is ca- 
 pable of producing in the lapse of ages. The shocks be- 
 gan in February, 1783, and lasted nearly four years, to 
 the end of 1786." The importance of the earthquake 
 in question, arises from the circumstance, that Calabria is 
 the only spot hitherto visited, both during and after the 
 convulsions, by men possessing sufficient leisure, zeal, and 
 scientific information, to enable them to collect and de- 
 scribe with accuracy, the physical facts which throw light 
 on geological questions. Lyell, vol. i. p. 412. 
 
 Authors who witnessed the phenomena of these convul- 
 sions, are quite numerous. Among them, it is said that 
 Pignataro, a physician, who resided at the centre of the 
 earthquakes, and who kept a register of the number and 
 force of the shocks, is among the most correct. The 
 Royal Academy of Naples, also sent a commission from 
 their own body to Calabria, accompanied by artists, with 
 instructions to describe and illustrate by drawings, the ef- 
 fects of these terrible convulsions: and Sir William Ham- 
 ilton, who surveyed this district before the shocks had 
 ceased, has added many facts not recorded by others. 
 Our limits, will however, allow only a very brief summa- 
 ry of the facts, from these several sources. 
 
 The subterranean concussions were felt beyond the con- 
 fines of Sicily; but if the city of Oppido, in Calabria, be 
 taken as the centre, a circle around it, whose radius is 
 twenty two miles, would include the space which suffered 
 the greatest calamities. Within this circle, all the towns 
 and villages were almost entirely destroyed. 
 
 The first shock, which took place on the 5th of Febru- 
 ary, 1783, threw down, in the space of two minutes, a 
 greater part of the houses, within the whole space above 
 described. The convulsive motion of the earth, is said to 
 have resembled the rolling of the sea, and that in many in- 
 stances, it produced swimming of the head, like sea-sick- 
 ness. This rolling of the surface, like the billows of the 
 sea, was like that which would have been produced by 
 the agitation of a vast mass of liquid matter under the 
 ground. 
 
106 EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. 
 
 In some walls which were shattered, the separate stones 
 were parted from the mortar so as to leave an exact mould 
 where they had rested, as though the stone had been care- 
 fully raised from its bed in a perpendicular direction; but 
 in other instances, the mortar was ground to powder be- 
 tween the stones, as though they had been made to re- 
 volve on each other. 
 
 It was found, that the swelling, or wave like motions, 
 and those which were called vorticose, or whirling, often 
 produced the most singular and unaccountable effects. 
 Thus, in some streets, in the town of Monteleone, every 
 house was thrown down, except one, and in some other 
 streets, all except two or three; and these were left unin- 
 jured, though differing in no respects from the others . 
 
 In many cities all the most solid edifices were prostrat- 
 ed, while those which were slightly built, escaped; but, 
 in others, it was precisely the reverse, the massive build- 
 ings being the only ones that remained standing. 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 
 But, perhaps, the most singular effect was that produ- 
 ced on a pair of obelisks, at the convent of St. Bruno, 
 where the different stones, composing these monuments 
 were moved on each other, in a manner altogether unac- 
 countable, unless, indeed, it can be supposed that the 
 earth, where each stood, underwent a rapid gyratory mo- 
 tion. The shock which shook the convent is said to have 
 been of that kind which writers describe by the term vor- 
 ticose, or whirling. The annexed cut, fig. 6, will convey 
 an idea of these effects. 
 
EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. 107 
 
 The pedestal of each obelisk remained in its original 
 situation and place; but the separate stones were turned 
 partly around on each other, as represented in the figures; 
 some of them being moved eight or nine inches out of 
 their places, but none were thrown down. 
 
 It appears from the statements, that in many instances, 
 where the ground was fissured, the motion must have 
 been from below, upwards, for these fissures opened and 
 closed alternately, as though the ground, in that particular 
 spot, had been violently lifted up with a force from below, 
 by which a fissure was formed, but. the force ceasing in- 
 stantly, the ground again assumed its former position, and 
 the fissure closed. Perhaps the escape of some gas or 
 steam through the fissure, produced this effect. 
 
 In many instances, these fissures were so wide as in an 
 instant to swallow up men, trees, and even houses, and 
 when the earth sunk down again it closed upon them so 
 entirely, as not to leave the least vestige of what had hap- 
 pened, nor were any signs of them ever discovered after- 
 wards. In the vicinity of Oppido, the centre of these 
 convulsions, many houses were precipitated into the same 
 great fissure, which immediately closed iver them; and, 
 in the same neighborhood, four farm houses, several oil 
 stores and dwelling houses were so entirely engulphed, 
 that not a vestige of them were seen afterwards. 
 
 In some instances these chasms did not close. In one 
 district, a ravine, formed in this manner, a mile long, 100 
 feet broad, and thirty feet deep, remained open; and in 
 another, a similar one remained, three quarters of a mile 
 long, 150 feet wide, and 100 feet deep; in another in- 
 stance, there remained such a chasm thirty feet wide and 
 225 feet deep. 
 
 In various places, the ground sunk down, and lakes 
 were formed, which, being fed by springs, have remained 
 ever since. The convulsions also removed immense 
 masses of earth from the sides of steep hills into the val- 
 leys below, so that, in many instances, oaks, olive or- 
 chards, vineyards and cultivated fields, were seen grow- 
 ing at the bottoms of deep hollows, having been removed 
 from the side hills of the vicinity. In one instance, a 
 mass of earth 200 feet thick, and 400 feet in diameter, be- 
 ing set in motion by one of the first shocks, travelled four 
 miles into the valley below. 
 
 The violence of the upward motion of the ground was 
 
108 EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. 
 
 singularly illustrated by the inversion of heavy bodies ly- 
 ing on the surface, and which can hardly be accounted for, 
 except on the supposition that they were actually thrown 
 to a considerable distance into the air. Thus in some 
 towns, a considerable proportion of the flat paving stones, 
 were found with their lower sides uppermost. Mr. Ly- 
 ell accounts for this effect, by supposing that the " stones 
 were propelled upwards by the momentum which they 
 had acquired, and that the adhesion of one end of the mass 
 being greater than the other, a rotary motion had been 
 communicated to them." But it is difficult to conceive 
 how a whirling motion, so rapid as to produce such an ef- 
 fect, could have been communicated to a whole town, 
 without producing some consequences still more extraor- 
 dinary. 
 
 In the plain of Rosarno, a different effect was produced 
 from any yet described. This plain consists of an alluvial 
 soil, which after the commencement of the earthquakes, 
 was found covered with circular hollows, containing wa- 
 ter, and around the hollows, were fissures radiating from 
 their sides in every direction, as represented by fig. 7. 
 
 1 Fig. 7. 
 
 These were for the most part about the size of carriage 
 wheels, but sometimes larger or smaller. When filled 
 with water to within a Foot or two of the surface, they 
 appeared like wells, but more commonly they were filled 
 with dry sand, sometimes with a concave, and at others 
 with a convex surface. On digging into the earth, these 
 cavities were found to be funnel shaped, the moist loose 
 earth in the centre, indicating the tube through which the 
 water had ascended. The annexed cut, fig. 7, is intended 
 to represent a section of these inverted cones, when the 
 water had disappeared, leaving nothing in it but dry mi- 
 caceous sand. This sand appeared to have been brought 
 
EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. 109 
 
 up from beneath by the water which was sometimes found 
 over the sand. 
 
 Pi* 8- 
 
 But our limits will not allow the description of other ef- 
 fects and appearances, which this dreadful calamity produ- 
 ced, some of which are equally curious and inexplicable. 
 
 We must not, however, close this account without re- 
 ference to an incident connected with the destruction of 
 human life, as well as to the number of responsible beings 
 which were suddenly called to the world of spirits, by 
 this appalling act of a mysterious Providence. 
 
 The Prince Scilla had persuaded many of his people to 
 betake themselves to their fishing boats, as a place of 
 safety, on the first indications of an earthquake, which in 
 that volcanic country are so well understood, and which 
 create so much alarm. The Prince himself had set the 
 example, by going on board of one of these boats. On 
 the 5th of February, when the first violent shock happen- 
 ed, many of these people were sleeping in their boats 
 near the shore, while others were on the shore, at a place 
 little elevated above the sea. With this convulsion the 
 earth rocked, and suddenly there was precipitated a great 
 mass of rock from mount Jaci, on the plain where the 
 people had taken refuge, and immediately after, the water 
 rose to a great height above its ordinary level, and swept 
 away the sleeping multitude. The wave then instantly 
 retreated, but soon after returned again with increased 
 violence, bringing back many of the people, and animals, 
 which it had carried away. At the same time every boat 
 in the vicinity was overwhelmed, or dashed against the 
 beach, and thus destroyed. The Prince who was an 
 10 
 
110 EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. 
 
 aged man, with 1400 of his people were thus swept away 
 and perished in the sea. 
 
 The number of human beings who were destroyed by 
 this series of earthquakes, was estimated by Sir William 
 Hamilton, at about 40,000, besides which, nearly 20,000 
 more died by epidemics, which were occasioned by in- 
 sufficient nourishment, and the noxious vapors arising 
 from the new lakes and pools of water, which this terrible 
 catastrophe occasioned, thus making the whole number 
 that perished 60,000. 
 
 In countries where volcanoes exist, and which are also 
 subject to earthquakes, experience has taught, that the 
 earthquakes cease, or become harmless, so soon as an 
 eruption from the mountain commences. On the suppo- 
 sition that the earth constantly contains within it an 
 ocean of lava or melted matter; that earthquakes are 
 caused by some disturbance of this liquid; and that volca- 
 noes are its chimneys, or outlets when thus disturbed, 
 this fact would admit of an easy explanation. In another 
 place we shall bring forward many circumstances, to 
 show that this theory may be true, and shall only remark 
 here, that the Calabrian earthquakes may be brought as an 
 item in support of this doctrine, for neither Etna nor any 
 of the Italian volcanoes, suffered the least sign of eruption 
 during these destructive convulsions. 
 
 Earthquake of Lisbon. This great earthquake happened 
 in the month of November, 1755, and with respect to the 
 wide extent to which it was felt, exceeded all others of 
 which there is any account. 
 
 The first intimation of its approach was a loud subterra- 
 nean noise, somewhat like distant thunder, and immedi- 
 ately afterwards, the city of Lisbon was shook with such 
 violence as to prostrate nearly all its houses. The wretch- 
 ed inhabitants with so short a warning were unable to take 
 the least precaution for their safety, so that in about six 
 minutes, 60,000 people perished. 
 
 The sea at first retired, and laid bare the bed of the har- 
 bor, after which it immediately rolled back, in an immense 
 wave, rising fifty feet at least, above its ordinary level. 
 The largest mountains in Portugal were shaken to their 
 foundations, and several had their summits rent in a man- 
 ner which struck every beholder with astonishment. 
 
EARTHQUAKE OF LISBON. Ill 
 
 But the most extraordinary and calamitous effect which 
 was produced at Lisbon, was the sinking of a quay together 
 with the thousands of inhabitants with which it was cover- 
 ed. This work was built entirely of marble, and just fin- 
 ished at an immense expense; and on it after the first 
 shock, a vast concourse of people had collected as a 
 place of safety, having left the city to escape the fall of the 
 houses. But it proved the most fatal spot in the vicinity, 
 for at the next shock the earth opened and instantly 
 swallowed up the whole quay, with the multitude which 
 had there assembled, and so completely were the whole 
 retained by the closing of the earth, that not a single dead 
 body ever rose again to the surface. A great number of 
 small boats and other vessels, near the quay, filled with 
 people, as a place of safety, were also precipitated into 
 the yawning vortex, and it is stated that not a single frag- 
 ment of any of these boats were ever seen afterwards. It 
 was believed that the water where the quay stood was un- 
 fathomable, but its depth was afterwards found to be 
 600 feet. 
 
 The immense area over which this earthquake was felt, 
 is very remarkable; for not only was every part of Spain 
 and Portugal convulsed, but the shocks were perceived 
 with greater or less intensity in England, Holland, Italy, 
 Norway, Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, Corsica, the 
 West Indies, at Morocco and Algiers in Africa, and in a 
 part of South America. At Algiers the shock was so 
 violent as to throw down many buildings; and a village, 
 not far from Morocco, was swallowed up, and 10,000 in- 
 habitants perished. A great wave from the sea, swept 
 nearly the whole coast of Spain. At Cadiz its height is 
 said to have been sixty feet, and its devastations in pro- 
 portion. 
 
 The shock was also felt by ships far at sea, and, in seve- 
 ral instances, the concussion was such as to make the 
 people suppose their vessels had struck on a rock. In 
 one instance it is said that the people on board a vessel 
 off the West Indies, were thrown up a foot and a half 
 from the 'leek. This circumstance may be accounted for 
 from the inelasticity of water, so that a violent and sudden 
 movement of the bottom of the ocean, would be commu- 
 nicated to the surface and to the ship, through the me- 
 dium of the fluid, with nearly the same force, as though 
 the vessel had been on the ground itself. 
 
12 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 Islands raised from the Sea. Numerous instances are 
 recorded of the elevation of islands, of greater or less ex- 
 tent, from the bottom of the sea. 
 
 Writers of antiquity i ave mentioned several such in- 
 stances. The elder Pliny says that the celebrated islands 
 of Rhodes and Delos, according to tradition, are sea born, 
 and that, after these, several smaller islands rose up frc m 
 the bottom of the sam^ sea. Strabo also asserts, posi- 
 tively, that Hiero was produced in the midst of flames, 
 and both Plutarch and Justin relate, that the formation of 
 this island was attended with much fire, and a great boil- 
 ing of the sea. 
 
 But we are not entirely dependent on the ancients for 
 facts of this kind, many instances of the elevation of isl- 
 ands having been witnessed in later times. 
 
 Captain Tillard, of the Royal British Navy, was an eye 
 witness to the rising of an island from the ocean, in 1812. 
 
 At some distance off the cor.st of St. Michael's, one of 
 the Azores, an immense body of smoke was observed to 
 issue from the water, and from the midst cf the smoke, 
 there suddenly burst forth a black column of cinders, ashes 
 and stones, in the form of a spire. This was accompanied by 
 vivid flashes of lightning from the thickest part of the vol- 
 canic smoke, and the whole was surrounded by occasional 
 water spouts. 
 
 The water, at this place was thirty fathoms deep, and 
 after the volcanic phenomena had lasted fourdays, the cra- 
 ter began to appear above the surface of the water, and 
 soon became twenty feet high in the midst of an island 
 400 feet in diameter. At this time the cliffs of St. Mi- 
 chael's were shattered by an earthquake, and the island 
 continued to rise until it became at least 200 feet above the 
 level of the sea. 
 
 This island was named Sabrina, after Captain Tillard's 
 ship. It did not, however long continue visible, for being 
 formed chiefly of ashes and cinders, and not by the eleva- 
 tion of the solid rocks, it wr s soon swept away by the 
 waves of the ocean. 
 
 Aleutian Islands. In the year 1 806, there arose from 
 the sea a new island, among the Aleutian group, north of 
 Kamtschatka. This, according to Langsdorf, who after- 
 wards visited the spot, was four geographical miles in cir- 
 cumference; and the geologist, Von Bush, infers from its 
 
MONTB NUOVO, 113 
 
 not having subsided, that it does not like Sabrina, consist 
 of ejected volcanic matter, but of solid rock, thrown up 
 from the bottom of the sea. 
 
 In 1814, another island was added to the Aleutian group, 
 from the bottom of the sea. This was much larger than 
 the former, and its highest part was elevated to the aston- 
 ishing height of 300D feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 In 1820, a new island was thrown up among the Ionian 
 group, on the coast of Greece. 
 
 In 1757, eighteen small islands were elevated from the 
 sea, in the vicinity of the Azores. 
 
 In 1783, the same phenomenon happened on the coast 
 of Iceland. 
 
 Many other instances of sea born islands are recorded, 
 but we need not extend this list, our chief object being to 
 show that islands are elevated from the ocean by the force 
 of volcanic action. 
 
 Elevation of Land by Volcanic Power. In November, 
 1822, there happened a series of subterranean convulsions 
 on the coast Chili, which continued three months, and 
 which shook that part of South America to the extent of 
 1400 miles from north to south. On the morning after 
 the first shock, the whole line of coast along Valpariso, 
 to the distance of 100 miles, was found to have been 
 raised above its former level. Mrs. Graham who was 
 present, and who writes this account, states that on thci 
 morning of the 20th, the wreck of an old ship, which lay 
 at a small distance from the shore, but which could not 
 be approached, on account of the depth of the water, was 
 now easily accessible. She also found the former bed of 
 the sea, along the shore, laid bare, with muscles, oysters, 
 and other shell fish, adhering to the rocks on which they 
 grew, and abundance of fish, dead and on dry land. At 
 Valpariso, the elevation of the land was found to be 
 three feet, but at other places, the rise was from four to 
 five feet. 
 
 Formation of Monte Nuovo. Monte Nuovo, or New 
 Mountain, was chiefly thrown up on the night of the 29th 
 of September, 1538. Its situation is in the neighborhood 
 of Naples; a region every where volcanic. 
 
 The site of the present Monte Nuovo was formerly a lit- 
 tle town, where invalids resorted on account of the ther* 
 10* 
 
114 FORMATION OF MONTE NUOVO. 
 
 mal baths which existed there. On the evening above 
 mentioned, after many previous shocks of an earthquake, 
 the ground opened in the form of a wide fissure, which 
 ran towards this town, with a tremendous noise, accompan- 
 ied with the discharge of pumice stones, blocks of lava, 
 and ashes. At the same time a gulf, of considerable ex- 
 tent, opened in the suburbs of the town, by which many 
 houses were swallowed up. The sea also retired, leaving 
 its bed naked along the shore. 
 
 The fissure which had reached the town, continued to 
 discharge volcanic matter for 36 hours, during which time., 
 its quantity was such as to form the mountain in question. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 The annexed drawing, fig. 9, will shew the form of this 
 mountain, No. 1, the mountain. No. 2 a part of the cra- 
 ter. Its height has been lately determined to be four hun- 
 dred and forty feet above the level of the bay of Naples. 
 Its base is eight thousand feet, or nearly a mile and a half 
 in circumference, and the depth of the crater, four hun- 
 dred and twenty-one feet from the summit, so that the 
 bottom of the crater is only nineteen feet above the level 
 of the sea. 
 
 No lava flowed from this crater, but the matter ejected, 
 which fell down and formed the mountain, consisted of 
 masses of ancient lava, ashes, pumice, and slaty stones. 
 These blocks of ancient lava, prove the volcanic origin of 
 the ground below the present mountain. 
 
 We have thus given such an account of volcanoes, earth- 
 quakes, and the elevation of islands and land, by subterra- 
 nean fire as our limits will allow. 
 
TEMPLE OF JUPITER SERAPIS. 
 
 115 
 
 The design of these facts, is not merely to satisfy the 
 curiosity of the reader, but as will be seen in the sequel, to 
 account for phenomena which the earth presents, by show- 
 ing an analogy between the effects of known and unknown 
 causes. Thus the earth almost every where indicates, by 
 the position of its strata, that its crust has been disturbed 
 by subterranean forces; and marine remains, shew that a 
 great proportion of the dry land has once been under the 
 sea. That these changes have been effected by the same 
 cause which elevates islands from the sea at the present 
 day, we shall endeavor to show in another place. 
 
 Temple of Jupiter Serapis. In a few instances, it is 
 known that portions of land have several times changed 
 their level, with respect to that of the sea; and of which 
 the following is an interesting and curious example. 
 
 The temple of Serapis, a celebrated monument of anti- 
 quity, is situated on the little bay, called Baiae, within the 
 bay of Naples. 
 
 A geological examination of the coast of Puzzuoli, along 
 this bay, shows that the land has been elevated about 
 twenty feet'at a period not very remote, so that without the 
 evidence presented by the temple, there is sufficient proof 
 that the land in the vicinity has changed its level. 
 
 If the coast along the hore, between Naples, and Puz- 
 zuoli be examined, it will be seen that the tract of fertile 
 land which intervenes between the present shore, and the 
 high rocky cliffs, was evidently once under the water, and 
 that the ancient shore was near these cliffs. 
 
 The inland cliff near Puzzuoli, is in many places about 
 eighty feet high, and quite perpendicular. At its base, 
 the new deposite attains the height of twenty feet above 
 the sea. This consists of sedimentary matter, mixed with 
 marine shells showing that it was formed under the water. 
 
H6 TEMPLE OF JUPITER SERAPIS. 
 
 The annexed cut, fig. 10, from Mr. Lyell, will explain the 
 situation of this coast in 1828. ez, on the right, shows the 
 situation of antiquities, on a hill south of Puzzuoli; 6, an- 
 cient cliff, now inland; c, terrace composed of marine 
 deposites of recent date. #> on the left, represents the re- 
 mains of Cicero's villa, at the north of Puzzuoli; 6, an- 
 cient cliff, now inland; c, terrace composed of recent ma- 
 rine deposites; d, temple of Serapis* 
 
 The soil of these level deposites, is considered so valu- 
 able, that a wall has been built for its protection against 
 the washing of the sea; but in some places, the wall has 
 been thrown down, so that the strata are exposed. These 
 consist of alternate layers of mud and pumice, enclosing 
 abundance of marine shells. One stratum contains large 
 quantities of the remains of ancient art, as tiles, and pieces 
 of Mosaic pavement.* 
 
 The remains of the works of art are found below, as 
 well as above the marine shells. Among the shells, are 
 ihe Cardium, Donax, Buccinum, and Ostrea. (These 
 will be found, figured and described, towards the close of 
 this, volume.) 
 
 Now there are no tides in the Mediterranean, by which 
 these shells could have been cast upon the shore; and the 
 remains of ancient buildings at other places, show that 
 there has been no change in the level of this sea, for the 
 last two thousand years; hence we must conclude, that 
 the land along this coast has been elevated about twenty 
 feet above its former level. 
 
 But in addition to the above evidence, the remains of 
 the temple of Serapis, show that that edifice has under- 
 gone several changes of level, when compared with the 
 sea. 
 
 With respect to this temple, Mr. Lyell, who has lately 
 visited the spot, says, " It appears, from the most authen- 
 tic accounts, that the three pillars, now standing erect, 
 continued down to the middle of the last century, half 
 buried in the new marine strata above described. The 
 upper parts of the columns being concealed by bushes, 
 
 * Ancient Mosaic pavement consists of small pieces of stone, generally 
 marble, of different colors, arranged in figures, sometimes representing 
 groups of men and animals, in commemoration of some historical event. 
 These are cemented so as to form a continuous solid mass. The floors 
 of ancient churches and temples were often thus made. 
 
 
TEMPLE OF JUPITER SERAPIS. 
 
 117 
 
 had not been discovered, until 1750, when they were seen 
 to form part of a splendid edifice. On examination, the 
 pavement was found, still entire, and upon it lay a number 
 of magnificent columns, a part of which were of African 
 breccia,* and a part of granite. The original plan of the 
 building could be traced distinctly: it was of a quadran- 
 gular form, seventy feet in diameter, and the roof had 
 been supported b) forty-six noble columns, twenty-four 
 of which were of granite, and the rest of brecciated mar- 
 ble. The large court had been surrounded by apartments, 
 supposed to have been used as bathing rooms; for a 
 thermal spring, still employed for medicinal purposes, 
 continues to flow from just behind the ruins, and the 
 water of this spring, it is said, was conveyed to the cham- 
 bers by marble conductors." Lyell, vol. i. p. 453. 
 
 Since the discovery of these remains, many antiquaries 
 have entered into elaborate discussions, on the question 
 to what deity this edifice was consecrated; but from its 
 situation, and construction, there is more reason to sup- 
 pose that it was a bathing house, than a heathen temple. 
 But our object will be to show what geological changes 
 these antiquities indicate. 
 
 Fig. 11. The annexed cut, fig. 1U 
 
 represents Serapis, as it now 
 appears, reduced from the 
 drawing of Mr. Lyell. These 
 pillars are forty-two feet in 
 height, and their surfaces are 
 smooth and entire to the 
 height of about twelve feet 
 above the pedestal, the reason 
 of which will appear directly. 
 Above this, is a zone, twelve 
 feet in length, where the 
 marble has been pierced by 
 a marine perforating shell 
 fish, called by Cuvier, Litho- 
 domus. It is a species of the Mytilus of Linnaeus, and 
 the Modiola of Lamarck. 
 
 * Breccia is a rock composed of broken, angular pieces of stone, gene- 
 rally of various colors, cemented by the hand of nature. The pillars of 
 the capitol, at Washington, are of this kind of marble. 
 
118 TEMPLE OF JUPITER SERAPIS. 
 
 These animals enter the stone by a small orifice, which 
 they make themselves when quite young, and as they in- 
 crease in size they enlarge their habitations in proportion. 
 They are nourished by the sea water, which is admitted 
 through the small aperture. These animals have not the 
 power, or perhaps inclination to leave their cells, hence 
 their houses during life, become their tombs at death. 
 
 The limestones on the shores of the Mediterranean, are 
 frequently full of the excavations of these animals. The 
 genus Pholas, also contains some species which penetrate 
 rocks. Both are figured under the articles " Multivalves" 
 and " Bivalves," towards the end of this volume. These 
 animals cannot pierce silicious rocks, such as granite. 
 
 As these animals cannot live, except when immersed in 
 salt water, we must infer that these* pillars were fora long 
 time submerged, and that during part of that period, their 
 lower portions were covered up by the rubbish already 
 mentioned, while their upper ends reached above the wa- 
 ter. This accounts for the reason why their middle por- 
 tions only, are peforated by these animals. On the pave- 
 tnent of the temple lie several columns, broken in pieces. 
 These are perforated on their fractured ends, as well as 
 on other parts, showing that they had lain under water 
 for a long time after they were broken. 
 
 The platform of the temple is at present just under the 
 water, and the upper part of the perforations on the 
 standing columns is at least twenty-three feet above the 
 water, from which it is clear that these columns must have 
 continued for a long time immersed in the water, while 
 in an erect position, after which they must have been 
 raised, by the rising of the ground to their present 
 elevation. 
 
 Thus it appears, that the temple of Serapis was first de- 
 pressed by the sinking down of the ground where it 
 stands, so that the water of the sea surrounded these pil- 
 lars about twenty feet above its present level; after which, 
 it was again raised to its present situation, by the eleva- 
 tion of the coast. It is hardly necessary to say, that the 
 cause of these changes, was undoubtedly the same which 
 has produced the elevation of islands, and the sinking 
 down of the ground in other places. 
 
VOLCANOES. 119 
 
 SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 
 
 It was formerly believed that the seat of volcanoes 
 
 was superficial, and that the heat which fused the rocks, 
 
 and sent them forth in the form of lava from the mouths 
 
 I of volcanoes, was owing to the combustion of mineral 
 
 i coal. It is a sufficient refutation of this hypothesis, that 
 
 were the whole interior of the earth composed of coal, it 
 
 j must have long since been exhausted in the vicinity of an- 
 
 j cient burning mountains. Also, that no geologist ever 
 
 supposed coal to exist below granite mountains, which are 
 
 \ often pierced by volcanic apertures. 
 
 The cause of volcanoes has also been attributed to the 
 spontaneous ignition of pyrites, or metallic sulphurets. 
 
 With respect to this theory, in the first place, there is 
 no evidence that the interior of the earth is composed of 
 j the sulphurets of the metals, nor is this in the least degree 
 I probable; and second, were this ascertained to be the 
 case, and could the theorist contrive to perpetuate its ig- 
 nition, or to make it occasional, as circumstances re- 
 quired, still it would fail to account for the phenomena of 
 earthquakes and volcanoes. But lastly, the products of 
 volcanoes are not such as would result from the ignition 
 ( of the sulphurets of the metals. This is sufficient. 
 
 Since the great discovery of Sir H. Davy, that the earths 
 and alkalies are the oxides of metallic substances, it has 
 been proposed to account for volcanoes and earthquakes, 
 by the admission of water to these metallic elements. 
 
 This theory may be thus stated. If pure potash or 
 soda be deprived of its oxygen, there remains a brilliant 
 silver-white metal, so light as to swim on the surface of 
 water. 
 
 These metals have an affinity of oxygen so strong, that 
 when thrown on water, the fluid is decomposed, the oxy- 
 gen being absorbed by the metal so rapidly as to occa- 
 sion a degree of heat, which sets the hydrogen on fire. 
 Thus by throwing these metals on water, combustion is 
 excited, and the oxides of potassium, and sodium, or in 
 other words, pure potash or soda is formed. 
 
 Now if we suppose that at the creation, the elements of 
 things were formed in a distinct and separate state, and that 
 the condition of the earth's surface at the present time is 
 owing to the exercise of chemical affinities, then we might 
 
120 SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 
 
 consider the interior of the earth, at the present time, 
 to be composed of elements in their simple and uncom- 
 bined state. This being admitted, the earth at a certain 
 depth consists of the bases of these earths, and alkalies in 
 their uncombined and metallic forms; for, being excluded 
 from any substance containing oxygen, there has been no 
 opportunity since the creation, for these substances to 
 combine and form compounds. It is well known to chem- 
 ists, that the metallic bases of the alkalies may be kept in 
 their elementary states for any length of time, by exclud- 
 ing them from the air, or by immersing them in naptha, a 
 substance containing no oxygen. Hence, as combustion is 
 excited when these metallic bases come in contact with 
 water, (if the above suppositions be true,) there exists an 
 analogy, by which it has been thought the phenomena of 
 earthquakes might be accounted for, by the admission of 
 water to these substances. 
 
 There are, however, insuperable difficulties in this hy- 
 pothesis. Carbonate of lime is one of the most abundant 
 materials of which the crust of our earth is composed. 
 This, in the opinions of many geologists, had its origin in 
 organized remains, being the product of sea shells, consol- 
 idated in a manner, which it is unnecessary here to ex- 
 plain. It is quite certain that a great portion of limestone 
 is really the product of moluscous animals, of which the 
 coral reefs, and the mountains of shells, are a sufficient 
 proof. If, therefore, lime is the product of organized be- 
 ings, it was not created in an elementary form, and there- 
 fore cannot produce the fire of volcanoes by the union of 
 its elements, though calcium its base, may excite flame by 
 contact with water. 
 
 Silex, or flint, another substance which enters largely 
 into the compositon of the earth., and of which the primi- 
 tive rocks are chiefly composed, does not possess an in- 
 flammable base, and therefore cannot be supposed to par- 
 ticipate in causing any igneous phenomena. 
 
 The specific gravity of the earth, also, being at least 
 five times that of water, shows that it is not composed, 
 principally, of substances lighter than that fluid. 
 
 Besides, the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanoes, 
 even admitting the interior of the earth to be composed of 
 metallic elements, are. not such as could be accounted for 
 by the admission of water to these substances; nor are the 
 products of volcanic action, in the form of lava, pumice, 
 
SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 121 
 
 and ashes, such as would result from the oxygentation of 
 metallic elements. This theory, therefore, has not even 
 plausibility in its favor. 
 
 In the present state of geological knowledge, it is not 
 to be expected that any theory which can be proposed, 
 will account for every circumstance connected with earth- 
 quakes and volcanoes. But that which explains the great- 
 est number of these phenomena, is founded on the hypo- 
 thesis of a "central fire," that is, a mass, or masses of la- 
 va, or melted matter, deeply seated towards the centre of 
 the earth. The two hundred volcanoes, existing in diffe- 
 rent parts of the globe, are the chimneys, or occasional 
 outlets of this ocean of liquid fire. 
 
 When this mass is disturbed, as by the admission of 
 water, an earthquake is the consequence, and this becomes 
 more or less disastrous, according to the degree of inter- 
 nal commotion. When the pressure of the steam, into 
 which the water is converted, becomes excessive, then the 
 lava is forced up one of the chimneys, and poured forth on 
 the surface of the earth, and thus a volcano is produced, 
 and at the same time the internal pressure is relieved. 
 
 The hypothesis of a central fire, under various modifica- 
 tions, appears to be the prevailing doctrine of the geolo- 
 gists of the present day. " If," says Mr. Lyell, "we sup- 
 pose a great number of large subterranean cavities, at the 
 depth of several miles below the surface of the earth, 
 wherein melted lava accumulates, and that water, penetra- 
 ting into these, is converted into steam; this steam, togeth- 
 er with the gasses generated by the decomposition of melt- 
 ed rocks, may press upon the lava, and force it up the duct 
 of a volcano, in the same manner as it drives water up the 
 pipe of a geyser. (The geyser is described under "Silicious 
 Springs.") But the weight of the lava being immense, 
 the hydrostatic pressure, exerted on the sides and roofs of 
 such large cavities, and fissures, may well be supposed to 
 occasion, not slight tremors, such as agitate the ground be- 
 fore an eruption of the geyser, but violent earthquakes. 
 Sometimes the lateral pressure of the lower extremity of 
 the high column of lava, may cause the more yielding stra- 
 ta to give way, and to fold themselves into numerous con- 
 volutions, so as to occupy less space, and thereby give re- 
 lief for a time, to the fused, and dilated matter. Some- 
 times, on the contrary, a weight equal to that of the vertical 
 column of lava, pressing on every part of the roof, may 
 
122 SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 
 
 heave up the superincumbent mass, and force lava into ev- 
 ery fissure, which on consolidating, may support the arch, 
 and cause the land above to be permanently elevated. On 
 the other hand, subsidences may follow the condensation 
 of vapor, when cold water descends through fissures, or 
 when heat is lost by the cooling of the lava." 
 
 If this globe, towards its centre, is composed of an igne- 
 ous fluid, then we might expect that the nearer we ap- 
 proach it, or the deeper we descend below the surface, 
 the higher we should find the temperature, and many ex- 
 periments tend to prove that this is actually the case. 
 
 Baron Fourier, who has investigated this subject with 
 much attention, concludes, " that the rays of the sun pen- 
 etrate the globe, and occasion annual and diurnal varia- 
 tions in its temperature, but that these periodical changes 
 cease to be perceptible at a certain depth under the sur- 
 face. Below that depth, the temperature caused by the 
 sun has long ceased to have any influence. If, therefore, 
 it is found that the temperature of the deep recesses of the 
 earth become perceptibly greater, in proportion as we re- 
 cede from its surface, it is impossible to ascribe this in- 
 crease to the influence of the sun, and consequently it can 
 proceed only from the primitive heat of the earth, and 
 with which it was originally endued. It has long since 
 been conjectured that the heat of the earth increased in 
 some proportion to the distance of descent from its sur- 
 face; but it is only within a short period, that experiments 
 have been instituted, for the purpose of ascertaining 
 whether this conjecture was well founded, and if so, to de- 
 termine the ratio of increase. With this view, many 
 mines have been accurately examined, and the fact of a 
 gradual increase of temperature downwards, has been 
 found general. 
 
 In the mines of Cornwall, England, Capt. Lean made 
 the following experiments and observations, in the month 
 ofDecember. 
 
 At the surface the temperature of the air, was 50 Fah- 
 renheit. At 120 feet below the surface, the air was 57. 
 At 600 feet below, temperature of the air 66, of water 64. 
 At 962 feet below, air 70, do. water 74. At 1200 feet 
 below the surface, air 78, water do. 78. 
 
 These, with other experiments in different mines, seem- 
 ed to show that the increase of temperature downwards, 
 was nearly in the ratio of one degree, for every sixty five 
 feet. 
 
SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 1 
 
 From M. Cordier, who has written a treatise on this sub- 
 ject, we learn that the number of mines in which experi- 
 ments have been made is about forty. These mines are 
 situated in France, England, Switzerland, Peru, Saxo- 
 ny, and Mexico. The whole number of experiments made 
 are about 300, some being on the air of the mines, some on 
 the water, and others upon the rocks, or earth. 
 
 From all these observations, made apparently with such 
 caution as to prevent the possibility of any considerable 
 error, M. Cordier derives the following conclusions. 
 
 1. "If we reject a certain number of observations as 
 uncertain, all the rest indicate, in a manner more or less 
 certain, that there exists a remarkable increase of tempe- 
 rature, as we descend from the surface of the earth to- 
 wards the interior. It is reasonable then, to admit this 
 increase." 
 
 2. " The results collected at the observatory at Paris, 
 are the only ones that can be depended upon with cer- 
 tainty, for obtaining a numerical expression of the law of 
 this increase. This expression gives fifty one feet as the 
 depth which corresponds to an increase of one degree, in 
 the subterranean temperature. And we would remark in 
 passing, that according to this result, the temperature of 
 boiling water under the city of Paris* would be at the 
 depth of 8,212 feet, or about a mile and a half." 
 
 3. '* Among all the other results, a small number only 
 afford numerical expressions of the law sought for, suffi- 
 ciently approximate, to be taken into account. These ex- 
 pressions vary from 104 to twenty four feet for one de- 
 gree of increase; their average in general, indicates an in- 
 crease more rapid than has generally been admitted. 
 Their average has so much the more weight, as embracing 
 the results of many series of long continued observa- 
 tions." 
 
 4. " Lastly, in grouping together by countries all the 
 results, admissible on any principle, I am led to present a 
 new and important idea, to wit, that the difference between 
 the results collected at different places, are referable not 
 solely to the imperfection of the experiments, but also ta 
 a certrin irregularity in the distribution of subterranean 
 heat in different countries." 
 
 M. Cordier describes at length, the manner of making 
 experiments on this subject, in order to prevent local er- 
 rors, and from all that himself and others, have done and 
 written, he draws the following inferences. 
 
124 SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 
 
 1. "Our experiments fully prove the existence of an 
 internal heat, which is natural to the terrestrial globe; 
 which depends not on the influence of the sun, and which 
 increases rapidly with the depth." 
 
 2. "The increase of subterranean heat in proportion to 
 the depth, does not follow the same law throughout the 
 globe. It may be twice, or even thrice as great in one 
 country as in another." 
 
 3. " These differences are not in a constant ratio to 
 the latitude or longitude." 
 
 4. " Finally, the increase is certainly much more rapid 
 than has heretofore been supposed; it may be as great as 
 twenty-seven, or even twenty-four feet for a degree, in 
 some countries. Provisionally however, the mean must 
 not be put lower than forty-six feet." 
 
 We must therefore consider it as proved beyond all 
 doubt, that below the crust of the earth, there exists either 
 a mass of burning lava, or some other cause, by which 
 there is perpetually maintained a considerable degree of 
 heat; and there is reason to believe that a very high tem- 
 perature exists towards its centre. 
 
 That this internal temperature is caused by a melted 
 mass, such as we have supposed to exist, is not, it is be- 
 lieved, incompatible with any known phenomenon, but on 
 the contrary, certainly accords with many of the effects 
 already specified. 
 
 But there are other effects which are unaccountable, ex- 
 cept on such a hypothesis; and one of these is the con- 
 nection, which has often been ^observed to exist, between 
 one volcano and another, and also between earthquakes 
 and volcanoes. If there exists in the earth an extensive 
 igneous fluid, communicating with the open air only by 
 means of volcanic apertures, we should expect, that when 
 this fluid by any means was set in motion, the surface of 
 the ground would partake of such motion, and that in case 
 this fluid should be pressed for want of room, it would be 
 forced out at these apertures. 
 
 Now the wave-like motion of earthquakes is a pheno- 
 menon almost universally observed, and even where the 
 shock is slight it produces nausea, like sea-sickness. This 
 motion is inexplicable if the earth is composed of solid 
 unyielding strata; but if we suppose its crust rests upon 
 a fluid, liable to agitation, the solution becomes natural 
 and easy. This motion may be strikingly illustrated by 
 
SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 125 
 
 covering a dish of quicksilver with sand or soil, and then 
 giving the vessel a slight agitation. 
 
 The connection between volcanoes and earthquakes has 
 been so generally observed, that no one at the present 
 day denies that their causes must be the same. Earth- 
 quakes precede volcanoes, and when a wave of the lava 
 reaches an aperture, there happens an eruption, and the 
 earthquakes are diminished in force, or cease entirely, 
 because the internal pressure is thus relieved. 
 
 In proof of this connection, the elevation of all new 
 islands, and the formation of all new volcanoes, and most 
 commonly the eruptions of old ones are preceded by, or 
 accompanied with earthquakes, especially where the latter 
 have sometime lain dormant. The elevation of Sabrina, 
 of the Aleutian Island, of Monte Nuovo, and the forma- 
 tion of Jorullo, together with what is generally known of 
 Vesuvius and Etna, are examples. 
 
 It is true that, in some instances, earthquakes happen, 
 both at great distances from volcanoes, and in their vicini- 
 ties without any eruption. But, when this is the case, 
 the most calamitous consequences are produced, because 
 the confined matter which causes the earthquakes cannot 
 escape. This was the case, as already noticed, with re- 
 spect to the earthquakes of Calabria, which destroyed 
 60,000 people, there being no eruption either of Etna or 
 Vesuvius. It is probable that this was prevented, by the 
 masses of cooled lava, by which these apertures were 
 clogged. The great earthquake of Lisbon was also un- 
 attended by volcanic eruptions. 
 
 When the shocks commenced which ended in the ele- 
 vation of Monte Nuovo, it was expected, of course, that 
 an eruption of Vesuvius would ensue, but instead of this, 
 after the earthquake had continued with great force for 
 twenty-four hours, the earth opened with a tremendous 
 noise, and, throwing out blocks of lava, pumice and ashes, 
 formed that mountain in 1538. Vesuvius, with a single 
 slight exception, had remained dormant from 1306, and 
 shewed no signs of commotion during the elevation of 
 Monte Nuovo. Now, had there been less resistance at 
 the crater of Vesuvius, than there was on the plain, there 
 would have been an eruption; and no new mountain 
 would have been formed. But Vesuvius continued torpid 
 until 1631, during which period Etna was peculiarly ac- 
 tive, suffering frequent and terrible eruptions. This cir- 
 11* 
 
126 SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 
 
 cumstance affords a strong argument in favor of a sub- 
 terranean communication between these two mountains, 
 Etna occasionally serving as an outlet for the elastic fluids, 
 and lava, a part of which would otherwise be emitted at 
 Vesuvius, and, perhaps, the latter in its turn, answering 
 the same purpose during the torpid state of the former. 
 
 Again, the earthquake of Lisbon, as already stated, was 
 felt in all parts of Europe, and also in Africa, and South 
 America, as well as by ships sailing in the intermediate 
 seas. Now it cannot be reasonably supposed, that a sub- 
 terranean convulsion could be communicated by the mere 
 vibration of the earth, to the distance of so many thou- 
 sand miles, and especially from one side of the Atlantic 
 to the other, under the ocean. If there existed no other 
 evidence than this, of an interior fluctuating medium be- 
 low the crust of the earth, it would be more philosophical, 
 as well as reasonable, to infer that such an one did exist, 
 than to believe that the earth was capable of transmitting 
 a vibratory motion, however strong, to the distance of one 
 fourth of its circumference. 
 
 Finally, another proof of the existence of an immense 
 mass of igneous matter under the surface of the earth, 
 is the quantity of lava emitted by some volcanoes. Many 
 instances might be adduced, but we will here only refer to 
 that of Skaptar Jokul, in 1783, an account of which has 
 been given. There the quantity of lava covered a sur- 
 face equal to ninety miles long, and twenty broad, making 
 an area equal to 1800 square miles. The depth or thick- 
 ness was generally about 100 feet, but, in some places, to 
 a considerable extent, 600 feet deep. Perhaps, therefore, 
 it would not be an over estimate to call the average depth 
 150 feet. This quantity, if consolidated, would by calcu- 
 lation have formed a massive globe, of about six miles in 
 diameter. 
 
 Now if the matter of this eruption came from the im- 
 mediate vicinity of the mountain, it is plain that the strata 
 under it for six miles in extent must have been thrown 
 upon the surface, and a cavity produced of a proportionate 
 size; but this is highly improbable, if not absolutely impos- 
 sible, from the very nature of the case, because if we 
 suppose & cavity, or definite space whence the lava pro- 
 ceeded, we must also suppose it constantly full of igneous 
 matter, at least in the neighborhood of the aperture, 
 otherwise it would not have flowed from the crater. For, 
 
ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS. 127 
 
 we cannot believe that in a cavity of such dimensions, 
 steam, or any other elastic body could have operated in 
 such a manner as to throw out all, or the greatest part 
 of its contents. 
 
 From all we have adduced on this subject, we cannot 
 but conclude, that the phenomena of earthquakes and vol- 
 canoes, indicate the existence of an ocean of melted lava, 
 constantly existing at an unknown depth under the sur- 
 face of the earth, and that these phenomena may, in most 
 of their varieties, be accounted for by such a hypothesis, 
 and by no other which has yet been proposed. It is, 
 therefore, reasonable to infer that such a mass of igneous 
 matter does actually exist. 
 
 ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS FROM THE SEA. 
 
 The occurrence of sea shells, and the remains of marine 
 animals, at a distance from any existing ocean, is a fact 
 of common observation. Some of these remains are 
 deeply buried in solid strata, while others are found in 
 alluvia near the surface. We have noticed in the pre- 
 liminary part of this work, that such remains excited the 
 attention of the earliest geological observers, and that for 
 want of a more philosophical mode of accounting for 
 these phenomena, they were then considered, not real 
 shells, but the products of plastic nature. 
 
 A great proportion of Italy is covered by an alluvial 
 soil, containing sea shells, and occasionally the remains 
 of quadrupeds, both of living and extinct species, such as 
 the elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, mastodon, &c. 
 In this country, in the states of New- York, of Ohio, and 
 indeed throughout the great valley of the Mississippi, 
 fossil shells are found; and, as in Italy, there occurs also 
 the remains of ancient quadrupeds. 
 
 The theory, long since suggested, that the great lakes 
 of North America, are the deeper beds of an inland sea, 
 which once covered a great extent of land, a part of which 
 is now dry, has undoubtedly many circumstances in its fa- 
 vor, and indeed may be considered as a well founded geo- 
 logical fact. In this instance, if, as some geologists sup- 
 pose, this ancient sea has been drained by the bursting of 
 some barrier, it is a circumstance which will account for 
 
128 ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS. 
 
 the appearance of shells not situated higher than the bed 
 of the former sea. But it is believed that in many places, 
 marine organic remains are found, much more elevated 
 than any reasonable hypothesis could have placed the bed 
 of the former sea. The situations of these cannot, there- 
 fore, be accounted for on the supposition that they were 
 left by the retiring waters. 
 
 In Italy, besides the more common marine remains 
 of shells and small fish, there are found the bones of 
 whales and dolphins, and sometimes entire skeletons of 
 these fish occur at the elevation of 1200 feet above the 
 sea. 
 
 The bones of whales, thus found, are in a high state of 
 preservation, and are often encrusted with oyster shells, a 
 good proof that they have not been transported, and that 
 the sea for a long time remained over them, after they had 
 been denuded of their flesh, 
 
 But it will be seen by the following extract from Cuvier, 
 that such appearances are much more common than has 
 been supposed. 
 
 "The lowest and most level lands," says he, "when 
 penetrated to a great depth, exhibit nothing but horizon- 
 tal strata, consisting of various substances, almo&t all of 
 them containing innumerable productions of the sea. 
 Similar strata, similar productions, compose the hills, 
 even to a great height. Sometimes the shells are so nu- 
 merous, that they form, of themselves, the entire mass of 
 the stratum. They are almost every where so completely 
 preserved, that even the smallest of them retain their most 
 delicate parts, their slenderest processes, and their finest 
 points. They are found in elevations, above the level of 
 every part of the ocean, and in places to which the sea 
 could not now be conveyed by any existing causes. They 
 are not only enveloped in loose sands, but are encrusted 
 by the hardest Atones, which they penetrate in all direc- 
 tions. Every part of the world, both the hemispheres, all 
 continents, all islands of any considerable extent, exhibit 
 the same phenomena. They have, therefore, lived in 
 the sea, and have been deposited by the sea; the sea 
 therefore, must have existed in the places where it has 
 left them." 
 
 When we find in many parts of the world, stratified 
 rocks, forming the summits of the highest mountains, ele- 
 vated many thousands of feet above the level of the sea, 
 
ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS, 129 
 
 and when we suppose that the objects we are contempla- 
 ting, were once covered by water, we are strongly im- 
 pressed with the changes which the relative levels of the 
 water and land must have undergone. And when we find 
 the remains of shell fish embedded in these strata, we can- 
 not hesitate to admit that these rocks have once been cov- 
 ered by the ocean. When, lastly, we observe that those 
 beds, which must once have been horizontal, are now ver- 
 tical; that they are inclined, broken, bent and dislocated 
 in innumerable ways, we are forcibly led to conclude that 
 their present distance from the sea has been accompanied 
 by violent alterations in the form of the surface; and that 
 it has been produced by the action of enormous powers. 
 Macculloch, vol. i. p. 86. 
 
 Allowing that these strata have once been under the 
 sea, and which, from the circumstances, is proved beyond 
 all doubt or controversy, the question to be examined, is r 
 whether the ocean has retired to a lower level, or whether 
 the land, by some enormous force, has not been elevated 
 above the water. 
 
 The phenomena of shells in strata, were once attributed 
 to the Mosaic deluge, but we need not at the present day, 
 employ arguments to show the impossibility of such an ori- 
 gin. 150 days was too short a period to have produced 
 such effects. 
 
 It has been ascertained that some of the Peruvian moun- 
 tains contain sea shells, at an elevation of fourteen thou- 
 sand feet above the level of the sea; and that the nature of 
 the strata in which they are contained, is such as to show 
 that these mountains must for a long period have been 
 submerged. Hence it is plain that no hypothesis con- 
 nected with the deluge, can explain this fact. 
 
 Now if the sea has retired in a gradual manner, from 
 such a height, within a period of five or six thousand years, 
 its level ought now, at this rate of depression, to be at 
 least four thousand feet lower than it was two thousand 
 years ago; but facts, with respect to the Baltic and the 
 the Mediterranean, tend to prove, that since the Christian 
 era, the ocean has not changed its level, in any apprecia- 
 ble degree. 
 
 There is therefore, not the least probability, or even 
 possibility, that marine organic remains situated above the 
 sea, or imbedded in strata at a distance from it, can be ac- 
 counted for by any supposition connected with the depres 
 sion of the waters of the ocean. 
 
130 ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS. 
 
 If now we examine the facts and arguments tending to 
 show that the land has been thrown up from the bottom of 
 the sea, we shall find that the evidence amounts to little 
 less than absolute demonstration that this has been the 
 case. 
 
 In the first place, strata composed of fragments of rocks 
 of any considerable size will take the horizontal direction. 
 It is true that deposites of fine matter, as clay, and sand T 
 from water, will at first take the impression, or form of the 
 bottom when this is uneven, but if the strata be of any 
 considerable thickness, the layers will assume a horizon- 
 tal level. But we shall find on examination, that very 
 few stratified rocks in any part of the world, have preserv- 
 ed their coincidence with the horizon. On the contrary, 
 they are inclined at various angles, and are sometimes 
 even quite vertical; clearly evincing that they have been 
 disturbed, and dislocated by some violence, since their 
 formation, 
 
 ** If," says Dr. Macculloch, " the highly inclined posi- 
 tion of strata were not itself a proof of their elevation, evi- 
 dences of motion are found in a great number of phenom- 
 ena. In their curvatures we find proofs of disturbance; 
 we find even more decided evidence to the same purpose 
 in their fractures. But when we see that these fractures 
 are accompanied by a separation of parts which were once 
 continuous, that one portion of a stratum occupies a higher 
 or lower place than another, and that this separation is 
 often attended by a difference in the angle of inclination 
 of the separated parts, we have every proof that can be de- 
 sired, of an alteration in the horizontal position of stratified 
 rocks, since the period when they were consolidated." 
 Geology, vol i. p. 88. 
 
 In the kind of materials of which many inclined strata 
 are composed, we have additional evidence of their eleva- 
 tion. 
 
 We have stated that depositions of sediment from water 
 will at first take the form of an uneven bottom; but we need 
 not stop to prove, that fragments of rock of any con- 
 siderable size will not rest on the sides of steep declivities, 
 but will roll or slide down by their own gravity. Now, 
 " it is notorious," says Dr. Macculloch, < that the conglom- 
 erates which form such conspicuous strata in many coun- 
 tries and which prevail chiefly at the boundary which sep- 
 arates the strata called secondary, from the primary, are 
 
ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS. 131 
 
 often found in positions, not only highly inclined, but ab- 
 solutely vertical. As the materials of these are often of 
 such bulks as to weigh even many hundred pounds, it is 
 evident, that the original position of the strata which con- 
 tain them must have been horizontal." 
 
 It is well known also, that certain marine worms which 
 live in sand, and inhabit straight tubular shells, invariably 
 penetrate the sand in a vertical direction, whether the 
 surface be horizontal or not. If the strata remain undis- 
 turbed these shells remain in the position seen at Fig. 12. 
 And it needs little reflection to see 
 that a concave, or dish formed shell, 
 when it sinks in water, must reach the 
 bottom with its convexity downwards, 
 and hence in all recent formations, 
 such shells are always found in this 
 position. But in the inclined strata, of which we arespeak- 
 ing, such tubular shells are found making various angles 
 with the horizon, though they preserve their perpendicu- 
 larity with respectto the strata: as represented at b. Fig. 13, 
 Fig- 13. while had the strata been pierced 
 
 after its disturbance, it would have 
 been in the direction of c. The 
 concave shells, under like circum- 
 stances, are found to have changed 
 their positions, their cavities being 
 no longer upward, but inclined ac- 
 cording to the position of the strata. On the same sub- 
 ject Dr. Ure says, " the erection of subaqueous strata into 
 primitive mountains and plains, was evidently accompan- 
 ied with universal disruption. Innumerable fragments of 
 both the upborne, and upbearing rocks, were tossed about 
 and washed down into the congregated waters, along the 
 precipitous shores, and over the beds of the primeval 
 ocean. These shattered fragments becoming agglutina- 
 ted by their own pulverulent cement, soon recomposed 
 continuous strata, which bear internal evidence of the vio- 
 lence which gave them birth. Thus were formed the 
 transition rocks of geologists, mineral masses which de- 
 note the passage between the upright primitive, and the 
 horizontal secondary strata, between those of inorganic 
 and organic evidence." 
 
 The convulsions which after a long interval caused the 
 deluge, have dislocated many of these conglomerates, so 
 
132 
 
 ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS. 
 
 Fig. 14 that strata of rounded pebbles assuredly 
 agglutinated in a horizontal position, are 
 now found standing in upright walls. 
 Thus the famous pudding stones of Valor- 
 sine in Savoy, are a kind of greywacke 
 schist, containing rounded fragments of 
 gneiss and mica slate, six or seven inches 
 in diameter. That stones previously 
 rounded by attrition, should build them- 
 selves up into a nearly perpendicular wall 
 as seen at Fig. 14, and stand steadily thus, 
 till fine particles of hydraulic cement 
 should have time to envelope and fix 
 them in their places, is an absurd and im- 
 possible supposition. It is therefore de- 
 monstrable that these pudding stone strata 
 were formed in horizontal, or slightly in- 
 clined beds, and erected after their accre- 
 tion. Such effects would be produced, in the convulsive 
 emergence of the pebbly banks out of the primeval ocean, 
 either at the deluge, or by some preceding catastrophe. 
 There are mountains 10,000 feet high, in the Alps, formed 
 of firmly conglomerated pebbles. 
 
 Another and most striking proof that the rocks have- 
 been elevated by some force acting beneath them, is ex- 
 hibited by primitive mountains in various parts of the 
 world. 
 
 Here we find granite in the centre, with stratified rocks, 
 as gneiss, mica-slate- and clay-slate, leaning against its 
 sides, sometimes nearly in a vertical position. Now as 
 these stratified rocks must have been deposited on a hori- 
 zontal level, or nearly so, and surely not in the highly 
 inclined positions in which they are found, it is evident 
 that their original positions must have been changed, and 
 their inclinations caused by the same force which elevated 
 the primitive mountains. 
 
 Under the article " Classification of Rocks," this sub- 
 ject is illustrated by a wood cut, to which the reader is 
 referred. 
 
 It thus appears sufficiently evident, that at least a great 
 proportion of the habitable earth was formed in strata 
 under the sea; and that subsequently to its being conso- 
 lidated chiefly in the position and form of horizontal 
 layers, it has been violently elevated above the water, by 
 
ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS. 133 
 
 some tremendous subterranean power. Hence the strata 
 are found oblique, dislocated, and rent asunder in nearly 
 every part of the world; and from this cause it is, that the 
 sea and land have exchanged places, and the mountains 
 have been elevated; but to the same cause, even to the 
 destruction of that continuity and harmony which seems 
 to have existed in the form of the primitive globe, we 
 must attribute many of the greatest conveniences and 
 comforts which the present earth affords. 
 
 Had no disturbing forces interposed, there is reason to 
 believe that the inferior strata, now in many places eleva- 
 ted into hills and mountains, would forever have been 
 concealed from the knowledge of man; for was the earth 
 every where covered with horizontal strata, lying in regu- 
 lar layers, one upon another, the same kind of formations 
 would every where exist; and of which we should know 
 nothing below the depth of actual excavations. Metallic 
 vein?, salt, and coal would afford no indications of their 
 existence at or near the surface. There would have 
 been no mural precipices, or mountain declivities, or out- 
 croppings of strata, by which the geologist, or practical 
 miner would be enabled to judge of the interior. Nor 
 would there have been any spring of water issuing from 
 the surface of the earth, for it is the inclination of the 
 strata which directs the water to the surface, and its un- 
 evenness which allows it to break forth in the form of 
 springs. In plain level districts, no water rises to the 
 surface. In these, and many other examples which might 
 be noticed, we cannot but see the traces of benevolence 
 and design, even in the " wreck of matter " which this 
 earth every where displays; and which at every step, 
 forces us to acknowledge, not only the Power, but the 
 Wisdom and Kindness of the Almighty Builder of this 
 our habitation. 
 
 With respect to the agent which has thus thrown moun- 
 tains and continents from the depths of the oceans, and 
 has dislocated the frame work of the globe, we can con- 
 ceive of none except volcanic, of sufficient power to pro- 
 duce such effects. It is true that no continents or exten- 
 sive mountains, have been elevated from the sea, since 
 the historical era, but we have a sufficient number of 
 examples of the effects of this power, even during the 
 present age to shew that the established order of nature 
 would not be changed by the elevation of a continent, 
 12 
 
134 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS. 
 
 The elevation of land to the extent of a hundred miles 
 on the coast of Chili; the rising of the Sabrina island out 
 of the ocean; and of the Aleutian islands on the coast of 
 Kamtschatka, out of the same the changes made by the 
 force of volcanoes in the neighborhood of Naples, and the 
 effects of the earthquakes of Calabria and Lisbon, (all of 
 which we have described in the preceding pages,) afford 
 analogies by which it is not unreasonable to conclude, 
 that it was the same kind of force which broke in pieces 
 the crust of the primeval globe, and raised the habitable 
 earth from the ocean's bed. 
 
 At what period of the creation these great changes took 
 place, we must remain in ignorance, but it is improbable 
 that they were all effected at the same time. On the con- 
 trary, the appearance of the strata seem to indicate a suc- 
 cession of revolutions at different, and perhaps remote 
 periods from each other. These revolutions appear to 
 have been before the creation of man and animals, and 
 probably by such means did the Wisdom and Benevolence 
 of the Creator prepare a place for their reception and 
 comfort. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS. 
 
 The most simple division of rocks is into Primitive 
 or Primary, and Secondary. The first consisting of those 
 which are supposed to have been originally formed, such 
 as granite and its associates, and the second such as were 
 formed by the disintegration, or destruction of these. In 
 the early state of geological knowledge, this was the re- 
 ceived classification. In the first kind no organic re- 
 mains, as plants or shells, are found, and hence they were 
 supposed to have been formed before the creation of or- 
 ganized beings. In the secondary, these remains exist, 
 sometimes in great abundance. To this classification the 
 celebrated Werner added the Transition class, which con- 
 sists of the larger fragments of the primitive, and whicli 
 is intermediate between this, and that usually called se- 
 condary. 
 
 At present, there are a considerable variety of classifi- 
 cations, some of which are too prolix and complicated for 
 a popular work, while others are forbidding on account of 
 the technical language in which they are written. 
 
PRIMARY ROCKS. 135 
 
 Perhaps the best which we can adopt, as embracing all 
 the others, without their minute subdivisions, is the fol- 
 lowing: 
 
 1. PRIMARY. 
 
 2. TRANSITION, OR INTERMEDIATE. 
 
 3. SECONDARY, comprising, 
 
 a. THE LOWER SECONDARY SERIES. 
 
 b, THE UPPER SECONDARY SERIES. 
 
 4. TERTIARY. 
 
 5. BASALTIC, AND VOLCANIC ROCKS. 
 
 6. DILUVIAL, AND ALLUVIAL DEPOSITES. 
 
 PRIMARY ROCKS. 
 
 These compose the great frame, or ground-work of the 
 globe. They form the most lofty mountains, and at the 
 same time extend downward below all other formations. 
 One of the principal rocks of this class is granite. This 
 is a compound rock, being composed of three distinct min- 
 erals aggregated into a solid form. These are quartz, 
 felspar, and mica. Quartz has commonly a white color, 
 a glassy lustre, and does not divide into layers when 
 broken. It often forms a large proportion of the granite. 
 Felspar has a yellowish, or milk white color, and when 
 broken, often divides into layers of considerable thickness, 
 with smooth shining faces. Mica is also sometimes 
 white, but more commonly of a dark green color. It 
 consists of thin flexible leaves, adhering slightly together, 
 and easily separable by the nail. This is well known un- 
 der the name of isinglass, and when in large plates is used 
 for economical purposes, as the dead lights for ships, 
 windows for stoves and lanthorns, &c. Granite never 
 consists of strata, or layers, like gneiss and mica-slate. 
 These minerals differ greatly in their respective propor- 
 tions in different rocks. They also differ widely with 
 respect to size, some granites being composed of crys- 
 tals, or grains, a foot in diameter; while in others the 
 grains are no larger than those of sand. 
 
 The other Primitive rocks, are Gneiss, Mica-slate, 
 Clay -slate, Primitive Limestone, Porphyry, and Sienite; 
 to which some add several others. 
 
 This whole class is generally crystalline in its struc- 
 
136 
 
 MICA-SLATE. 
 
 ture, and never contain the fragments of other rocks, or 
 any organized substance. 
 
 Gneiss, and mica-slate are composed of the same ma- 
 terials as granite, but differently arranged. They are al- 
 so generally composed of much smaller grains than granite. 
 In Gneiss the felspar and quartz are aggregated closely 
 together, forming strata, or layers, between which inter- 
 vene scales of mica. Hence gneiss is a stratified rock, 
 and when broken at right angles with the strata, presents 
 a striped appearance, the quartz and felspar being nearly 
 white, while the mica is deep green or black. 
 
 Mica-slate is chiefly composed of quartz and mica, the 
 felspar being in only small quantities, or in some instances 
 nearly absent. The quartz is commonly in fine grains. 
 and the mica usually predominates, or at least is much 
 the most apparent. Some specimens of this rock appear 
 to be almost entirely composed of small scales of mica, 
 closely adhering together. 
 
 Mica-slate differs from gneiss in containing a less pro- 
 portion of felspar, and in being more distinctly stratified? 
 or slaty in its structure. It is readily divided into layers, 
 or tables, by means of wedges, and is extensively employ- 
 ed for economical purposes, especially for flagging the 
 side walks of cities. 
 
 Gneiss is intermediate between granite and mica-slate 
 in its structure, and is often found interposed between 
 these rocks, lying over the former, and under the latter. 
 Indeed these rocks pass by insensible degrees into each 
 other, the granite gradually becoming stratified runs into 
 gneiss, while the gneiss becoming fissile forms mica-slate. 
 These three are called granitic rocks, and form together 
 a great proportion of the solid crust of our globe. 
 
 The adjoining wood cut from Daubuisson, represents 
 the most common relative positions of granite, gneiss and 
 mica-slate, as they occur on the earth. 
 
 The centre or middle mass, 1, projecting high above 
 the side strata, is granite. The flanking planes, 2 2, are 
 gneiss, appearing as though they had been elevated to 
 their present situation by the tremendous force which 
 lifted up the granite. The mica-slate, 3, 3, is seen rest- 
 ing against the gneiss. The two latter rocks have the 
 appearance of once having been in a horizontal position. 
 
CLAY-SLATE. 137 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 the mica-slate being superincumbent on the gneiss, and 
 this on the granite; and we shall see in another place that 
 this was undoubtedly the case, g is a great bed of quartz, 
 included in the micaceous beds, and being much less 
 subject to the disintegration by the weather, rises above 
 the mica. 4 4 r are beds of clay-slate, or roof-slate, on the 
 outside of the mica-slate. 5, is an overlaying mass of 
 porphyry, resting on the mica, and clay-slate. 6, a small 
 bed of mica-slate resting between the central peaks of 
 granite, with the strata bent and sloping in opposite di- 
 rections, forming a dish-like cavity. Above 7 is seen a 
 bed of clay and gravel in strata, lying nearly horizontal 
 on the upright edges of the clay-slate, demonstrating their 
 subsequent and independent formation. 
 
 In many instances there is sufficient proof exhibited by 
 the rocks themselves, that the primitive strata were once 
 in a horizontal position, and that they owe their present 
 vertical position to a force exerted from below, and by 
 which the granite, being elevated, has raised up the once 
 superincumbent rocks, and given them their various in- 
 clinations. This subject has already been examined, un- 
 der " Elevations of Continents from the Sea." 
 
 Clay-slate. Roof-slate. This rock is exceedingly fis- 
 sile, and being divided into thin plates, is in very general 
 use for the roofing of houses; its appearance, therefore, 
 is too generally known to need description. 
 
 This is the most distinctly stratified of all the primitive 
 rocks, and it is a singular circumstance, that its strata are 
 commonly very highly inclined, sometimes nearly, or 
 quite vertical. This rock is associated with granitic 
 rocks, being often superincumbent on mica-slate. 
 12* 
 
138 PORPHYRY. 
 
 Primitive Limestone. This is called primitive, to dis- 
 tinguish it from the secondary, or that which has been more 
 recently formed; for limestone is of all ages, from that 
 which is now forming at the mouth of the Rhone, to that 
 which has the antiquity of the granitic mountains. 
 
 Primitive limestone is crystalline in its structure, and 
 is found associated with granite, gneiss and rnica-slate. 
 being often intermixed with the latter, or alternating in 
 layers with it. No organic remains are found in this rock, 
 and hence, like granite, it is supposed to have been form- 
 ed before the creation of living beings. When white and 
 pure, it is known in the arts, under the name of statuary 
 marble, of which the finest specimens of ancient as well 
 as modern sculpture are made. It is found particularly in 
 Italy, Switzerland, and the Grecian Archipelago. The 
 Carara marble is a primitive limestone. 
 
 Secondary Limestone contains shells and other organic 
 bodies is compact, and not crystalline in its structure, 
 and is associated with secondary rocks. Thus may the 
 two kinds be distinguished. 
 
 Porphyry derives its name from a Greek word, signify- 
 ing purple, because the first rock to which this name was 
 applied had a purple color. At present, however, any 
 rock having a compact, or paste-like base, with imbedded 
 crystals, is called by this name, whatever its color may be. 
 
 Porphyry has the appearance of having once been in 
 the form of a soft paste, into which crystals of various 
 kinds, but most commonly felspar, have by some unknown 
 means been introduced. When associated with granite, 
 porphyry is considered a primitive rock, but is sometimes 
 secondary, and sometimes volcanic. It may, perhaps, be 
 considered as the connecting link between granitic rocks, 
 and those of igneous origin. 
 
 The columns of some of the most ancient and splendid 
 edifices were made of porphyry, of which the remains are 
 still in existence. The great hardness of this rock; the 
 high polish which it is capable of bearing, and the variety 
 and beauty of the colors which it often presents, afford a 
 combination of qualities for splendid and enduring archi- 
 tectural purposes which is found in no other mineral 
 body. But the labor of forming pillars thirty or forty 
 feet in height, and five or six feet in diameter, of this ma- 
 
IGNEOUS ORIGIN OF GRANITE. 139 
 
 terial, such as the ancients constructed, is much too great 
 and expensive for the present age. 
 
 Porphyry, though not an uncommon rock, seldom oc- 
 curs in extensive formations like granite and limestone. 
 
 Sienite. This rock is composed of quartz, felspar and 
 hornblende. It may be considered as a granite in which 
 the mica is replaced by hornblende; it, however, some- 
 times contains small portions of mica. Its structure is 
 granular like that of granite, and its prevailing color is 
 yellowish white, mottled with black, giving it a grey ap- 
 pearance. The cit) of Boston contains many magnificent 
 columns of sienite. It is associated with granite, into 
 which it gradually passes, as the mica takes the place of 
 the hornblende. 
 
 IGNEOUS ORIGIN OF GRANITE. 
 
 It was formerly believed that granite was of aqueous 
 origin, that is, that the materials of which it is composed 
 were first dissolved in water as preparatory to their as- 
 suming that solid and crystalline form, which we see at 
 the present time. Now chemistry has long since taught us 
 that no substance in the labratory of art, nor so far as is 
 known, in that of nature, ever assumes the crystalline 
 form until it has been dissolved in some kind of fluid; and 
 indeed a single consideration would seem to show, beyond 
 all question, the necessity of such solution, for otherwise 
 there could be no motion among the particles of which the 
 crystal is formed, and without motion it is equally certain 
 that these particles never could take their places according 
 to the laws of affinity, or in other terms, never could as- 
 sume crystalline forms. 
 
 The kind of fluid in which the particles are dissolved, it 
 is obvious, must depend on the kind of substance. Thus 
 some substances are soluble in water, others in acids, and 
 others in caloric. Now, although the materials composing 
 granite are scarcely soluble by any artificial means, still 
 there is no doubt but under a very high temperature, with the 
 combined aid of pressure, they would be soluble in water, 
 or in caloric alone, and the phenomena, as we shall see, 
 afford conclusive evidence that the latter was the solvent, 
 
140 
 
 IGNEOUS ORIGIN OF GRANITE. 
 
 and that the materials composing granite were once in a 
 melted state. 
 
 The igneous origin of granite is satisfactorily proved, 
 from the phenomena of its veins; from the calorific effects 
 of these veins on the walls of the rocks, through which 
 they have protruded; from the intrusion of granitic matter 
 between the strata of various rocks through which such 
 veins have been forced, and lastly from the passage of 
 known igneous rocks into granite. 
 
 The igneous origin of trap rocks has long been ac- 
 knowledged by all competent geologists, but the general 
 agreement that granite had the same origin is only of re- 
 cent date. The proofs however of the origin of both are 
 nearly the same. 
 
 Under the " Origin and phenomena of Trap Rocks" 
 it will be seen that dikes or veins of basalt often pro- 
 trude through the strata of other rocks, and that where 
 they come into contact with these strata, the effects of heat 
 are always apparent. The illustrations by diagrams, also 
 prove that these veins, or dikes were forced through the 
 fissures, or spread between the strata of the rocks, while 
 the former was in a soft or semifluid state. The same 
 phenomena are found to attend veins of granite which 
 traverse other rocks, there being every indication that 
 these veins were forced up from below in an ignited and 
 softened state. 
 
 Fig. 16 The diagram Fig. 
 
 16, will show the man- 
 ner in which granite 
 sometimes traverses 
 stratified rocks. This 
 drawing is from Dr. 
 Macculloch's repre- 
 sentation of granite 
 veins passing through 
 gneiss at cape Wrath 
 in Scotland. These 
 veins it may be obser- 
 intersect each 
 otherin various direc- 
 tions, and are curious- 
 ly branched and contorted. The mass of granite below 
 the stratified gneiss, is also apparent, and as the veins end 
 before reaching the surface of the gneiss, we cannot but in- 
 
IGNEOUS ORIGIN OF GRANITE. 141 
 
 fer that they were forced up in a softened state from the 
 underlying granite with which their trunks are incorpora- 
 ted. Similar instances, that is, of granite veins traversing 
 stratified rocks, and also rocks of granite, are known to 
 occur frequently and in various parts of the world. In 
 Europe such cases were formerly considered singular and 
 important phenomena, and as they went to prove the ig- 
 neous origin of granite, they were described with great 
 prolixity and exactness. But the progress of observation 
 has shown that granitic veins are quite common, and that 
 particularly in mica slate, examples may be seen in al- 
 most any place, where circumstances allow the rock to be 
 examined a few yards below the surface, and often on the 
 surface itself. 
 
 In this country, Prof. Hitchcock of Amherst College, 
 in his Report of the Gejology of Massachusetts, has de- 
 scribed and figured many such cases; some of which we 
 shall take the liberty of inserting at this place. 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Fig. 17, (fig. 11, in Prof. Hitchcock's work,) represents 
 a vein of granite protruding through strata of hornblende 
 slate. It occurs at Ackworth, New Hampshire, and is a 
 remarkable locality of beryls, rose quartz, and crystalized 
 mica. 
 
 " As the traveller approaches this spot," says the author, 
 " he will observe while several miles distant, a remarkable 
 
142 IGNEOUS ORIGIN OF GRANITE. 
 
 conical half naked peak, chiefly of white granite, shooting 
 up about 300 feet above the surrounding country. This 
 is the hill represented below, (Fig. 17,) as seen on its north- 
 western side, along which the road passes. The prevail- 
 ing rock in the vicinity is gneiss; but in this elevation it is 
 chiefly hornblende slate, traversed by an enormous granite 
 vein, a, and exhibiting at least two protruding masses, b, 
 and c, of granite. The vein varies from one half, to four 
 rods in thickness, and the mass b, is four or five rods 
 across: c, is only ten feet wide. The general direction of 
 the laminae of the slate is north and south, and the dip 
 from 15 to 20 east: but we have here the most decisive 
 marks of its having been irregularly upheaved, and distur- 
 bed by the protruding granite. Near the foot of the hill, 
 the slate is bent upwards, so that the chord of the curve is 
 several rods long. But it is a curious fact, that the axis of 
 the elevating force seems not to have coincided with the 
 direction in which the vein was erupted. For the highest 
 point of the curve of elevation, near the foot of the hill, is 
 to the right of the vein at h; and as we ascend the hill we 
 find the slate curved upwards near the vein more and more, 
 as is shown by the drawing. Indeed the granite of the 
 vein seems to lie on the elevated edges of the slate; so that 
 the lower side of the vein dips northeasterly; and does not 
 cut the slate perpendicularly. These facts would seem to 
 evince, that the vein made its way through the slate, not 
 along the line of the greatest pressure, but on the north 
 side of it: probably because there the slate yielded most 
 readily. We may suppose the melted granite below to 
 have gradually elevated the slate, until at length it burst 
 its way laterally through the rock. Such cases, I believe 
 do sometimes occur in existing volcanoes. 
 
 " The masses of granite ,and c, are probably other exam- 
 ples in which the molten matter burst its way laterally 
 through the slate. And it is an interesting fact in regard 
 to the mass b, that in some places it still projects over the 
 slate several feet, forming in fact an overlaying mass. In- 
 stances of this kind I have rarely met with in the granite 
 of New England." Page 480. 
 
 Fig. 18, also from Prof. Hitchcock's work, represents a 
 nearly perpendicular ledge of mica slate in Conway, Mass. 
 The strata as shown by the drawing, are much contorted, 
 indicating disturbance during their deposition, or while they 
 were in a soft and yielding state, a, a, are strata of com- 
 
PASSAGE OF GRANITE INTO BASALT. 143 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 mon mica-slate: i, is a stratum of amphibolic slate. The 
 whole surface exhibited is fifteen feet long and eight feet 
 high. Through this ledge runs a vein of fine grained gran- 
 ite a foot wide. 
 
 "The object of giving this sketch" says Prof. Hitchcock, 
 44 is to show that this vein has produced no derangement of 
 the mica-slate: for the different particles of that rock occu- 
 py the same relative position on the different sides of the 
 vein. Hence the vein was introduced subsequently to the 
 consolidation of the slate; and probably it was injected in- 
 to an open fissure." 
 
 PASSAGE OF GRANITE INTO BASALT. 
 
 Dr. Hibbert describes the manner in which granite has 
 gradually passed into basalt in one of the Shetland Isl- 
 ands. The basalt extends from the island of Mickle Voe, 
 northwards to Roeness Voe, a distance of twelve miles. On 
 the west of this there is a considerable mass of granite, 
 and the transition from the one into the other is thus de- 
 scribed. " Not far from the junction we may find, disper- 
 sed through the basalt, many minute particles of quartz. 
 This is the first indication of an approaching change in the 
 nature of the rock. In again tracing it still nearer the 
 granite, we find the particles of quartz dispersed through 
 the basalt becoming still more numerous, and larger, an 
 increase of magnitude even extending to every other de- 
 scription of particles. The rock may now be observed 
 
144 PASSAGE OF GRANITE INTO BASALT. 
 
 to consist of separate ingredients, of quartz, of hornblende, 
 felspar, and greenstone; the latter substance, (greenstone,) 
 being a homogenous commixture of hornblende and fel- 
 spar. Again as we approach still nearer the granite, the 
 disseminated portions of greenstone disappear, their place 
 being supplied by an additional quantity of felspar and 
 quartz. The rock now consists of three ingredients, fel- 
 spar, quartz, and hornblende. The last change which 
 takes place, results from the still increasing accumulation 
 of quartz and felspar, and from the proportionate dissem- 
 ination of hornblende. The hornblende eventually disap- 
 pears, and we have a well characterized granite, consisting 
 of two ingredients, felspar and quartz." Ed. Journal of 
 Science, vol. L p. 107. 
 
 We see from these examples, that granite has been forced 
 from below into the fissures of other rocks which were 
 superincumbent, consequently, which were deposited 
 after the granite was formed. In several instances it may 
 be observed also, that the granite does not reach the sur- 
 face, by which it is proved that these veins could not have 
 entered from above, a theory long maintained by those 
 who claimed that granite was of aqueous origin. Besides, 
 the indications of fusion which these veins present, the pas- 
 sage of granite into basalt, a rock which all agree bears the 
 marks of fire, is additional evidence that they had a com- 
 mon origin. 
 
 But if we consider granite veins to have forced their 
 way from below, in a state of igneous fusion, then we 
 might expect, that when the mass came into contact with 
 stratified rocks, the strata would be separated, and that the 
 fluid matter would run between them, at least to a short 
 distance, and especially near the surface, where the pres- 
 sure would present little resistance to the separation of the 
 strata. Now this is precisely what is known to have hap- 
 pened in numerous instances, one of the most striking ex- 
 amples of which occurs at Glen Tilt, in the Grampian 
 mountains in Scotland. 
 
 At this place, veins of red granite are seen branching out 
 on the northern side of the glen, from the principal mass, 
 and meeting the slate and limestone which forms the 
 southern side. The granite veins run in all directions, in- 
 termingling with, and disturbing the strata of the other 
 rocks, in such a manner as to prove, not only that the 
 granite was in a fluid state at the time of its intrusion, but 
 also, that it was forced up with great violence. 
 
GRANITE OF DIFFERENT AGES. 
 
 145 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 ^K^^'^ 
 
 - 2P^^^^-^L>^I!1^-- A J/jN/v.J'^-***-!!^!!!'*' 1 ^ *** 
 
 The diagram Fig. 19, from Dr. Macculloch, represents 
 the appearance of these rocks. " The granite at this lo- 
 cality" says Mr. Lyell, " often sends forth so many veins as 
 to reticulate the lime stone and shist, the veins diminishing 
 towards their termination to the thickness of a leaf of pa- 
 per, or a thread. In some places fragments of granite ap- 
 pear entangled as it were, in the limestone, and are not 
 visibly connected with any larger mass; while sometimes 
 on the other hand, a lump of the limestone is iound in the 
 midst of the granite;" a, granite 6, limestone, c, argilla- 
 ceous shist. 
 
 The ordinary color of the limestone at Glen Tilt is 
 lead blue, and its texture large grained; but where it ap- 
 proximates to the granite, particularly where it is pene- 
 trated by the smaller veins, the crystalline texture disap- 
 pears, and it assumes an appearance exactly resembling 
 hornstone. This change was undoubtedly produced by 
 the heat of the intruding granite. 
 
 These facts and circumstances are considered sufficient 
 to show the igneous origin of granite, though an abundance 
 of others of a similar nature might be adduced from au- 
 thors. 
 
 GRANITE OF DIFFERENT AGES. 
 
 All the older geological writers believed that granite 
 was the primitive rock of our globe, and the one on which 
 13 
 
146 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IGNEOUS ROCKS. 
 
 all others reposed. They also considered this rock as 
 every where of a similar age, the idea of successive forma- 
 tions of granite having never until recently been advanced. 
 These opinions were founded on the general facts, that this 
 rock lies beneath all others, and that it contains no organic 
 remains, which facts even at the present day, we must 
 acknowledge to be generally true. More extensive obser- 
 vations have however shown many exceptions to these 
 facts, there having been discovered instances where gran- 
 ite not only penetrates through, and reposes on stratified 
 rocks, but also where the rocks invaded by it contain or- 
 ganic remains. Thus Dr. Macculloch describes a consid- 
 erable mass of granite in the Isle of Sky, which is incum- 
 bent on limestone, and shale. The limestone at some dis- 
 tance from the granite contains shells, but in its immediate 
 vicinity, no shells appear, the limestone being converted 
 into pure crystalline marble. This change, as well as the 
 destruction of the shells, is attributed to the heat of the 
 granite at the time of its protrusion. 
 
 In different parts of the Alps, similar phenomena occur, 
 where according to the observations of Beaumont, and oth- 
 ers, granite is seen penetrating through secondary strata, 
 which contain belemnites and other fossil organic remains. 
 
 In Norway, also Von Bush discovered a mass of granite 
 overlying a bed of secondary limestone, containing a vari- 
 ety of fossil shells. 
 
 These and other instances of the kind, must however be 
 considered as exceptions to a general rule, there being no 
 doubt, but the granite which universally forms the deeper 
 portions of the crust of our globe, is the .eldest of our 
 rocks. 
 
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IGNEOUS ROCKS. 
 
 After having shown that granite, as well as greenstone 
 is an igneous rock, the inquiry naturally arises why these 
 two rocks differ so widely in appearance, if indeed they 
 have had the same origin? This is a question which our 
 present knowledge does not enable us to answer with any 
 degree of certainty, nor indeed do geologists profess to do 
 more than offer plausible conjectures to account for these 
 differences. 
 
TRANSITION OR INTERMEDIATE ROCKS. 147 
 
 The composition of greenstone is hornblende and fel- 
 spar, that of granite is felspar, quartz, and mica. The 
 crystals in the greenstone are commonly small, often too 
 minute to be distinguished by the naked eye, while those 
 of granite are generally of considerable size, often many 
 inches in diameter. 
 
 Some geologists have supposed that the difference in the 
 size of the crystals, might be accounted for by the differ- 
 ence in the time of cooling, since chemistry in some in- 
 stances has shown, that the same materials will form large 
 crystals when cooled slowly, and small ones when codled 
 suddenly. It has been conjectured therefore, that the trap- 
 pean rocks were erupted under the sea, and that the pres- 
 sure of the water, and the rapid abstraction of the heat, by 
 its agency has caused the difference in texture. But if we 
 admit that the granite was fused at a greater depth and in 
 larger quantities, and account for the difference of texture 
 on these conditions, still it is difficult to conceive why such 
 conditions should produce such changes in the composi- 
 tions of the two rocks, the greenstone containing little or 
 no mica or quartz, while the granite contains only an oc- 
 casional portion of hornblende. 
 
 If we compare granite, and the varieties of trap with the 
 volcanic products of the present time, or with those of an- 
 cient, extinct volcanoes, we shall find in general little an- 
 alogy, either in appearance or composition between them. 
 No volcano either ancient or modern, has ever been known 
 to emit either granite, or trap; though the latter and some 
 volcanic products have considerable affinity. 
 
 It is possible that future observations may throw light 
 on this subject, but at present though geologists generally 
 agree that granite, trap and lava were all once in a state of 
 fusion, yet no one has given any satisfactory theory to ac- 
 count for the differences they present in appearance, tex- 
 ture and composition. 
 
 TRANSITION OR INTERMEDIATE ROCKS. 
 
 Next in order to the primitive are the Transition rocks. 
 The term transition comes from the Latin transitio, in 
 reference to their removal or change of place. These 
 rocks are above the primitive on which they rest* 
 
148 TRANSITION OR INTERMEDIATE ROCKS. 
 
 This formation is composed of the larger fragments 
 of all the primitive rocks, consolidated into continuous 
 masses. The manner in which the transition rocks were 
 formed, appears to be sufficiently obvious. At the time 
 when the waters were gathered into one place, to form the 
 sea, or when the primitive rocks were thrown up from the 
 ocean, the disruptions and dislocations consequent upon 
 these mighty movements, reduced the highest parts of the 
 primitive to fragments, which falling down upon the sides 
 of the mountains, covered them with their ruins; and these 
 becoming agglutinated by the pulverulent cement, produ- 
 ced by the friction of these fragments, formed the rocks in 
 question. 
 
 In the course of their consolidation, organized beings of 
 the lowest orders, such as sea shells, falling in their crev- 
 ices were there embedded; and thus it is proved that these 
 rocks were formed after the creation of organized beings. 
 That they were formed next after the primitive rocks, is 
 proved by their lying immediately on them. 
 
 The rocks belonging to this class are Greywacke, Trans- 
 ition Limestone, Slate and Sandstone. 
 
 Greywacke. This uncouth word, which we have bor- 
 rowed from the Germans, the French Geologists have ex- 
 changed for the term traumate, which signifies fragment- 
 ary. 
 
 Greywacke is a slaty formation, which includes the frag- 
 ments of many other rocks. These fragments vary in 
 size, from that of the head to the smallest grains. Some- 
 times it consists almost entirely of rounded pebbles, ce- 
 mented together by sand and oxide of iron. It is then 
 called conglomerate, and no longer retains its slaty char- 
 acter. When the grains are small, and it is stratified, it 
 becomes slate; and when not stratified, it passes into 
 sandstone. The Rhode Island coal mine is in a grey- 
 wacke formation. 
 
 Transition Limestone. This is an abundant rock, be- 
 ing that which is employed in making quick-lime for mor- 
 tar, and also in many countries, as a building stone. Ma- 
 ny of the common variegated marbles belong to this 
 formation. Some specimens are finely colored, and 
 bearing a high polish, form beautiful slabs for tables and 
 fire-places. 
 
SANDSTONTS. 149 
 
 This rock sometimes underlays large sections of coun- 
 try, and in other instances rises into extensive ranges of 
 mountains. The great caverns which are described as 
 existing in different countries, and which often contain 
 the remains of animals, are of this class. 
 
 Some transition limestones contain abundance of ma- 
 rine organic remains, and hence must have been formed 
 under the ocean. In other instances, no fossil relics are 
 found, but the rock is composed of angular, or water- 
 worn fragments, consolidated by a calcareous cement. 
 The presence of such fragments will always distinguish 
 the transition from the secondary limestones. 
 
 In England and Wales, this is a very extensive and im- 
 portant formation, and contains not only vast quantities 
 of organic relics, but various metallic ores. " In Derby- 
 shire," says Mr. Bakewell, " where the different beds of 
 limestone have been pierced through by the miners, the 
 average thickness of the three uppermost, is 160 yards; 
 the beds are separated by beds of trap, or basalt, resem- 
 bling ancient lavas." 
 
 Slate. Clay slate, although often associated with prim- 
 itive rocks, as already noticed, is also found with those of 
 the transition class. But we have already given a suffi- 
 cient description of this rock. 
 
 Porphyry. This is also, sometimes a transition rock, 
 being so considered when it is found associated with rocks 
 of this class. 
 
 Sandstone. This rock, as its name indicates, consists 
 chiefly of sand, cemented into a solid form. It often con- 
 tains water-worn pebbles, angular pieces of other rocks, 
 as granite, fragments of slate, nodules of quartz, &c. 
 being evidently made up of the ruins of former rocks. 
 Its color is commonly red, owing to the oxide of iron it 
 contains, and which serves as a cement to the grains of 
 sand of which it is composed. 
 
 Sandstone, by an uninterrupted continuity, passes into 
 greywacke. The only difference appears to be, that the 
 latter rock is commonly stratified, and of a darker color, 
 not having, like the sandstone, a tinge of red. Where the 
 greywacke is not of a slaty structure, it becomes sand- 
 stone. 
 
 13* 
 
150 SECONDARY ROCKS, 
 
 SECONDARY ROCKS. 
 
 The secondary rocks have, by some, been divided into 
 the lower secondary, and upper secondary, the second 
 being superincumbent on the first; but as it is difficult to 
 determine where the lower series terminate, and the up- 
 per one commences, we shall follow the more simple meth- 
 od of considering the whole as merely secondary forma- 
 tions. The same difficulty, indeed, is applicable to the 
 termination of the transition series, and the commence- 
 ment of the secondary. The chief differences being, that 
 the secondary is not so generally composed of fragments, 
 shows less of the crystalline structure, and contains or- 
 ganic remains of known existing species; while the tran- 
 sition class is more fragmentary; more crystalline, and 
 contains few, or no shells, known to be recent, or living. 
 
 The principal secondary formations, are Coal, Seconda- 
 ry Limestone, Chalk, Oolite, and Sandstone. 
 
 The last named rock, we have placed among the transi- 
 tion series; and undoubtedly that which is composed, in 
 considerable proportion of the fragments of other rocks, 
 belongs there; but many sandstone formations appear 
 more properly to be arranged as secondary rocks. The 
 actual inquirer will often find himself at a loss to deter- 
 mine, from the position of strata, with respect to each 
 other, which are the transition, and which the secondary; 
 because, in many instances, the secondary, as well as the 
 tertiary, to be next described, will be found lying imme- 
 diately upon the primitive. This arises from the fact, that 
 no formation of the secondary series extends to every part 
 of the earth. Did the different formations cover the earth 
 entirely, as the coats of an onion surround each other, there 
 would exist neither doubt nor difficulty on this subject; 
 for then the same characters would identify the different 
 classes, in all parts of the earth, and each could be known, 
 merely by its depth under the surface. But instead of 
 this, it is quite common, even in countries of no conside- 
 rable elevation, to observe the primitive rocks projecting 
 above the surface, or lying only a few feet beneath the 
 soil. It is, therefore, only in certain parts of the earth, 
 that the relative positions of strata can be determined, as a 
 whole, for it is obvious, from what we have stated, that in 
 some places, the newest formations overlay the oldest, 
 

 COAL FIELDS. 151 
 
 without the intervention of any other. In such situations^ 
 however, as afford opportunities for observing the several 
 strata lying superincumbent, the same relative positions 
 are found every where to exist, or to exist so uniformly 
 as to lead to definite general conclusions. 
 
 Coal. This well known substance affords several vari- 
 eties, differing in color, from dark brown, to jet black; 
 and containing variable proportions of carbon and bitu- 
 men, with more or less impurities. 
 
 The English mineral coal, is stated by mineralogists to 
 contain from fifteen to forty per cent, of bitumen, and 
 from forty to eighty per cent, of charcoal. 
 
 Black, or common coal, is found in regular strata, or 
 beds, from a few inches, to several yards in thickness. 
 Several beds commonly occur under each other, being 
 separated by strata of clay or sandstone. These series of 
 strata are called coal fields, or coal measures. 
 
 Coal Fields. Every coal field has its peculiar series o 
 strata, which vary in thickness from those of any other 
 The coal beds are also separated by deposites which dif- 
 fer in thickness, in kind, or in arrangement, from those of 
 other formations. Hence each coal field is a distinct and 
 independent deposite, and is in no way connected with 
 any other coal field, with respect to the sources whence 
 their materials were originally derived. Hence they are 
 all of limited extent, and most commonly basin-shaped 
 concavities, which have the forms, and so far as can be 
 ascertained, the appearance of once having been lakes, or 
 ponds of greater or less depth and extent. In some of 
 the large coal fields, the original formation of the lake 
 cannot be traced, but in many smaller ones, it is distinctly 
 ascertained. 
 
 The number of coal beds, and the various intervening 
 strata through which the shafts of some coal mines pass, 
 often amount to great numbers. In a coal field belong- 
 ing to Lord Dudley, in Staffordshire, a ,haft was sunk to 
 the depth of 939 feet. The beds passed through in this 
 shaft, which the miners distinguish by different names, are 
 sixty-five. The number of beds of coal, are eleven, of 
 which five are above the principal bed, called the main 
 coal, and five below it. The main coal is about three hun- 
 dred feet below the surface, and consists of thirteen diffe- 
 
153 ROCK SALT. 
 
 rent beds, lying close to each other, but separated by their 
 layers of slate clay. Its thickness is about twenty-seven 
 feet. 
 
 To convey an idea of the regularity of these strata, we 
 here give the names of a few of them, and the succession 
 in which they occur, beginning with the lowest. 
 
 thick. thick. 
 
 9 Gravel, 6 ft. 
 
 1 Slate-clay, 90 ft. 
 
 2 Limestone, 30 
 
 3 Slate-clay, 230 
 
 4 Coal, 2 
 
 5 Slate-clay, 120 
 
 6 Coal, 15 
 
 7 Slate-clay, 8 
 
 8 Coal, 10 
 
 10 Coal, 9 
 
 11 Slate-clay, 27 
 
 12 Slate-clay, 6 
 
 13 Coal, 6 
 
 14 Slate-clay, 21 
 
 15 Coal, (main,) 29 
 
 16 Bituminous shale, 7 
 
 See " Origin of, and Searching' for Coal." 
 
 Secondary Limestone. This is also called carboniferous, 
 and mountain limestone. Its texture is compact, and not 
 crystalline, like the primitive limestone before described. 
 Its prevailing colors are grey, or yellowish white, but it 
 is sometimes bluish, or black. This formation is some- 
 times extensive, underlaying large districts, and rising 
 into considerable mountains. The hills of this formation, 
 often present mural, or wall-like precipices, and rocky, 
 uneven dales. 
 
 It is considered a more recent rock than transition lime- 
 stone, and is often composed, almost entirely of marine 
 shells, sometimes only slightly adhering together. It also 
 contains the bones of animals, chiefly of extinct species, 
 but sometimes of those now living, and which are never 
 found in the transition class. It is often difficult, howev- 
 er, to distinguish this rock from transition limestone, into 
 which it insensibly passes. 
 
 Rock Salt. Although this salt cannot properly be clas- 
 sed as a rock, yet as it forms considerable beds, and is, 
 withal, an important article, it is proper to describe its 
 geological bearings and associations. 
 
 In its impure state, as it is raised from the mine, rock 
 salt is in large solid masses, of a crystalline structure, with 
 a reddish, or bluish color. When pure, as it sometimes 
 occurs in the mine, it is perfectly colorless, and transpa- 
 rent, like the best flint glass. 
 
ORIGIN OF ROCK SALT. 153 
 
 Rock salt is found at various depths below the surface, 
 At Cheshire, in England, where vast quantities are raised, 
 the first bed is o'ne hundred and thirty feet deep, and sev- 
 enty-eight feet thick. This is separated from the next 
 bed by a stratum of clay-stone, thirty feet thick. The 
 lower bed has been penetrated one hundred and twenty 
 feet, but has not been sunk through. 
 
 The principal known deposites of salt, are those of Car- 
 dona, in Spain; those of Hungary, and Poland; that of 
 Caramania, in Asia; the extensive formations of Germany 
 and Austria; those on each side of the Carpathian moun- 
 tains, and those of South America. 
 
 According to the traveller Chardin, rock salt is so 
 abundant in Caramania, and the atmosphere so dry, that 
 the inhabitants sometimes build their houses of it. 
 
 Origin of Rock Salt. At Posa, in Castille, there is a 
 deposite of rock salt, within the crater of an extinct vol- 
 cano; and in the island of Sicily, there exists more or less 
 of the same mineral, in such situations as to indicate that 
 it has been formed by the evaporation of sea water, by 
 volcanic heat. But if subterranean heat has in a few in- 
 stances produced salt by evaporation, still the situation 
 and appearances of these formations generally, are such 
 as to preclude any rational supposition, that they have been 
 formed in this manner. 
 
 The most natural hypothesis that has been offered, to 
 account for the existence of this salt, especially in certain 
 situations, is that which attributes it to the gradual evapo- 
 ration of pools, or lakes of salt water left by the ocean, 
 when it retired from the present continents, in conse- 
 quence of their elevation. This theory, too, might be 
 considered as receiving strong support from the fact, that 
 in some of the Polish mines, sea shells, the claws of crabs, 
 and vegetable impressions have been found. 
 
 But on the contrary, most salt mines are entirely with- 
 out any organic, or other remains, by which any gleam 
 of light is thrown upon the history of their origin. Were 
 these formations the solid matter, left by the desiccation 
 of salt lakes, we should suppose that fossil sea animals, 
 as well as shells, ought to be found every where, and in 
 abundance. Another, and still stronger objection to this 
 hypothesis, is the great purity of subterranean salt, when 
 compared with that obtained by the evaporation of sea 
 water. 
 
154 GYPSUM. 
 
 With the exception of foreign impurities, such as clay 
 and sand, rock salt is nearly pure muriate of soda; while 
 sea water, by evaporation, produces, muriate of magne- 
 sia, and sulphate of soda, besides muriate of soda. The 
 mode in which rock salt is disposed in the earth, is also 
 against the hypothesis of evaporation. That of Cheshire, 
 instead of being in strata, is found in distinct concretions. 
 
 To these difficulties, it may be added, that the depth of 
 sea water required to produce some of the larger masses 
 of rock salt, must not only have been unfathomable, but 
 incomprehensible. The salt hill of Cardona is 663 feet 
 in height, and is solid muriate of soda. Now, according 
 to the experiments of Dr. Marcet, 500 grains of salt wa- 
 ter, yielded 21 1-2 grains of solid matter, of which 13.3 
 parts were muriate of soda. From 10,000 parts of sea 
 water, Dr. Murray obtained 220 parts of common salt. 
 According to such data, if the salt of Cardona was formed 
 in a lake, by evaporation, the water not only yielded pure 
 muriate of soda, but must have been more than 27,000 
 feet, or more than five miles in depth. 
 
 Finally, this subject appears to be one of great difficul- 
 ty, for although geologists have made the theory of these 
 formations a matter of much interest and inquiry, no ra- 
 tional hypothesis concerning them has yet been proposed, 
 
 Gypsum. Sulphate of Lime. This is known under 
 the name of Plaister of Paris, and is so common as to 
 need no description. This substance, like rock salt, is 
 seldom found in extensive formations. It occurs both 
 with primitive and secondary rocks, and, from the species 
 of shells it sometimes contains, has been considered a 
 fresh water formation. Beds of gypsum commonly al- 
 ternate with those of marl and limestone. 
 
 The greatest deposite of gypsum described, is that of 
 Paris, which extends about twenty leagues. At Mont- 
 matre, near Paris, two formations of this substance may 
 be observed; the. lower is composed of alternate beds of 
 little thickness consisting of gypsum, often crystalline, 
 alternating with lime and clay-marls. The upper forma- 
 tion is the most important and remarkable. It is about 
 sixty-five feet thick, and, in some places, lies immediately 
 under vegetable mould. This is especially interesting, 
 from the number and variety of organic relics it contains, 
 from its being the chief source whence the celebrated 
 
THICKNESS OF CHALK BEDS. 155 
 
 Cuvier drew the skeletons of so many extinct species of 
 animals. See Organic Remains. 
 
 Chalk. In England, chalk is a very important forma- 
 tion, both on account of its extent and its perfectly dis- 
 tinctive characters. It is also found in France, Ireland, 
 Spain, Germany, Italy and Poland; but it is a singular 
 fact, that no deposites of chalk have been found beyond the 
 limits of Europe. In the New World, through the whole 
 extent of the two Americas, not a specimen of chalk has 
 been found. 
 
 The chemical properties of chalk are those of carbon- 
 ate of lime, viz. lime 56; carbonic acid 44=100. When 
 well burned, chalk is said to make as good quick lime as 
 the hardest marble. In the Isle of Wight, the harder 
 kinds are employed as building stones; and, at Dover, 
 chalk is used in the construction of docks, or other ma- 
 sonry which is covered by the water. Some very ancient 
 buildings are constructed of this material, and among them 
 the Abbey of St. Omar, in France, which is said still to 
 retain all its beautiful Gothic ornaments in great perfec- 
 tion. 
 
 With respect to the antiquity of chalk, it is considered 
 a more recent formation than coal, and between it, and 
 the tertiary, or newer secondary formations. 
 
 Beds of chalk generally contain nodules of flint and 
 organic remains, especially those of shells, sponge, star- 
 fish, madrepores, &c.; but some beds are entirely without 
 flints. Countries underlaid with chalk are generally far 
 from being flat or level, but, on the contrary, are remark- 
 able for their undulations of surface, the hills having 
 smooth rounded outlines, with deep indentations or hol- 
 lows in their sides. 
 
 Thickness of Chalk Beds. Chalk beds vary in thick- 
 ness from a few inches to 1000 feet or more. At Dover, 
 the beds containing flints are about 50(4 feet thick, and 
 those without flints 140 feet thick. At Culver cliff, in the 
 Isle of Wight, where these beds are disposed vertically, 
 and where Mr. Conybeare says there is the best oppor- 
 tunity afforded to ascertain their thickness, this has been 
 found about 1300 feet. But, generally, this formation in 
 England varies from 600 to 1COO feet in thickness. 
 
156 LIAS. .:^y 
 
 Oolite. This is also called Roestone, because it is com- 
 posed of small globules resembling the roe of fishes. It 
 has generally a yellowish brown, or ochery color. It is 
 a variety of common limestone, from which it does not 
 differ in composition. These globules do not, however, 
 in all cases, compose the entire mass; sometimes they ap- 
 pear to be embedded in solid limestone, and in other in- 
 stances they are wanting entirely. 
 
 In England this formation is superincumbent on chalk, 
 and often contains shells and other organic remains. It 
 is employed as a building stone. St. Paul's church and 
 Somerset house being constructed of this material. It is 
 however, said not to be a durable stone. 
 
 With respect to the manner in which these globules 
 were formed, Mr. Bakewell remarks, that it is not yet 
 ascertained whether they have resulted from a tendency 
 to crystalline arrangement, or whether they are of ani- 
 mal origin. We should think neither would account for 
 them; but that they were formed in springs, or other run- 
 ning water containing lime, by a gradual deposition of 
 carbonaceous particles on a small nucleus, as a grain of 
 sand, kept in agitation by the stream. 
 
 Lias. This name is said to be a corruption of the 
 word layers, because this rock is usually stratified. It is 
 one of the Oolitic group, and passes by insensible shades 
 into Oolite. It is an argillaceous limestone, usually 
 found in the conformable position. It retains a uniform 
 mineralogical character throughout a great portion of Eng- 
 land, France and Germany. It is often rich in organic re- 
 mains, and especially of the saurian reptiles. 
 
 In this country it is described by Dr. Hildreth, as ex- 
 isting on the Little Muskingum in Ohio. Color yellow- 
 ish white when exposed to the air, but greyish white 
 when taken from the bed; structure compact, fracture con- 
 choidal, with an earthy surface; adheres to the tongue; 
 composition carbonate of lime, with a little carburet of 
 iron. In properties and appearance it approaches near- 
 ly to chalk. 
 
 Dr. Hildreth says, " that it stands the weather without 
 exfoliation, and would make a most beautiful building 
 stone." 
 
 The associations of this rock in Ohio, will be seen by 
 the diagram fig. 20. 
 
LIAS. 
 
 157 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 ft. 
 
 Order of the series ascending. 
 
 1. Limestone; compact, dark, and in strata, from 
 six inches, to two feet in thickness. This bed is eight feet 
 thick. 
 
 2. Bituminous Coal, very pure; structure slaty; three 
 feet thick. 
 
 3. Water lime, in thin beds reposing on the coal. 
 Thickness, six feet. 
 
 4. A Chloritic rock; color deep, almost verdigris green. 
 Four feet thick. 
 
 5. Lias, which we have already described. 
 
 6. Calcareous tufa. It is porous, as if pierced in all 
 directions by small worms. Six feet thick. 
 
 7. Hard sparry limestone, of a light dove color, tinged 
 with brown. Thirty feet thick. 
 
 8. Sandstone, the lower part in strata of a few inches 
 thick, and contains some fossil remains. 100 feet thick. 
 
 14 
 
158 VOLCANIC AND BASALTIC ROCKS. 
 
 9. Argillaceous, loamy soil, rich, and covered with 
 timber. Ten feet thick. 
 
 TERTIARY STRATA. 
 
 The Tertiary, or third formation, as the name indicates, 
 was deposited after the secondary, and may be considered 
 as proceeding from the disintegration of this and the pri- 
 mary series. 
 
 With respect to its relative antiquity, the tertiary is 
 newer than chalk, and old^r than the Diluvial and Allu- 
 vial deposites. When these, therefore occur in the series 
 the tertiary formations are between the chalk and the 
 diluvium. 
 
 The Tertiary strata consist of beds of clay, sand, marl, 
 pudding stones, and the newer limestone deposites, such 
 as are found in the Paris basin, and in the Isle of Wight. 
 These formations often contain abundance of fossil shells 
 and plants, together with the bones of fish and quadru- 
 peds. The famous locality of fossil fish at Monte Bolca, 
 in Italy, is in tertiary strata. 
 
 In North America this formation is very extensive, rea- 
 ching without interruption along the sea coast from Long 
 Island to Louisiana aud extending in some parts several 
 hundred miles inland. It consists of sand and clay often 
 mixed with an abundance of sea shells. The valley of 
 the Connecticut is in a considerable proportion of the same 
 formation, consisting of sand and clay, though the shells 
 are absent. The whole of Long Island, Martha's Vine- 
 yard, and Nantucket are also tertiary formations. In gen- 
 eral, tertiary strata shew no marks of disturbance, being 
 deposited since the lower rocks were disrupted. 
 
 VOLCANIC AND BASALTIC ROCKS. 
 
 These owe their origin to volcanic fire, and have been 
 either ejected from burning mountains, or forced up to the 
 surface of the earth in a melted state by volcanic action. 
 Some of these rocks occasionally cover all the formations 
 hitherto described, and as volcanoes are still active, they 
 
BASALT. GREENSTONE. 159^ 
 
 r 
 
 may and indeed do, cover the most recent deposites of 
 sand and gravel. 
 
 This division is known under the name of unstratified 
 rocks, which also includes granite. Many geologists sup- 
 pose that granite also had an igneous origin; and this in- 
 deed appears to be the prevailing opinion of the ablest 
 writers of the day. 
 
 Basaltic or Trap rocks, including also those formed of 
 lava, cover the other formations, in a very irregular, and 
 uncertain manner. In France, large districts of country 
 are buried under ancient lava, and the northern parts of 
 Great Britain abound with basaltic rocks. 
 
 The word trap, is said to come from the Swedish trap- 
 pa, which signifies a stair, or step, because rocks of this 
 kind often separate in such a manner as to form stairs. 
 
 The application of this term is far from being definite, 
 some geologists meaning by it such unstratified rocks as 
 basalt, greenstone, porphyry, and their associates; while 
 others have confined it to such rocks as are chiefly com- 
 posed of hornblende, whether stratified or not. The for- 
 mer application of this term is undoubtedly the most com- 
 mon and appropriate. 
 
 The most important volcanic rocks are Basalt, Green- 
 stone, and Lava. 
 
 Basalt. The color of this rock is dark greyish black, 
 or brownish grey. It is found in large shapeless masses* 
 or in columnar prisms, with from three to nine faces. 
 These columns are of all sizes, from a few inches to sev- 
 eral feet in diameter, and sometimes four hundred feet in 
 height. They are composed of joints, or blocks of the 
 same angular shapes, resting one upon another. The tex- 
 ture of basalt is fine grained, or compact, and it often 
 contains other minerals embedded in it, such as felspar, 
 quartz, mica, leucite, and oxide of iron. It also exhibits 
 hollow cavities, or vesicles, apparently formed by bubbles 
 of air during its fusion. The Giant's Causeway in the 
 North of Ireland, is composed of basaltic columns. 
 
 Greenstone. This is a compact, hard, tenacious rock 
 of a dark greyish color, with a greenish tinge. It is es- 
 sentially composed of hornblende and felspar. This 
 rock occurs in beds of greater or less extent, sometimes 
 forming extensive ranges of mountains. In this conntry 
 
160 DILUVIUM, 
 
 greenstone is a common rock. The range of mountains 
 on the west side of the Connecticut, reaching from New- 
 Haven to Northampton, is of this rock. In some places, 
 their height is several hundred feet. These rocks, 
 as .will be seen in another place, are undoubtedly of 
 volcanic origin, having been elevated to their present 
 situation through fissures, by the force of subterranean 
 fire. 
 
 Lava. This term comes from the Gothic, and signifies 
 to run, in reference to the flowing of volcanic matter. 
 
 The products of volcanic mountains often present ver\ 
 different appearances, and hence have received several 
 names, as volcanic slags, volcanic enamel, cellular lava, 
 compact lava, pumice, &c. But in general terms, all the 
 liquified products of volcanoes are called lav a, and for the 
 purposes of elementary geology, this definition is perhaps 
 sufficient. 
 
 The colors of lava are most commonly yellowish, or 
 greenish gray sometimes running into sulphur yellow, 
 and greyish black. Some are compact, while others are 
 full of small pores, and others are fibrous with a silky 
 lustre; but all the different kinds run into each other, so 
 that it is often difficult to make distinctions between 
 them. 
 
 DILUVIUM. 
 
 Diluvia, or diluvial deposites, are generally supposed 
 to have been formed during the general deluge. They 
 consist of sand, pebbles, and blocks, or fragments of va- 
 rious kinds of rocks, not generally existing in the districts 
 where these deposites are found at the present day, and 
 hence they must have been transported from a distance. 
 In many instances, the diluvial rocks appear to have 
 been moved from great distances, their dimensions and 
 situations at the same time indicating a water power of 
 much greater force, than any which has been described, 
 except the Noachian deluge, and it is therefore considered 
 reasonable to attribute these effects to that cause. See 
 Deluge. 
 
TABULAR VIEW OF ROCKS, dtC. 161 
 
 ALLUVION. 
 
 Alluvia, or Alluvial deposites are such accumulations 
 of sand, mud, and soil, together with fragments of wood, 
 as are constantly forming at the present day, by the cur- 
 rents of rivers and brooks, or by the rain which falls on 
 hills and mountains. These are formed by causes now 
 constantly operating, and we have shown that considera- 
 ble changes have been wrought on the earth by such 
 causes. 
 
 We have now given a short account of each formation, 
 and species of rock which compose the great bulk of the 
 earth. There are however, several rocks described in 
 more extended treatises on this subject which we have 
 omitted, and which occasionally form considerable hills, or 
 underlay certain districts of country. This deficiency 
 with respect to names, will be supplied by the following 
 view of M. Boue's classification of rocks, corrected and 
 extended by Dr. Ure, of Glasgow. This contains the 
 names of all the known members of each class, and by it 
 the student will be enabled to observe the synonomous 
 terms, with the classification we have employed. 
 
 TABULAR VIEW OF ROCKS AND MINERAL STRATA, 
 
 Class I. PRIMITIVE OR INFERIOR Concomitants. 
 ROCKS. 
 
 Order I. Gneiss. Granite, 
 
 Hornblende rocks 
 Limestone, 
 Quartz rock, 
 Gypsum. 
 
 . / : . .* " : " - ' -- 
 
 Order II. Mica-Slate Mica-slate, 
 
 Porphyry. 
 
 Order III. Clay-Slate. Talc-slate, 
 
 Chlorite-slate, 
 Gneiss, 
 Whet-slate, 
 Alum-slate, 
 14* 
 
162 TABULAR VIEW OF ROCKS, &C. 
 
 Dolomite, 
 Gypsum. 
 
 Class II. TRANSITION OR SUPER- 
 MEDIAL ROCKS. 
 
 Order I. Greywacke. Conglomerate, 
 
 .Clay-slate, 
 Flinty-slate, 
 Alum-slate, 
 Limestone, 
 Dolomite. 
 
 Class III. MEDIAL OR CARBONI- 
 FEROUS ROCKS. 
 
 Order I. Old Red Sandstone. 
 
 II. Mountain Lime- 
 stone. 
 
 III. Millstone grit. 
 
 IV. Coal Strata. Coal-Sandstone, 
 Slaty-clay, 
 Bituminous Shale, 
 Coal, 
 
 Carbonate of Iron, 
 Calcareous Marl, 
 Compact Limestone. 
 
 ClaSS IV. SUBMEDIAL OR SECON- 
 DARY ROCKS. 
 
 " n '.*"' 'ii . ' 
 Order I. New Red Sandstone. 
 
 Order II. Magnesian Lime- Bituminous Marl- 
 stone. slate, 
 
 Copper Slate with 
 
 Flints, 
 Breccia-like Gypsum. 
 
TABULAR VIEW OF ROCKS, &C. 163 
 
 Order III. Red Marl. Gypsum and Salt. 
 
 Variegated sandstone. 
 
 Order IV. Shell Limestone, In Germany called 
 or second flat Muschelkalk, said 
 Limestone. to be wanting in 
 
 England. 
 
 Order V. Third flat Lime- Argillaceous beds, 
 stone, or Jura Lias of England. 
 Limestone. Oolite, or calcareous 
 
 Freestone, 
 Marls. 
 
 Order VI. Iron Sand and Chlorite Chalk, 
 Green Sand. 
 
 Order VII Chalk. Chalk Marl, 
 
 Chalk with flints. 
 
 Class V. SUPERIOR OR TERTIARY 
 ROCKS. 
 
 Order I. London, Paris and Plastic Clay, 
 Isle of Wight ba- Clay-tnarl, 
 sins. Sand, lignite and salt 
 
 water shells. 
 
 Order II. First Tertiary Blue London Clay, 
 Limestone. Chloritic Limestone. 
 
 Order III. First Local brack- Marls, 
 
 ish water deposite. Gypsum. 
 
 Order IV. Second Tertiary Marls, 
 
 Limestone. Burh-stones of Paris 
 
 basin, and Isle of 
 Wight. 
 
 Class VI. VOLCANIC PRODUCTS. 
 
164 COMPARATIVE AGES OF ROCKS. 
 
 Order L -Basaltic Rocks. Basalt, 
 
 Greenstone, 
 Porphyry. 
 
 'i * :*' '---' J > ' 
 
 Order II. Lava. Lava, 
 
 Pumice. 
 
 It will be observed in this classification, that the same 
 formation or kind of rock sometimes occurs more than 
 once, or is arranged under several different classes or or- 
 ders. Thus limestone is sometimes primitive, at others, 
 transition, secondary) or tertiary; and clay-slate and sand- 
 stone are sometimes associated with one formation, and 
 sometimes with another. When, therefore, a rock, under 
 the same name, is supposed by its associations,, to have 
 been formed at different periods, it is classed severally 
 with those of its own age. Thus limestone is of all ages, 
 and consequently belongs to all the classes, except the vol- 
 canic. The same is more or less the case with sandstone 
 and clay-slate, and several others. 
 
 COMPARATIVE AGES OF ROCKS. 
 
 
 
 We have already noticed, Under the descriptions of 
 the different formations, their relative ages, tut a recapit^ 
 ulation is required in order to bring this subject distinctly 
 before the reader. 
 
 It requires no arguments to show that the lowest for- 
 mations must be the oldest, since these must have been 
 deposited before those which lie above, or upon them. It 
 is true that a mountain of granite, when shaken, or uplift- 
 ed by an earthquake, may fall and spread its ruins on the 
 plain below, but such an occurrence would readily be de- 
 tected, since the situation of its fragments would show 
 that this was not an original and undisturbed formation. 
 
 Granite and its associates, besides being placed lowest 
 in the order of position, are, as we have already seen, en- 
 tirely destitute of organic remains. It ought, however, to 
 be noticed that Dr. Macculloch, in a single instance, in 
 one of the Hebrides, observed gneiss overlaying a bed of 
 limestone, which contained bivalve shells. But the ex- 
 
COMPARATIVE AGES OF ROCKS. 165 
 
 treme contortions of the gneiss, on that island, are suffi- 
 cient to show, that a bed really superior in its general po- 
 sition, may appear to be inferior at some particular points. 
 Fig. 21 Thus let a a a, fig. 21, 
 
 be the contorted sub- 
 stratum of gneiss, and 
 b, c, d, e, a superior 
 and incumbent bed of 
 organic limestone, fol 
 lowing its flexures. 
 Now it is clear, that 
 if these beds be visi- 
 ble only at the point d, the limestone will appear to be 
 below the gneiss, though the error would readily be cor- 
 rected by an examination at any other point. 
 
 Such apparent exceptions do not however, affect the 
 general fact, for nothing in geology is more clearly estab- 
 lished, than that granite and its associates lie below all 
 other rocks, and hence must be older than any of their 
 super-strata. 
 
 The transition rocks come next to granite, with respect 
 to position, and consequently with respect to antiquity. 
 In these, organic remains begin to occur, as plants and 
 shells. 
 
 Next to these are the lower, and then the upper secon- 
 dary rocks. In these are found fossil relics in great quan- 
 tities, as shells, fish, and some of the amphibious tribes. 
 Above the secondary come the tertiary strata, and in 
 these formations, are found the bones of quadrupeds of ex- 
 tinct species. 
 
 Volcanic products are both of ancient and modern 
 date. 
 
 Diluvial deposites are supposed to be of no greater an- 
 tiquity than the Noachian deluge, having been formed en- 
 tirely by that catastrophe. In these, the remains of huge 
 quadrupeds, as the elephant, mastodon and rhinoceros, 
 are found. 
 
 Alluvial products are the most recent in the order of 
 strata; being, like volcanic products, constantly forming. 
 
 STRATA AND STRATIFICATION. 
 
 Most secondary, and several primitive rocks, are com- 
 
166 STRATA AND STRATIFICATION. 
 
 posed of layers, or portions, resting one above another, 
 with seams between them. These portions or layers, are 
 called strata, and formations of this kind are called strat- 
 ified. In general, such rocks are fissile, and may be divi- 
 ded into flat tables, or layers in the direction of their stra- 
 ta. These rocks have apparently been formed by gradual 
 depositions from water, accumulated one upon the other. 
 Unstratified rocks show no signs of such gradual accumu- 
 lation; they present no lines of stratification, nor are they 
 fissile in one direction more than in another; such are gran- 
 ite, greenstone, and basalt. 
 
 Fig. 22. Strata are said to 
 
 be horizontal, when 
 they coincide with 
 the direction of the 
 horizon, or have lit- 
 tle or no inclination, 
 as represented by fig. 22. It is very rare, however, that 
 such strata are found, except among the most recent de- 
 posites, the secondary and tertiary strata, in nearly every 
 instance being more or less inclined. 
 
 Dip. The inclination of strata from a horizontal posi- 
 tion, is called their dip, the amount of the dip, being the 
 quantity of the angle, which the line of inclination makes 
 with that of the horizon. This is represented by fig. 23. 
 Fig. 23. If the angle made by 
 
 the meeting of the 
 
 &/z^s*^ lines / the strata ' 
 
 b b, and the horizon- 
 tal line a, be equal 
 to 45 towards the 
 east, then the strata are said to dip 45 in that direction. 
 
 Outcrop. When strata protrude above the surface, or 
 are uncovered, as on the side of a hill, so as to be seen, 
 they are said to crop out. The uncovered ends of the stra- 
 ta commonly rise above each other, like stairs, or as Mr. 
 Bakewell has it, like a number of slices of bread and but- 
 ter, laid inclined on a plate. In fig. 23, the outcrop of 
 strata is represented at b b. Outcrop is a matter of much 
 importance to geologists and practical miners, since the 
 upper, as well as the under strata may be observed at these 
 points; and thus without excavations or borings, not only 
 the dip can be ascertained, but also the different kinds of 
 rock with which a country is underlaid. 
 
STRATA AND STRATIFICATION. 
 
 167 
 
 Outlier. Strata are said to form outliers, when they 
 constitute a portion of country detached from the main 
 Fig. 24. mass of the same bed of 
 
 which they evidently once 
 formed a part. Thus the 
 bed 6, fig. 24, on the top 
 of the hill, is an outlier of 
 the main stratum a, the in- 
 tervening valley being scooped out, either by the general 
 deluge, or some other means. The kind, and thickness, 
 as well as the range of the intercepted strata, are sufficient 
 to prove that they were once continuous. 
 
 Escarpment. Strata are said to terminate in an escarp- 
 ment, when they end abruptly, as at a b, fig. 24. 
 
 Mural precipice. Mural signifies wall-like, and rocks 
 are said to form such precipices, when they present naked, 
 and nearly perpendicular faces. 
 
 Conformable position. 
 Fi*. 25. 
 
 Strata are said to be conforma- 
 ble, when their general 
 planes are parallel, 
 whatever their dip may 
 be. Fig. 25, a a, repre- 
 sents conformable stra- 
 ta, as shown by their 
 parallel planes. 
 
 Unconformable Strata. When a series of upper strata, 
 rest on a lower formation, without any conformity to the 
 position of the latter, the upper series is called unconform- 
 able, as represented at b b, fig. 25. 
 
 Fault. This is such a dislocation of the strata, that not 
 only their continuity is destroyed, but the series of beds on 
 one or both sides of the fractures, are forced out of their 
 original positions, so that it often happens in mining for 
 coal, the workmen suddenly come to the apparent termina 
 tion of the vein by a wall of rock. 
 
 Dyke. This is a wall of rock interposed between the 
 two sides, or ends of a dislocation, and in consequence of 
 which, the continuity of the beds or strata are interrupted. 
 
168 
 
 DYKES. 
 
 If we suppose that the dyke was once fused matter, forced 
 up from beneath, and that on one of its sides the strata 
 were elevated, or on the other depressed by a subterra- 
 nean convulsion, it would account for the phenomena both 
 of the fault and the dyke. 
 
 Fig. 26. Fig. 26 will make this un- 
 
 derstood, a a, represents 
 the fault, and b the dyke. 
 The coal strata &, terminates 
 at the dyke on both sides; 
 but on the one side it is 
 raised, and on the other 
 sunk down. When there- 
 fore the workmen search on the opposite side of the 
 dyke, for the coal vein, they find instead of coal, perhaps 
 sandstone or clay, and thus for a time, the work of the 
 mine is entirely suspended, the coal being lost. In at- 
 tempting to regain the vein, the first question to be de- 
 termined is, whether it has been thrown up, or cast down 
 on the .other side of the dyke; and this in general, is 
 readily decided by the position of the dyke, or its inclina- 
 tion with respect to the fault. For experience has shown, 
 that if the dyke makes an acute angle with the upper sur- 
 face of the coal vein, the strata are elevated on that side, 
 while if the angle is obtuse, they are thrown down, as 
 represented by fig' 26. 
 
 In some coal fields, the strata are raised or depressed 
 on one side of the dyke, to the extent of four or five hun- 
 dred feet. 
 
 Dykes which intercept coal strata are most frequently 
 composed of basalt, but sometimes of indurated clay. 
 They are, in thickness, from a few inches to fifty or sixty 
 feet, and in a few instances are three hundred feet thick. 
 Dykes are seldom noticed except in mining districts, 
 where they excite much interest in consequence of the 
 disturbances they occasion to coal veins. Their extent 
 therefore is generally quite uncertain, though in some in- 
 stances they are known to traverse large sections of 
 country. 
 
 Dykes being generally impervious to water, they ob- 
 struct its passage along the porous strata, and occasion it 
 to rise towards the surface; hence it frequently happens 
 that numerous springs make their appearance along the' 
 course of a dyke, which is entirely under ground, and by 
 which alone its existence is indicated. 
 
 
SLATY STRUCTURE. 169 
 
 Slaty Structure. Professor Sedgwick has made some 
 curious and important observations on the difference be- 
 tween the planes of stratification and those of cleavage, as 
 applicable particularly to the roofing-slate of Wales. 
 
 In mica-slate, the cleavage is in the direction of the 
 strata of deposition, whether the layers are curved or hot, 
 and the same is the case with common clay-slate, and in 
 depositions of clay which are separable in layers. In 
 beds of roof-slate the case is quite different, the cleavage 
 being not in the direction of the strata, but in general, 
 obliquely across them. The strata are seldom or never 
 either horizontal, or straight, but contorted, bent, or 
 waved, and are often far from being parallel with each 
 other. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Professor Sedgwick gives the diagram fig. 27 in illus- 
 tration of this subject, and remarks " that the contortions 
 of slate rocks are phenomena quite different from clea- 
 vage, and the curves presented by such formations are the 
 true lines of disturbed strata." The contorted lines run- 
 ning lengthwise the diagram are the true strata, while 
 those crossing these in nearly a vertical direction, and 
 preserving almost a geometrical parallelism are the lines 
 of cleavage. A region of more than thirty miles in length, 
 and eight or ten in breadth, exhibits this structure on a 
 magnificent scale. Many of the contorted strata are of a 
 coarse mechanical structure; but subordinate to them are 
 fine crystalline, chloritic slates. But the coarser beds and 
 the finer, the twisted and the straight, have all been sub- . 
 jected to one change. Crystalline forces have re-arranged 
 whole mountain masses of them, producing a beautiful 
 crystalline cleavage, passing alike through all the strata; 
 and through all this region whatever may be the contor- 
 tions, the planes of cleavage pass on, generally without 
 deviation, running in parallel lines from one end to the 
 other. 
 
 " Without considering the crystalline flakes along the 
 planes of cleavage, which prove that crystalline action 
 15 
 

 170 FORM OF COAL BEDS. 
 
 has modified the whole mass, we may affirm that no re- 
 treat of parts, no contraction in dimensions in passing to 
 a solid slate can explain such phenomena as these. They 
 appear to me only resolvable on the supposition, that 
 crystalline, or polar forces acted on the whole mass sim- 
 ultaneously in given directions, and with adequate pow- 
 er." 
 
 COAL. 
 
 There is no subject, within the range of geology, of 
 more importance than the natural history of coal, since 
 the inhabitants of some countries are almost entirely de- 
 pendant on its existence and quantity, for the comforts 
 they enjoy during the cold season. 
 
 We have already described this mineral, and given 
 some account of its manner of existence, when treating of 
 rocks and formations generally. It remains here to give 
 a more general and extended account of this important 
 article, and to point out its indications, origin, associa- 
 tions, &c. 
 
 Form of Coal Beds. Nearly all coal formations are 
 basin-shaped, or in that form, as before stated, which 
 would arise from a deposition of strata in lakes, or ponds 
 of various depths. Mr. Bakewell compares the shape to 
 that of a muscle shell. " The position of coal strata." 
 says he, " in many coal fields may be represented by a 
 series of fresh water muscle shells, decreasing in size, laid 
 within each other, but separated by a thin paste of clay. 
 If one side of the shell be raised, it will represent the 
 general rise of the strata in that direction, and if the 
 whole series be dislocated by partial cracks, raising one 
 part a little, and depressing the other, to represent faults 
 in the coal, it will give a better idea of the coal field than 
 any description can convey." 
 
 " We are here to suppose that each shell represents a 
 stratum of coal, and the partitions of clay, the earthy stra- 
 ta by which they are separated. The outer, or lower 
 shell, represents the lowest bed of coal which may be 
 many miles in extent. Now if a much larger shell be fill- 
 ed with sand, and the lower shell pressed into it, we may 
 
SEARCHING FOR COAL. 171 
 
 consider the large shell to represent limestone, and the 
 sand, grit stone; we shall have a model of the coal strata 
 in many parts of England, and their siftiation over the 
 metaliferous lime, with the beds of sandstone by which 
 they are separated from it." Geology, p. 117. 
 
 Searching for Coal. In most instances the inclination, 
 or bending of coal strata, is such that the veins rise nearly 
 to the surface, and would be visible, were they not cover- 
 ed by the soil or gravel. When this is the case, the re- 
 moval of the soil by rivulets, or the accidental slide of a 
 side hill, will uncover the strata, so that their dip and 
 thickness can be determined. This is considered a very 
 fortunate circumstance, because the boring for coal with- 
 out some such indications that it exists in greater- or less 
 quantities, even in coal districts, is a very uncertain means 
 of its discovery. Sometimes borings to great depths 
 have been made in the immediate vicinity of large coal 
 fields, without producing any greater conviction of the 
 existence of the mineral, than the surface before indicat- 
 ed. 
 
 Fig. 28. The cause of this will be seen 
 
 by fig. 28, where, suppose 1 is 
 the coal vein, and 2 a stratum of 
 sandstone, below which is lime- 
 stone, and that the basin is filled 
 to the surface with slate, clay, &c. 
 Now on boring at 2, it is evident 
 that nothing but sandstone and limestone would be found, 
 though it might be within a few feet of the coal vein, 
 while had the examination happened to have been made 
 at 1, coal would have been found within a few feet of the 
 surface. 
 
 Where a coal stratum comes to the surface, it is gener- 
 ally in a decomposed state, and so mixed with the earth, 
 as to present no other appearance of coal than a darker 
 color, when compared with the surrounding soil. Hence 
 the real quality of the coal cannot be determined until it 
 is taken from below the influence of the weather, and in 
 general, its quality improves as it sinks deeper into the 
 earth. 
 
 In examinations for coal, the dip and direction of the 
 strata in the vicinity, when known, should be carefully 
 observed; for if the dip is towards the estate on which the 
 
172 INDICATIONS OF COAL. 
 
 trial is to be made, it is probable that the coal may ex- 
 tend under it; but if the dip is in the contrary direction, 
 the search ougftt not to be undertaken, since experience 
 has shown that it would be useless. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 The reason will be understood by fig. 29, where 123 
 4, are a series of coal strata dipping towards b. The un- 
 conformable strata c c, are sandstone, lying over the coal. 
 Now suppose the coal vein 4, makes an outcrop at that 
 point, on the estate of A., adjoining the estate of B, which 
 lies towards 6, then it is apparent that A would find only 
 a point of the vein 4, on his estate, and that it would be 
 useless to search in the direction of d, for coal, since the 
 dip of 4 is sufficient to prove that none exists there, un- 
 less indeed another coalfield should be found. Whereas, 
 on the estate of B, though there might not exist an out- 
 crop, still the dip of that on the estate of A, would make 
 it highly probable, that B would find coal on his estate. 
 though it might be too deep for working. 
 
 We have observed in another place, that coal has sel- 
 dom, or never been found in hot climates. According to 
 Mr. Bakewell, this mineral has rarely been discovered be- 
 yond the latitudes of 35 and 65. It however exists in 
 the province of Canton, in about the 30th degree of lati- 
 tude. In this country, the great coal ranges appear to lie 
 between the latitudes of 40 and 45. 
 
 Indications of Coal. Although it is not certain that 
 coal exists at any given place until it is actually found, 
 still there are*indications which might perhaps warrant 
 the expense of a search, by boring in districts where coal 
 has never been discovered. These indications are vari- 
 ous, and to point them out requires much knowledge and 
 experience on this subject. 
 
 In England, Mr. Farey states, that the coal districts in- 
 cline to clay, and are generally of an inferior quality. 
 When laid down to pastures small daisies and insignificant 
 weeds, are more disposed to prevail than grass. 
 
STRATA WHICH INDICATE COAL. 173 
 
 In these districts, water is generally procured at incon- 
 siderable depths, and when the faults are numerous, 
 springs are common, and range in a line with the fault, 
 for the reason already explained. See Fault. 
 
 The face of the country where coal exists, is generally 
 undulating, the hills being rounded and not mural or pre- 
 cipitous, and the valleys gently sloping and not deep as 
 they are in granite formations. Sometimes, however, coal 
 is found in hills more than a thousand feet above the gen- 
 eral level of the country. 
 
 Strata which indicate Coal. In England and Wales,, 
 coal generally reposes on a series of beds called mill' 
 stone-grit and shale. The mill-stone-grit is merely a 
 coarse grained sandstone, consisting ofquartzose particles 
 of various sizes, agglutinated by an argillaceous cement. 
 This differs from the sandstone that is found above and 
 between the coal strata, chiefly in its greater induration. 
 
 The shale is a dark colored slaty rock, which differs lit- 
 tle from the slate-clay beds found among coal. 
 
 In England, secondary limestone is often associated 
 with coal. This is called carboniferous limestone, be- 
 cause it is generally found in coal or carboniferous dis- 
 tricts. Red marl is also a common attendant on coal for- 
 mations, and indeed, is so common, that few coal shafts are 
 sunk witout piercing through it. This is a kind of sand- 
 stone cemented with clay and colored with iron. Mr. 
 Bakevvell supposes that it has been formed by the decom- 
 position or disintegration of trap, greenstone and granu- 
 lar quartz. Coal is also accompanied with thin strata of 
 what the English call iron-stone. This is a dark brown 
 or grey stone, of an earthy appearance, but of great spe- 
 cific gravity, being about three times the weight of an 
 equal bulk of water. This stone is smelted for iron, and 
 yields about thirty per cent. Another attendant on coal is 
 that kind of limestone, in England, called lias. This 
 name is said to be a corruption of the word, layers, pro- 
 bably because the strata of this rock are generally very 
 regular and flat. The finer kinds of lias answer for litho- 
 graphic stones. This rock alternates with lias clay, the 
 whole formation sometimes being several hundred feet in 
 thickness. This clay is highly impregnated with bitu- 
 men, and contains much sulphuret of iron, so that when 
 15* 
 
174 
 
 STRATA WHICH INDICATE COAL. 
 
 once ignited it will continue to burn until the sulphur and 
 bitumen are consumed. Several other minerals are found 
 in coal beds, in greater or less quantities, in the English 
 mines, but those enumerated are the most common. 
 
 The annexed diagram, fig. 30, showing the different 
 strata as they occur in a coal field near Mamsbury, will il- 
 lustrate the manner in which most of these minerals are 
 placed with respect to each other. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 The lowest stratum, or that on which the others are 
 placed, as within a dish, and which also rises the highest, 
 marked 1, is Old red sandstone. 2, Carboniferous lime- 
 stone. 3, Millstone- grit. 4 4, Coal seams. 5, Coarse 
 sandstone. 6 6, Red marl, or new red sandstone. 7, Lias. 
 8, Oolite. 
 
 In this country, although several of the strata occurring 
 with European coal are wanting, still it is found to be as- 
 sociated with minerals of the same general characters. 
 In Virginia, the strata which cover the coal are sandstone 
 and clay-slate, the latter often exhibiting vegetable impres- 
 sions. The coal mines of Ohio, are situated among stra- 
 ta of limestone, sandstone and clay-slate. 
 
 The following section and description is from Dr. Hil- 
 dreth's valuable communication on the coal deposites of the 
 valley of the Ohio, contained in Silliman's Journal for 
 Nov. 1835. 
 
 Dr. Hildreth's paper not only relates to the Geology, 
 but also to the Topography, and Geography of the Ohio 
 Valley. It is illustrated with a map, several views, and 
 many wood cuts delineating organic remains, and is among 
 the most valuable and interesting communications on these 
 subjects ever made to the American public. 
 

 BITUMINOUS SHALE, 
 
 175 
 
 Section of the Coal strata at the Salines on Kenawha 
 River, Ohio. 
 The strata, beginning at the deepest, are as follow: 
 
 
 1. Sandsione. Sixty feet thick. 
 
 2. Coal. Six feet thick. It is bituminous and is ex- 
 tensively worked for several hundred feet under the hills. 
 
 3. Bituminous Shale, and slaty shale, forty feet thick. 
 This, both slate and shale, is filled with extinct species of 
 plants. Every layer not more than the fourth, or the 
 eighth of an inch thick, when separated, displays fresh im 
 
176 SILICIOUS SANDSTONE. 
 
 pressions of a variety of species, delineated on the face of 
 the slate with the most exquisite beauty and perfection. 
 Four or five species of the Palm tree, as many of Calam- 
 ites, and several Equisetae, are among the number. 
 
 4. A thin bed of coal, twenty inches in thickness, resting 
 on the shale and clay-slate. This is not worked. 
 
 5. Argillaceous sandstone rock, the upper stratified in 
 thin beds, the lower in beds of fifteen or twenty feet in 
 thickness. This bed is about 200 feet thick, and splits 
 easily into building stones, for which it is much employed, 
 it is a vast magazine of fossil plants. 
 
 6. Bituminous Coal. This bed is four feet thick, and is 
 extensively worked. 
 
 7. Silicious Sandstone. The grains are coarse, and 
 sharp, and the bed reposes on the coal without any inter- 
 vening slate, or shale. 150 feet thick. 
 
 8. Bituminous Coal. The structure of this bed is slaty, 
 and in burning it melts, and runs together, obstructing the 
 current of air necessary to combustion, a fact noticed as 
 being common to all the upper beds of coal deposites. 
 This bed is four feet thick, and the slate or shale on which 
 it rests contains many impressions of plants, chiefly of the 
 arundinaceous and culmiferous tribes. 
 
 9. Silicious Slate, or lydian stone; color nearly black, 
 and in strata from two to eight inches in thickness. The 
 bed is six feet thick, and is so hard as not to be impressed 
 with the best tempered steel instruments. The Abori- 
 gines manufactured this kind of stone into arrow heads and 
 knives. This deposite has been traced more than forty 
 miles. 
 
 10. Argillaceous iron ore, in nodules from three to six 
 inches in diameter, imbedded in argillaceous, yellowish 
 marl. Eight inches thick. 
 
 11. Silicious sandstone; color, yellowish, grain coarse, 
 with feeble cohesion. At this place this bed is eighty feet 
 thick, but in other places it has a thickness of 150 feet. It 
 
ORIGIN OF COAL. 17? 
 
 contains a vast number of fossil trees. The wood has 
 been replaced with silicious matter tinged with iron. Some- 
 times whole trees with their roots arid branches have 
 been found. 
 
 Very few fossil shells, or animal remains of any kind, 
 have been found in the Kenawha Valley. 
 
 It is intended that our descriptions and remarks thus 
 far, should apply entirely to the several kinds of coal cal- 
 led bituminous, and which burn with more or less blaze. 
 These kinds, known under the names Cannel coal, Slaty- 
 coal, Coarse coal, fyc. are found only among secondary 
 rocks, and it would be a useless expenditure of time and 
 money, to search for them in any other situations. Dr. 
 Macculloch thinks that bituminous coal does not exist be- 
 low the old red sandstone formations. 
 
 Anthracite. This name, which is derived from the 
 Greek, signifies merely, carbon or coal. It is called, in 
 England, stone coal, and in Scotland, Hind coal. In this 
 country, where there are many extensive localities, it is 
 distinguished by the names of the places whence it comes, 
 as, Lehigh coal, Lackawana coal, Peach Orchard coal, <^*c. 
 
 Anthracite has been found in small quantities only, in 
 any part of Europe but in this country it appears to exist 
 in great abundance, and within the last ten years has 
 come into such general use as an article of fuel, as in a 
 good degree to supersede the use of wood for the warming 
 of dwellings, in most of the sea-coast towns of the North- 
 ern States. These supplies come chiefly from Pennsyl- 
 vania and New York, though this coal exists also in Massa- 
 chusetts and Rhode-Island. 
 
 Anthracite is found among primitive and transition 
 rocks, as mica-slate, clay-slate, and grey wacke. 
 
 This mineral is distinguished from bituminous coal by 
 its greater lustre and weight; by its hardness and conchoi- 
 dal fracture, and by its burning without smoke, or blaze, 
 or bituminous odor. 
 
 ORIGIN OF COAL. 
 
 It is now generally believed, by naturalists, that coal 
 has originated from vegetables, though there are many 
 
178 ORIGIN OF COAL. 
 
 different opinions with-respect to the modes in which the 
 vast quantities of woody matter, required for this purpose, 
 came together; arid also with respect to the chemical chan- 
 ges which it underwent during its conversion into coal, 
 asjwell as the nature of the agent by which this was effected. 
 
 That coal originated from wood, appears to be proved 
 by the fact that at the present day, parts of trees are found 
 in a state of partial conversion into that substance. This 
 is called wood coal, or lignite, and in some countries, is not 
 an uncommon substance. 
 
 Near Cologne, in Italy, exists a great depository of this 
 fossil, which extends many leagues, and is fifty feet thick. 
 Its covering is a bed of gravel about twenty feet thick. 
 Here trunks of trees partially converted into coal are 
 common, and many of them are deprived of their bran- 
 ches, which would seem to indicate that they had been 
 transported from a distance. Nuts, which are indige- 
 nous in Hindoostan and China, are found among this lig- 
 nite. 
 
 "In wood coal" says Mr. Bakewell, " we may almost 
 seize nature in the fact of making coal before the process 
 is complete. These formations are of a far more recent 
 date than that of common coal, though their origin must 
 be referred to a former condition of the globe, when the 
 vegetable productions of tropical climates flourished in 
 northern latitudes. The vegetable origin of common 
 mineral coa!, appears to be established by its associations 
 with strata, abounding in vegetable impressions by its 
 close similarity to wood coal, and lastly, by the decisive 
 fact, that some mineral coal, in the Dudley coal field, is 
 entirely composed of mineralized plants." 
 
 But though the vegetable origin of coal may be satis- 
 factorily established, there is considerable difficulty in 
 conceiving, by what process, so many beds and seams of 
 coal have been regularly aranged over each other, in the 
 same place, and separated by strata of sandstone, shale 
 and indurated clay. It will perhaps tend to simplify this 
 inquiry, if we examine a coal field of very limited extent, 
 such as those which occur in small coal basins, called 
 swilleys, and which are not more than one mile in length 
 and breadth. It seems evident that these basins have 
 once been small lakes or marshes, and that the strata 
 have been deposited on the bottoms and sides, taking the 
 concave form, which such depositions, under such circum- 
 
ORIGIN OF COAL, 179 
 
 stances, must assume; and it is deserving of notice, that 
 the stratum of coal, which in one of these basins, is a 
 yard thick in the lowest part, gradually diminishes as it 
 approaches the edges, and then entirely vanishes. This 
 fact proves that the present basin-shaped position of the 
 strata was their original one; and that the basin, at the 
 period when the coal was deposited, was a detached lake 
 or marsh, and not a part of the bed of the sea. Geology, 
 p. 123. 
 
 It would seem from the above, as well as from other 
 facts stated by geologists, that coal strata were formed in 
 accumulations of water; but whether this was salt or 
 fresh, it is difficult to determine. The shells found in 
 some coal beds, according to the opinion of Mr. Cony- 
 beare, are those of salt water; but, on the other hand, the 
 vegetable remains found in the same strata, are clearly 
 those of the land and not of the sea. But the difficulty 
 of distinguishing salt from fresh water shells, where the 
 species are extinct, is well known. And it is also true, 
 that some shell-fish belonging to the ocean, may gradu- 
 ally be inured to brackish water, and finally to that which 
 is entirely fresh, and this too without any material change 
 in the form or thickness of their shells. Hence any de- 
 cision of this kind, founded on the appearance of a few 
 shells merely, must always be extremely doubtful. 
 
 It would appear from the account of Dr. Hildreth of 
 Marietta, Ohio, that beds of coal on the Muskingum river, 
 in that state, have either been formed in the ocean, or that 
 since their formation they have been submerged by salt 
 water. " The lime rocks here," says he, ** abound in fos- 
 sil marine shells of the genera Productus, TerebratulaB 
 and Spirifira, with Ammonites, and chambered shells, in- 
 dicating that some of the coal deposites have been deeply 
 submerged under the salt water since their formation; or 
 that the vegetable materials, composing the coal had once 
 floated in an ocean, and were precipitated by an accumu- 
 lation of calcareous, argillaceous, and sedimentary ma- 
 terials collected on and about them, while floating." 
 
 " Marine fossils," continues the author, " are found both 
 above and below the coal, and sometimes deposites con- 
 taining fresh water shells are intermixed, although they 
 are not so common as they are nearer the Ohio river. Some 
 of these fresh water fossils bear a striking resemblance to 
 living species now found in our rivers. 
 
ISO ORIGIN OF COAL. 
 
 "Through nearly all the coal region, we find many 
 proofs of the predominance both of fresh and salt water. 
 Westjof the coal deposites in Ohio, the fossil shells are al- 
 together marine, at least so far as I have seen them, and 
 many of them belong to the supercretaceous, or tertiary 
 genera, and many are similar to those found in the same 
 formations in the southern States." Stiliman's Jour. Nov. 
 1835, p. 29. 
 
 The only analogy which the present state of things 
 offers to the manner in which coal was formed, is the 
 filling up of lakes and estuaries with vegetable matter. 
 In these situations we sometimes find series of strata, 
 composed of peat and submerged wood, alternating with 
 those of sand, clay, and gravel; and, therefore, presenting 
 the model of a coal field. Of the quantity of vegetable 
 matter required to form a stratum of coal, we know no- 
 thing, but there is reason to believe that the thickness of 
 these strata, bear but a very small proportion to those of 
 the plants of which they were formed. 
 
 It is not difficult to conceive, however, that the earth 
 might have produced a quantity of vegetation, even with- 
 in the circuit of a few miles, sufficient to form a thick 
 bed of coal, though the thickness of this might bear only 
 a fractional proportion to that of the wood. Those who 
 have seen the pine forests of our western country, can, 
 perhaps, have some conception of the vast pile which a 
 single square mile of these trees would form, if thrown 
 together. Now, if hundreds of square miles of such tim- 
 ber were accumulated, we might suppose that there would 
 be a quantity sufficient to form a single bed of a large 
 coal formation. 
 
 The quantity of drift wood which descends the Mis- 
 sissippi, in the course of a few years, might be supposed 
 to furnish ample matter for such a coal bed. According 
 to the estimate of Mr. Bringier, the quantity of timber 
 which drifted into the Achafalaya, an arm of the Missis- 
 sippi, during an overflow in 1812, amounted to 8,000 cubic 
 feet per minute. The same writer states that the raft thus 
 collected at the mouth of the Red River, is sixty miles 
 long, and, in some parts, fifteen miles wide. On this in 
 some places, cedars are collected by themselves, and in 
 others, pines. Silliman's Journal, vol. iii. p. 18. 
 
 Now, in case the bed of this stream should, at some 
 future time be changed, so as to leave this immense raft 
 
ORIGIN OF COAL. 181 
 
 covered with the earth, generations to come, might here 
 discover one of the most extensive coal fields yet known. 
 
 Captain Basil Hall states, that on a tongue of land, 
 nearly opposite to the mouth of the Mississippi, and which 
 has extended many leagues since the building of New 
 Orleans, large rafts of drift wood are deposited every 
 year. These rafts are matted together into a net work, 
 many yards in thickness, and cover several hundred 
 square leagues of surface. Travels, vol. iii. p. 338. 
 
 These rafts afterwards become covered with mud from 
 the river, and sink down to the bottom; and on this, the 
 next year is deposited another layer of trees, thus forming 
 alternate strata of wood and soil. 
 
 What analogy exists between the facts here stated, and 
 the circumstances which took place at the formation of 
 coal beds, it is impossible to determine. But with respect 
 to the manner in which vast quantities of woody matter 
 may be accumulated by the operation of natural causes, 
 there is certainly little difficulty; and perhaps it is as easy 
 to believe that these accumulations took place in lakes, or 
 ponds, as at the mouths of rivers; nor is it improbable 
 that coal might have been formed in both situations. 
 
 There is no doubt but all regular coal formations were 
 deposited before the general deluge, or at that period when 
 the temperature of the earth was much higher than at 
 present; and therefore, when all plants, not only attained 
 a greater size, but grew much more rapidly than they do 
 now in temperate climates. Hence, if we suppose that 
 wintry torrents, or occasional inundations, denuded the 
 earth of her vegetation to a great extent, and swept it in- 
 to lakes or estuaries, there would be little difficulty in 
 imagining, that under such a climate, the earth would 
 soon be again prepared with her vegetation for a similar 
 sweep, and thus one stratum of coal after another would 
 be formed. During the intervals of these inundations, the 
 operation of ordinary causes as the flowing of rivers into 
 these lakes, would bring down from the mountains the 
 materials which have formed the clay and sandstone, now 
 interposed between the beds of coal, in a manner similar 
 to what is now taking place at the mouth of the Mississip- 
 pi. 
 
 Withrespect to the inundations which caused the an- 
 cient forests to descend from the hills to the yalleys, and 
 to accumulate in lakes and estuaries, there is little difficul- 
 16 
 
182 ORIGIN OF COAL. 
 
 ty, since the same happens more or less at the present 
 day; and especially since geologists agree, that judging 
 from appearances, natural causes were infinitely more 
 powerful in their effects on the primeval earth, than they 
 have been since. 
 
 Perhaps this circumstance may be considered a sign of 
 that over-ruling Beneficence, which has ever been dis- 
 played towards man; for then, if he existed at all, it must 
 have been only on a small portion of the globe. 
 
 That natural causes anciently operated with much 
 greater power than at present, is shown by the changes 
 which earthquakes produced on the globe, before the his- 
 torical era. The dislocations of strata, and the elevation 
 of mountains which were effected by this cause in ancient 
 times, have analogies only in miniature, at the present 
 day. Nor is it unreasonable to suppose, that correspond- 
 ing effects were produced by water, during similar 
 epochs. 
 
 It is, therefore, to such ancient torrents that we must 
 attribute these effects, and which, with awful devastation, 
 undermined the sides of hills, and floated the vegetation 
 into lakes and ponds; or deposited it at the mouths of riv- 
 ers, there to undergo, in the lapse of time, those chemical 
 changes, by which wood is converted into coal; and thus 
 to supply present and future ages with one of the absolute 
 necessities of life. 
 
 That both earthquakes which elevated and dislocated 
 strata, and inundations of great power, continued in 
 operation after coal was formed, is evident by their ef- 
 fects, which still exist. For, in many instances the strata 
 of coal fields are not only broken into faults, in the man- 
 ner already described, but they also, near the surface, 
 show the violent effects of water, a part of some beds be- 
 ing entirely removed. 
 
 These circumstances are ascertained by the exact cor- 
 respondence of the strata, on both sides of valleys; show- 
 ing that they were once continuous, and that the hills 
 have been formed by the removal of the strata between 
 them. 
 
 Sometimes strata are so separated, that the direction in 
 which they ranged, when entire, are completely changed; 
 the appearance being such as would be produced by a 
 violent upheaving, and consequent fracture of the whole 
 formation. 
 
AMERICAN COAL FIELDS. 183 
 
 Pig. 32. Fig. 32, represents and instance 
 
 which occurs at the Ashtou coal 
 mine, in England, and where, af- 
 ter the dislocation in consequence 
 of a subterranean force, a large 
 portion of the strata was removed 
 by a torrent of water. The strata on each side of the 
 valley, exactly correspond in kind and thickness, though 
 widely separated, a a, coal veins; b b, millstone grit; 
 c c, limestone. 
 
 Thus is it proved, that these changes took place after 
 the formation of coal fields. 
 
 American Coal Fields. With respect to the coal fields 
 in our own country, and especially of those beyond the 
 Alleghany mountains, the following information is taken 
 from a report made by J. L. Packer, Esq. before the Sen- 
 ate of Pennsylvania, in 1834. 
 
 The great secondary deposite, extending as is generally 
 believed, from the Hudson to the Mississippi, and to the 
 Rocky mountains, is in Pennsylvania, limited by the Al- 
 leghany mountains, which appear to form the barrier, or 
 dividing line between the anthracite and bituminous coal 
 beds, or between the transition and secondary formations. 
 
 The bituminous coal field is therefore confined to the 
 west side of the Alleghany, and is supposed to extend to 
 the centre of the mountain. These coal beds vary from 
 one foot to twelve feet in thickness, but rarely exceed six 
 feet. They lie in nearly horizontal strata, there being 
 merely sufficient dip to free the mines from water. Some 
 mines contain three or four beds with alternate layers of 
 earth and slate between them. Faults are seldom met 
 with, and in this they differ from the anthracite, and go 
 far to confirm the opinion, that all this vast extent of 
 secondary rocks, was once the bottom of a vast lake or 
 sea, the surface of which suffered little change from the 
 discharge of its waters, which therefore must have run off 
 gradually. This great secondary region has been drained 
 by the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, the Susquehannah 
 and the Hudson. 
 
 It is a curious and interesting geographical fact, that 
 near the northern termination of this coal field, viz. in Pot- 
 ter county, Pennsylvania, and within an area of about five 
 miles, take their rise the head waters of the Alleghany, the 
 
184 AMERICAN COAL FIELDS. 
 
 Susquehannah, the Genesee, the Chesapeake and the St. 
 Lawrence rivers. With the exception of the Susquehan- 
 nah and its tributaries, discharging into the Potomac, all 
 the streams arising in the coal field west of the Alleghanies 
 flow into lakes, or into the Ohio river, consequently the 
 elevation of the ground is gradually depressed in that di- 
 rection, and, as is supposed, it becomes too low to contain 
 coal. 
 
 The northern boundary of the coal region appears to 
 be from the head waters of Towanda creek, in Bradford 
 county, across the counties of Potter, McKean, Warren, 
 and Venango, to the Ohio line. 
 
 A report on this region has lately been made by R. C. 
 Taylor, Esq., a practical engineer and geologist, for the 
 Blossburgh rail-road company, in which it is shown that 
 the coal runs out, as the streams decline towards the north. 
 The dip of the coal strata towards the west, is such as to 
 require towards the east an elevation of upwards of five 
 thousand feet, in order to include the coal measures at the 
 state line between New York and Pennsylvania, whereas 
 the hills there are probably less than six hundred feet in 
 altitude. 
 
 This calculation, says Mr. Taylor, is made for the pur- 
 pose of showing the futility of the expectation of tracing 
 these coal fields in a northerly direction, beyond the limits 
 at which they are discoverable. 
 
 This coal field being bounded on the south by the Al- 
 leghany mountain, extends into Virginia, and underlies 
 more or less all the western counties of Pennsylvania, 
 with the exception of Erie, in which it has not been dis- 
 covered. The counties of Bradford, Lycoming, Tioga, 
 Potter, McKean, Warren, Crawford, Bedford, and Centre, 
 lie partly in, and partly out of the coal field. The coun- 
 ties of Alleghany, Armstrong, Beaver, Butler, Cambria, 
 Clearfield, Fayette, Green, Indiana, Jefferson, Mercer, 
 Somerset, Venango, Washington and Westmoreland, are 
 wholly within its range, and embrace together an area of 
 twenty-one thousand square miles, or thirteen million, 
 four hundred and forty thousand acres. 
 
 Coal is mined to a greater or less extent, in all the 
 above counties, at the expense of one or two cents the 
 bushel, and is thus brought to every man's door. 
 
 That the abundance and cheapness of coal has given 
 birth to the vast, and widely extended manufacturing es- 
 \ 
 
PEAT. 185 
 
 tablishments of the west, there can be no doubt. Pitts- 
 burg, and its environs contain ninety steam engines for 
 the various manufactures of iron, steel, glass, cotton, salt, 
 brass, w/iite lead, flour, oil, leather, &c. These engines 
 consume annually 2,065,306 bushels of coal. The city 
 of Pittsburg and its suburbs, Alleghany town, Birming- 
 ham, &c. contain a population of 30,000 souls. The coal 
 consumed for every purpose in and about Pittsburg, is 
 estimated at 7,665,000 bushels, or 255,500 tons; which 
 at four cents a bushel, the price now paid there, amounts 
 to the sum of 306,512 dollars. 
 
 Besides the coal used in the various manufactures of 
 Pittsburg, vast quantities are consumed in the western 
 counties of the State, in the manufacture of common salt. 
 In these counties there are already about ninety establish- 
 ments for this purpose, and which produce yearly about 
 1,000,000 bushels of salt, and consume 5,000,000 bushels 
 of coal. 
 
 It is found that the bituminous coal of Pennsylvania 
 produces coke equal to that of Great Britain, and is em- 
 ployed to a considerable extent by the manufacturers of 
 iron. 
 
 See Silliman's Journal, No. 59. This number is oc- 
 cupied by an account of the geology and mineral resour- 
 ces of the valley of the Ohio, which ought to be read by 
 every American. 
 
 PEAT. 
 
 Although peat is a substance entirely distinct from coal, 
 yet there exists considerable analogy between them. They 
 are both of vegetable origin; both are formed by natural 
 processes; their colors are similar; and when perfectly 
 formed, they neither of them present the least traces of 
 their origin; and lastly, they are both dug out of the 
 earth and employed for fuel. 
 
 There is reason to believe that peat moors will ulti- 
 mately become coal beds. In all instances, peat appears 
 to have been formed since the present order of things on 
 the earth, or since the deluge; while it seems to be 
 equally true, that coal was formed before that epoch. 
 
 Dr. Macculloch has shown that there is a connected 
 16* 
 
186 PEAT. 
 
 gradation from forest peat, that is, submerged wood, 
 through lignite, to perfect coal. " Lignite," says he, 
 ** presents no difficulties, being derived from submerged 
 wood, or forest peat. I have shown that the deposites of 
 this substance [lignite] are of a far higher antiquity than 
 any peat, and thus the degrees of bituminization may be 
 accounted for, though there may be many other causes 
 also still unknown to us." 
 
 " If the contrast between peat and coal, is far greater, 
 [than between peat and lignite,] the resemblances are too 
 striking to leave a doubt of the origin of the latter, from 
 beds of that substance. I have shown that all the geologi- 
 cal circumstances are similar, or identical in both; the al- 
 luvial beds of one, corresponding to the rocky strata of the 
 other, as do the deposites of organic substances; while the 
 insulated condition of each class, is also a striking point 
 of resemblance. The mechanical structures of peat and 
 coal, often present sufficient analogies; the resemblance of 
 forest peat to the latter, being often absolute in all but the 
 mineral character; as in both do similar organic remains 
 occur, and in a similar manner, while in both, also they 
 are sometimes wanting." Geology, vol. ii, p. 357. 
 
 The same writer has shewn that wood may be convert- 
 ed into a substance having all the chemical properties of 
 peat; then of lignite; and lastly of coal. The process 
 consists in subjecting the wood to heat and moisture in a 
 close vessel so that none of the gasses may escape. He 
 does not, however, suppose that coal has been subjected 
 to a high temperature during the progress of its forma- 
 tion, but if we understand him, (for of all late writers he 
 is the most obscure,) he believes that the pressure of the 
 incumbent strata, together with fermentation, and above 
 all, time, has converted wood into coal. 
 
 It has been supposed that peat had the property of 
 preserving animal matter from decay, and the following 
 account written by Dr. Balguy, and published in the Lon. 
 Phil. Trans, for 1734, seems to verify such an opinion. 
 
 " On the 14th Jan. 1675, as a farmer, and his maid ser- 
 vant were crossing the peat moors, near Castleton, in Der- 
 byshire, they were overtaken by a great fall of snow, and 
 both perished: their bodies were not found until the 3d of 
 May, in the same year, and were then in such a state, that 
 the coroner ordered them to be buried on the spot, in the 
 peat. Here they lay twenty-eight years and nine months 
 
PEAT. 187 
 
 when the curiosity of some countrymen, (probably having 
 heard that peat would preserve dead bodies,) induced 
 them to open these graves. The bodies appeared quite 
 fresh, the skin was fair, though somewhat darker than 
 natural, and the flesh as soft as that of persons newly 
 dead. These bodies were afterwards frequently exposed 
 as curiosities, until the year 1716, forty-one years after 
 their deaths, when they were buried by order of the far- 
 mer's descendants. At that time, Dr. Bourne, of Chester- 
 field, who examined these bodies, says that the man was 
 perfect; his beard was strong, his hair short, and his skin 
 hard and of a tanned leather color, like the liquor in 
 which he had lain. The body of the woman was inju- 
 red, having been more frequently exposed, but the hair 
 was like that of a living person. 
 
 In the beginning of the last century the perfect body of 
 a man dressed in the ancient Saxon costume, was discov- 
 ered in a peat bed at Hatfield chase, in Yorkshire, but it 
 soon perished on exposure to the air. BakeweWs Geol. 
 
 In 1747, the body of a woman was found six feet deep, 
 in a peat moor in Lincolnshire. The antique sandals on 
 her feet afforded evidence of her having been buried there 
 for many ages, and yet her hair, nails, and skin are descri- 
 bed as having shown hardly any marks of decay. 
 
 On the estate of the earl of Moira, in Ireland, a human 
 body was found a foot deep in gravel, covered with elev- 
 en feet of moss. The body was completely clothed in 
 garments of hair. The great length of time it had been 
 interred, may be inferred from this circumstance, for it 
 is known, that before the use of wool, the inhabitants of 
 Britain made their clothing of hair, and yet this body waa 
 fresh and unimpaired. 
 
 At the battle of Solway, in the time of Henry VIII. 
 (1542,) when the Scotch army was routed, an unfortunate 
 troop of horse were driven into the Solway morass, and 
 sinking down, the surface closed upon them. A tradition 
 of this catastrophe had always been kept alive by the peo- 
 ple of the neighborhood, and the place where it was sup- 
 posed to have happened, designated. This tradition has 
 now been authenticated, for a man and horse, in com- 
 plete armor, such as was worn in Henry's time, has been 
 found by the peat diggers, in the place where it was be- 
 lieved the accident occurred. The skeleton of both man 
 and horse was well preserved, and the different parts of 
 the armor readily distinguished. 
 
188 ORIGIN AND PHENOMENA OF TRAP ROCKS. 
 
 These cases are from various authorities, but are well 
 authenticated. 
 
 Cause of the antisceptic property of Peat. This proper- 
 ty has been attributed to the carbonic and gallic acids 
 which are set free by the decaying of wood, and also to 
 the gums and resins which various plants contain. Oth- 
 ers have attributed this effect to the tannin which the peat 
 contains. It is most probable, however, that this proper- 
 ty is owing to the formation of pyroligenous acid, during 
 the decomposition of the vegetables. It is true that no 
 known process, except that of the destructive distillation 
 of the wood, can form this acid by art, still it may be con- 
 jectured, that the natural destruction of the same organic 
 substances may produce the same effect. 
 
 f ^ ORIGIN AND PHENOMENA OF TRAP ROCKS. 
 
 It has already been stated, that the term trap includes a 
 family of rocks of igneous origin, and that these are ba- 
 salt, porphyry, green-stone, and their associates. 
 
 Under what conditions the trap rocks were formed, it is 
 impossible to determine, there being no examples of such 
 formations at the present day. We know that fused mat- 
 ter, as it is thrown out of volcanoes, differs in most re- 
 spects from any of the varieties of trap; nor do the ancient 
 lavas vary materially from those of the present day, a 
 proof that age does not convert lava into trap. The form 
 under which trap rocks exist, also seems to show, that 
 they could not have been produced under similar circum- 
 stances with the volcanic products of the present day. 
 
 Some geologists have supposed that trap was thrown 
 up under the feea, and that the pressure of the water has 
 been instrumental in causing the difference between it 
 and lava. But were this the case, it might be expected 
 that marine remains, as shells, would be common among 
 the fissures of these rocks. If it is supposed that these 
 have been converted into quicklime and washed away, 
 still such remains ought to exist on the strata over which 
 these rocks are found. 
 
 It is true that such cases do exist, but they are far from 
 being universal, or even common. 
 

 ORIGIN AND PHENOMENA OF TRAP ROCKS. 189 
 
 If these rocks were thrown up into the open air in the 
 form of lava, and after the elevation of the land from the 
 sea, then we might inquire how the difference between 
 products having the same origin is to be accounted for, 
 and why trap has taken the form of precipitous mountains, 
 instead of being spread in comparatively thin sheets on the 
 surface, as lava is at the present day. It appears there- 
 fore, that these rocks were formed under circumstances 
 which it is difficult, or impossible satisfactorily to explain, 
 and on which this is not the place to speculate. 
 
 These rocks appear to be of all ages, between that of 
 granite, and those of secondary stratified formations, con- 
 taining organic remains. This is proved from the circum- 
 stance, that trap is found above all the others, and when 
 it occurs below them, the phenomena prove that the trap- 
 pean matter has been forced between their strata from be- 
 neath. (See Fig. 33.) 
 
 The igneous origin of trap, especially of basalt and 
 greenstone; is most directly proved by the fact, often ob- 
 served, that where they come into contact with the origin- 
 al strata in their passage from beneath, the effects of heat 
 are always apparent on these strata. 
 
 When a dyke of basalt intersects a stratum of coal, the 
 coal, to the distance of several feet, or, sometimes even 
 yards, is deprived of its bitumen, or converted into coke. 
 Dr. Macculloch observed that the proximity of trap to 
 shale, (a kind of slate,) has the effect to convert it into a 
 substance resembling basalt. But it is unnecessary to 
 cite further examples, since it may be stated in general 
 terms, that the effect of a basaltic dyke on the contiguous 
 strata, is precisely that which would have been produced, 
 had the matter of the dyke been at a red, or even at a 
 white heat, at the time of its protrusion. 
 
 But there are other circumstances which show that ba- 
 saltic dykes were formed in a fluid state, for when these 
 penetrate stratified formations, the matter of which they 
 are composed, sometimes insinuates itself between the 
 strata from beneath, in a manner which would be impos- 
 sible, had it not been in that state. Dr. Macculloch, in 
 his account of the Western Isles, gives a figure, in illus- 
 tration of such an instance, which is subjoined. 
 
190 ORIGIN AND PHENOMENA OF TRAP ROCKS. 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 The vertical lines 0, fig. 33, represent the basalt partly 
 incumbent in the unconformable position, on the horizon- 
 tal strata c c. At b b, the basalt has forced up the sand- 
 stone, and passed between its strata, two of which it has 
 entirely separated from their fellows, forming between 
 them sheets of its own matter. 
 
 Dykes of basalt form angles with the horizon of every 
 quantity. Sometimes they are nearly or quite perpendi- 
 cular to the horizontal strata through which they pass. In 
 some instances a large vein is pierced by a smaller one, 
 which passing through its middle, divides it into two 
 parts. The adjoining cut from Dr. Ure, represents such 
 an instance. 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 Fig, 34, a a, represents the great basaltic dyke, passing 
 through calcareous sandstone, and b, a small vein of the 
 same matter, by which it is pierced through the line of its 
 The latter is singularly undulated, somewhat like 
 
 axis. 
 
ORIGIN AND PHENOMENA OF TRAP ROCKS. 191 
 
 the zig-zag line of an electric shock passing through the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Although, in most instances, the trap veins pass from 
 below, towards the surface, still there are instances where 
 they descend from the surface into fissures beneath. This 
 is among the more rare and remarkable phenomena which 
 this interesting rock exhibits. 
 
 This example occurs in the island of Sky, and is de- 
 scribed by Dr. Macculloch. The basaltic veins traverse 
 strata of sandstone, in a vertical direction, and parallel to 
 each other. Fig. 35. 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 They appear to descend from the mass on the surface, 
 and are so numerous, in some places, as nearly to equal, 
 taken collectively, the mass of rock through which they 
 pass. Sometimes six or eight veins occur within the space 
 of 150 feet, and their aggregate magnitude is apparently 
 sixty or seventy feet. Their average breadth is about 
 ten feet, though they vary from five to twenty feet. 
 
 It is certainly very difficult to account for the manner 
 in which nature performed this work. Were these veins 
 only an inch or two thick, we might suppose that the 
 melted trap ascended by the large middle vein, seen in 
 the drawing, and having fissured the sandstone by its 
 great heat, descended again by the apertures thus pro- 
 duced; but the fissures are much too large for such a sup- 
 position. 
 
 It is supposed that every basaltic dyke terminates in a 
 mass of basalt below the surface, and, therefore, that ba- 
 
192 COLUMNAR BASALT. 
 
 saltic rocks, resting on the surface, are connected by the 
 dyke or fissure through which they were thrown up, with 
 that part of the mass which still remains beneath the earth. 
 So that these dykes are necks passing through the crust 
 of the earth and connecting the two masses. Where dykes 
 do not reach the surface, of course they are only connec- 
 ted with the lower masses. 
 
 Columnar Basalt.^ All the members of the trap family 
 occasionally assume the form of columns, more or less 
 perfect, but in this respect, basalt excels the others. 
 
 These columns are formed by a natural division of the 
 whole mass of basalt in a vertical direction. They vary 
 in the number of their angles, from three , to eleven or 
 twelve, the medium polygons having from five to seven 
 faces. These are often perfectly regular, the angles being 
 sharp and well defined, and the faces plane and smooth, 
 as represented by the annexed cut, fig. 36. 
 
 Fig. 36 In most cases, when standing in their 
 
 original positions, their sides are in con- 
 tact, or so little separated as barely to 
 admit the infiltration of carbonate of 
 lime; a striking difference, as observed 
 by. Dr. Macculloch, between them and 
 the irregular prisms which result from 
 the cracking of dried clay, and showing that the nature 
 of the process by which these divisions are made, 
 (whether crystalline or not,) are entirely different from 
 each other. 
 
 The columns are sometimes continuous, at others joint- 
 ed, either obliquely or at right angles; occasionally, also, 
 they are fissured without the appearance of regular 
 joints. 
 
 The appearance of a six-sided basaltic column, regu- 
 larly jointed, that is, consisting of short prisms laid on 
 each other, is represented by fig. 37. It is not common, 
 however, that the prisms are as regular, with respect to 
 length, as here represented, the joints being more com- 
 monly repeated at intervals, varying from a few inches to 
 several feet. 
 
COLUMNAR BASALT. 
 
 193 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 In their lengths, these columns also dif- 
 fer exceedingly. In the island of Sky are 
 some which are 400 feet long, while others 
 are only an inch in length. In diameter 
 some are several feet, while others are less 
 than an inch. 
 
 In exposed situations the prismatic blocks 
 represented by fig. 37, lose their angles by 
 the action of the weather, and become glob- 
 ular, but still retain their columnar position 
 as shown by fig. 38. 
 
 It must not be understood that basaltic col- 
 umns preserve their vertical positions, as 
 usually represented by the drawings of 
 StafFa and the Giant's Causeway, these 
 being rare instances, both with respect to 
 position and height. These columns are 
 placed in every manner, from the horizon- 
 tal to the vertical angle, though attracting 
 most attention in these latter cases, from 
 their resemblance to the efforts of architec- 
 ture. 
 
 Trap rocks often form mountains of con- 
 siderable height and sometimes spread over 
 large districts of country. The island of 
 Sky, on the western coast of Ireland, is one 
 continuous mass of erupted rock, fifty miles 
 long and twenty broad. With respect to 
 the elevation of trap mountains, the follow- 
 ing are examples. Tinto in the district of 
 
 ~ ~ " Clyde, is 2036 feet high. Benmore in the 
 
 island of Mull, 3097. Salisbury Craig, 550, and Arthur's 
 Seat, 800 feet; the two last near Edinburgh. 
 
 On this side of the Atlantic, Mount Holyoke in Massa- 
 chusetts is 830 feet above the Connecticut, and 900 feet 
 above the level of the sea. Mount Tom, on the opposite side 
 of the river is still more elevated, being nearly 1000 feet 
 high. 
 
 In the valley of the Connecticut, the mural side of the 
 greenstone formations, is generally, and perhaps always 
 towards the west, in which direction the precipices are 
 often nearly perpendicular; while towards the east, the as- 
 cent is commonly quite gradual. Whether this fact has 
 17 
 
194 PROTRUSION OF GREENSTONE. 
 
 been observed of tbe greenstone of other countries, we 
 do not know. 
 
 Who can conceive of the mighty power which forced 
 these enormous masses from the bowels of the earth; or 
 the awful scenery which was exhibited, when they were 
 poured forth in the form of red hot lava? for there is no 
 doubt but this was the manner of their production. 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 In most instances, basaltic and greenstone mountains 
 present the form of rounded outlines, with occasional pre- 
 cipices on one or more of their sides. 
 
 The configuration of the basaltic columns of Staffa, rep- 
 resented by fig. 39, is peculiarly striking on this account. 
 A part of the mountain has fallen down, in the form of 
 pillars of various dimensions, leaving the others standing 
 in fair view, and preserving a high mural face of great el- 
 evation, composed entirely of columnar pieces, touching 
 each other. 
 
 The rounded form of the massive cap, which surmounts 
 these pillars, presents the outline common to basaltic 
 hills. 
 
 Protrusion of Greenstone. Although greenstone strictly 
 belongs to the trap family; and passes by insensible de- 
 grees into basalt, still there have been detected but few in- 
 stances, where it has protruc^d through superincumbent 
 rocks so as to exhibit the fact to the eye of the geologist. 
 The diagram fig. 40, from Prof. Hitchcock's Geology 
 t)f Massachusetts, shows such a case. 
 
MINERAL VEINS. 195 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 " The protrusion" says Prof. H. " of the unstrati- 
 fied rocks through the stratified ones by internal igneous 
 agency, now admitted by most geologists, has led obser- 
 vers to examine carefully for evidences of mechanical dis- 
 turbance, near the line of contact. They have I believe, 
 found less proof of such disturbance by the intrusion of 
 greenstone, than in the case of the older rocks, as sienite 
 and granite. Every such case therefore deserves to be 
 noticed. If I mistake not, the following sketch of a vein 
 of greenstone in argillaceous slate, is an example of this 
 sort. The dyke is about ten feet thick, and the general 
 dip of the layers of slate in the quary, is about 30 south- 
 east. But as shown in the figure, near the greenstone it is 
 considerably curved upwards in the contrary direction. 
 The quarry, where this example occurs, is about half a 
 mile north of the powder house in Charlestown." 
 
 MINERAL VEINS. 
 
 Metallic veins appear originally to have been fissures, 
 often passing through different beds of rock, and which 
 ^rere subsequently filled with metallic ores. These veins 
 must therefore be considered as subsequent formations to 
 the rocks through which they pass. When, however, a 
 vein is found in only one bed of rock, the vein may have 
 been formed and filled at the time when the rock was con- 
 solidated. 
 
 When mineral veins occur in considerable numbers in 
 any tract of country, they maintain a general parallelism, 
 as if all the fissures to which they owe their origin, had 
 been formed at the same time, by some common cause. 
 
 The absolute antiquity of veins cannot be conjectured 
 
196 MINERAL VEINS. 
 
 but where one rein intersects another as is often the case, 
 the dislocation of the strata, through which the oldest 
 vein passes, by the contact of the new one, is sufficient to 
 show a difference in their ages. 
 
 Veins exist in primitive, transition, and secondary rocks, 
 but are most common in the former. The substances 
 most commonly found in them, are the metals, quartz, cal- 
 careous spar, barytes, and Derbyshire spar. It hardly 
 need be remarked, that the chief object in pursuing 
 veins, is the metals which they contain. 
 
 With respect to the depth of metallic veins, nothing but 
 conjecture can be offered. The miners believe that they 
 reach quite through the earth, but this opinion has no 
 other foundation than that they never find their termina- 
 tion. Indeed, it is believed, that no instance has been re- 
 corded, where the end of a metallic vein has been found. 
 They however, often grow too poor to pay the expense 
 of working; and the difficulty of clearing deep mines of 
 the water, is a frequent reason why they are relinquished 
 when they would pay a good profit, were they near the 
 surface. Veins are seldom rich near the surface; but in- 
 crease in value at a medium depth, and grow poor again 
 at a greater. 
 
 Metallic veins often change their metals at different 
 depths. In France, there are veins which contain iron 
 above, then silver, and below the silver, copper; and one 
 of the Cornwall mines contains zinc, in the upper part of 
 the veins, which becomes rich in copper at a greater depth. 
 Veins often change their dimensions also, being narrow 
 in some parts, and wide in others. Thus the Dalcoath 
 mine of Cornwall, varies from forty feet, to six inches in 
 width. 
 
 It is a curious circumstance, that where a vein is inter- 
 sected by a dyke, that the former often divides into two 
 branches, which unite again before reaching the latter, 
 and after having passed it, separates into several ramifi- 
 cations. 
 
 Thus, fig. 41, b b, is the dyke, and a a, the metallic 
 vein, divided at a, but united again before reaching the 
 dyke, after passing which, it again separates into several 
 parts. The dyke has occasioned a fault, by which the 
 two ends of the vein are widely separated. The lower 
 branches are not supposed to terminate as represented in 
 the cut, but to unite again and proceed downwards, c c, 
 
MINERAL VEINS. 
 
 197 
 
 shows how veins sometimes change their dimensions, be- 
 ing narrow in some parts and wide in others. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 Sometimes veins containing different metals cross each 
 other, and as above stated, pass from one kind of rock 
 into another. Examples of both, are contained in the 
 tin Croft mine in Cornwall. 
 
 In this mine are five copper veins, three of tin and one 
 mixed, all within about a furlong of space, from north to 
 south. Two of the tin veins proceed in a straight line, 
 the other alters its course repeatedly, in a gradual ap- 
 proach to the perpendicular, and is intersected by two of 
 the copper veins. The rocks through which these veins 
 pass, are slate and granite. 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 The annexed cut, fig. 42, from Mr. Phillip's paper, on 
 this mine, will make the direction of these veins under- 
 stood, a #, copper veins; b, tin veins; c, copper and tin 
 intermixed. The dark shade is slate, and the white parts 
 granite. The vein number 3, passes between slate and 
 granite, one of these rocks being found on the north side, 
 and the other on the south. Detached masses of granite 
 and slate are found in this vein, and also in number 2. la 
 17* 
 
198 THEORY OF VEINS. 
 
 this mine it was frequently the case, that where the rein 
 was passing through slate, it contained fragments of gran- 
 ite, and when passing through granite, it contained piecea 
 of slate. 
 
 THEORY OF VEINS. 
 
 No subject belonging to geology, has been contested 
 more warmly, than the theory of metallic veins. These 
 may be considered analagous to dykes, which are veins 
 of stone, penetrating strata differing from themselves in 
 kind, and it is hardly disputed at present, that dykes have 
 not owed their origin to melted matter injected from be- 
 low. In like manner many of the earlier geologists, and 
 among them Dr. Hutton, supposed that the metals were 
 forced into their veins in a fused state, the expansive force 
 of the heat, producing the fissures. This is called the 
 igneous theory of mineral veins. 
 
 Opposed to this doctrine, is that of Werner, and his 
 followers, who believed that the fissures of dykes and 
 veins were produced by the shrinking of the rocks in 
 which they are contained, and that the metallic veins 
 were afterwards filled with the metals in a state of solu- 
 tion, poured in from the surface of the earth. This is 
 called the aqueous theory. 
 
 From the facts we have stated concerning veins, and 
 what will be stated directly, the reader will see, that this 
 latter theory contradicts at once, the principal phenomena 
 by which they are attended. For even were it shown 
 that the metals were soluble in water, which, however, 
 cannot be true, still the supposition that the fissures were 
 filled from above, could not be maintained, for the fol- 
 lowing reasons. First. The ores of most veins are un- 
 mixed; but where a vein contains several metals, bne 
 kind is above, or below the other. Were the metals 
 poured in from the surface, no reason can be assigned 
 why the several solutions should not have fallen in to- 
 gether; or why one should have filled the lower part of 
 the vein, and the other the upper. Second. When a vein 
 passes through a different kind of rock, as from sandstone 
 through limestone, the quality of the ore is changed, and 
 it becomes richer or poorer. This is a general feet well 
 
THEORY OF VEINS. 
 
 known to miners. Now it is plain, that were these veins 
 filled by solutions poured in, the kind of rock could not 
 possibly influence the qualtity of the metal. Third. 
 When a fault changes the strata through which a vein 
 passes, by lifting that on the one side, or throwing down 
 that on the other, so as for instance, to place sandstone 
 on one side of the vein, and limestone on the other side, 
 the vein is never so rich in ore, as it is when both sides 
 are of the same kind of rock. This fact is also plainly 
 incompatible with the aqueous theory. Fourth. Were 
 the metals poured in from above, we should expect that 
 all the narrow parts of the veins would soon be filled 
 with earth mixed with the solutions, and therefore that 
 they would reach only to a short distance below the sur- 
 face, whereas the termination of a vein, as already stated, 
 has never been discovered. Many other objections might 
 be stated; but these are sufficient to show, that the aque- 
 ous theory is incompatible with the known phenomena 
 which metallic veins present. 
 
 If now we advert to the igneous theory, we shall find 
 fewer absurdities, because much must here be left to con- 
 jecture; but the difficulties are little less than those of the 
 aqueous. 
 
 The objections already made, may be applied, without 
 modification, to this theory; for if the metals are injected 
 in a state effusion from below, as we must now suppose, 
 how would any change in the kind or position of the stra- 
 ta, change their quantities? and how can we account for 
 the fact, that veins in the same vicinity, contain different 
 kinds of metal, perfectly distinct, as tin and copper, in the 
 Cornwall mine? Besides these objections, the heat of the 
 fused metal would have produced obvious effects on the 
 walls of the veins, as is the case with basaltic dykes. The 
 adoption of either of these theories, is therefore only a 
 choice -of dilemmas, as they both fail entirely to account 
 for the phenomena observed. 
 
 But the difficulty concerning metallic veins, does not 
 end here; for were it shown in the most satisfactory man- 
 ner, how the metals might have been soluble in water, and 
 in what way they might have been introduced from the 
 surface, into the fissures; or, on the contrary, could it be 
 made to appear that all the phenomena which veins pre- 
 sent, were compatible with the igneous theory, still the 
 great difficulty would remain unanswered, viz. whence did 
 
200 
 
 THEORY OF VEINS. 
 
 the metals come, before they were melted by the heat below, 
 or dissolved by the fluid above? 
 
 This, after all the arguments that have been employed 
 on both sides, is the principal question; and the reason- 
 able answer is obvious. The metals were created by Him 
 who made the other parts of the earth; but whether they 
 were formed at the same time, and in the veins as we see 
 them, or whether the veins were fissures, afterwards filled 
 with the metals; and if so, whether they came from be- 
 low, being dissolved by heat, or from above, in solution 
 with some fluid, are questions which man, with all his cu- 
 riosity, seems destined never to answer. 
 
 *f " Fig. 43. 
 
 The adjoining cut represents the most common varieties 
 of metallic veins. It is from Sir W. T. Brande's " Out- 
 lines of Geology," and is placed here to gratify the curiosi- 
 ty of the reader, on this mysterious subject. 
 
 With respect to the direction of different metallic veins, 
 we have already observed, that in the same neighborhood, 
 they commonly run parallel with each other, and are of- 
 ten nearly, or quite vertical, or perpendicular to the line 
 of the horizon. But the inclination of different series of 
 veins is found at every angle, from the perpendicular to 
 the horizontal; and the manner in which they run among 
 the strata, is. also exceedingly various. In most instances, 
 the line of the vein is across that of the strata, but some- 
 times they run parallel with each other, and the veins 
 spread out between the strata, as represented at No. 4. 
 Sometimes, also, a vein, whose general direction is across 
 the strata, will take a short turn between them, and then 
 proceed on as before, as represented at 7. The branches 
 
MINES AND MINERS. 
 
 of the veins do not terminate as they seem to do in the 
 figure, but commonly join themselves together again, as 
 seen at 2. 
 
 It must not be understood that metallic veins consist of 
 metals, or their ores alone; on the contrary, they are mix- 
 ed with greater or less proportions of stony matter. Some- 
 times the ore is diffused through the vein, in some man- 
 ner as it would be, had the stone been porous, and dipped 
 into a solution of the metal. In other instances, the metal 
 lies in concretions, or crystals, entirely surrounded by the 
 stone. An instance of this is common in the sulphuret of 
 iron, the crystals of which appear as though they had been 
 perfectly formed, and then dropped into the stone when 
 in a soft state. Indeed, so mysterious are the phenomena 
 which metallic veins exhibit, as in the present state of 
 knowledge, to defy all hypothesis. 
 
 MINES AND MINERS. 
 
 The means of arriving at a vein, or working a mine, are 
 varied according to the nature of the rock or country 
 which it traverses, and are dependent upon a great variety 
 of adventitious circumstances, frequently connected with 
 those under which the vein was discovered; which disco- 
 very is often accidental, as during the making of roads, 
 cutting of ditches, or draining land; or sometimes it is ar- 
 rived at, by the discovery of fragments, or pebbles of ore 
 in the bed of rivers, or in alluvial soils through which 
 streams formerly appear to have passed. Thus the an- 
 cient mode of shading, or searching for tin, consisted in 
 tracing certain stones containing that metal, to the vein 
 whence they came. Sometimes the course of a vein may 
 be learned by the nature of the fragments and stones upon 
 the surface, and, more especially, when it is of iron, by 
 their ocherous tints. A knowledge too, of the substances 
 which, in different countries, usually accompany the ore 
 of a metal, forming what is called the ganue, or matrix, is 
 often of much importance in these inquiries. 
 
 Sometimes the springs in the vicinity of metallic veins 
 are so tainted, as to lead to their discovery. Of this, a 
 singular instance occurred some years ago at Dolgetty, 
 where the peat in the neighborhood of the vein, was so 
 
202 MINES AND MINERS. 
 
 impregnated by sulphate of copper, as to leave some of 
 the metal in its ashes when burned. When this was as- 
 certained, the injured vegetation guided to the vein. By 
 the retention, therefore, of these contaminated waters, in 
 the soil near the vein, it may become unfit for vegeta- 
 tion, and thus the sterillity of certain patches of ground, 
 may indicate the existence of metallic substances in the 
 district. 
 
 (Mr. Brande, who writes the above account, has not 
 stated what species of copper was discovered. It was, 
 however, undoubtedly a sulphuret, and from the decom- 
 position of which, the sulphuric acid was produced, 
 which uniting with the oxide of the metal, formed sul- 
 phate of copper. In the Anglesea copper-mine, consider- 
 able quantities of the metal are obtained from the natural 
 solution of the sulphate in water. This is done by throw- 
 ing in pieces of waste iron, on which the copper is precip- 
 itated.) 
 
 "There are no class of persons," continues Mr. Brande, 
 " more curiously superstitious than miners; and hence a 
 variety of omens, connected with the interference of agents 
 from the spiritual world, are among the items of their 
 creed. Sometimes while under ground, they fancy they 
 hear another pick at work, announcing the presence of 
 a little man, or pixey-knocker, in some neighboring cavern, 
 and the consequent vicinity of a good course of ore. 
 Sometimes the divining rod is resorted to, as a means of 
 finding the ore; and sometimes it is said that flames of 
 light, dancing about a mining district, have suddenly 
 perched upon the looked for vein; a circumstance not im- 
 probable, and perhaps referable to the power of the vein to 
 conduct electricity." 
 
 "The habits, however, of the miner, are those of indus- 
 try and perseverance, which sometimes tempt him to ex- 
 ploits that excite astonishment at his venturous hardihood. 
 The very idea of a descent beneath. the surface of the 
 earth, has something in it of the terrible," says Mr. Phil- 
 lips, " and at which those shudder who are unacquainted 
 with practical mining; but such is the force of habit, that 
 any other employment rarely tempts him to forsake his 
 own. The occasional perils of his occupation are scarce- 
 ly noticed, or if nbticed, are soon forgotten. He walks, 
 often in the middle of the night, and in all weathers, two, 
 or three, or more miles, to the mine, undresses, and puts 
 
MINES AND MINERS. 203 
 
 on his underground clothes, and, with his tools, slung 
 over his shoulder, descends to a depth of 1000 or 1200 
 feet, assisted by the light of a small candle, and works 
 in the bottom of the mine six or eight hours, amidst the 
 noise of the working of the pumps, with as much alacrity 
 and with as little sense of danger, as he would feel amidst 
 his ordinary occupations above ground. We should be 
 inclined to feel pity for the wretch, who, as an atonement 
 for his crimes, should be compelled to undergo what the 
 Cornish miner voluntarily undertakes for a small pittance, 
 and that even of an uncertain amount." W. Phillip's 
 Geol. Trans. 
 
 One of the mines in the parish of St. Just, is wrought 
 nearly 500 feet under the sea, beyond low-water mark; 
 and the sea, in some places, is only about eighteen feet 
 over the back of his workings; insomuch that the miners 
 underneath hear the break, flux, ebb, and re-flux of every 
 wave; which, upon the beach overhead, may be said 
 to have the run of the Atlantic ocean for many hundred 
 leagues, and consequently are amazingly powerful and 
 boisterous. They also hear the rumbling noise of every 
 nodule, and fragment of a rock, which are continually 
 rolling upon the submarine stratum; which altogether 
 make a kind of thundering roar, which would surprise 
 and terrify the stranger. Add to this, that several parts 
 of the land which were richer than others, have 
 been indiscretely hulked, and worked within four feet of 
 the sea, whereby, in violent stormy weather, the noise 
 overhead has been so tremendous, that the workmen 
 have many times deserted their labor, under the grea- 
 test fear, lest the sea should break in upon them. 
 Pryce's Mineralogia Cornubiensis. 
 
 In former times, when a vein of metal was discovered, 
 it was worked to a certain depth, and then often aban- 
 doned, in consequence of the insufficiency of the pumps to 
 carry off the water, or the expense incurred in their erec- 
 tion and working. In certain situations, however, it was 
 found that this water run off at lower levels, and that in 
 most instances it might be carried away by an under- 
 ground tunnel, commencing at the foot of the hill, pene- 
 trating to the vein, and thus forming a communication 
 with the working of the mine, and a neighboring valley. 
 These tunnels are now called adits, and when it is resolv- 
 ed to try a vein, one of these uuderground passages, 
 
204 PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 
 
 about six feet high, and two and a half wide, is begun at 
 the bottom of the neighboring valley, and driven up to the 
 vein for the purpose of carrying off the water; or if a 
 mine has an engine to raise the water from a greater 
 depth than that of the entrance of the adit, the engine 
 then, instead of having to lift the water to the surface, 
 throws, it off with diminished labor at the adit. In gener- 
 al, adits are nearly horizontal, for although a declivity 
 would acclerate the drainage, it would enter the mine at 
 a less depth. The importance of draining mines by adits 
 has led to some gigantic undertakings of this kind. The 
 great Cornish adit, commences in a valley above Carnon, 
 near the sea, and branches off in its course in several di- 
 rections to about fifty mines. Most of the mines are far 
 below the level of the adit, the water being raised into it 
 by means of steam engines. The entire length of this 
 adit, with its various branches, is about thirty miles. But 
 the greatest length of any one branch from, its mouth to 
 the mine, is that of Cardrew Mine, which is about five and 
 a half miles. The greatest depth of any part of this adit 
 is at Wheel Hope, where it is about 400 feet deep. It 
 empties itself into Falmouth Harbor. Several great 
 works of the same kind exist in different parts of Great 
 Britain. The adit belonging to the Duke of Bridgewater's 
 Coal mines, is nearly thirty miles long, and navigable for 
 small boats. 
 
 Where an adit is of any considerable length, it is obr 
 vious that the air would becdme stagnant in it, so that the 
 workmen would be unable to proceed. To prevent this, 
 and also to enable them to remove the produce of the 
 excavation without transporting it to great distances, per- 
 pendicular openings called shafts, are made at various in- 
 tervals. From these shafts, levels or galleries are driven 
 in different directions, either for exploring for new veins, 
 or for removing the contents of those already known. 
 See Brande's Geology. 
 
 PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 
 
 The origin of common springs is easily understood. 
 The water which falls on the surface of the earth, pene- 
 trates its substance, until meeting with a stratum of clay, 
 
PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 205 
 
 or the surface of a continuous rock, which hinders its de- 
 scent, it accumulates, and taking the direction given by 
 these impediments, continues its course, until meeting 
 with an aperture, gushes out in the form of a spring. 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 Suppose a, fig. 44, to be a gravel hill, and 6, strata of 
 clay or rock, impervious to water. The fluid percola- 
 ting through the gravel would reach the impervious stra- 
 ta, along which it would run until it found an outlet at c, 
 at the foot of the hill, where a spring would be formed. 
 As water in the earth observes the law of gravity, springs 
 are most commonly found lower than their sources. 
 When however the fluid is intercepted by a dyke, which 
 rises as high as its source, the hydrostatic law of tending 
 to a level, will carry it as high as its source; though this 
 in fact is probably not a common circumstance, since the 
 pressure of the water generally will find an outlet before 
 it rises to such a height. 
 
 The people of Artois in France, for a long time, have 
 been in the practice of boring into the earth, until they 
 find a sheet or vein of water which rises to the surface. 
 These are called Artesian wells, because the method was 
 first invented, or employed in Artois. 
 
 This method has for many years been practised in 
 other parts of Europe, and more recently in this country. 
 The size of the boring is usually three or four inches in 
 diameter, and to prevent its sides from falling in when it 
 passes through a stratum of sand, there is introduced a 
 jointed tube, which in Artois, is made of wood, but in 
 other countries of copper, or other metal. It often hap- 
 pens that after passing through hundreds of feet, without 
 success, a vein of water is pierced, which immediately 
 ascends to the surface, and flows over the end of the 
 tube. The first rush of the water is somtimes so violent 
 as to throw it many feet above the surface, where for a 
 time it plays like an artificial fountain, and then continues 
 to run in a steady stream, or perhaps sinks away below 
 the surface to the great disappointment of the operator. 
 18 
 
206 PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 
 
 This violent gush of the water appears to be owing to the 
 pressure of air or gas on its surface, before it was pierced 
 by the auger. Dr. Hildreth states that in boring for salt 
 in Ohio, the gas rushed out with such force as to throw 
 the auger and poles into the top of a tree. 
 
 In some instances large quantities of water have been 
 discharged from great depths in this manner. In 1824, a 
 well was dug at Fulham, near the English Thames, to the 
 depth of 317 feet, the deepest part of which passed through 
 sixty-seven feet of chalk. On piercing through the chalk 
 the water immediately rose to the surface, and discharged 
 itself at the rate of fifty gallons per minute. 
 
 Sometimes borings for Artesian wells are entirely with- 
 out success. Thus, at Toulouse, in France, the excava- 
 tion was carried to the immense depth of 1200 feet, and 
 abandoned without finding water. In most places, in- 
 deed, there is no doubt but success must depend on chance, 
 since neither skill nor experience in ordinary circum- 
 stances, can ascertain beforehand the direction of a water 
 vein. It appears however that in certain situations, water 
 bearing strata underlay considerable extents of country, as 
 will appear by the following account. 
 
 In the country about Modena, in Italy, to find water, 
 they dig through several kinds of soil, until they come to 
 a stratum of hard calcareous clay, which resembles chalk. 
 Here they begin their mason work, and build the wall at 
 their leisure, carrying it up to the surface, without the 
 least sign of water. But experience has taught the work- 
 men not to expect it until they pierce this stratum, when 
 it never fails to reward their labors. When the well is 
 finished they bore through this hard stratum with a long 
 auger, but take care to leave the well before they draw 
 it out again; which when they have done, the water 
 springs up into the well, and in a short time rises to the 
 brim, or in some instances overflows into the neighboring 
 valley. 
 
 The source of these wells is supposed to be in the Ap- 
 penine mountains, which lie not a great distance from 
 Modena, and to which, the impervious stratum does not 
 reach. The water from the mountains, therefore sinks 
 below this stratum, at a distance from these wells, and is 
 thus prevented from rising to the surface until this is 
 pierced. 
 
PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 207 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 Suppose fl, fig. 45, to represent the Appenines, sloping 
 down, towards Modena, and passing under the secondary 
 strata at b. Suppose that the impervious strata c, does 
 not reach the side of the mountain, and that the strata 
 both above and below it, admit the water through them; 
 then the fluid would not rise in any quantity above this 
 stratum, except about its edges; but the pressure being 
 constant on its lower side, because the source is elevated, 
 the moment this is pierced the water flows above it, as at 
 w, which represents a well. 
 
 In many instances, wells overflow their brims, and con- 
 tinue to discharge water, in the manner of springs. These 
 may be springs deeply situated, which happen to be struck 
 by the well, or they may be dishes of water, confined by 
 dykes, or by impervious strata, inclining towards each 
 other. 
 
 The annexed cut, fig. 46, 
 represents inclined strata cov- 
 ered with alluvial deposites. 
 The water descending along 
 the strata, would be lost in 
 the adjoining valley, was it 
 not intercepted by the dyke, d, which serves as an im- 
 pervious dam. The water, therefore, rises and forms 
 springs along the inside of the dyke. Now if a well be 
 sunk at w, the water will rise to the surface of the ground, 
 and if the inclined rocks be considerably higher than the 
 well, it will overflow. If the strata form a dish, one side 
 of which is considerably higher than the other, the same 
 effect will be produced. 
 
 London and its vicinity stand over a formation, of rath- 
 er a peculiar kind, called London clay. Its direction is 
 nearly horizontal, and its thickness from 100 to 500 feet 
 It is covered with alluvial deposites of various thickness; 
 so that although the surface of the clay may be horizon- 
 
208 PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 
 
 tal, still the depth of the wells are various, according to 
 the thickness of the alluvium. Until within a few years, 
 most of the wells in and about London, were sunk no 
 deeper than the surface of this clay, and its impervious 
 nature is of vast importance to that great city, since the 
 water is thus retained, and a plentiful supply is always 
 furnished by means of shallow wells. But this water, 
 though limpid, is hard and impure. That, however, 
 which is drawn from below the clay, is perfectly soft and 
 transparent; and hence all the pumps about London, 
 which furnish such water, are of great depth, piercing the 
 sand below the clay. 
 
 This water, says Mr. Conybeare, frequently rises so in- 
 stantaneously, on passing through the clay, as not to suf- 
 fer the well digger to escape, without rising above his 
 head. It appears to rise in different places, to different 
 heights. Thus at Liptrap's distillery, near the Thames, 
 it rises no higher than the level of that river; but at Tot- 
 tenham, four miles north of London, it rises sixty feet 
 above that level; while at Epping, fifteen miles north of 
 London, the water rises to within twenty-six feet of the 
 summit of the well, which is 340 feet above the level of 
 the Thames, and therefore 3 14 feet above that level. This 
 well is 420 feet deep, of which 200 feet were sunk through 
 by digging, and 220 bored with an auger four inches in 
 diameter. After boring to this depth, no water being 
 found, the project was relinquished, and the well was 
 covered over; but at the end of five months it was found 
 that the water had risen to within twenty-six feet of the 
 surface, and has so continued ever since. The sinking of 
 this well was therefore 340 feet above the level of the 
 Thames, and eighty feet below it. 
 
 Another well, two miles from this, at Hunter's Hall, is 
 350 feet deep, but its summit is seventy higher than that 
 at Epping, and 410 feet above the level of the Thames. 
 The water in this well, stands 130 feet above its bottom, 
 which is sixty feet above the level of the Thames; the ac- 
 tual elevation of this water, therefore, is not so great as 
 that at Epping, by fifty-four feet. 
 
 These facts will be better understood by fig. 47, where 
 H marks Hunter's Hall; E Epping; T Tottenham; L Lip- 
 trap's well, at Mile End. a b, is the level of the sea, as 
 indicated by that of the Thames. It will be observed that 
 all the wells reach below the level of the Thames, except 
 
PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 209 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 that at Hunters' Hall, The numbers will be chiefly un- 
 derstood by the explanations already given. Thus the 
 water in the well at Hunters* Hall, stands 130 feet from 
 its bottom, the well is 350 feet, and its mouth 410 above 
 the level of the Thames. That at Epping, is 420 feet 
 deep, its summit is 340 feet above the Thames, and its bot- 
 tom, 80 feet below it; the water is 314 feet deep, and it ri- 
 ses to within 26 feet of the top. The well at Tottenham 
 is 130 feet deep; its top is 70 feet above the Thames, and 
 its bottom 60 feet below it, and the water rises 60 feet 
 above the sea. 
 
 All these wells being sunk below the London clay, and 
 deriving their water from the same source, it might be 
 expected that agreeably to the general law of hydrostatics 
 that their surfaces would have a common level. The Lon- 
 don clay, as we have stated, is nearly on a horizontal lev- 
 el; the depth of the well at Hunters' Hall, however shows 
 a slight rising of the strata there, but still the water in 
 that well does not rise so high by 54 feet, as that in the 
 well at Epping. 
 
 Now did the water which supplies these wells, exist in 
 a great reservoir, so that a full and instantaneous commu- 
 nication could take place between the different points 
 pierced by the wells, then the water in them all would 
 stand at the same hydrostatic level; whereas in fact, no such 
 case exists. The strata on the contrary, which bear the 
 water, though more or less porous, are still too close to 
 allow the fluid to pass with rapidity; hence such strata 
 may be considered as acting on the water in the same man- 
 ner as a series of imperfect dams. Now although the wa- 
 ter in the present case has the same general source, being 
 that which falls on the highlands, beyond the confines of 
 the London clay formation, and percolating so as to rise 
 under it, yet from the want of free communication, it will 
 
 18* 
 
210 PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 
 
 not every where rise to the same height when the clay is 
 pierced, but the well will only drain that which presses 
 with the greatest force in its immediate vicinity, without 
 affecting that which is at a distance. If there is a free and 
 extensive drain in any part of such a formation, then it is 
 obvious that the water in that vicinity will rise no higher 
 than the level of the drain. Thus the water in the well 
 marked L on the cut, rises no higher than the Thames, be- 
 cause that river cuts through the London clay, and serves 
 as a drain to the same water bearing stratum which sup- 
 plies the other wells. 
 
 Wells situated in level countries, and in alluvial forma- 
 tions, generally require to be sunk only thirty or forty 
 feet, and sometimes no more than twenty before water is 
 found. These are not commonly supplied by springs, but 
 merely by the draining of the water which exists within 
 the circuit of a few yards, into a cavity. During severe 
 droughts, many such wells fail, which shows that they are 
 supplied only by the rain which percolates from the sur- 
 face, and not by deeply seated springs. 
 
 But there are some extraordinary phenomena connected 
 with springs which require a different explanation, if in- 
 deed they can be explained at all. 
 
 There is little difficulty with respect to those springs 
 which rise in salt marshes, or which gush from the fis- 
 sures of rocks under the sea. The sources of these are 
 in the distant hills; or in the strata of the vicinity, situated 
 higher than their outlets; and the presence of the sea or 
 marsh it is plain, could not affect them, since the water 
 from these do not penetrate their sources. This principle 
 will also account for such springs as rise on small islands 
 at little distances from the sea shore, where they could not 
 have been collected from the rain falling there. 
 
 There are however springs which arise near the tops 
 of hills, and which are so situated as to make it apparent 
 that their sources could not exist in the same hills, nor in 
 those in the immediate vicinity. The water with which 
 such are supplied, must therefore, come from the higher 
 hills or mountains, at a distance, and passing the inter- 
 vening valley, rise by hydrostatic force to these outlets. 
 Many rocks are so full of fissures, as to present no diffi- 
 culty in supposing that considerable rivulets might run 
 among them, at great depths below the surface. Rocks 
 also frequently contain large cavities, so that some rivers 
 
PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 211 
 
 sink down into them and disappear for miles, when they 
 again issue from their hiding places, and continue their 
 courses. In limestone districts it is well known that large 
 cavities are of common occurrence. Perhaps, therefore, 
 the manner in which water is conveyed to the springs, 
 situated as above described, may be as follows. Water 
 from hills at a distance, and more elevated than the 
 springs, descend through fissures, to a cavity in the valley, 
 which cavity communicates with another fissure running 
 to the spring. In this manner the hydrostatic pressure 
 from the highest hill would overcome that from the lower 
 one, and the water would be perpetually transferred from 
 one to the other. 
 
 Pig. 48. 
 
 The annexed cut, fig. 48, will make this obvious. The 
 rills a, are supposed to unite and fall into the cavity be- 
 low b\ from which, the greater pressure from a, forces the 
 water up the hill, through a fissure, to c, where the spring 
 issues. 
 
 That water runs in considerable streams under the 
 earth and among the fissures of rocks, is proved by its 
 issuing in springs, sometimes in large quantities. Dr. 
 Macculloch states, that a spring in Staffordshire is compu- 
 ted to discharge more water annually, than all the falls in 
 the surrouding country; and the same, even to a greater 
 degree, is true of that of the Sorgne, in France. 
 
 A writer in Featherstonhaugh's Journal, for August 
 1831, p. 65, refers to a great body of water which issues 
 from the ground, ten miles from Harrisburg, Virginia, and 
 which is known under the name of " Big Spring." He says, 
 " it should rather be called a river, so large is the body 
 of water which rises suddenly from the foot of a limestone 
 hill, and continues in a stream some yards in breadth and 
 half a foot deep, with force sufficient to turn two large 
 mills immediately below." 
 
 There is a spring at Kingston, R. I., which arises from 
 primitive rocks, and discharges such a quantity of water, 
 
CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 
 
 that a grist mill has been driven by it for a great number 
 of years; and more recently, a large cotton factory has 
 been erected below the corn-mill, which depended en- 
 tirely on the water of this spring to turn its whole ma- 
 chinery* 
 
 From these, and such like facts, there can be but little 
 doubt, that small streams are constantly running under 
 ground among the crevices of the rocks, and that such 
 springs are formed by a union of many of these tributa- 
 ries, in a similar manner to which larger streams are form- 
 ed on the surface of the earth, by the union of several 
 smaller ones* 
 
 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. . 
 
 It will be the object of this section to show, that the 
 temperature of the earth's surface, at some period anterior 
 to the era of history, suffered a material, and probably a 
 sudden change, and that in consequence, the climates of 
 different countries have become colder than they were at 
 some remote period. 
 
 This is a subject of great interest in geology, and al- 
 though the idea of a universal change of climate was once 
 strongly controverted, most writers, at the present day, 
 consider that there is sufficient evidence, that the tem- 
 perature of the earth's surface is much lower than for- 
 merly, 
 
 " That the climate of the northern hemisphere has un- 
 dergone an important change," says Mr. Lyell, " and that 
 its mean annual temperature must once have resembled 
 that now experienced within the tropics, was the opinion 
 of some of the naturalists who first investigated the con- 
 tents of ancient strata. Their conjecture became more 
 probable, when the shells and corals of the secondary 
 rocks were more carefully examined, for these organic re- 
 mains were found to be intimately connected, by generic af- 
 finity, with species no w living in warmer latitudes. At a later 
 period, many reptiles, such as turtles, tortoises, and large 
 saurian (lizard-like) animals were discovered in the Euro- 
 pean strata, in great abundance, and they supplied new and 
 powerful arguments from analogy, in support of the doc- 
 trine, that the heat of the climate had been great when 
 
CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 213 
 
 our secondary formations were deposited. Lastly, when 
 the botanist turned his attention to the specific determina- 
 tion of fossil plants, the evidence acquired the fullest con- 
 firmation; for the flora of a country is peculiarly influenced 
 by its temperature; and the ancient vegetation of the 
 earth might more readily than the forms of animals, have 
 afforded conflicting proofs, had the popular theory been 
 without foundation. 
 
 " It is not merely reasoning from analogy, that we are 
 led to infer a diminution of temperature, in the climate of 
 Europe; there are direct proofs in confirmation of the 
 same doctrine, in the only countries hitherto investigated 
 by expert geologists, where we could expect to meet with 
 direct proofs. It is not in England, or Northern France, 
 but around the borders of the Mediterranean, from the 
 South of Spain to Calabria, and in the islands of the Me- 
 diterranean, that we must look for conclusive evidence on 
 this question; for it is not in strata, where the organic re- 
 mains belong to extinct species, but where living species 
 abound in a fossil state, that a theory of climate can be 
 subjected to the experimentum crucis. In Sicily, Ischia, 
 and Calabria, where the fossil testacea of the more recent 
 strata, belong almost entirely to species now known to 
 inhabit the Mediterranean, the conchologist remarks, 
 that individuals in the inland deposites, exceed" in their 
 average size the living analogues." LyelVs Geology, vol. 
 i. p. 92. 
 
 The shells thus existing in strata, and in the fossil state, 
 differ in no respects from those now found in the adjoin- 
 ing sea, except in size; the ancient ones being much 
 larger than those now living. Hence the conclusion, that 
 because these animals do not attain the size the same spe- 
 cies did anciently, the climate has deteriorated. 
 
 It has also been ascertained that some species of shells 
 found in the fossil state, in Italy, are now living in the In- 
 dian Ocean, and that these correspond in size; whereas the 
 same species existing at present in the Mediterranean, are 
 comparatively dwarfs in size, having been stinted in their 
 growth, for want of the heat which now exists in the In- 
 dian Ocean. 
 
 These circumstances go far to show, that the climate of 
 Italy is not so hot as formerly, for it is well known, that 
 these shells attain a size in some proportion to the heat of 
 the climate in which they are found. 
 
214 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 
 
 Another and perhaps stronger proof, is drawn from the 
 vegetable remains, which are found in various strata es- 
 pecially in those of coal. M. Adolphe Brogniart, in his 
 " Treatise on the classification and distribution of fossil 
 plants," has come to the following, among other conclu- 
 sions on this subject. First, "That in the strata of coal 
 and anthracite, the vegetables preserved are nearly all 
 cryptogamous, or monocotyledonous* plants, as ferns,t 
 equisetums,J and lycopodiums, &c." and that some of 
 these tribes which no longer exist, except as fossils, grew 
 to an immense size inEurope." 
 
 (Some of the Equisetums were ten or twenty feet high, 
 and from six to twelve inches in diameter. These tribes 
 in our climate at the present day, grow from one to three 
 feet in height, and are ordinarily about the size of a pipe- 
 stem. A specimen of this tribe from the borders of Ca- 
 nada, now before us, is more than two inches in diameter, 
 a proof that the climate of North America, as well as that 
 of Europe has changed. Plants of the fern kind, in some 
 parts of Europe, attained the height of forty or fifty feet; 
 and the arborescent club-mosses were sixty or seventy 
 feet high. No plants of these tribes, at the present day, 
 ever attain one fourth of these sizes.) 
 
 Second, " That in the higher strata, a great variety of 
 fossil vegetables exist, which, for the most part, appear to 
 belong to similar tribes of plants, if not in species, at 
 least in genera, to vegetables which still inhabit the 
 hottest regions of the earth; nor is it probable that they 
 have been transported to the places where they are found 
 in Europe, from such climates, since their most delicate 
 parts are uninjured." It is therefore, reasonable to sup- 
 pose, that since the growth of these vegetables, the cli- 
 mate of Europe has suffered a great change. 
 
 The Count Sternberg, author of a splendid work, the 
 " Botanical arid Geological Flora," of the Ancient world, 
 
 * Plants with one Cotyledon, as wheat, Indian corn, and the grasses. 
 
 t Polypodies and Brakes. 
 
 t Horsetails. The scouring rush is a species. v 
 
 Ground pine, or Club-mosses. The ground-pine, employed in dres- 
 sing churches for Christmas, is an example. 
 
CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 215 
 
 ** concludes, that the vegetation of which bituminous coal," 
 has been formed, consisted of several species of large 
 trees, of which he has in his collection, trunks eighteen 
 inches in diameter. These trees seem all to have be- 
 longed to the monocotyledonous or polycotyledonous* 
 families. They were palms, bamboos, &c., plants which 
 at the present day are found only in hot climates. 
 
 " If," says Dr. Ure, " we examine the fossilized fruits 
 found in the upper [coal] strata, we shall see that several 
 of them evidently belonged to the same family of palms; 
 but one of the most extraordinary facts, connected with 
 this subject is, that none of these fruits appear to have 
 grown on the palms with fan-shaped leaves; but on the 
 contrary, that all the fruits that have been delineated by 
 authors, seem referable to the genera with pinnate, 
 (feather-formed) leaves." 
 
 There is no doubt, however, that palms, with fan-shap- 
 ed leaves, (fan-palms) once covered Europe with their 
 lofty vegetation, since petrified specimens of these 
 plants exists in great abundance. The opinion formerly 
 entertained, that these trees had been transported to Eu- 
 rope from warmer climates, appears in the present state 
 of knowledge, to be without the least foundation, since 
 not only, trees with entire branches have been found, but 
 also roots in the places where they grew. In some coal 
 mines, have been discovered .the trunks of large trees 
 standing in their original vertical positions, around which, 
 several strata of rock and coal have been deposited, which 
 fact is clearly incompatible with the hypothesis of trans- 
 portation. 
 
 The existence of the bones of animals of enormous 
 dimensions, though of extinct species, afford by analogy, 
 an indication of the tropical heat of Europe, at some re- 
 mote period. 
 
 The great megalosaurus, (great lizard,) and the still 
 more gigantic iguanadon, (iguana-toothed,) says Mr. 
 Mantell, to which the groves of palms and arborescent 
 ferns, would be mere beds of reeds, must have been of 
 such prodigious magnitude, that the existing animal crea- 
 tion, presents us with no fit objects of comparison. 
 
 * Seeds consisting of more than two seed lobes, Very few plants of 
 this character are known at the present day. 
 

 216 CHANGE OP CLIMATE, 
 
 Imagine an animal of the lizard tribe, three or four times! 
 as large as the largest crocodile, having jaws equal in 
 size to those of the rhinoceros, and a head crested with 
 horns. Such must have been the iguanadon. 
 
 This huge animal is supposed, from the dimensions of 
 some of his bones, to have been about seventy feet in 
 length, with a body as thick as that of an elephant. Its 
 skeleton was found in Sussex, England, 
 
 The bones of the megalosaurus, also found in England, 
 indicate an animal of the lizard kind, about forty feet 
 long, and when standing, eight feet high. 
 
 It is true that these animals no longer exist, and there- 
 fore, only indicate a change of climate, by the analogy, 
 that animals of similar tribes, and of great size, are found 
 exclusively in tropical climates at the present day. But 
 there is not wanting other evidence of such a change, and 
 perhaps as direct as the nature of such a case will allow, 
 in the fact clearly proved by Dr. Buckland, that animals 
 once inhabited Europe, the genera of which are known to 
 live only in tropical climates. The following are the cir- 
 cumstances: 
 
 A cave was discovered by some workmen at Kirkdale, 
 in Yorkshire, in 1821. Its mouth was at first nearly cov- 
 ered by rubbish, but on removing this, and exploring the 
 interior, there was found a cavern 240 feet in length, four* 
 teen feet high, and from three to seven feet wide. The 
 rock being of limestone, its roof was covered with hang- 
 ing stalactites, 1 * and its floor in many places incrusted 
 with stalagmite.f The floor was covered with a coat of 
 soft mud, or loam, about a foot thick, and in this were 
 found the bones of various animals. These were in a high 
 state of preservation, they were broken, but none appear- 
 ed as though they had been worn by the action of water, 
 
 * Stalactites are formed by the percolation of water through limestone 
 rocks, by which calcareous particles are dissolved, and subsequently left 
 by the evaporation of the water, on the roof of the cavern. They hang 
 like icicles, and gradually increase by the deposition of stony particles, 
 in concentric circles. 
 
 t Stalagmite is formed by the water which falls from the stalactites to 
 the floor of the cavern, where by evaporation, it deposites its calcareous 
 matter. Sometimes the stalactite and the stalagmite meet each other, 
 and joining, form pillars, extending from the floor to the roof of th 
 cavern, 
 
CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 217 
 
 or sand, which most probably would have been the case, 
 had they drifted there in the naked state. 
 
 The genera of animals to which the Kirkdale bones be- 
 long, amounted to twenty-three in number; viz. Hyena, 
 Tiger, Bear, Wolf, Fox, Weasel, Ox, Elephant, Rhinoce- 
 ros, Hippopotamus, Horse, Deer three species, Hare, 
 Rabbit, Water-rat, Mouse, Raven, Pigeon, Lark, Duck, 
 and Partridge. 
 
 A great proportion of these animals belonged to spe- 
 cies now supposed to be extinct, though the genera of 
 them all are still living. 
 
 On examination of all the circumstances, Professor 
 Buckland concludes that this cave was the den of hyenas, 
 and that the multitude of bones thus discovered, were 
 carried into this place by these animals, and therefore that 
 the hyena, an animal now inhabiting the hottest climates, 
 once lived in England. 
 
 These bones were, without exception, broken or gnaw- 
 ed, so that among the vast numbers the cave contained, 
 there could hardly be found all the pieces for a single 
 limb, much less for an entire skeleton. The great num- 
 ber of hyenas which had died in this cave, or whose 
 skulls had been carried there, was proved by the number 
 of the canine teeth of this animal, which it contained. 
 
 Professor Buckland states, that one collector obtained 
 more than 300 of these teeth, and as each individual has 
 only four of this kind, these must have belonged to at 
 least seventy-five of these animals. But from the num- 
 ber of such teeth found, besides the 303, and other cir- 
 cumstances, it was judged that not less than from 200 to 
 300 hyenas had perished in this cave. Hence it is con- 
 cluded, that the cave had been for a long series of years 
 a den of hyenas, and that these bones were carried there 
 as their food. 
 
 This supposition is supported by the well known hab- 
 its, and appetites of these animals at the present day; 
 their habitations being the deep recesses of the rocks, and 
 their food the carcasses and bones of animals already 
 dead, and decayed. 
 
 The immense power of the jaw, which these animals 
 possess, enables them to break and masticate bones, in a 
 manner which no other animal can do. When they at- 
 tack a dog, it is said they begin by biting off his leg at a 
 " single snap;" and Prof. Buckland, after a part of his 
 19 
 
218 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 
 
 work was written, had the satisfaction of seeing a Cape 
 Hyena, in confinement, crush the thigh bone of an ox, in 
 a manner which convinced him, that the bones in the 
 cave had undergone a similar operation. The animal bit 
 off all the upper part of the bone, which he swallowed in 
 the shape of fragments, licking out the marrow from the 
 cavity. The lower part, being exceedingly hard, he did 
 not eat; and with this Prof. Buckland compared the frag- 
 ments of similar bones found in the cave. His words are, 
 " I preserved all the fragments and gnawed parts of this 
 bone, for the sake of comparison, by the side of those 
 I have from the ante-diluvian den in Yorkshire: there 
 is absolutely no difference betweeen them, except in point 
 of age." 
 
 This experiment was followed by presenting the fero- 
 cious animal with other bones. " I gave him, successive- 
 ly," says he, '* three shin bones of a sheep; he snapped 
 them asunder in a moment, dividing each into two parts, 
 all of which he swallowed entire, and without the small- 
 est mastication. On the keeper putting a spar of wood, 
 two inches in diameter, into his den, he crushed it in 
 pieces, as if it had been touch-wood, and in a minute the 
 whole was reduced to a mass of splinters. The power 
 of his jaws far exceeded any animal force of the kind, I 
 ever saw exerted, and reminded me of nothing so much 
 as a miner's crushing mill, or the scissors with which 
 they cut off bars of iron and copper, in the metal found- 
 ries." Reliquitz Diluviance, p. 37. 
 
 It is not to be supposed that the carcasses of the Ele- 
 phant, Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus, were carried into 
 this cave in an entire state; for neither the strength of 
 the Hyena, nor the size of the aperture would favor such 
 an opinion. The state of the bones, on the contrary, 
 would seem to indicate that they were dragged in, one at 
 a time, from the carcasses of such animals as were found 
 dead in the neighborhood, as food for these ferocious 
 beasts. 
 
 On the hypothesis that these animals had entered the 
 Kirkdale cavern, when living, and of their own accord, it 
 may at once be objected, that unless the size of the aper- 
 ture was much larger formerly than when discovered, this 
 would have been impossible; besides, the elephant, horse, 
 hippopotamus, and most of the other animals whose bones 
 .the cave contained, never voluntarily go into such places. 
 
CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 219 
 
 The idea has also been suggested, that these animals 
 might have taken shelter in this place in order to avoid 
 some catastrophe, perhaps the deluge. But this opinion 
 is fully as improbable as the other; for in addition to the 
 fact, that most of these animals have never been known 
 to enter caves, on any occasion no circumstances can be 
 imagined, which would have forced the deer and the tiger, 
 the horse and the wolf, the fox and the rabbit, together 
 with the hyena and elephant, to take shelter in the same 
 place, at the same time. But what makes all this improb- 
 able, and indeed impossible, is, that not a single entire 
 skeleton was found in the cave; clearly proving that the 
 bones, only, of these animals were carried there. 
 
 All these facts and circumstances prove, in as satisfac- 
 tory a manner as can be desired, that England was once 
 inhabited by elephants, hyenas, tigers, and other animals 
 belonging only to hot climates; for that these bones could 
 have been drifted from a foreign climate into this cave, is 
 more improbable than any hypothesis we have mentioned; 
 for the bones alone would have sunk in the water; and had 
 they been covered with flesh, the larger animals not only 
 could not have entered, but if so, their entire skeletons 
 would have still remained. 
 
 It is therefore reasonable to conclude, that these ani- 
 mals lived and-died in the country where their bones are 
 found; nor is there any one circumstance which can be em- 
 ployed as an argument against such a belief, except the 
 coldness of the climate at the present day. 
 
 The only climates in which the elephant, the rhinoceros, 
 the hippopotamus and hyena are now found, are among 
 the hottest on the earth; and it is said, the only country 
 which all these four animals inhabit together, is Southern 
 Africa. In the neighborhood of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 these four animals live and die together, as they formerly 
 did in England. 
 
 "To the question," says Prof. Buckland, " which here 
 so naturally presents itself, as to what might have been the 
 climate of the northern hemisphere when peopled with 
 genera of animals, which are now confined to the warmer 
 regions of the earth, it is not essential to the point before" 
 me to find a solution; my object is to establish the fact, that 
 these animals lived and died in the regions where their re- 
 mains are found, and were not drifted thither by the dilu- 
 vial waters from other latitudes. The state of the climate 
 
220 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 
 
 in which these extinct species may have lived, antecedent- 
 ly to the great inundation by which they were extirpated, 
 is a distinct matter of inquiry, and on which the highest 
 authorities are not agreed." 
 
 Cuvier is of the opinion, that many of the extinct fossil 
 animals were of a different species from those now in ex- 
 istence, and therefore the inference may be drawn, that 
 some species of the same genera might have been fitted 
 for a cold, while others could live only in a warm climate. 
 
 Thus the fox is found, both in the coldest, and the hot- 
 test regions; and the Newfoundland dog is so protected by 
 his coat, as to endure the cold of an arctic winter, while 
 the naked African species would perish in a moderate cli- 
 mate. 
 
 v On the other hand, it may be contended that the re- 
 mains of many animals are found in strata in cold regions, 
 which are not liable to any such variations, and which 
 from their nature, or structure, are known to live only in 
 hot climates; such are the crocodiles and some species of 
 the tortoise. 
 
 But the want of vegetation in cold climates, is an insu- 
 perable objection to the hypothesis, that such animals as 
 the elephant, rhinoceros and hippopotamus, could have 
 been maintained during the winter season in Great Brit- 
 ain, let their natural clothing be supposed ever so warm. 
 And besides, the bones of these animals, and especially 
 those of the elephant, are no where found in such abun- 
 dance, as in Siberia, one of the most inhospitable climates 
 on the earth, and in which country, at the present day, 
 there is hardly sufficient vegetation to mantain a few ele- 
 phants, even during the few months of summer; and where 
 that most hardy of all quadrupeds, the rein-deer, can with 
 difficulty maintain itself through the rigors of an eight 
 months winter. At present, the elephant and rhinoceros, 
 except through the tyranny of man, are never found out of 
 a country perpetually verdant. 
 
 With respect to the supposition which has been offered, 
 that these animals might have migrated with the seasons, 
 and thus enjoyed the luxury of a constant vegetation, it is 
 plain that the present geographical situation of England, 
 would invalidate any such hypothesis, unless it can be 
 shown that these animals found a warmer country by cros- 
 sing the straits of Dover, a distance of more than 
 twenty miles, by water. This, so far as regards the rhi- 
 
CH'ANGE OF CLIMATE. 22 
 
 noceros, tiger and hyena, is clearly impossible, and it is 
 well known that the hippopotamus not only lives exclu- 
 sively in fresh water, but that its unweildly bulk prevents 
 it from taking long and rapid journeys. 
 
 Thus the facts which geology has brought to light, with 
 respect to certain portions of the animal, as well as the 
 vegetable kingdom, appear very clearly to concur in pro- 
 ving, that the climate of Europe was once, at least as ar- 
 dent as the hottest parts of Africa are at this day; and that 
 there was a time, when Siberia was clothed with a suffi- 
 ciency of vegetation to support herds of elephants during 
 the whole year. 
 
 Causes which have produced a change of climate. With 
 respect to the cause, or causes which have effected so 
 great a change in the temperature of the earth's surface, 
 there are a variety of opinions. 
 
 Burnet, as stated in the abstract we have given of his the- 
 ory, accounted for this change by supposing that the 
 earth's axis took a new and different position at the time 
 of Noah's flood; but astronomy has shown the improbabil- 
 ity of any such change of position. 
 
 Most writers who admit a deterioration of climate, sup- 
 pose with Burnet, that the change was sudden, and that it 
 took place about the period of the deluge. Some, how- 
 ever, and among them Mr. Lyell, believe it to have been; 
 gradual, occupying thousands of years, and to have been 
 caused by the changes which have taken place in the rel- 
 ative positions of the sea and land. But in the first place, 
 110 such changes as this author supposes are proved to 
 have happened with respect to the sea and land; nor se- 
 cond, had such changes been proved, is it at all probable, 
 such local causes could have been adequate to effect a 
 change so material and universal? 
 
 Other theorists, who maintain the deterioration to have 
 been gradual, think that the most reasonable mode of ac- 
 counting for it, is to suppose that the earth was created in 
 the state of a fused mass, and that it has been cooling ever 
 since. 
 
 Sir John F. W. Herschel has recently made some cal- 
 culations and inquiries, with the view of ascertaining 
 whether there existed any astronomical causes, which 
 might account for the difference h^etween the present and 
 ancient heat of the earth's surface. " Geometers," he says,. 
 19* 
 
222 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 
 
 "have demonstrated the absolute invariability of the mean 
 distance of the earth from the sun; whence it would at 
 first seem to follow, that the mean annual supply of light 
 and heat derived from that luminary would be alike inva- 
 riable; but a closer consideration of the subject will show, 
 that this would not be a legitimate conclusion; but that on 
 the contrary, the mean amount of solar radiation is depen- 
 dent on the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, and therefore 
 liable to variations." 
 
 " Now the eccentricity of the earth's orbit," he continues, 
 "is actually diminishing, and has been so for ages beyond 
 the records of history. In consequence, the ellipsis is in 
 a state of approach to a circle, and the annual average of 
 solar heat radiated to the earth is actually on the de- 
 crease. But whether this diminution of radiated heat is 
 sufficient to account for the refrigeration of climate, which 
 geological facts appear t'o prove, is a question which has 
 not been decided." 
 
 Allowing that the earth's orbit should become a perfect 
 circle, we are at a loss to see how the mean annual radia- 
 tion should thereby be diminished. It is the opinion of 
 M. Arago, that the mean amount of solar radiation can 
 never be materially affected by the irregularities of the 
 earth's annual motion. 
 
 It would appear, therefore, that we cannot look to as- 
 tronomy with much confidence, for a solution of the prob- 
 lem in question. 
 
 A recent and highly repectable author, Dr. Ure, of 
 Glasgow, believes that the original heat of the earth was 
 dissipated inconsequence of the evaporation of the waters 
 of the deluge. 
 
 The cooling influence of evaporation, under certain cir- 
 cumstances, is undoubtedly very great, and most probably 
 in many instances, produces effects which are attributed 
 to other causes. In India, ice is produced by the evapora- 
 tion of water in the open air. It is said that under cer- 
 tain circumstances, by the spontaneous evaporation of 
 one part of water from the surface of thirty two parts, 
 at the temperature of 62 D , the remaining thirty one parts 
 will be rendered nearly ice cold; and by the evaporation 
 of four parts more, the remaining twenty seven will be- 
 come ice. 
 
 The effects of evaporation, together with the absence of 
 a large heating surface, is strikingly illustrated in the tern- 
 
CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 223 
 
 perate climate of St. Helena. This island, though less 
 than eighteen degrees from the equator, and on a parallel 
 with the burning plains of continental Africa, enjoys one 
 of the most comfortable and salubrious climates on the 
 earth. At Jamestown, the thermometer in the warmest 
 season, seldom rises above 80. In the country, the cli- 
 mate is still more mild, the thermometer in some seasons, 
 never rising higher than 72. At Jamestown, the ave- 
 rage temperature during the year, is from 66 to 78, the 
 heat at this place being concentrated by the high rocks 
 which rise above the town. At Plantation house, the av- 
 erage heat is only from 61 to 73, and at Longwood, the 
 last residence of Napoleon, from 56 to 68. 
 
 The island of Sumatra, though directly under the equi- 
 nox, presents a similar exemption from the excessive 
 heats with which the interior of continents, situated on 
 the same parallel, are oppressed. The heat at this isl- 
 and, seldom rises higher than 85, at any season; while at 
 Bengal, which is situated in 22 north latitude, it is often 
 above 100. 
 
 It is at a distance from the sea, and where the surface is 
 dry, that the greatest accumulation of heat takes place. 
 Mungo Park relates that in some districts in Africa, the 
 ground became so hot by the action of the sun, that even 
 the negroes, though accustomed to that ardent climate, 
 could not bear to touch it with their naked feet; and that 
 he could not hold forth his hand against a current of air 
 which entered the crevice of his hut, without feeling acute 
 pain from its scorching effects. 
 
 Dr. Ure supposes that a portion of the ante-diluvian 
 land is now covered by the ocean, and that the heating 
 surface, or dry land on the earth, was twice as extensive 
 before the deluge as it is now, and consequently, as a 
 whole, that its heating effects were doubled. 
 
 We cannot follow Dr. Ure through the detail of facts 
 and arguments which he has brought forward on this 
 subject; but after many additional statements to those we 
 have given, he concludes, ''that the facts and observations 
 just detailed, seem adequate to prove that the events of 
 the deluge involved such a change in the terraqueous con- 
 stitution, as rendered the surface of the globe much cold- 
 er and moister than it had previously been." Geology, 
 p. 491. 
 
224 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 
 
 The great and sudden fall of temperature, which the 
 earth suffered at a former time, and which is supposed to 
 have taken place about the period of the deluge, is indi- 
 cated by the situation and number of fossil bones, be- 
 longing to species known to inhabit hot climates, 'found in 
 northern latitudes. 
 
 "The almost incredible number of bones of fossil ele- 
 phants" says Dr. Ure, " found in northern Siberia, which 
 betray no marks of having been rolled or transported 
 from a distance, attest the existence on its plains of huge 
 herbiverous animals at that distant epoch. These demon- 
 strate that a vigorous vegetation clothed countries, now 
 covered with frost a great part of the year, where, even 
 in summer, sterilizing cold and humidity perpetually 
 reign, and where at present, the reindeer can hardly 
 pick up from beneath the snow its scanty mouthful of 
 moss." 
 
 Not only the bones of elephants, but those of the rhino- 
 ceros, the mastadon and hippopotamus are found in Si- 
 beria. All these animals living on vegetables, and from 
 their sizes requiring large quantities for their sustenance, 
 it would seem impossible, as we have before stated, that in 
 the present state of that climate, there should have grown 
 a sufficient quantity of nourishment for the support of 
 these animals. 
 
 That these animals died where they had lived, and 
 where their remains are now found, is proved by the cir- 
 cumstances, that their skeletons are entire, and that their 
 bones show no scratches, or other marks of transporta- 
 tion, or friction. That these bones have not lain for a 
 long period in a hot climate, is proved by their state of 
 preservation; many of the elephant's tusks being perfectly 
 sound and making the best of ivory, for which purpose, 
 vast numbers have been dug up and sold. The change 
 of climate must, therefore have taken place at the deaths 
 of these animals, or soon after. 
 
 That these animals died suddenly, and remained in a 
 cold climate after death, at least some of them, is proved 
 by the circumstance, that the body of an elephant was 
 found on the bank of the river Lena, in 1803. It was 
 frozen in the ice, a large proportion of the flesh being still 
 preserved and serving as food for the white bears and 
 dogs. Now since there is no reason to believe that this 
 animal could have lived in a cold climate, and as there is 
 
CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 225 
 
 every reason to suppose that he died where his remains 
 were found, perhaps the nature of such a case could not 
 admit of stronger evidence, that there happned a great 
 and sudden change from heat to cold in that country, and 
 that this took place at the time when this animal perished, 
 or soon after. 
 
 If it is certain, that this animal could not have lived in a 
 cold climate, and equally so that his body could not have 
 been preserved more than a few days in a hot one, the con- 
 clusion is inevitable, that the climate must have changed 
 at the time of Jiis death, or immediately afterwards. 
 
 The opinion of Baron Cuvier, entirely coincides with 
 what here seems to be proved. " Every hypothesis," says 
 he, *' of a gradual cooling of the earth, or a slow varia- 
 tion, in either the inclination or position of the axis of 
 the globe, is inadmissible." 
 
 There are many reasons for believing that the animals 
 whose remains are thus found, were destroyed at the time 
 of the general deluge, and also that their bodies were not 
 transported to any considerable distance by that catastro- 
 phe. Their bones are found on plains and the sides of 
 valleys, where we should suppose their bodies would have 
 been left by the retiring waters, and in many instances they 
 have been found covered by sand or gravel, such as are 
 considered diluvial deposites, and under such circumstan- 
 ces, as to make it improbable that any ordinary flood would 
 have produced similar effects. 
 
 On reviewing the facts, and circumstances above stated, 
 it is thought that we may fairly come to the following 
 conclusions: 
 
 First, That the climate of Siberia was once similar to 
 that of the tropics of the present day. 
 
 Second, That at the epoch of the deluge, the climate of 
 Siberia suffered a sudden and material change in its tem- 
 perature, and that it then became similar to what it is 
 now. 
 
 Third, That the deluge was the most probable cause of 
 the destruction of several ancient races of quadrupeds, 
 which inhabited that country, anterior to the flood, and 
 among which, were the elephant, and rhinoceros, the 
 bones of which still exist there. And, 
 
 Fourth, That the most probable cause of the sudden 
 change of climate in Siberia, and of the decrease of the 
 
226 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 
 
 superficial temperature of the earth generally, was the 
 cold produced by the evaporation of the waters of the 
 deluge. 
 
 Farther remarks on Change of Climate. Since the for- 
 mer edition of this work, considerable light has been 
 thrown on the subject of organic remains as connected 
 with " change of climate," by various writers; and from 
 which it appears that some species of animals belonging 
 to genera, usually considered tropical, have been found 
 capable of sustaining much higher latitudes than was be- 
 fore supposed. 
 
 It will be remembered that in nearly every instance, 
 the fossil bones of animals belonging to genera now liv- 
 ing, were of species unknown to naturalists of the present 
 day. It may therefore be inferred, that if it can be shown 
 that there are elephants and tigers now living in cold 
 latitudes, the fossil bones of these animals, found in Si- 
 beria and other northern regions, might have belonged to 
 such species, and thus that the situation of these bones 
 may be accounted for, without so great a change of cli- 
 mate as has heretofore been supposed. 
 
 It has recently been proved beyond all doubt, that a 
 species of tiger identical with that of Bengal, is common 
 in the vicinity of lake Aral in Independent Tartary, in 
 latitude 45 north, and also, that this animal is often seen 
 in Siberia as high as latitude 52. Humboldt, who states 
 these facts, remarks that the part of Asia now inhabited 
 by this species of tiger, is separated from the Himmaleh, 
 by two great chains of mountains, each covered by per- 
 petual snow. These mountains are the Kuenlun in 
 latitude 35, and the Mouztagh in latitude 42. So that it 
 is impossible that these animals should merely have made 
 excursions from India, and penetrated during the summer 
 to 48 and 53 of latitude where they are found. In 
 1828, a tiger was killed on the bank of the Lena in Asiatic 
 Russia, in latitude about 52, and in a climate colder than 
 that of Petersburg, or Stockholm. We are not informed 
 whether this tiger was covered with fur and long hair, or 
 not, but it is stated in the Ehrenberg Journal of Natural 
 Sciences, as quoted by Mr. Lyell, that a new species of 
 panther, (Felis irbis,) has been discovered with long hair, 
 in Siberia, evidently inhabiting, like the tiger, a region 
 north of the Celestial Mountains, which are in latitude 
 
CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 227 
 
 In 1772, Professor Pallas obtained from the banks of 
 the Wiljui, a tributary of the Lena, the remains of a rhi- 
 noceros, (R. tickorinus,} taken from the sand, where it 
 must have remained frozen for ages. This carcass re- 
 sembled a mummy, but emitted a smell like that of decay- 
 ing, or putrefying flesh. The skin was covered with thick 
 hair, which was of great length about the feet. 
 
 The elephant found preserved in ice in latitude 70, an 
 account of which will be found among that of other fossil 
 quadrupeds in this work, was also covered with a warm 
 coat, consisting of fur and hair. This animal, indeed, 
 seems to have been as well protected from the cold, as is 
 the Musk Ox, of the present day. 
 
 Bishop Heber, in his " Narrative of a Journey through 
 the Upper Provinces of India," informs us that in the 
 range of the lower Himmaleh mountains, in latitude be- 
 tween 29 and 30, he saw an Indian elephant of small 
 size, covered with shaggy hair. 
 
 Mr. Everest says, (Journal of Asiatic Society,) that the 
 wild elephant is found in the mountains north of Bengal, 
 at the elevation of 4000 feet above the level of the sea, 
 and in 31 north latitude. He also states that he had 
 heard of a solitary instance of an elephant covered with 
 shaggy hair at Delhi, but that he had never himself seen 
 such a phenomenon. It would therefore seem that the 
 individual seen by Bishop Heber must have been of an 
 exceedingly rare species, or variety; since Mr. Everest 
 being a resident in India, and a writer on the subject, 
 would otherwise have obtained further information con- 
 cerning it. Whatever the climate of Russia and Siberia 
 might once have been, it is certain from the accounts of 
 writers, that it was once inhabited by such vast herds of 
 elephants, as to leave no parallel of the existence of such 
 numbers any where at the present day. Tilesius states, 
 that in northern Russia fossil tusks are so numerous, as in 
 all probability to excel in that country alone, all the living 
 elephants now on the earth. These tusks are many of 
 them entirely sound, and are at the present day, collected 
 and sold by thousands for ivory. 
 
 Now admitting that these animals were covered with 
 hair, so as to protect them from the consequences of an 
 arctic climate, still, as formerly stated, we are met with 
 the difficulty of accounting for the subsistence of such 
 herds of enormous animals. On this point, Dr. Fleming 
 
228 ORGANIC REMAINS. 
 
 remarks, " that the kind of food which the existing spe- 
 cies of elephant prefers, will not enable us to determine, 
 or even to offer a probable conjecture concerning that of 
 the extinct species. No one acquainted with gramineous 
 character of the food of our fallow-deer, stag, or roe, 
 would have assigned a lichen to the reindeer." 
 
 But as all agree that the whole genera of elephants 
 lived on vegetable food, the difficulty scarcely subsides by 
 supposing the ancient species to have eaten a different 
 kind from those still existing, since all the vegetation of 
 whatever kind now growing in Siberia, would not pro- 
 bably, have supported one in a hundred of the animals 
 whose bones are found there. 
 
 With respect to the remains of animals found in very 
 high northern latitudes, as that of the elephant on the 
 Lena in latitude 70, it is most probable that at least 
 some, and perhaps all of them were conveyed there by 
 the curren^js of overflowing rivers. 
 
 It must be remembered that the rivers of Northern 
 Russia and Siberia run towards the north, and that there- 
 fore the snow in the regions of their head waters and 
 upper courses, being melted by the warmth of spring, 
 while hundreds of miles from their mouths, remain locked 
 in ice, these rivers are every season subject to mighty 
 floods, not only because their channels are thus nearly 
 obliterated, but because the narrow valleys are blocked 
 up by the descending ice. 
 
 The Lena and Yenisei, both Siberian rivers, after run- 
 ning at least 2000 miles discharge themselves into the 
 Frozen Ocean, and therefore might transport the frozen 
 carcass of an animal this distance, without its being even 
 softened by the warmth of spring. 
 
 On reviewing the facts and circumstances above stated, 
 although it may not be considered necessary to suppose 
 so great a change in the climate of Siberia, as was for- 
 merly believed, in order to account for the organic phe- 
 nomena existing in that country, still there remain facts 
 in abundance, which we think cannot be reconciled with 
 any theory, but that of a great change of climate. 
 
 ORGANIC REMAINS. 
 
 Organic Remains, include, generally, all such organ- 
 
r 
 
 
 DIVISION OF FOSSILS. 229 
 
 ked substances as are found buried in the earth, as those 
 of plants, fish, shells, and the bones of quadrupeds. The 
 term Fossil is often used synonomously with organic, and 
 although the former word strictly signifies any thing dug 
 out of the earth, it is often applied to the petrified remains 
 of plants, and other organized bodies found in strata. 
 
 " Of all the appearances which the earth presents," 
 says Dr. Macculloch, " nothing has excited more atten- 
 tion than the existence of animal bodies in strata; while 
 the air of mystery which attended them stimulated curi- 
 osity, and may be said to have laid the foundation of geo- 
 logical science. If the presence of animals once sub- 
 marine, in rocks, and on lofty mountains, was a cause* of 
 wonder, and a source of theories, so did the discovery of 
 the bones of large animals, lead to the belief of pre- 
 existing races of giants, while in both cases, philosophy, 
 with history, sacred and profane, were perverted to find 
 explanations." 
 
 " The increase of knowledge has given a very different 
 complexion to this subject, and a more rational direction 
 to the pursuit. Yet, the geologist seems in danger of 
 forgetting that it is but one part of his science. Its de- 
 tails belong to zoology and botany; and he loses sight of 
 his main object, when he pursues these minutiae to the 
 neglect of their more interesting connections with the 
 history of the globe. Still more deeply does he err, 
 when he supposes that a theory of the earth can be found- 
 ed on what involves so small a portion of its structure 
 and history. It is, doubtless, essential to know these 
 objects; as to arrange and name them, is the grammar of 
 this department. But it is unfortunately true, that wheth- 
 er the contemplation of minutiae disables the mind for 
 wider views, or that only a minute mind can be engrossed 
 by such things, the power of profiting by collections and 
 their study, diminishes in proportion to their extent and 
 the activity of collectors, whether it be in natural history 
 or in books." Vol i. 406. 
 
 DIVISION OF FOSSILS. 
 
 Fossils may be divided into marine and terrestrial; the 
 first including all such as belong to the sea, and the se- 
 20 
 
230 INDICATIONS OF VIOLENT CHANGES. 
 
 cond, such as inhabit the earth. The terrestrial, may be 
 again divided into aquatic and terrene, since not the earth 
 only, but its waters are inhabited by various tribes, fa- 
 miliarly known under the titles of fresh water fish, shells, 
 &c. As organic bodies, fossil remains are also divided 
 in animals and vegetables. The former including all such 
 as had animal life, as quadrupeds, fish and shells; the 
 latter, plants of every kind found in the fossil state. 
 
 Indications of Violent Changes. That the earth on 
 which we live has suffered violent and extensive changes, 
 is almost every where indicated by its external appear- 
 ance; and when we come to examine the interior of its 
 crust, this idea is confirmed, in the most positive man- 
 ner, by the obvious fact that its rocks have been fractured, 
 and its strata dislocated. At what period or periods, 
 these mighty changes took place, we have no means of 
 knowing; but that its surface has been materially altered 
 since the formation of the more recent rocks, and subse- 
 quently to the creation of organized beings, is clearly 
 proved by their remains now preserved in its strata. 
 
 In some instances, very extraordinary collections of 
 bones, remains of fish, vegetables and other organic bo- 
 dies, have been found in situations, and under circum- 
 stances, which, though indicative of violent revolutions, 
 place all suppositions with respect to their origin at de- 
 fiance. 
 
 Thus, in the valley of the Thames, in England, at a 
 certain locality, in Essex, there is an alluvial deposite, 
 resting on chalk. " This," says Mr. Brande, " contains 
 such a remarkable assemblage of organic remains, some 
 of vegetable, and others of animal origin, as almost to 
 baffle all conjecture as to whence they came, and under 
 what circumstances they were brought together. The 
 remains of sea animals are blended with those of the 
 land, quadrupeds with fish, and fresh water fish with those 
 peculiar to the ocean. Animals of the land, the air, and 
 the water, are assembled together in most unaccountable 
 incongruity; fruits and leaves, hazel nuts and pine cones, 
 are mixed with shark's teeth, crab's claws, and oyster 
 shells." 
 
 In the island of Sheppy, there exists a similar assem- 
 blage of various species of shells, mixed with fossil fruits. 
 Of the latter, 500 varieties have been found. At Brent- 
 
FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 231 
 
 ford, phenomena of the same kind, and not less extraor- 
 dinary, have been discovered. Here exists a collection 
 of sea shells, shark's teeth, bones of the elephant, hippo- 
 potamus, ox and deer, together with fresh water shells; 
 " the whole," says Mr. Brande, " calculated to impress us 
 with the idea of the destruction of a vast menagerie, in 
 which animals of all denominations, and from all quarters 
 of the world had been associated." 
 
 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 In their descriptions of fossil remains, authors have 
 more generally commenced with those belonging to the 
 lowest strata, or those, which in the order of time, as 
 shown by the strata, were first called into existence, such 
 as extinct species of plants, shells, &c. But as these are 
 not easily understood, and as there is no advantage to 
 the learner in such an arrangement, we have thought 
 proper to commence with the more perfect animals. 
 
 The number of quadrupeds, the classes and orders of 
 \vhich, have been determined by Cuvier, solely by an 
 examination of their bones, amount to 150. Of these, 
 ninety species were before entirely unknown to natural- 
 ists, and are, therefore, supposed not to inhabit the earth 
 at the present time, their entire races having perished 
 at the period when their bones, found in the most recent 
 strata, were there buried. Ten or twelve of the others 
 so nearly resemble known species, that no doubt remains 
 of their identity. Many of those which remain, present 
 kindred features with known species, but the comparisons 
 have not been made with sufficient care to remove all 
 doubt, and, therefore, it is still uncertain whether their 
 species exist or not. 
 
 Of the ninety unknown species, about thirty belong to 
 genera still living, and the remaining sixty to genera en- 
 tirely new. 
 
 With respect to the classes and orders to which these 
 animals belonged, about one fourth of the 150 species 
 were oviparous (egg laying) quadrupeds, as the alligator, 
 lizard, and tortoise. The remaining were mammiferous, 
 or milk-giving animals, as the elephant and mastodon. 
 Of the latter, more than one half were non-ruminant, 
 hoofed quadrupeds, as the horse and tapir. 
 
232 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 From these facts thus developed, concerning the ani- 
 mals of the primitive, or ante-diluvian world, it might 
 perhaps be supposed that some theory could be formed 
 with respect to the proportions of the different genera, 
 which then inhabited the earth, and by a comparison of 
 these, with the genera now existing, we should be enabled 
 to see the difference. But it would be premature to form 
 any hypothesis on this subject at present, since we know 
 not but there are hundreds of extinct species still undis- 
 covered. 
 
 Cuvier has proved, as we shall see directly, that the 
 extinct species of quadrupeds, are not varieties of those 
 now in existence, but that there exist distinct specific 
 differences between them. _ "A species," says he, " com- 
 prises all the individuals which descend from one another 
 or from common parents, and those which resemble each 
 other, as much as they resemble themselves." Hence 
 the varieties of a species, are the result merely of such 
 changes as take place in the color, size, and fineness of 
 the fur of animals, and which may be caused by a differ- 
 ence of climate, of food, or the domestication of the spe- 
 cies; these varieties may therefore produce the exact like- 
 nesses of their parents. For example, the dog is a ge- 
 nus; the pointer is one species, and the greyhound is an- 
 other. Now every one who is conversant with dogs, 
 knows that pointers may differ from each other in color, 
 size, and shape, and even from the same parents it is sel- 
 dom that two precisely similar can be found. These are 
 varieties of the pointer, but the species are not changed, 
 for their instincts, habits and general appearance, are the 
 same with those of their parents. The same variations 
 may be observed in the greyhound, and indeed all other 
 species of dogs. But if the races are kept distinct, there 
 are no circumstances of climate, or keeping, that will 
 change the greyhound into the pointer, or the pointer in- 
 to the greyhound. The species are therefore entirely dis- 
 tinct and unchangeable. 
 
 "The fox and the wolf," says Cuvier, " inhabit every 
 country from the icy to the torrid zone; they experience 
 in this immense interval every change of climate, and 
 condition, and yet the species have suffered no other 
 change than a slight variation in the beauty of their fur. 
 The same accurate observer compared the skulls of foxes 
 from the north of Europe and from Egypt, with those of 
 

 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 233 
 
 France, but found no appreciable* differences. Hence 
 we learn that the species of animals are not changed by- 
 time and circumstances, as some have thought to be the 
 case." 
 
 Means of distinguishing Fossil Bones. Before pro- 
 ceeding to individual fossil species, it is necessary to de- 
 scribe the method by which naturalists have been enabled, 
 by examining their petrified bones, to distinguish these 
 unknown animals from each other, and from those now 
 living. This art, or science, originated with the acute 
 and laborious Baron Cuvier, and by him was brought to 
 a degree of perfection, to which little has been added by 
 others. 
 
 The principle on which this discrimination is founded, 
 is the peculiar, and perfect organization of each species, 
 so that one part is invariably, and exactly adapted to 
 another, and is indicated by it. Each animal constitutes a 
 whole, one systematic cycle, whose parts are in mutual 
 correspondence, and concur to the same definite action, by 
 a reciprocal re-action. None of these parts can change 
 without a symmetrical change in the others; and hence 
 each taken by itself, indicates and gives form to all the 
 rest. 
 
 Thus if the organs of an animal are so constituted as to 
 digest only raw flesh, its jaws must be constructed for de- 
 vouring its prey; its claws for seizing and tearing it; its 
 teeth for cutting and dividing it; the entire system of its 
 organs of motion for pursuing and overtaking it; its or- 
 gans of sense for descrying it at a distance; and even its 
 brain must be qualified for exercising the instinct of self 
 concealment, and the art to ensnare its victim. Such is 
 the general condition of the carnivorous temperament; ev- 
 ery animal endowed with which, must combine them all, 
 for otherwise its race could not subsist. 
 
 For the jaw to seize its prey there must be a certain 
 kind of articulation, which gives prominence to the cheeks, 
 and fits the bones to receive the insertion of strong mus- 
 cles, for without these any such articulation would be use- 
 less. To enable the animal to carry off its prey, there 
 must be a certain degree of strength in the muscles of the 
 neck, and hence results a determinate form in the verte- 
 brae, and the hind part of the head, to which these 
 cles are attached. 
 
 20* 
 
234 FOSSIL 
 
 Whoever will compare the bones of a cat with those of 
 a rabbit, will see how these parts differ, and if he will 
 study the subject, he will soon convince himself, why 
 the bones of the rabbit, independently of the teeth, could 
 not have been fitted for the purposes of a rapacious an- 
 imal. 
 
 That the claws may seize the prey, there must be a cer- 
 tain mobility in the talons, and a certain degree of strength 
 in the toe joints, and thence there must result a corres- 
 ponding distribution of muscles, and tendons, so that 
 lightness and power may be combined. The shoulder 
 bones in such animals must have great firmness, other- 
 wise the legs will not be fitted for the uses of the claws, 
 and this firmness of bone is thus prepared to receive the 
 insertion of strong muscles, by which the required power 
 is given. 
 
 It is unnecessary to show how the other parts of a 
 prowling animal are adapted to each other, so that the 
 whole machinery of bones, muscles, joints and tendons, 
 all combine to the accomplishment of the same end. The 
 parts of any animal, are indeed a " collection of wonders," 
 and he who does not behold in them the traces of Infinite 
 Wisdom and design, must want either understanding or 
 sight. 
 
 "In a word," says Cuvier, "the formation of the tooth 
 indicates the structure of the jaw, and its kind of articu- 
 lation; the structure of the shoulder bone, shows the form 
 of the feet, just as the equation of a curve, involves all its 
 properties; and as by assuming each property separately 
 as the base of a particular equation, we should re-pro- 
 duce both the ordinary equation, and all its properties; so 
 the nails and shoulder blade indicate the articulation of 
 the jaw; the thigh bone, and the other bones, taken sepa- 
 rately, give the form of the tooth, or are given by it in 
 their turn. 
 
 Since the mechanism of every animal involves certain 
 fixed and invariable principles and proportions which be- 
 long to the whole race, by ascertaining what these are, 
 we can readily distinguish one tribe, or species from ano- 
 ther, though the differences may be ever so slight. To 
 the most common observer, the entire skeleton of a horse 
 Would be distinguished from that of an ox, by the size and 
 proportions of the whole; and by comparing the thigh 
 bones of the two animals, he would readily distinguish 
 
 
FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 235 
 
 these, and thus take one step in comparative anatomy, for 
 now he would be able to distinguish a horse from an ox, 
 merely by inspecting a single bone. 
 
 It is plain, from this example, that by the constant ex- 
 amination of the bones of different classes, genera, and 
 species of animals, the observer might attain to great per- 
 fection in this art, so that even without comparison, he 
 would be able to decide in an instant, whether a given 
 bone belonged to any living genera of animals, or not, and 
 by a closer care and comparison, to point out those differ- 
 ences which distinguish the osteology of one species from 
 that of another. 
 
 Are the species supposed to be extinct, varieties of living 
 species? This question has already been noticed, but we 
 would be more particular on a point of so much impor- 
 tance in geology. Of the 150 fossil species, about ninety 
 are said to be extinct; that is, they are not known to exist 
 in the living state, at the present time. Among these is 
 the mastodon, or mammoth, the bones of which have been 
 found in many places in this country. This is an exam- 
 ple of an extinct species. It is not found alive in any part 
 of the world, nor does it belong to any species of animals 
 known to exist. If such an animal was still living, even 
 among the most barbarous tribes, there can be little 
 doubt, but some information concerning it, would have 
 been given, at least to one among those individuals, who, 
 within the last few years, have explored most of the be- 
 fore unknown regions, in nearly every part of the world. 
 That the whole race of mastodons are extinct, therefore, 
 there can be no doubt. Nor can there be any question 
 that this animal was a distinct species from the elephant, 
 which it most resembled. This is proved by the size and 
 form of its bones, and especially by its tusks and grinders, 
 many of which have been compared with those of the 
 elephant now living, and the specific differences pointed 
 out. 
 
 It has been supposed by some naturalists, that more or 
 less of the unknown fossil species might still exist in parts 
 of the globe which have not yet been explored; but al- 
 though it may be possible that some of the smaller of 
 these animals may still be living, there is little probability 
 that any of the larger quadrupeds, or perhaps amphibious 
 animals, will any where be found. 
 
236 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 " If," says Baron Cuvier, " we examine what species of 
 quadrupeds have recently been found, and in what circum- 
 stances they have been discovered, we shall see that there 
 is but little hope of ever finding those that we have only 
 seen as fossils. Islands of moderate extent, situated at a 
 distance from extensive continents, have very few quad- 
 rupeds, and these always of small size. When they have 
 large ones, it is because they have been brought from else- 
 where. Bouganville, and Cook found only dogs and 
 hogs on the South Sea Islands, and the largest species of 
 the West Indies, was the Agouti, (a species of the Hare.) 
 In fact, only large territories, such as Asia, Africa, the two 
 Americas, and New Holland, have large quadrupeds, and 
 generally species peculiar to themselves." 
 
 If there remained any extensive countries to discover, 
 we might hope to find new species, among which some 
 might be be found, more or less resembling those of which 
 the bowels of the earth have preserved us relics; but it is 
 sufficient to cast a glance over the map of the world, and 
 see the numerous directions in which navigators have 
 ploughed the ocean, to judge that there cannot be any un- 
 discovered large tract of country, still remaining. 
 
 The ancients were acquainted with nearly all the ani- 
 mals now known, except such as have been discovered in 
 America and New Holland. The Greeks were acquaint- 
 ed with the elephant, and the double and single horned 
 rhinoceros, and both these animals were common at Rome. 
 Heliogabalus exhibited the hippopotamus, and the giraffe 
 or cameleopard; and the two species of camel were known 
 to the Romans in the time of Julius Caesar. The buffalo, 
 the wild ox, the ox without horns, and the little ox, no 
 larger than a goat, the sheep with the great tail, and the 
 great sheep of India, were all known to the ancients, for 
 they have Jeft descriptions of them. 
 
 The Romans exhibited lions, panthers, and tigers, by 
 the hundred; they also showed hyenas, and even the cro- 
 codile of the Nile. Even the zebra also, which is found 
 only in Southern Africa, graced their shows, and they 
 were well acquainted with the most remarkable species 
 of the ape tribe. 
 
 These facts show, that the ancients were acquainted 
 with all the animals of any size or consequence, in the 
 old world, and that naturalists, in later times, although 
 they have reduced zoology to a science, and have describ- 
 
FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 237 
 
 ed many smaller animals, which were probably unknown 
 to the Greeks and Romans, have still failed to discover 
 any quadrupeds of considerable size, with the exception 
 of those of America and New Holland. 
 
 It is quite improbable, therefore, that any of the larger 
 quadrupeds or amphibious animals, now considered ex- 
 tinct, are still any where in existence; and since it has 
 been shown that they are chiefly distinct species, and not 
 varieties of those now known, there is no doubt but these 
 entire races have been destroyed by some violent catas- 
 trophe. 
 
 When, and by what means did these races perish? At 
 what period of the world these extinct species perished, 
 and whose bones are found in many parts of the earth, and 
 by what means a destruction so universal was occasioned, 
 are important questions in geology. 
 
 From the comparative ages of the formations in which 
 their bones are found, it would appear that a great pro- 
 portion of the large quadrupeds were destroyed at the 
 same time, their remains being found contiguous to each 
 other, and in strata, or diluvial deposites apparently of 
 the same age. The most probable cause of this general 
 destruction was that universal deluge, the marks of which 
 we have seen, still remain in all parts of the earth. It is 
 true, that no certain proof of this can be adduced, but such 
 a hypothesis will account for most of the phenomena ob- 
 served with respect to these remains, and which are un- 
 accountable by any other supposition. See Deluge. 
 
 It is proper, however, to state here, that there exists 
 one example of the extinction of a species in modern 
 times, and this in a gradual manner, or without the inter- 
 vention of any general catastrophe. This is the Dodo, 
 a large bird, figured and described by many former natur- 
 alists. It appears that during the early voyages of Euro- 
 pean navigators to the East Indies, the Dodo existed in 
 various places, and especially on the island of Mauritius. 
 LinnaBus described it under the genus Didus. Brooks (Nat. 
 Hist. London, 1783,) describes it as a large bird, with 
 short legs, great black eyes, large head covered with a 
 membrane resembling a hood, or cowl; bill bluish white, 
 of great length, sharp and hooked at the end; body cov- 
 ered with feathers much like those of the ostrich; legs 
 yellow, with four strong toes. It is a simple bird, swal- 
 
 r 
 
238 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 lows stones, and is easily taken. Its flesh is good and 
 wholesome, and three or four are enough to dine one hun- 
 dred sailors. Vol. ii. p. 66. 
 
 jCuvier (Animal Kingdom,) says that the species Didus 
 ineptus, a description of which was first drawn up by the 
 Dutch navigators, has completely disappeared, nothing 
 remaining of it at the present day, but a foot in the British 
 Museum, and a head in the Asmolean Museum at Oxford. 
 This, it is believed, is the only instance in which any spe- 
 cies known to naturalists has disappeared. 
 
 PARTICULAR FOSSILS. 
 
 It is incompatible with the design of this work, to give 
 a classification as those animals whose remains have been 
 discovered and described by different authors. A mere 
 enumeration of their species and varieties, including the 
 shells, would indeed fill a volume much larger than this. 
 We shall, therefore, select such as are most interesting 
 and instructive only, without reference to scientific ar^ 
 rangement. 
 
 QUADRUPEDS, 
 
 Order Pachydermata, or thick skinned. This is the 
 first order of fossil quadrupeds, examined by Cuvier. It 
 contains thirteen genera of non-ruminant, hoofed animals, 
 viz. Elephant, Mastodon, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Ta- 
 pir, Hog, Horse, Daman, Pecaris, Phacocheres, Anoplo- 
 therium, Palaeotherium, and Elasmotherium. 
 
 Genus Elephant. Of this genus there are three dis- 
 tinct species, two of which, the Indian and the African, 
 still exist, the third having been found only in the fossil 
 state. 
 
 1. The Indian elephant is found on both sides of the 
 Ganges, and in Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and other Indian 
 islands. This species has an oblong skull, concave front, 
 small ears, with grinding teeth, marked by ribands, or 
 plate lines, which are waved. 
 
 2. The African species is found at the Cape of Good 
 
FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 239 
 
 Hope, Senegal, and Guinea, It has a rounded skull, large 
 ears, and grinders, with lozenge-shaped lines on their 
 crowns. 
 
 3. Fossil or primeval elephant (Elephas primigenius.) 
 This is the mammoth of the Russians. It has an oblong 
 skull, concave front, very long bony sockets for its tusks; 
 lower jaw bone obtuse, grinders parallel, and marked with 
 nearly parallel, and little waved ribands on the crown. 
 
 The bones of the last species are found in the fossil 
 state only, the species being extinct. 
 
 The fossil elephant more nearly resembled the Indian 
 than the African species, but differed from both in the 
 form of its grinders, the great size of its tusks, and espe- 
 cially in the projection of its tusk sockets, (see fig. 50.) 
 The peculiarity last mentioned, must have very much mo- 
 dified the figure and organization of the proboscis, and 
 given to this elephant a physiognomy, differing much more 
 from the other species than might be inferred from the re- 
 semblance of the other bones. Its size was about that of 
 the Indian elephant, viz. from ten to thirteen, or even 
 sixteen feet in height. 
 
 In all animals of the same species, and ages, the teeth 
 are precisely alike, in form and number, and therefore 
 whenever we find merely a similarity, and not an identity 
 in this respect, we may know that the species are differ- 
 ent, though the genera may be the same. The form of 
 the jaw also differs with those of the teeth. 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 The annexed cuts show the difference between the 
 grinders of the living, and the fossil elephant. That on 
 the left hand, fig. 49, represents the under jaw of the liv- 
 
240 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 ing Indian species; that on the right, the corresponding 
 part of the fossil elephant. The sides of that of the living 
 species, converge nearly together at the lower part, and it 
 has a projecting point at A, furrowed with a long, narrow 
 canal. The teeth also converge, and the inequalities, or 
 ribands on the crowns, are waving lines, running oblique- 
 ly crosswise. The teeth in the fossil jaw stand parallel to 
 each other, and the canal in front is much shorter and 
 wider and without the projecting point. The ribands also 
 in these are not oblique, as in the living, but run trans- 
 versely across the crowns. 
 
 In the two living species, the tusk sockets (alveoli,) do 
 not extend further down than the end of the lower jaw, so 
 that the chin has room to protrude between the tusks in a 
 pointed projection. But in the fossil heads, on account of 
 the great length of the tusk sockets, the lower jaw has 
 the appearance of having been truncated, or blunted at its 
 lower end, so as to admit of its being closed on the upper 
 one by means of which the lips come together in the act 
 of mastication, contrary from what takes place in the liv- 
 ing species. 
 
 These with other differences, in the osteology of the 
 fossil and living elephants, which need not here be de- 
 tailed, make it certain that the fossil species belonged to a 
 race of animals not now in existence. 
 
 They resembled the mastodons, in many respects, but 
 were more nearly allied to the elephants, especially in the 
 form of the grinders. 
 
 The grinders of the fossil elephant are often ten or 
 twelve inches long, and have twenty-four ribands, or rais- 
 ed plates of enamel, crossing their crowns. 
 
 Fossil elephant bones have been found in a great num- 
 ber of places, and in many different countries. In nearly 
 every part of Siberia, as high as latitude 65, wherever a 
 river happens to undermine its banks, the bones of these 
 animals are dislodged. In some places, they have been 
 found in such abundance, that large quantities have been 
 transported to other countries, as a valuable article of 
 commerce. Indeed, it is said, that a considerable propor- 
 tion of the ivory employed in the arts, is of the fossil 
 kind. 
 
 Lieut. Kotzebue, in his late voyage of discovery, found 
 the bones and teeth of elephants, preserved in an iceberg, 
 near Beering straits. 
 
FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 241 
 
 In the valley of the Arno, near Florence, so great was 
 the accumulation of these fossil bones, that it is said the 
 inhabitants formerly used them for making fences between 
 their fields. These bones are also found in many parts of 
 France, in Germany, in almost every part of Italy, the 
 Netherlands, Holland, Russia, Bohemia, in many parts of 
 England, and in the northern regions of North America. 
 A remarkable locality of them was discovered at Thiede, 
 near Wolfenbuttel, where eleven tusks and thirty grinders 
 were disinterred within a short distance of each other. 
 One of the tusks was fourteen feet, eight inches long, and 
 bent into a perfect semi-circle. In nearly every gravel 
 pit, around London, the bones of this species are found. 
 They have also been discovered in Brentford, Kew, Wal- 
 lingford, Dorchester, Abingdon, Oxford, and many other 
 places in England. 
 
 This species must therefore have been exceedingly nu- 
 merous, and widely spread over different parts of the 
 globe. 
 
 Elephant preserved in ice. In several instance^, the 
 bones of the fossil elephant have been found embedded in 
 ice; that of Lieut. Kotzebue has just been mentioned. In 
 one instance, the entire body of one of these animals pre- 
 served in this manner, has been discovered. It occurred 
 near the mouth of the river Lena, in Siberia. The flesh 
 had undergone no decomposition, the whole animal hav- 
 ing been entirely surrounded by the frozen mass. This 
 discovery was originally made by a Tungusian fisherman, 
 in 1798, who saw a large mass, projecting from the ice, 
 but so far above his reach that he was unable to ascertain 
 its nature. The next year, going to the same place, 
 the mass was found partly disengaged from its bed, but 
 still the man was uncertain what it might be, as it was 
 more than a hundred feet above him, and inaccessible to 
 his approach. The next year, it was again seen, by the 
 same man, but it was not until the summer of J803, five 
 years after the first discovery, that it fell down on a sand 
 beach of the Arctic ocean so as to be examined. 
 
 The fisherman now obtained a prize, for having detach- 
 ed the two tusks, he removed and sold them for fifty 
 roubles. 
 
 In 1806, Professor Adams, of St. Petersburg, went to 
 
 examine this animal, which still remained on the sand 
 
 . 21 
 
242 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 beach where it had fallen, but the body was^then consid- 
 erably mutilated, the people in the neighborhood having 
 taken away large quantities of the flesh to feed their dogs; 
 and the white bears had not failed to regale themselves on 
 this ante-diluvian delicacy. The skeleton, however, re- 
 mained quite entire, except that one of the fore-legs, and 
 the tusks were gone. The head remained covered, by the 
 dried skin, and the pupils of the eyes were still distin- 
 guishable. The brain, on opening the skull, was found 
 not quite filling its cavity, being somewhat dried. One 
 of the ears was in excellent preservation, still retaining its 
 form, and a tuft of strong bristly hair. This animal was 
 a male, and had a mane of considerable length, still on his 
 neck. 
 
 The skin, when detached, was so thick and heavy, that 
 it was with difficulty ten men could remove it. More than 
 thirty pounds of the hair and bristles of this animal were 
 gathered from the beach, where it had been left, and 
 trampled upon by the white bears, when tearing and de- 
 vouring the carcase. This hair was of three kinds, viz. 
 stiff black bristles, a foot long; coarse hair, of a reddish 
 brown color, and a woolly covering next the skin, of the 
 same color. 
 
 The skeleton of this animal was transported to St. Pe- 
 tersburg, and the tusks having been procured, the whole 
 was set up in the museum of that city, where it still re- 
 mains. 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 The annexed wood cut, fig. 50, represents the head and 
 tusks of this animal, as drawn by Mr. Stokes, who also 
 gave a description of the whole, in the Ed. Quart. Jour- 
 nal, First Series, p. 95. 
 
FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 243 
 
 It will be observed that these tusks are of enormous 
 length, and that they form nearly a circle, differing great- 
 ly, both in shape and size, from those of the elephant of 
 the present day. The projection of the tusk sockets, 
 marked #, may also be observed in this cut, and which, 
 as already noticed, are peculiar to this species. 
 
 The skeleton is about nine and a half feet high, and 
 sixteen and a half feet long; and when it is considered how 
 much the cartilages, flesh and skin, added to his height 
 and dimensions, it is obvious that this must have been an 
 animal of enormous magnitude. 
 
 The hair with which this animal was covered, would 
 seem to indicate that it was fitted for a cold climate; and 
 in addition to this instance, Professor Pallas mentions the 
 discovery of an entire rhinoceros, with its skin and hair, 
 well preserved, and which occurred on the banks of a riv- 
 er, not far from the Lena, where the elephant was found. 
 The rhinoceros is described as being covered with thick 
 hair, which was particularly long about the feet. 
 
 From these facts, it has been urged by some naturalists, 
 that the bones of the great quadrupeds found in cold cli- 
 mates, and of genera which now only inhabit hot ones, 
 were of species so different from these tribjes, that they 
 were fitted for the cold situations where their remains are 
 found; and hence that it is unnecessary to suppose that 
 they were either transported from warmer climates, or that 
 the climates where their bones are now found, have suffer- 
 ed any change. But as already observed, there remains a 
 difficulty fully as great, as is presented by the theories of 
 transportation or change of climate; for if Siberia was 
 never warmer than at present, it is impossible to believe 
 that it should have ever produced a quantity of vegeta- 
 tion, sufficient to have supported such herds of enormous 
 animals, even during the summer, and much less during 
 the long winters of that climate. See " Change of Cli- 
 mate." 
 
 Genus Mastodon. This term comes from two words, 
 which signify a " a little hill" and a " tooth," in allusion 
 to the prominences, or tubercles, which the crowns of 
 these grinders present. This form of the crown, is simi- 
 lar to that of carniverous animals; and hence when little 
 was known of fossil bones, it was supposed that the mas- 
 todon had been a flesh eater, an error fully refuted by 
 Cuvier. 
 
44 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS, 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 *The form of a mastodon's grinder, is represented by 
 fig. 51; the hilly points being a little worn by use. It is 
 here represented one fourth of the natural size, and is from 
 a specimen in the Kings' cabinet, at Paris. The differ- 
 ence between this and the elephant's grinder, will imme- 
 diately be seen. The number of such teeth in the jaws of 
 the adult mastodon, was four in each. 
 
 The whole of the genus mastodon, are extinct; but from 
 their bones, Cuvier has determined six distinct species. 
 These bones have been found in various parts of the 
 world, the species being so different, as in some instances, 
 not even to inhabit the same countries. 
 
 The species of this animal are as follows: 1. The Great 
 Mastodon. 2. The Mastodon with narrow teeth. 3. The 
 Mastodon of the Cordilleras. 4. The Mastodon of Hum- 
 boldt. 5. The Small Mastodon. 6. The Tapiroid Mas- 
 todon. To these, Mr. Clift has added two others, making 
 in all, eight species. 
 
 The remains of the great mastodon have heretofore 
 been found only in North America. That with narrow 
 teeth, formerly inhabited South America; and at Lima, 
 many of their grinders are preserved in the public cabinet, 
 and shown for the teeth of giants. The bones of the oth- 
 er species occur in various parts of Europe, especially in 
 Italy and Germany. 
 
 Dr. Ure states that the first account of the Mastodon, is 
 in a letter from Dr. Mather, in America, to Dr. Wood- 
 ward, in London, dated 1712, and intimating that bones 
 and teeth of monstrous magnitude, had been discovered m 
 
FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 345 
 
 i 1705, in Albany, in New England; at present in the state 
 of New York on the Hudson river. He imagined them to 
 be the bones of giants. No interest was excited, however, 
 until Mr. Croghan, an English geographer, in 1767, sent 
 several chests of osseous remains to Lord Shelburne, and 
 other persons in London. Dr. William Hunter examined 
 these bones, and published an accurate description of the 
 lower jaw, in the Phil. Transactions for 1768. He de- 
 monstrated that the animal in question, while it differed 
 from the elephant, had nothing in common with the hippo- 
 potamus. He justly Concluded that the tusks and bones 
 belonged to the same animal. 
 
 In 1802, Mr. Peale of Philadelphia, having procured 
 numerous bones of the same animal from the neighbor- 
 hood of Newburgh, on the Hudson river, formed two 
 skeletons out of them, copying in wood those parts which 
 happened to be wanting. One of these still remains in 
 Mr. Peale's Museum, and is popularly known as the 
 skeleton of a Mammoth. 
 
 At the salt springs in Ohio, called licks, and especially 
 at the Big-Bone lick, vast quantities of these bones have 
 been found. Mr. Croghan, more than seventy years ago, 
 thought he saw there the remains of thirty individuals; 
 but a much greater number from that vicinity have since 
 been found. These bones, also occur in Ohio and Ken- 
 tucky, and it is probable that they exist in all the tempe- 
 rate parts of North America. 
 
 In size, the great mastodon was about that of the ele- 
 phant, though it does not appear, in general, to have been 
 more than twelve feet in height, the Indian elephant some- 
 times beintr fifteen. Its tusks, trunk, and feet, and the 
 bones of the whole skeleton were very similar to those of 
 the elephant; the difference being chiefly in the dental sys- 
 tem, which, with respect to the grinders, has been above 
 described and illustrated. 
 
 The number of grinders in the adult mastodon, as al- 
 ready stated, is four in each jaw. Of these, the two front 
 ones, in the upper jaw, have six points, and the other two 
 in the same jaw have eight. In the lower jaw, the two 
 anterior ones have also six points, and the two posterior 
 ones, ten. But, it appears that the great mastodon had, 
 successively, at least, four grinders on each side of its two 
 jaws; but as in the elephant, these teeth never appeared all 
 at the same time. Their succession took place, in both an- 
 21* 
 
246 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 imals, from behind, forwards. When the posterior one 
 began to cut the gum, the anterior one was greatly worn f 
 and ready to drop out. In this way, they replaced one 
 another. There does not seem to have been ever more 
 than two on each side, at the same time, in full exercise, 
 and in old age, only one. Thus, the effective number of 
 grinders, in youth, was eight, and, in extreme old age, only 
 four. The largest grinders of the mastodon weigh ten or 
 twelve pounds. 
 
 Genus Hippopotamus. There is only one species of 
 this animal living; but Cuvier has determined two or three 
 others, existing in the fossil state. They are all much 
 smaller than the existing species, one of them being only 
 about the size of a wild boar, while the living one, is about 
 twelve feet long, and five or six feet high, and exceedingly 
 thick set. 
 
 There is a peculiarity in the grinders of this animal, 
 which will immediately distinguish them from those of 
 other animals. 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 The lineaments of the crown are three lobed, or trefoil- 
 like, as represented by fig. 52, which shows the form of 
 the second grinder of the left side. This singularity will 
 make the teeth of this genus easily recognized. The 
 roots are concealed by a part of the jaw, the tooth being 
 seven-ninths of the natural size. 
 
 The remains of this genus are not nearly so common 
 as those of the elephant, though, in Tuscany, considera- 
 ble numbers have been found. They have also been dis- 
 covered in several parts of England, especially in the 
 
FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 247 
 
 Kirkdale cave. Possibly, the paucity of these bones may 
 be accounted for by the circumstance of the amphibious 
 habits of this genus, and their inability to wander to any 
 considerable distances from the water, so that their re- 
 mains might have been more exposed than those of the 
 elephant, to have been swept into the sea. 
 
 Genus Rhinoceros. There are three existing species 
 of this animal. 1. That of India, with a single horn on 
 the nose, and a rugous, plaited coat; the cutting teeth be- 
 ing separated by a space from the grinders. 2. That of 
 the Cape of Good Hope, with two horns, the skin smooth, 
 and without folds, and no cutting teeth. 3. That of Su- 
 matra, with two horns, the skin but slightly rugous, thus 
 resembling that of the Cape, but having cutting teeth like 
 that of India. 
 
 On comparing the teeth of the living species with those 
 found in the fossil state, Cuvier determined that they 
 were so different as to constitute another species of this 
 animal, and whose remains are now found only in the 
 strata of the earth. 
 
 The remains of the extinct rhinoceros were first dis- 
 covered in digging a well, near Canterbury, in England, 
 seventeen feet below the surface. This was in 1668. 
 Afterwards Professor Pallas found, among a collection of 
 bones at St. Petersburg, four skulls, and five horns be- 
 longing to this animal. Since that time, the bones of this 
 animal have been discovered in various parts of England, 
 Germany and Russia. 
 
 Megatherium. This name merely signifies "a huge 
 wild beast." It is the most rare among all the great fos- 
 sil animals. 
 
 The first skeleton of this singular beast was sent from 
 Buenos Ayres, in South America, to Madrid, in 1789, 
 with a notice that it was found in the ground about three 
 leagues from that city. 
 
 This animal was set up in the Royal Cabinet of Madrid, 
 in the manner which has since been followed by Mr. 
 Peale of Philadelphia, with respect to the American mas- 
 todon, and Mr. Adams of Petersburg, with respect to the 
 Siberian elephant. 
 
 A minute description of the Megatherium, was publish- 
 ed soon after it was mounted, illustrated by five copper- 
 
248 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 plate engravings. Afterwards a Livoninan anatomist, and 
 a German draughtsman conjointly published an exact 
 representation, and a good description of this skeleton. 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 The adjoining cut, fig. 53, from Dr. Ure's Geology, is 
 said, by the author to present an exact form of this skele- 
 ton. It is thirteen feet long, and nine feet high, its size 
 being somewhat less than that of the mastodon. 
 
 With respect to the habits of this animal, " the teeth," 
 says Dr. Ure, " prove that it lived on vegetables, and its 
 robust fore-feet, armed with sharp claws, testify that it was 
 chiefly their roots that it sought after. Its magnitude and 
 its talons, supplied it with abundant means of defence. 
 It was not swift in running, but this was unnecessary, as 
 it had no occasion either to pursue or fly. It would 
 therefore be difficult to find in its organization alone, the 
 causes of the final destruction of this genus; and yet if it 
 still exists, where can it be? How can it have escaped all 
 the researches of hunters and naturalists? Its analogies 
 approximate it to different genera of the edentel, or tooth- 
 less family of animals. It has the head and shoulder of a 
 sloth a creature possessing both tusks and grinders; 
 while its limbs and its feet exhibit a singular mixture of 
 characters belonging to the ant-eaters, and the armadil- 
 los. It has no analogy, whatever, to the felis or tiger 
 tribe." Geology, p. 549. 
 
 This animal had neither tusks nor proboscis, like the 
 mastodon and elephant; this is proved by the great 
 
FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. 249 
 
 tength of its neck, which it is apparent, could not have 
 supported such apparatus. As its fore parts are exceed- 
 ingly strong, and its teeth not formed for tearing flesh, its 
 claws were probably employed io digging for the roots 
 of trees, as food, and if so, there is a probability that it 
 burrowed in earth. What a phenomenon in the imagina- 
 tion! An animal, of the size of an elephant running 
 about under ground, like a mole, leaving a path after 
 him large enough for a horse and wagon to follow; and 
 perhaps at the same time, throwing up a ridge on the sur- 
 face, that would stop the career of a stage coach. If he 
 only burrowed, like a rabbit, what a mountain of earth 
 he must have thrown out. 
 
 Megolonyx. This term signifies " great clawed" the 
 animal being so named from the great size of his claws. 
 
 This is another of the lost animals of the former world. 
 It belongs to the same genus with the last described, but 
 Cuvier on comparing their bones found that it was of a 
 different species. It is not so large by one third, as the 
 megatherium, but of the same form, in all respects. 
 
 The bones of this animal were found in a cavern, in the 
 county of Green Briar, Virginia, much decayed, and only 
 in sufficient number to form a small part of a skeleton. 
 
 Besides these skeletons of great quadrupeds, there have 
 been discovered a great variety of others in the fossil 
 state, several of them of large size, as the Elk, Tapir, 
 and some others, but most of them are of less interest 
 than those we have described, and for the descriptions of 
 which, we must refer the reader to more extended works 
 on this subject. 
 
 FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. , ',. 
 
 Of the antediluvian amphibia, the crocodile, and lizard 
 tribes, form the most interesting groups, especially the 
 latter. 
 
 Crocodile. Fossil bones of this animal have been found 
 in various countries, and in many localities. In England, 
 Germany, France, and Italy, their occurrence in strata, 
 are not uncommon. They appear all to belong to the 
 
250 FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. 
 
 sub-genus of Cuvier, which he called gavials, or long 
 muzzled. 
 
 A collection of these bones, made at Honfleur, and 
 Havre, in France, are preserved in the museum of Natural 
 History, in Paris. But the most perfect specimen of this 
 fossil is said to have been found near Monheim, in Ger- 
 many. It is enclosed between two plates of schistose 
 marly limestone, of a yellowish grey color, mingled with 
 fragments of quartz. It was accompanied with the cast 
 of the tail of a small fish, and the remains of an insect. 
 
 The bones of the crocodile are browner than the stone 
 itself. The slab containing this animal is three feet long, 
 and fifteen inches broad, and the form of the head, trunk, 
 and tail, from end to end, is plainly to be seen impressed 
 in the rock, and very little deranged in respect to shape. 
 The upper jaw is armed with twenty-five or twenty-six 
 teeth on each side. The number of vertebrae, or pieces 
 composing the back bone, are sixty-nine; and these are 
 not deranged, except towards the tail. 
 
 The remains of the fossil crocodile are found in strata, 
 lying far below those containing any species of quadru- 
 peds, and hence are supposed to be of more ancient date. 
 Some remains of this animal in the Jura mountains, are 
 in limestone so solid as to be susceptible of a high polish. 
 
 With respect to these bones, Cuvier remarks, that " the 
 presence of an animal, such as the crocodile, apparently 
 belonging to fresh water, in such beds, is a very remark- 
 able circumstance. It is the more deserving of notice, 
 as it is accompanied with the remains of tortoises, all 
 equally inhabitants of fresh water. This fact, joined to 
 several others, proves that there existed dry lands irrigat- 
 ed by rivers, at an exceedingly remote period, and long 
 before the successions of those tertiary mineral forma- 
 tions, which exist in the neighborhood of Paris. 
 
 Megalosaurus. This is one of the saurian, or lizard 
 tribe; the term signifies " great lizard." It appears to be 
 allied to the lizards and crocodiles, but differs from them 
 both. This was an ante-diluvian monster, far exceeding 
 in size, any of the crocodiles of the present day. A fos- 
 sil thigh bone of one of these animals, which Cuvier mea- 
 sured, was thirty-two inches long; and supposing that the 
 animal was proportioned like others of the lizard tribe, he 
 must have had a total length of forty-eight feet; and from 
 
FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. 
 
 251 
 
 p- 
 
 the incisor form of its cutting teeth, this must have been 
 an exceedingly fierce and voracious animal. 
 
 The bones of this specimen, were found at Stonesfield, 
 in England, among innumerable marine fossils, such as the 
 teeth of sharks, the remains of crabs, sea shells, &c., and 
 therefore there is little doubt but this was a monster of 
 the ocean, though amphibious. 
 
 Mr. Mantell, of Lewes, in Sussex, has discovered mega- 
 losaurus' bones, of still greater dimensions, one of the 
 thigh bones being twenty-two inches in circumference, 
 whence he concludes that its length must have been fifty- 
 four inches. This, according to the estimated propor- 
 tions of the animal, gives him a total length of more than 
 seventy-five feet, a size in the animal kingdom, rarely 
 exceeded, even by the whales of the present day; and yet 
 this monster, in all probability, was capable of crawling, 
 or walking, both on the bottom of the sea, and on the 
 dry land, like the crocodiles of our own times. Its height 
 was probably fourteen or fifteen feet, being equal to that 
 of the largest elephant. 
 
 What sort of engines the ante- 
 diluvians possessed, which could 
 have withstood or destroyed a fierce 
 reptile, capable of devouring an ele- 
 phant or a rhinoceros at a meal, we 
 know not. At present, with the ex- 
 ception of our artillery, we possess 
 no weapons capable of preventing 
 the devastations of such a monster. 
 The teeth of this animal were lodg- 
 ed in distinct sockets. They were 
 curved backwards, undoubtedly for 
 the purpose of the better securing 
 their prey. They were compressed, 
 or flattened laterally, with the edge 
 toothed, or serrated, through the 
 whole length of the posterior, or cut- 
 ting side, and at the point of the an- 
 terior side, or edge. Fig. 54, repre- 
 sents the tooth of a megalosaurus of 
 the natural size. It is thin on the 
 concave, or cutting edge, but thicker 
 on the convex side, so as to give it 
 strength, its shape being similar to 
 
252 FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. 
 
 that of a pruning knife. An animal seventy-five feet in 
 length, with a mouth containing perhaps more than sixty 
 such teeth, with a disposition like that of the crocodile, must 
 have presented a spectacle, of which we post-diluvians 
 can have but a faint conception. 
 
 The formation of Stonesfield, where these remains oc- 
 cur, consists of a sandy slate, about six feet thick, lying 
 below several strata of limestone, of different kinds, and 
 about forty feet from the surface. 
 
 ".' * *' " %*; ,' -v ' -' 
 
 Iguanodon. This animal approached in structure, more 
 nearly to the Iguana, a large species of lizard, found in the 
 West Indies, than to any other species. Its length was 
 between sixty and seventy feet. 
 
 Cuvier pronounces this reptile to have been the most 
 singular and extraordinary, of all the ante-diluvian won- 
 ders yet discovered. Its great peculiarity consists in the 
 form of its teeth, which shows, that notwithstanding its 
 saurian form, it was a herbivorous animal, in which it dif- 
 fered from all the lizard tribes. 
 
 Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus. These are two gen- 
 era of singularly formed sea lizards. Ichthyosaurus, is 
 derived from two Greek words, and signifies marine liz- 
 ard. Plesiosaurus, means lizard-like. 
 
 These, among all the fossil animals that have been dis- 
 covered, are most calculated to surprise the naturalist by 
 their least resemblance to any individuals now living, and 
 by their singular combinations of structure. 
 
 In the Ichthyosaurus we see the muzzle of a dolphin; 
 the teeth of a crocodile; the head and breast of a lizard; 
 the paddles of a turtle, and the backbone of a fish. 
 
 In the Plesiosaurus, we have the same turtle-like pad- 
 dles; a lizard's head, and a long neck, like the body of a 
 serpent. 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 Ichthyosaurus. This fossil skeleton is represented by 
 fig. 55. No entire skeleton of this animal has yet been 
 
FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. 253 
 
 found; but fragments having been collected in the lime- 
 stone formations in various parts of England, and the 
 whole having been joined, and the absent parts supplied 
 with carved wood, a skeleton, such as is here represented, 
 is composed. It appears that England was the principal 
 sepulchre of this animal, few of its remains having been 
 discovered otherwhere. 
 
 In length, this animal was about twenty feet, and there- 
 fore does not in this respect compare with several of the 
 ante-diluvian reptiles. But its singular combinations of 
 structure, together with the vast number of bones compo- 
 sing its skeleton, have rendered it one of the most curious 
 and interesting objects to naturalists which has been pre- 
 sented. 
 
 The vertebrae amount to about ninety in number, and 
 the number of pieces of bone contained in each paddle, is 
 100. These are flat, and placed in contact with each oth- 
 er, like mosaic work, or a tesselated pavement. It was 
 an amphibious animal, but lived chiefly in the water, as 
 is indicated by the form of its paddles, which hardly could 
 have permitted it even to crawl upon the shore. It is 
 probable, therefore, that although it was an air-breathing 
 animal, if it had the misfortune to be cast upon the shore, 
 it must have remained motionless, and died, as whales and 
 dolphins do, under like circumstances. 
 
 The teeth of this animal were about half an inch in 
 length, sharp pointed, but not curved like those of the 
 megalosaurus; their number was thirty in each jaw. 
 
 But the most striking feature in the appearance of this 
 strange animal, was the enormous size of his eyes, and 
 which must have given him a most terrific physiognomy. 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 The sclerotic, or outer coat of the eye was beset by a 
 circle of bony pieces, as seen in the adjoining representa- 
 tion of the skeleton of the head, probably in order to give 
 it strength and prominence. These pieces of bone, form 
 22 
 
 ros 
 
 
254 FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. 
 
 a character common to birds, tortoises, and lizards, to the 
 exclusion of crocodiles and fishes; and hence, one of the 
 marks by which it is proved that this animal belonged to 
 the lizard tribe. The comparative size of the eye socket, 
 when compared with the other parts of the head, will 
 give us some idea of the frightful appearance of this ani- 
 mal; as will the long rows of curved teeth with which his 
 jaws are studded, of his power to seize, and hold his prey. 
 From the dimensions of the head, we may suppose that 
 these eyes were fully as broad as a tea saucer, being 
 probably at least six inches in diameter. 
 
 Plesiosaurus. " This genus," says Dr. Ure, " is en- 
 tirely English, and solely due to the sagacity of Mr. Co- 
 nybeare." Some vertebra?, mixed with those of the cro- 
 codile and icthyosaurus, in the lias of the environs of 
 Bristol, appeared to him to differ from those of both ani- 
 mals. From this circumstance, he was led to make fur- 
 ther examinations, and these were continued until a suf- 
 ficient number of bones had been obtained to show the 
 form and size of this strange ante-diluvian. 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 The most singular part of its construction, is the im- 
 mense length of the neck, and the disproportion of this, 
 to the other parts of the system. This is composed of a 
 greater number of bones than the neck of any known 
 animal; exceeding in this respect, even the swan, which 
 has a greater number than any existing species. 
 
 The most entire specimen of the plesiosaurus yet found, 
 is that which came from Lyme Regis. This relic is con- 
 tained in several blocks of stone, which were once con- 
 tinuous, and which fit each other exactly. The bones 
 have the posture which they would have taken, had the 
 animal been crushed by a heavy weight from above. Its 
 length is nine feet six inches. The number of vertebrae 
 are ninety, of which forty belong to the neck. 
 
 The plesiosaurus in the living state, must have present- 
 
 
BONE CAVERNS. 255 
 
 ed a neck resembling a large serpent, with the tail cut off, 
 and the remaining half fastened to a trunk, the propor- 
 tions of which, differed little from those of many other 
 animals. The tail, especially, by its shortness, could 
 scarcely remind one of a reptile, and hence this animal 
 must have displayed a form so much the more singular, as 
 its extremities, like those of the ichthyosaurus, were gen- 
 uine fins, similar to those of the whale tribe. 
 
 That this animal was aquatic in its habits, is evident 
 from its fins, and that its element was the sea, may be 
 equally inferred, from the marine remains, with which its 
 bones are every where associated. Its motion on the 
 land, like that of the ichthyosaurus; must have been awk- 
 ward and difficult, and its long neck would impede its 
 progress through the water. It was an air-breathing ani- 
 mal, and Mr. Conybeare suggests whether it might not 
 have swam along the surface, arching its neck, like the 
 swan, and now and then darting down its head to catch 
 the fish below. 
 
 BONE CAVERNS. 
 
 Professor Buckland, in consequence of the publication 
 of his great work, " Reliquia Diluviana" has made the 
 subject of osseous caverns highly interesting and instruc- 
 tive. Before the appearance of that work, little was 
 known on this subject, nor was it, indeed, considered by 
 geologists as of much importance. The bones of some 
 animals, found in caves, had occasionally attracted notice, 
 but no one appears to have inquired how, or under what 
 circumstances, they could have found their way into such 
 places. Nor was it until after the celebrated cavern of 
 Kirkdale was discovered and described, that the contents 
 of other caverns became the subjects of geological inves- 
 tigation. 
 
 We have already given some account of the Kirkdale 
 cave under the article " Change of Climate,' 1 for the pur- 
 pose of showing that England was once the native coun- 
 try of the elephant, rhinoceros and hyena. 
 
 Since the description of that cave, notices of others, 
 containing bones, have become so numerous, that we have 
 not room even for a catalogue of their names and places; 
 and there is little doubt, but these will ultimately be the 
 
256 BONK CAVERNS. 
 
 means of producing a body of geological evidence of 
 much importance. 
 
 It appears that all extensive limestone formations, con- 
 tain more or less such caverns as that of Kirkdale, some 
 of which are of great extent, and have long been admired 
 for the brilliancy of their stalactites, and the pillar-like 
 forms which they assume. The island of Crete contains 
 a great cavern, which has long been the wonder of tra- 
 vellers, and throughout the same island, Tournefort says, 
 there is a ivorld of Caverns. 
 
 In the limestone districts of England, these caves 
 abound. In Derbyshire alone, Mr. Farey enumerates 
 twenty-eight remarkable caves, and as many fissures lo- 
 cally called '* snake holes," or " swallow holes," from their 
 swallowing up the streams and brooks, which sometimes 
 in that district disappear suddenly, without, so far as is 
 known, ever rising again to the surface. 
 
 Of the bone caverns of Germany, Cuvier says, " noth- 
 ing is more truly curious, than the new theatre to which I 
 am about to transport my readers. Numerous grottos, 
 brilliantly decorated with crystalline stalactites of every 
 form, succeeding each other to a great extent, through the 
 body of the mountains, communicating together by open- 
 ings, so narrow that a man can hardly proceed by crawl- 
 ing on his hands, yet with their floors all bestrewed with 
 enormous heaps of bones of animals of every size form 
 undoubtedly, one of the most remarkable phenomena 
 which the fossil kingdom can present to the meditations 
 of the geologist, more especially, when we consider, that 
 this scene of mortality is repeated in a great many places, 
 and through far distant lands. No wonder then, that 
 these vaults of death have become the objects of research 
 among the ablest naturalists, and their bony relics have 
 been often described and figured." 
 
 Prior to these philosophical inquiries, however, these 
 bones were famed among the populace, and were long dug 
 up, and sold to apothecaries as the bones of the fossil uni- 
 corn, and who again portioned them out to their patients as 
 sovereign remedies in various diseases. There is do doubt 
 but this strange traffic, contributed mainly to the investi- 
 gation of old caves, and the discovery of new ones, long 
 before geologists took the subject in hand. 
 
 Having already given such an account of the Kirkdale 
 cave as our limits will allow, and to which the reader is 
 
BONE CAVERNS. 257 
 
 referred, we will here notice several other osseous caverns 
 in different parts of the world. 
 
 In Germany, there are many caves, where bones have 
 been found, but among these, that of Gaylenreuth has at- 
 tracted most attention, on account of its great extent, and 
 beauty, as well as the number of fossil bones it contains. 
 This cave is situated in Franconia, and in the same neigh- 
 borhood with several others, the whole of which have been 
 described by Professor Goldfuss, of Bonn, in a treatise ex- 
 pressly devoted to this subject 
 
 The gateway, or entrance to the cavern of Gaylenreuth, 
 is seven and a half feet high,, and faces to the east, and of 
 this wonderful place, Professor Buckland gives the follow- 
 ing description. 
 
 The adjoining section is diminished from that drawn by 
 Professor Buckland, in 1816. 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 The first grotto turns to the right, and is upwards of 
 eighty feet long. It is divided into four parts, by the une- 
 qual height of the vaulted roof; the first three are from fif- 
 teen to twenty feet high, whereas, the fourth is only four 
 or five. On the bottom of this part, and on a level with 
 the floor, there is an orifice only two feet high, which 
 leads into the second grotto. This runs first southward 
 for sixty feet, being forty feet wide, and Eighteen high; it 
 then turns to the west, through a space of seventy feet- 
 22* 
 
258 BONE CAVERNf, 
 
 becoming gradually lower till its altitude is only five fee*. 
 The passage to the third grotto is very incommodious, 
 winding through several corridors; it is thirty feet wide, 
 and only five or six high. The loam on this floor, is stuffed 
 full of teeth and jaw bones. Near the entrance to it, is a 
 gulf of fifteen or twenty feet wide, into which visitors de- 
 scend by a ladder. After going down, they arrive at a 
 vault fifteen feet in. diameter, by thirty in height; and on the 
 side on which they descend, is a grotto all bestrewed with 
 bones. By going down a little further still, they fall in 
 with a new arcade, which conducts to a grotto forty feet 
 long, and a new gulf eighteen or twenty feet deep. Even 
 after this descent, another cavern presents itself, forty feet 
 high, quite covered with bones. A passage now, of five 
 by seven feet, leads to a grotto, twenty-five feet long, and 
 12 wide; then an alley twenty feet long, conducts into 
 another cave, twenty feet high, and finally, a grand grotto 
 expands, eighty-three feet in width, and twenty-four in 
 height, more copiously furnished with bones than any of 
 the rest. The sixth, and last grotto, runs in a northerly 
 direction, so that the whole series of caverns and corri- 
 dors describes nearly a semicircle. 
 
 A rift in the third grotto, disclosed in 1784, a new grot- 
 to, fifteen feet long by four wide, where the greatest num- 
 ber of hyenas' and lions' bones were found. The opening 
 was much too narrow to have allowed these animals to 
 have entered it. A peculiar tunnel which terminated in 
 this grotto, afforded an incredible number of bones, and 
 large skulls, quite entire. 
 
 The excavation on the extreme right and lowest part of 
 the figure, does not form a part of the original cavern, 
 but has been sunk for the purpose of finding bones. 
 Several cavities have been dug in different directions 
 from this well, for the same purpose, in one of which 
 there is, in the cut, the figure of a man holding a torch. 
 
 "The cavern of Gaylenreuth, is one," says Dr. Ure, 
 " whose bony relics are best known, in consequence* of 
 the researches which have been so long carried on with 
 regard to them by men of eminent science, such as Esper, 
 Humboldt, Ebel of Bremen, Rosenmueller, Goldfuss, &c, 
 as well as by the rich collections which these researches 
 have furnished. 
 
 These collections have been examined by that great 
 fossilist, Baron Cuvier, who has ascertained that the bones 
 
BONE CAVERNS. 259 
 
 composing them, belong in the proportion of three fourths 
 to bears, and that next to these in numbers, were the bones 
 of hyenas, foxes, wolves, gluttons, and polecats. A few, 
 only, of the remains of the feline tribe, have been found in 
 this cave, and still more few, of those of the elephant 
 tribe." 
 
 Near this cavern are several others. One called Hole- 
 berg, or holloiv mountain, has eight or ten grottos, forming 
 a suit of apartments two hundred feet in length, with two 
 outlets. Another called Wonder hohle, has a circuit of 
 one hundred and sixty feet, and still another called Klaus- 
 tein, is composed of four grottos, and is two hundred feet 
 deep. In all these, more or less bones have been found. 
 The rocks in which they are situated are of limestone, like 
 that of Kirkdale, and indeed like those of all other caverns 
 of a similar description. 
 
 One of the most interesting facts developed, by the ex- 
 amination of these caverns, and others which we have no 
 room to describe, is, that they all, with an exception or 
 two, contain the bones of the same species of bear, and in 
 a similar proportion to 'the other bones. This has been 
 found to be the case, even to the extent of more than five 
 hundred miles, at which distance, some of these caves are 
 situated from the others. The exceptions to this general 
 fact exists in two or three caves, situated in England, which 
 contain a preponderance of hyenas' bones. 
 
 How are we to account for the existence of so many bones, 
 and of all kinds of animals in these caverns? One of the 
 most natural questions which would occur to the mind, 
 after having read the above account, would be how the?e 
 bones came into these caverns. The solution of this 
 question is attended with doubts and difficulties. 
 
 ** It is scarcely possible," says Cuvier, ' to imagine any 
 other than the three following general causes, that can 
 have placed these bones in such quantities in these cav- 
 erns. First, they are either the remains of animals which 
 dwelt and died peaceably in these chambers; or, Second, 
 of animals which inundations and other violent causes car- 
 ried in; or, Third, of the animals which had been envelo- 
 ped in the stony strata, whose watery solution produced 
 the caverns themselves, but the soft parts were dissolved 
 away by the agent that scooped out the mineral substance 
 of the caves." 
 
260 BONE CAVERNS. 
 
 The last hypothesis is refuted by the circumstance, that 
 the strata themselves, in which the grottos are excavated, 
 contain no bones; and the second, by the entire state of 
 preservation of the smallest prominences of the bones, 
 which precludes the idea of their having been rolled or 
 transported from a distance. We are, therefore, says Cu- 
 vier, obliged to return from these to the first cause what- 
 ever difficulties may attend it. 
 
 The vast number of bones which some of these caverns 
 contain at the present time, together with the dust of those 
 which have decayed, would pre-suppose that a vast period 
 of time must have elapsed since these houses of death 
 were first inhabited, if indeed, these remains belonged to 
 such animals only, as " had lived and died peaceably in 
 these chambers," as Cuvier supposes. 
 
 Dr. Buckland supposes that the contents of these cav- 
 erns are due to two causes, viz., to the deaths of the prow- 
 ling animals which inhabited them, and to the bones of 
 other animals which these brought home for food, and 
 this, without doubt, is the true theory. The elephants 
 and other large animals, the bones of which are found in 
 these caves, do not inhabit caverns; and if they did, the en- 
 trances are often too small to admit them while alive. Such 
 bones most clearly must have been conveyed to such pla- 
 ces after they had separated, by the decomposition of 
 the soft parts, and there is perhaps, the best reasons for 
 believing that these, and perhaps a great proportion of 
 the other bones found in the caves, were carried there by 
 the hyenas and other beasts of prey. We think that the 
 facts and arguments adduced by Professor Buckland, are 
 sufficient to convince any impartial reader, that this was 
 the mode of their transportation into these houses of 
 death. 
 
 The immense quantities of organic relics, which have 
 been deposited in some of these caverns, may be, in a de- 
 gree, conceived of by the following facts. 
 
 " In this cavern," (of Kullock,) says Professor Buck- 
 land, "the size and proportions of which are nearly equal 
 to those of the interior of a large church, there are hun- 
 dreds of cart loads of black animal dust, entirely covering 
 the whole floor. The quantity of animal matter accumu- 
 lated, on this floor, is the most surprising, and the only 
 thing of the kind I ever witnessed; and many hundred, I 
 may say thousand, individuals must have contributed to 
 
OSSEOUS BRECCIAS. 261 
 
 make up this appalling mass of the dust of death." JRe- 
 liq. Diluv. p. 138. 
 
 Of the same cave, Cuvier says, " I have stated that the 
 total quantity of animal matter that lies within this cavern, 
 cannot be computed at less than 5000 cubic feet; now, al- 
 lowing two cubic feet of dust and bones for each individual 
 animal, we shall have, in this single vault, the remains 
 of at least, 2500 bears." We should think that a single 
 cubic foot of dust is more than ought to be allowed to 
 each bear. 
 
 We have already stated, at considerable length, under 
 the article " Change of Climate," the reasons of Dr. 
 Buckland, for believing that these caverns were the dens 
 of hyenas, and that the multitude of bones found in them 
 were carried there by these animals. To that article 
 we must, therefore, refer the reader for the sequel of this 
 subject. 
 
 OSSEOUS BRECCIAS. 
 
 Breccia, in Mineralogy, is a rock composed of angular 
 fragments of other rocks, joined together by some kind of 
 cement. In osseous breccia, bones take the place of the 
 angular pieces of stone. 
 
 Osseous or bone breccias are found in many places on 
 the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, as at Gibraltar, Cette, 
 Antibes, Nice, Pisa, Corsica, &c. These are found filling 
 up the fissures of calcareous rocks. It is a curious fact, 
 that in all these places, as well as in Sicily, Dalmatia, and 
 Cerigo, though so distant from each other, these conglom- 
 erated fragments of bone are similar, and appear to have 
 belonged to the same animals. They are the relics chiefly 
 of ruminant animals, such as the deer, mixed with a few li- 
 ons 1 teeth, panthers' teeth, and sometimes the bones of 
 rats, and occasionally those of other animals. The pie- 
 ces of bone are impasted in a red earthy concretion, re- 
 sembling highly burned bricks, but spongy in texture, from 
 innumerable porous cavities, of various sizes, arid which 
 are occasionally interspersed with sparry incrustations. 
 As the bones are not pressed together, it is reasonable to 
 suppose, that the cement which contains them, must have 
 been progressively deposited around them as they fell in- 
 
262 OSSEOUS BRECCIAS. 
 
 to the rifts of the rocks. The bones have, in general, 
 been broken in pieces before receiving their crust of spar, 
 or their cement. They are entirely separated from their 
 organic arrangement but exhibit no signs of having been 
 rolled or transported. 
 
 The stony fragments which this breccia sometimes em- 
 braces, are coarse grained limestone, of a dark grey color, 
 containing now and then veins of white spar, and appear 
 to have been rolled. In size, they vary from that of the 
 fist, to small grains. 
 
 These bones do not belong to any existing species of 
 animals. In the bone rock of Gibraltar, Cuvier found 
 one species of deer, and another of hare, both unknown 
 species. 
 
 It is unnecessary to be more particular in the descrip- 
 tion of these breccias, as they occur at different places, 
 having already observed, that they all bear a similar char- 
 acter. 
 
 The breccia of Dalmatia, is the most extensive of any 
 which has been discovered; stretching along the whole 
 coast of that country. Its structure and aspect is the 
 same as that of Gibraltar. 
 
 With respect to the origin of these bone rocks, Dr. 
 Buckland supposes that the bones of the extinct species, 
 are those of animals which fell into the crevices of the 
 rocks before the flood, and perished there. The same au- 
 thor has shown that the red cement of the osseous brec- 
 cia is an earthy loam, differing merely in color from that 
 which fills the caves and fissures of rocks in Germany, 
 and constitutes the diluvial loam on their bottoms. 
 
 It appears that something analogous to this breccia, is 
 still forming in different places. At the extremity of 
 Prince's Lines, high in the rock which looks towards 
 Spain, is found a reddish calcareous earth, and the bones 
 of small birds cemented thereby. The rock around this 
 spot, is inhabited by a number of hawks, that in the breed- 
 ing season nestle there and rear their young; and the 
 bones in this concretion, are probably the remains of the 
 food of these birds. At the base of the rock below King's 
 Lines, the concretion consists of pebbles of the prevailing 
 calcareous rock. In this concretion, at a considerable 
 depth under the surface, was found part of a green glass 
 bottle. Ed. Phil. Trans. 
 
 It will be observed that these breccias are peculiar to 
 
FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. 263 
 
 limestone rocks. Now lime is known to be soluble in 
 water, in small quantities, and hence the calcareous spar 
 with which these bones are often surrounded and impreg- 
 nated, is readily accounted for. The soil, or cement, 
 which holds these bones together, is also hardened by the 
 infiltration of the same substance. 
 
 Osseous Breccia of Australia. This has been recently 
 discovered. Prom a communication of Major Mitchel, to 
 the London Geological Society, it appears that this breccia 
 bears a great resemblance to that of Europe. The princi- 
 pal cavity where it occurs, is an irregular kind of well, or 
 natural fissure, accessible only by means of ladders and 
 ropes, and the breccia is a mixture of limestone fragments 
 of various sizes, and bones enveloped in an earthy red 
 calcareous stone. But this differs from the breccias of 
 the Mediterranean coast, in this important particular, that 
 the bones of which it is chiefly formed, are those of the 
 kangaroo, wombat, and other animals which are still liv- 
 ing in that country. The bones of the elephant, and also 
 of some species of other animals not known to exist, are 
 occasionally found with the others, but the principal parts 
 are composed of bones of living species. It was there- 
 fore probably formed at a more recent period than the 
 breccia of the Mediterranean. 
 
 FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. 
 
 Cuvier, and other geologists, have expressly declared, 
 that no fossil human bones have ever yet been found, nor 
 have any bones of the quadrumanous, or monkey tribe, 
 ever been detected. " It is wonderful," says he, " that 
 among all these mammifera, of which, at the present day, 
 the greater part have a congenerate species, in warm cli- 
 mates, there has not been found one quadrumanous ani- 
 mal; not a single bone, or a single tooth of a monkey; 
 not even a bone, or a tooth of an extinct species of this 
 animal, has ever been detected." 
 
 " Neither is there any remains of man. All the bones 
 of the human race which have been collected, along with 
 those which we have spoken of, have been the result of 
 accident, and besides, their number is extremely small, 
 
$64 FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. 
 
 which it certainly would not be, if men had been estab- 
 lished in the countries inhabited by these animals. Where 
 then was the human race? Did the last and most perfect 
 work of the Creator^ exist no where? Did the animals 
 which now accompany him on the earth, and of which 
 there are no fossil remains to be found, surround him? 
 Have the lands in which they lived together, been swal- 
 lowed up, when those which they now inhabit, and of 
 which, a great inundation might have destroyed the an- 
 terior population, were again left dry?" " To these 
 questions," says Cuvier, " the study of fossils gives us no 
 information." 
 
 One might be led to suppose, from the above language 
 of the great fossilist, that every part of the earth had al- 
 ready been explored, and the question concerning fossil 
 human bones, that is, the existence of human ante-diluvian 
 relics, had been finally settled. 
 
 <? But," says Granville Penn, " the great question con- 
 cerning human remains in a fossil state, stands now be- 
 fore the world under a new aspect, and entirely different 
 from that under which it stood at the period when M. 
 Cuvier first published his celebrated 'Theory of the Earth. 1 " 
 
 This new aspect is to be dated from about the year 
 1820, when the Cavern of Durfort, and the quarries of 
 Kosritz were laid open for the instruction of science. 
 
 Cavern of Durfort. The cavern of Durfort is near a 
 small village of that name, in the Department du Gard, 
 France. It is about 300 feet above the level of the Medi- 
 terranean. Its orifice presents itself in a vertical fissure 
 or crevice in the surface of the ground, about five feet in 
 length, and one and a half feet in width. The descent is 
 perpendicular, about twenty feet, and must be made by 
 pressing with the back and knees against the rugged 
 sides, in the manner of chimney sweepers. From thence 
 you enter into a narrow passage, which, as it extends, 
 divides itself to the right and left. These two passages 
 are both so low as to make it difficult for a person to 
 penetrate through them. The one on the right leads to 
 the principal chamber, the dimensions of which are only 
 ten or twelve feet in length, and three in height and 
 width. The passage on the left, is pursued with still 
 greater difficulty, being considerably lower. No bones 
 are found in either of these passages, but the cave is ter- 
 
FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. 265 
 
 minated by a small chamber, three yards square, in which 
 all the human bones are found. They lie in the utmost 
 confusion, in the paste or matter that unites them, and 
 are in quantities so great as to form more than half of the 
 bed. The bones are partly filled with an extremely fine 
 calcareous earth, colored by oxide of iron. The deposite 
 is here raised more than half a foot above the true floor, 
 which is covered with human bones, some of which are 
 insulated from the rest; a great number are united to the 
 rock, to which they have been fixed by calcareous incrus- 
 tations. The bones are chiefly those of the head, thigh, 
 and arms. They lie without any relation to the system, 
 and many are wanting, so that an entire skeleton has 
 never been found. They are not worn, or rolled, so that 
 they could not have been transported from a distance. 
 They are not mineralized, but retain a portion of gelatine. 
 These bones belonged to adults both of men and women, 
 and some of them to children. 
 
 How these human bones came in such a place is the 
 main question, and its answer is by no means easy. M. 
 de Serres, the author of the above description, says that 
 the difficulty of the entrance would have opposed an in- 
 vincible obstacle to the introduction of the bodies after 
 death. The people of the country have a tradition, that 
 at some remote and unknown period, these bones were 
 brought from a distance and deposited there. 
 
 Mr. Granville Penn has no doubt but these are ante- 
 diluvian bones, and thinks there is as much reason to 
 believe them so, as there is in the case of the elephant's 
 bones in the cave of Kirkdale. "It will be plain," says 
 this author, " to every one who compares the descrip- 
 tions of the two caves, that the leading circumstances, 
 geologically considered, are so peculiarly analogous, that 
 if we read, in the Durfort account, ' young and full 
 grown elephants? &c. instead of * young and adult hu- 
 man subjects,' we shall almost seem to be reading the 
 Kirkdale report.'* 
 
 Unless there is some other entrance than that already 
 described, (and after much search, none has been found,) 
 it is difficult to imagine how these bones could have been 
 conveyed into such a cavern, and for what purpose. It 
 is much easier to believe, did many such examples exist, 
 that they were embedded during the formation of the lime- 
 stone rock, in which they are found, than that they were 
 23 
 
266 FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. 
 
 conveyed there by human hands. As these bones exhibit 
 no marks of teeth, there is no reason to suppose that they 
 were carried there by rapacious beasts. Penn's Comp. 
 Estimate. Vol. ii. p. 400. 
 
 The Quarries of Kosritz, where other human bones have 
 been also found, are in Upper Saxony, and the account is 
 given by Baron Von Schlottheim. The formation is of 
 limestone, accompanied by secondary gypsum. In the 
 fissures or cavities of the limestone, have been found the 
 remains of the ante-diluvian rhinoceros and hyena, and 
 other extinct species. In the fissures or cavities of the 
 subordinate gypsum, human bones have been found, to- 
 gether with the bones of small quadrupeds and birds, at 
 the depth of from sixteen to thirty feet below the surface. 
 These occur in every quarry which has been opened, and 
 not in caverns, but in the loam, which has formed there, 
 and such as envelopes the bones of Gaylenreuth. The Ba- 
 ron supposes that the human bones are not, however, of 
 the same antiquity with those of the ante-diluvian animals, 
 with which they occur. Still the Baron says, "It is quite 
 evident, that in the country near Kosritz, human bones 
 are found intermingled, without order, with the bones of 
 animals of the ancient world, and with those of existing 
 species; and under precisely the same circumstances, 
 being firmly enveloped and compacted in the loamy 
 deposite, which occupies the fissures and cavities of the 
 bed of gypsum that occurs in that vicinity. All these 
 considerations give, on the first view, a probability to the 
 conclusion, that the other animals were destroyed at the 
 same time with man; an opinion which I have already ad- 
 vanced." 
 
 M. V. Schlottheim, afterwards became doubtful of the 
 accuracy of this conclusion from the single circumstance, 
 that remains of existing as well as of extinct animal spe- 
 cies, were found with the human bones. 
 
 Had the Baron seen Professor Buckland's account of 
 the Kirkdale cavern, which was printed afterwards, this 
 circumstance alone, probably would not have raised a 
 doubt, since there were found both extinct and existing 
 species mingled together, and yet no doubt has arisen 
 that they were not all ante-diluvian. 
 
 These facts and circumstances, in the opinions of seve- 
 ral able geologists, leave little or no doubt but these bones 
 
FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. 267 
 
 were real fossils, and that they belong to a period before 
 the flood, while others think the evidence not sufficient 
 to establish so important a geological fact. The inqui- 
 ring reader will find this subject fully discussed in 
 " Penn's Comparative Estimate of the Mineral and Mosa- 
 ical Geology," vol. ii. 
 
 Professor Buckland also found human bones, in the 
 same caves with those of ante-diluvian animals, and yet, 
 he seems to suppose that the former were much less an- 
 cient than the latter, the human bones having fallen in 
 through some crevice, formerly open, but now closed. 
 Although a strong advocate of the truth of the Mosaic 
 history, he denies the existence of fossil human remains, 
 though, had the bones of some species, considered extinct, 
 been found under the same circumstances, no doubt it is 
 believed, would have been entertained of their ante-dilu- 
 vian origin. This reluctance to admit their discovery 
 
 O p- ^^^ .!-_.-!- ^^ -n.!. ^_ ^^ ^^ m *** J ^ 
 
 and existence, appears extraordinary and unaccountable in 
 an advocate for the truth of the Scriptures; since, if men t j 
 and animals were created within a few days of each other, 1 1 
 their remains ought to be found together. " It is said'" 
 says Dr. Macculloch, " to be a proof of the especially re- 
 cent formation of man, that his remains are not found in 
 the same alluvia as those of other animals. What sup- 
 port of Scripture is this ? That record says, man and 
 animals were created in one short period. If they ought 
 thus equally to be found, and are not, it is evidence 
 against the record, and not in its favor." Geology, vol. i. p. 
 451. 
 
 In what manner bones might be thrown into caverns. 
 Perhaps every limestone country contains more or less 
 subterranean caverns which admit streams of water to 
 pass through them, either constantly, or during certain 
 seasons of the year. 
 
 In the Grecian Morea, it appears, that such caverns 
 are common, and during the late French expedition to 
 Greece, they were particularly examined and described by 
 M. Boblaye one of the adventurers. 
 
 In that country the seasons are divided into the dry 
 and rainy, with nearly the same exactness that they are 
 between the tropics. The rainy season lasts four months, 
 and is succeeded by eight months of drought. 
 
FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. 
 
 In the elevated districts of the Morea, there are many 
 deep valleys or basins, surrounded on every side by 
 mountains, of cavernous limestone. 
 
 During the rainy season, the torrents from the moun- 
 tains, rushing into these basins, would form lakes in ordi- 
 nary circumstances; but here the water is received into 
 fissures, or caverns, called by the Greeks "katavothra," 
 and which lead to subterraneous caves, of various dimen- 
 sions below. 
 
 In some of the basins the apertures not being sufficient 
 to receive all the water, as it descends, lakes are formed, 
 which either gradually run off at these apertures, or find 
 other openings at a higher level. 
 
 In some places where the water descends through fis- 
 sures in the bottom of the basin, which is often in the mid- 
 dle of a plain, nothing can be seen in the summer, when 
 the lake is dry, but a deposite of red mud cracked by the 
 the heat of the sun in all directions; but more coirmonly 
 the receiving chasm is at the foot of the surrounding es- 
 carpment, and is sometimes large enough to allow a per- 
 son to enter it in the dry season, and to penetrate far into 
 the interior. Within are often found a suite of caverns or 
 chambers, communicating with each other by narrow pas- 
 sages, as is the case with similar caves in this, and other 
 countries. In one of these entrances were observed hu- 
 man bones imbedded in recent red mud, and mingled with 
 the remains of plants and animals now inhabiting the Mo- 
 rea. 
 
 In summer these mouths being half closed with alluvial 
 mud, produce a rapid and vigorous vegetation, which is 
 cherished by the moisture of such places. They then be- 
 come the favorite hiding places of jackals and foxes, so 
 that at one season of the year the same cavity serves for 
 the den of carnivorous beasts, and at another, the chamber 
 of an ingulphed river. 
 
 Near the mouth of another of these caverns, M.Boblaye 
 and his companions saw the carcass of a horse partly de- 
 voured by jackalls, the size of which, prevented these ani- 
 mals from dragging it in; but it was evident that the ensuing 
 flood wouli float in whatever remained of the skeleton. 
 
 Some of these torrents form subterranean rivers, af- 
 ter running many miles come again to the surface; and 
 although the waters are exceedingly turbid when they 
 are engulphed, the emerging stream is perfectly clear and 
 
FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. 269 
 
 limpid, the impurities subsiding during the underground 
 passage. The points of emergence are usually along the 
 sea shore of the Morea, but sometimes they are subma- 
 rine, and at some distance from the shore. When this 
 is the case, the force with which the fresh water rises un- 
 der the salt, is sometimes such as in calm weather, to form 
 large convex waves, the sand at the same time boiling up 
 to a considerable distance from the bottom. LyelL 
 
 During the dry season, the sea, undoubtedly takes the 
 place of the fresh water, carrying in marine shells and sand 
 to mingle with the bones and mud brought down from the 
 land; thus forming a mixture of fresh, and salt water re- 
 mains. 
 
 Should the Morea be elevated by a subterranean force, 
 and these places exposed to the investigations of geolo- 
 gists, there would probably be exhibited the same phe- 
 nomena that has so puzzled the naturalists of the present 
 day; a congregation of mammiferous bones, clay, sea 
 sand, marine and land shells, and the whole perhaps, in- 
 terspersed with human bones. 
 
 From what we have here stated, it may be seen that in 
 the course of centuries, large quantities of the bones of 
 quadrupeds and of men may be carried into caverns and 
 there mingled promiscuously; and probably also intermix- 
 ed with marine productions. And as in limestone coun- 
 tries these caverns are constantly filling up with stalac- 
 tites, and carbonaceous matter brought in with the water, 
 the wonder with respect to the ingress of organic relics 
 into certain caverns would seem thus in a degree to be ex- 
 plained. 
 
 Lake CirJcnitzersee. The fact stated above, that there 
 is a spot on the Morea, where at one season of the year the 
 same cavity serves for the den of carnivorous beasts, and 
 at another for the channel of an ingulphed river, brought 
 to mind a still more singular natural curiosity, of some- 
 what the same kind,- as stated by the old traveller, Keysler, 
 which we had heretofore believed was rather fabulous, 
 than true. Keysler however, was F. R. S. of London, 
 and one of the most able antiquarians of his time. 
 
 " The Lake Cirknitzersee," says he, " situated in the 
 
 south east part of Austria, is one of the greatest of natural 
 
 curiosities, and has been the subject of many disquisitions 
 
 of naturalists. It is a common proverb, that one may 
 
 23* 
 
270 FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. 
 
 sow, reap, hunt and fish, in the Cirknitzersee, within the 
 space of a single year. But what is truly wonderful in 
 this lake, is the manner in which it ebbs and flows. The 
 I former happens during a long drought, whether in sum- 
 I mer or in winter, and the ebbing continues commonly, for 
 about five and twenty days. The water during this time 
 is absorbed by eighteen holes or cavities, resembling 
 whirlpools, in the bottom of the lake. The water seems 
 to rush through a crust of the earth into a cavern below. 
 The cavities have each a particular name and period of 
 time when they cease to absorb water. These periods 
 differ, probably according to their different elevations 
 above the lowest surface of the ground. One ceases in 
 five days, one in ten, one in fifteen, and so on, until the 
 end of about twenty-five days, when the lake is entirely 
 dry. Instances have been known of its having dried up 
 three times in the year. When great quantities of rain 
 fall, this lake is again filled by the same cavities which 
 absorbed its waters. If the rain continues, and especially 
 if attended with claps of thunder, the water issues out of 
 these holes with great impetuosity, rising, two or three 
 fathoms above the surface. Some of the cavities only ab- 
 sorb," but do not eject the water, while others both absorb, 
 and eject, as the lake ebbs or flows. 
 
 Notwithstanding the lake becomes absolutely dry, and 
 nothing remains alive in it, yet as soon as it begins again 
 to flow, great quantities of excellent fish, of different kinds, 
 some weighing fifty pounds, are taken in it; a convincing 
 proof that the reservoir which supplies it with water is 
 well stocked with fish. But the most extraordinary fact 
 is, that ducks also are ejected with the water, many of 
 them being seen to rise from two of the cavities in par- 
 ticular. They are of a black color, blind and almost des- 
 titute of feathers, but they are fat, and in about a fort- 
 night's time, become fully fledged, receive their sight and 
 fly away." Key si er* a Travels through Germany, &c. 
 translated from the tjerman, and published in London, 
 1756. Vol. iv. p. 213. 
 
 FOSSIL REMAINS OF PLANTS AND SHELLS. 
 
 It has been supposed, by some naturalists, that there 
 
FOSSIL REMAINS OF PLANTS AND SHELLS. 271 
 
 was a gradual and progressive developement in the or- 
 ganization of created beings, from the most simple to the 
 most perfect and complex; and in proof of this doctrine, 
 it has been shown that in the strata of the earth, the 
 lowest orders occur first, or are situated at the greatest 
 depth, over which occur those that ate less simple, being 
 created afterwards, and so on progressively, to the most 
 perfect or complex, which are""founcTorriy "near the sur- 
 face. 
 
 It is true, indeed, that plants were created before ani- 
 mals, and that the inferior animals were formed before the 
 more intelligent; and it is also true, that, in this respect, 
 the discoveries of geology harmonize most perfectly with 
 the order of creation as recorded by Moses; the several cre- 
 ations, with respect to time, coinciding entirely with the 
 successive order in which their remains are found in the 
 earth. But it will be shown, in the seque), that the gene- 
 ral fact of the lower orders being found in the deepest 
 strata, proves nothing with respect to the progressive 
 improvement of organized beings, because in many in- 
 stances, animals of a more simple structure are found 
 above the more complicated. This is particularly the 
 case, with several species of shells, some of the most 
 curious and complex kinds being found in the deepest 
 strata, and far below those of a more simple structure. 
 This fact, while it takes nothing from the coincidence 
 which exists between the scripture narrative of the crea- 
 tion and the discoveries of geology, destroys at once, the 
 doctrine of the gradual developement of organic life, 
 since the very basis of this doctrine, supposes an uninter- 
 rupted progress from the most simple structure, towards 
 that of the greatest complexity. 
 
 Plants of the lower orders, and many of them entirely 
 different in structure and species from any now existing, 
 have been discovered in situations, which not only in- 
 dicate, from the nature of the rocks in which they occur, 
 their great antiquity, but also that they were embedded 
 at a time anterior to the existence of any other organized 
 substances. 
 
 Next to the plants, and above them in the order and 
 succession of strata, occur shells of various kinds, and 
 next above these are found the remains of reptiles, fish, 
 birds, &c., and still nearer the surface, the bones of quad- 
 rupeds. But we will not here anticipate a subject to 
 
272 FOSSIL PLANTS. 
 
 which a section will be devoted at the close of this vol- 
 ume. 
 
 FOSSIL PLANTS. 
 
 Fossil botany has within a few years, been studied with 
 much ardor and considerable success. Most of the plants 
 discovered in deep strata and which have been attributed 
 to a period before the deluge, are of the cryptogamous* 
 and monocotyledonousf tribes. These occur chiefly in the 
 slates, limestones and sandstones, together with other 
 formations which are associated with coal; and it is a 
 curious circumstance, that the vegetable impressions from 
 coal strata in North America, New Holland and various 
 parts of Europe, show a close analogy in the ancient vege- 
 tation of these distant countries. Indeed, so far as ob- 
 servations have been made, there exists a similarity in 
 the plants of coal formations, in every part of the world. 
 Most of these plants belonged to tribes or orders now in 
 existence, though in nearly, if not in quite every instance, 
 these species are now no where to be found. These spe- 
 cies are, therefore, considered as extinct, but at what pe- 
 riod, and in what manner they were destroyed must be 
 left entirely to conjecture. 
 
 We shall see that some of these ancient plants were 
 highly curious and singular in their construction, and in 
 which they differed entirely from any vegetable of the 
 present day, while others were similar in appearance to 
 those now existing. 
 
 The argillaceous nodules found in some of the English 
 coal^ mines, exhibit beautiful and distinct impressions of 
 many unknown species, some of which, however, it is 
 said, have living analogues in tropical climates. When 
 these nodules are carefully broken, the impressions are 
 preserved on both sides, but not as might be expected, dis- 
 playing each side of the vegetable, but the same side on 
 each broken surface; in one, in alto, in the other, in basso 
 relievo. The explanation of this curious circumstance, 
 
 * These. plants have their fruit concealed and are flowerless, as the 
 mushrooms, ferns, mosses, and sea- weeds. 
 
 t As the palms, rushes, lilies, grasses, &c. This term has already 
 been explained. 
 

 FOSSIL PLANTS. 273 
 
 which long puzzled observers, is found in the vegetable 
 matter which during its passage through the bituminous 
 change became softened, and having filled its own mould 
 with its melted and subsequently hardened substance; the 
 nodule, on being broken, showing on one side, the surface 
 of the adherent bituminous cast, and on the other, the cor- 
 responding mould. 
 
 The adjoining cut will give a good idea of these impres- 
 sions. It represents a species of polypodium, in slate 
 clay, from the coal mines of Lancashire. Sir James E. 
 Smith, considers it the production of a tropical climate, 
 nothing of the same species being known in Europe. 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 It has repeatedly been stated in different parts of this 
 volume, that the cryptogamous plants found in Europe, in 
 the fossil state, indicate by their immense sizes, a tropical 
 climate. The calamites or equisetums, a genus well 
 known to botanists, and one species, to housewives, under 
 the name of scouring rush, are examples. The remarka- 
 ble size of this species, at the period when the earth pro- 
 duced the vegetables which now form coal, would seem to 
 show, that the climate of England, and the higher parts 
 of North America, where its fossil remains are also found, 
 were hotter than any region of the earth is at the present 
 day. The equisetums afford an excellent standard of the 
 warmth of the climate in which they grow, being found at 
 the present day, from the highest northern regions, to the 
 hottest southern; and progressively increasing in size, 
 from the pole to the equator. 
 
274 FOSSIL PLANTS. 
 
 But even under the equator, they never attain the size 
 of their fossil analogues, the calamites.* 
 
 Fig. 60. The annexed figure, from Dr. 
 
 Ure, represents the fossil species 
 called by Brogniart, Calamites 
 approximatusi on account of the 
 proximity of its articulations. It 
 is found in the coal formations 
 of Newcastle, at Lubec, near 
 Canada, in France, and in Si- 
 beria. One specimen from Lu- 
 bec, is nearly two inches in 
 diameter, but much larger ones, 
 even ten or twelve inches in 
 diameter, are said to have been 
 found. In this climate, it is be- 
 lieved that none of the equise- 
 turos now rise higher than four 
 or five feet, with a diameter sel- 
 dom exceeding half an inch, and 
 generally little more than halt 
 this size. 
 
 Some of the ante-diluvian 
 plants, were singularly curious and beautiful, as is shown 
 to us by the impressions, or casts left on stones, or by 
 their petrified remains. Some are ornamented by regu- 
 larly disposed, straight ribs, arranged longitudinally, or 
 transversely, over their whole surface; some by the de- 
 cussation, or crossing of nearly straight lines, obliquely 
 disposed; and many, by the alternate contact and receding 
 of gently waving lines, forming areas, regularly, but most 
 singularly varying in their forms, and having in their cen- 
 tres, tubercles and depressions, from which spines have 
 probably proceeded. In others, lines, obliquely disposed, 
 intersect each other at angles, varying in their acuteness, 
 in different specimens, and in, it would seem, an almost 
 endless variety, forming surfaces apparently covered with 
 scales. 
 
 One of these, called Phytolithus verrucosus, or warty 
 
 * The calamites are not considered of precisely the same species as the 
 equisetums, the first being only fossil, and the second only recent; but 
 both are of the same family. 
 
FOSSIL PLANTS. 
 
 275 
 
 stone plant, has attracted particular attention, but appears 
 to have foiled every one who has attempted to explain its 
 original nature and mode of existence 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 The subjoined cuts will give a 
 good idea of this strange ante- 
 diluvian. It is described by Mr. 
 Martin, to have a sub-cylindrical, 
 subramose, tuberculated trunk, 
 fig. 61, with suppressed tubercles 
 set in quincunx order, a, having 
 linear, lanceolated leaves, fig. 62, 
 6, horizontally disposed. In some 
 parts, is a deep, longitudinal sul- 
 cus, or furrow, as seen at c, fig. 
 61; beneath which, is a rough, 
 imbricated body, of a slender, 
 cylindrical form, exposed at rf, 
 fig. 62. This, Mr. Martin sup- 
 poses, after a certain distance, 
 strikes out laterally, and forms a 
 branch: the trunk is then con- 
 tinued for some length, without 
 the furrow, or imbricated body, 
 after which, this again appears, 
 and another branch is thrown out 
 in a different direction. 
 
 Various opinions have been en- 
 tertained respecting this interest- 
 ing fossil, so unlike any of the vegetables of the present 
 day. Mr. Parkinson had conjectured that it belonged to 
 some body resembling the strobilus, or cone of some ve- 
 getable, while Mr. Martin describes it as above. The 
 Rev. Mr. Steinhauer has since studied this fossil, and con- 
 cludes that the bodies supposed by Mr. Martin to be 
 leaves, were cylindrical fibres, which shot out of the 
 trunk, while the plant grew in a horizontal posture. He 
 supposes that it grew in this direction, in the soft mud at 
 the bottoms of lakes or seas that it had no branches, but 
 sent out fibres on all sides; and that it was furnished in 
 the centre with a pith, of a structure different from the 
 surrounding wood. 
 
276 
 
 FOSSIL PLANTS, 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 But the ingenious author of 
 these observations has omitted 
 to notice the imbricated, or re- 
 ticulated surface of the central 
 substance, referred to above, 
 and which Mr. Parkinson thinks 
 will afford some information. 
 These configurations, undoubt- 
 edly depended on the attach- 
 ment of some parts of the vege- 
 table, and probably were the 
 bases on which were placed those 
 delicately formed, tubular pro- 
 cesses, represented by fig. 63, a, 
 which are seen to pass from the internal substance, to the 
 surface of the body. 
 
 From all the information that has been obtained, it is 
 supposed by naturalists, that the Phytclithus verrucosus, 
 was a plant of the succulent tribe, differing from vegeta- 
 bles of the present world, by its containing a more solid 
 part within its succulent substance, from which proceed- 
 ed a delicate organization by which a communication was 
 preserved with the external surface. It also appears that 
 the species of this genus, distinguished by their character- 
 istic markings, may have been numerous. Parkinson's 
 Organic Remains, and Trans. Am. Philo. Soc., New Se- 
 ries, vol. i. 
 
 Fiff. 64. 
 
 Phytolithus cancellatus. (Cross 
 barred stone plant.) Mr. Stein- 
 hauer has taken much pains to 
 detect and explain the different 
 appearances which this species 
 presents. He has .ascertained 
 that there are three distinct 
 kinds of configurations, proceed- 
 ing from it, originating in the 
 epidermis, the bark, and that 
 which may be considered as 
 holding the situation of the wood 
 of the plant. The first, or epidermal part, is formed of 
 rhombs, divided by lines, forming a network in a manner 
 difficult to express, either by drawings or descriptions, 
 and which leaves the rhombs still approximate. 
 
FOSSIL PLANTS. 
 
 277 
 
 The impression of this part, is represented by fig. 64. In 
 Fig. 65. the second, or the cortical part, the 
 
 lines between the rhombs are of more 
 breadth, the ridge broader, and less de- 
 nned and forms with the contracted 
 superior elevation, a protuberance, and 
 the central part assumes the figure of 
 a squamula. Fig. 65, represents the 
 matrix or cast of this part. The third 
 or ligneous, configuration, differs ex- 
 tremely from the two former, and only- 
 close observation determines that it 
 originates from the same plant. The 
 cancillated appearance is here entirely lost; the surface is 
 slightly striated with a scarcely perceptible rising under 
 the central ridge, and a minute, but distinctly raised dot 
 Fig. 66. in the place of the depression 
 
 in the epidermis. It has all the 
 appearance of a peeled plant, 
 which has been furnished with 
 small branches, set in quincun- 
 cial order. This is represent- 
 ed by fig. 66. 
 
 Eight species of this genus 
 are described, but the plan of 
 this work forbids, further de- 
 tail. 
 
 In some instances, trees of large dimensions, haye 
 been discovered in the fossil state, but these are mostly 
 of the Monocotyledonous kinds, as the palms and tree- 
 like ferns. 
 
 In the quarry of sandstone, belonging to the coal for- 
 mation, on which the city of Glasgow is built, the quarry- 
 men came upon a tree in its place, and just as it had been 
 growing. The trunk is about twenty-six inches in diame- 
 ter, not quite round, but somewhat oval, so that the north 
 and south diameter is several inches longer than the east 
 and west. The body of the tree is composed of sandstone 
 precisely similar to the rest of the quarry; but the bark 
 has been converted into perfect cherry coal, which ad- 
 heres firmly to the stone tree, and renders it easy to re- 
 move the rock with which it is incrusted. About three 
 feet of the bottom of the tree has been uncovered; this 
 portion is situated about forty feet below the surface, in a 
 24 
 
278 FOSSIL PLANT*. 
 
 solid quarry of sandstone. The upper part of the trunk 
 and branches have not been uncovered. The roots may 
 be seen dipping down into the earth precisely as the roots 
 of living trees do. Four very large roots may be seen is- 
 suing from the trunk, and extending, some of them, about 
 a foot before they are lost in the surrounding stone. There 
 is nothing to indicate the species of tree, of which the 
 mould has been thus preserved. From the appearance of 
 the roots it is obvious, however, that it was not a fir. 
 
 This petrifaction demonstrates, that the sandstone has 
 been formed at some period since the growth of large 
 trees, and that the water worn appearance 'of the quartz 
 pebbles, of which the sandstone is composed, is not a de- 
 eeitful indication. 
 
 Petrifactions. There is a popular opinion that in the 
 process of petrifaction, wood is changed to stone. The 
 truth appears to be, that as the wood decays, its place is 
 supplied by particles of stony matter, deposited from 
 water; and as those particles are exceedingly small, and 
 the decay of the wood slow, its fibrous structure is pre- 
 served in the stone, after the wood has entirely disappear- 
 ed. Wood never undergoes this change when in a state 
 of soundness and integrity; but only when it becomes 
 spongy by decay, and when all its constiuents have dis- 
 appeared except the woody or ligneous fibre. This is 
 proved by most specimens of petrified wood, which show 
 a partial decay before the process of mineralization began, 
 
 There are two kinds of petrifactions; the one caused by 
 the infiltration of calcareous, and the other of silicious 
 particles. 
 
 Calcareous Vegetable Fossils. Lime is not'very fre- 
 quently the mineralizing matter of vegetable fossils; it is, 
 however, sometimes found introduced into the remains of 
 wood in the form of spar, or imperfect crystals; in the 
 compact form, it is also found filling the interior of fossil 
 reeds and succulent plants. 
 
 Silicious Vegetable Fossils. These are immediately 
 distinguished from the calcareous, by their greater hard- 
 ness, the former giving fire with steel, while the latter are 
 easily scratched with a knife. The silicious fossils are 
 remarkable for the correctness with which the fibres, and 
 markings of the wood have been preserved. 
 
FOSSIL PLANTS. 
 
 279 
 
 The color is generally greyish, or yellowish white, 
 sometimes passing into brown, and is easily broken into 
 sharp edged fragments. It is found in many parts of the 
 world, but the finest specimens are said to come from 
 Hungary. The English, Portland limestone, contains 
 large fragments of wood, petrified by silicious infiltration, 
 the interstices often containing fine crystals of quartz. 
 
 These petrifactions prove that silicious matter is so- 
 luble in water, under ordinary circumstances, and that 
 it not only takes the form of the woody fibre, but also of 
 crystals. 
 
 Dr. Macculloch has shown also, that in many instances, 
 the mosses and other small vegetables, become encrusted 
 with silicious matter, while in their vegetable state, and 
 are thus preserved from decay. But these real cases, 
 must be distinguished from the black, tree-like appear- 
 ances which are often seen on the flat surfaces of lime- 
 stone, and which are produced by oxide of iron, or 
 manganese. 
 
 The vegetable matter is easily de- 
 tected by mixing a little of the moss 
 agate, ground fine, with some black 
 oxide of copper, exposing the mix- 
 ture to heat, in a glass tube, stopped 
 at one end, and bent so that the other 
 may dip in lime water contained in 
 a vial. If any vegetable matter be 
 present, carbonic acid gas will form, 
 and passing into the lime water, will 
 give it a turbid or milky appearance. 
 The adjoining cut represents a spe- 
 cimen of moss, apparently belonging 
 to the genus hypnum, contained with- 
 in a silicious deposite, called chalce- 
 dony. In some instances of this kind, 
 the vegetable form is so perfectly pre- 
 served, that the plant seems to float 
 as if in a liquid. Even the green co- 
 lor occasionally is preserved, and, in a few instances, the 
 species has been determined. 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
280 CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 FOSSIL SHELLS. 
 
 That the student may understand what follows, it is 
 necessary for him to become acquainted with the princi- 
 ples on which shells are arranged, and a few of the terms 
 by which the different parts of a shell are are denoted. 
 
 Shells, in their recent state, are composed of carbonate 
 of lime, mixed with a little animal or gelatinous matter. 
 In their fossil state, the gelatinous matter is seldom pre- 
 sent, though sometimes a small quantity has been de- 
 tected. 
 
 CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 Conchology is the science which treats of the structure, 
 arrangement, and properties of shells. Shells are in- 
 habited by testaceous animals, and to which they are only 
 partially attached. Crustaceous animals are confined 
 entirely within their coverings, each limb, or member 
 being invested by its own peculiar shield, as in the lob- 
 ster and crab. Many of the testacea are fixed by an at- 
 tachment to other substances, as the oyster and muscle; 
 while others have the power of crawling along the bot- 
 tom, or of moving through the water, as the unio, (fresh 
 water clam,) and the scallop. The animals which in- 
 habit shells are called mollusca or molluscous animals, 
 but the classification depends, not on the habits or form 
 of the animal, but on the form and other properties of the 
 shell. 
 
 The Linnaean system of conchology, which is the most 
 simple of any that has been proposed, divides shells into 
 Multivalves, Bivalves, and Univalves. 
 
 By valve, is here meant any single piece of shell, which 
 forms the habitation or part of the habitation of a mol- 
 luscous animal. Any shell formed of more than two 
 pieces is a multivalve. Bivalves consist of two distinct 
 pieces, and univalves of a single piece. 
 
CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 281 
 
 68. ! MULTI VALVES. This is much 
 
 the smallest class, but contains some 
 beautiful shells. The genus Lepas, 
 which contains the common barnacle, 
 fig. 68, belongs here. The Chiton or 
 coat of mail is another member of this 
 class. The generic description of 
 Lepas is, " Shell multivalve; affixed at 
 the base; valves unequal, erect. 
 These shells are chiefly parasitic, be- 
 ing attached to extraneous substances, 
 often to ships, pieces of wood, whales, &c. The generic 
 characters of this class are derived from the number and 
 situation of the valves. 
 
 2. BIVALVES. This class includes all such shells as are 
 composed of two pieces only, whatever their forms or di- 
 mensions may be; and in these respects, the species differ 
 exceedingly. The two valves of the Chama gigas some- 
 times weigh 500 pounds, and from this, there are all grades 
 of size down to that of a grain of sand. 
 
 Fig. 69. Bivalve shells, when their 
 
 valves are similar in size and 
 form are said to be equivalved, 
 if not similar, inequivalved; 
 when the anterior part agrees 
 in form with the posterior, 
 they are said to be equilateral, 
 if not, inequilateral. The 
 valves are connected at their 
 base by a ligament, with or 
 without a hinge, the ligament 
 being placed externally or in- 
 ternally. The belly, a, fig. 69,. 
 s the most tumid part; the disk b, is that part between the 
 belly and the margin c, which is considered to refer to the 
 external side, or as it may be termed, when the shell is 
 placed on its base, the upper side: then the umbones, (emi- 
 nences) d, are beneath the hinge, and terminate in the 
 points or beaks, e, which are incurved, reflected or ear form- 
 ed. The beaks are frequently, in particular shells, accom- 
 panied by two external impressions, one of these, th 
 24* 
 
262 CONCHOLOGY, 
 
 corslet, f, is on the anterior surface, and is separated from 
 the disk, generally by a ridge, an angle, or a sunken line; 
 and is often distinguishable by its difference of color; it is 
 sometimes spinous, carinated, lamellated, &c., but is more 
 generally smooth, when it is said to be naked. The other 
 impression, called the lunule, g, is placed at the bottom 
 of the posterior surface; it is variously shaped, oval, ob- 
 long, lanceolate, &c. The two pieces, forming the shell, 
 are called the .right and left valves. The shell being pla- 
 ced on the hinge with the anterior side forward, that is 
 considered as the right valve, which answers to the left 
 hand, the other being the left valve. The length of a bi- 
 valve is from the umbones to the margin opposite; and 
 the width or breadth, from the end of the anterior, to that 
 of the posterior margin. Hence many shells are broader 
 than they are long. Those whose length exceeds their 
 width, are called lo?igitudinal, and those whose width ex- 
 ceeds their length, are called transverse shells. Shells 
 are distinguished by the appellations free, when they are 
 capable of moving, and fixed when they adhere to other 
 bodies. 
 
 Bivalves are divided into three orders, depending on the 
 mechanism of their hinges. 
 
 Fig. 70. First. Those which 
 
 are furnished with inter- 
 nal teeth at the hinge, 
 but which are not insert- 
 ed into the opposite 
 valves, as in fig. 70. The 
 genus Mya, (to which be- 
 longs the common long clam,) andSolen, (razor shell,) are 
 examples. 
 
 To the Mya genus, belongs the Pearl Gaper, (Mya 
 margaritifera,) a beautiful shell with a pearly lustre, and 
 which occasionally produces pearls of great value. It is 
 found in the large rivers of the northern latitudes, and is 
 not the shell which is the object of the regular pearl 
 fishers. 
 
 To this genus also, belongs some sheik in considerable 
 request among collectors; but on the whole, the genus is 
 not remarkable for the beauty of many of its species. 
 
CONCHOLOGY. 283 
 
 Fig. 71. Second. Shells which 
 
 have their teeth inserted 
 into their opposite valves, 
 fig. 71. To this order be- 
 longs the Cardium, (heart 
 shell, )and the Venus; one 
 species of which, is well 
 known in our markets, under the name of round clam, 
 and which are taken in great abundance on the shores of 
 Long Island, and sold as an article of food. 
 
 Third. Shells, having a hinge, without teeth, as in the 
 well known shells, the oyster and scallop. 
 
 The generic distinctions of the bivalves, depending en- 
 tirely on their teeth, and their genera in the Linnaean sys- 
 tem, amounting to only thirteen in number, they are 
 easily distinguished from each other. The species de- 
 pending on the forms and markings, are not so readily 
 distinguished. 
 
 3. UNIVALVES. This is much the largest class, and 
 contains a great proportion of the shells which collectors 
 seek after with so much avidity, and many of which are 
 exceedingly beautiful in their forms and colors. 
 
 Univalves differ greatly from each other, in form, size, 
 and coloring. Like the bivalves, their different parts are 
 distinguished by peculiar names, which are applied in sci- 
 entific descriptions, and by means of which, conchologists 
 are enabled to understand each other. 
 
 Only the most necessary and common of these terms 
 can here be explained. 
 
 The univalves are distinguished chiefly by the form, 
 size and direction of their apertures, but sometimes by. the 
 conformation of the shell. 
 
 The univalves are exceedinly numerous, of a great vari- 
 ety of forms; and some of them remarkably beautiful, both 
 in shape and color. The names of the several parts of a 
 univalve will be distinguished by the annexed cut. 
 
284 
 
 CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 The spire, a, in the uni- 
 valve, fig. 72, is formed 
 by the union of the turns, 
 or whorls, b, which are 
 counted by reckoning the 
 lower turn, containing the 
 opening below, as the first, 
 and counting on the same 
 line to the top of the spire. 
 The turns in most shells, 
 go from the right to the 
 left; when they pass from 
 left to right, which rarely 
 happens, the shell is said 
 to be reversed. The line 
 passing round the shell 
 like a screw, and at which, 
 the whorls are united to 
 each other, is termed the suture. The whorls are plain, 
 grooved, crenulated, crowned with points, &c. 
 
 The back of the shell, c, is the external, tumid part on 
 the opposite side, and above the aperture. The body con- 
 sists of the whole of the tumid part, c, which forms the 
 first whorl. The opening, or aperture, e, is circular, oval, 
 angular, &c. and it is often the form of this part which de- 
 termines the genus of the shell. This opening terminates 
 in a groove or notch, which is either straight or turned to 
 the right or left, or backwards. When the opening is 
 longer than wide, it is said to be longitudinal; and when 
 wider than long, transverse. The edge or margin of the 
 opening is divided into right and left lips. The right, or 
 outer lip, d, reaches from the body, or first turn of the shell 
 to the base. The left lip, g, is on the other side of the 
 opening, and is of small extent in those shells, the open- 
 ings of which are entire. This opening is filled with a 
 body composed of shell, or cartilage, which is attached to 
 the animal, and with which he can close the opening at 
 pleasure, by drawing it in. This is termed the operculum. 
 The little white bodies popularly called eye-stones, are 
 operculums. 
 Univalves are distinguished into two kinds. 
 
CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 285 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 First. Those which are furnished 
 with a spire, as fig. 73, and those having 
 no spire. 
 
 Those furnished with spires, are again 
 divided into such as have, 1st, their apper- 
 tures effuse, that is, having the lips separa- 
 ted by a~ sinus, or gutter, so that if filled 
 with water, it would flow out at the back 
 part, as the conus, cyprcea, bulla and vo- 
 luta. 2d. Such as have their apertures 
 canaliculate, or like a canal, as buccinum, 
 strombus, and murex. 3d. Such as have 
 their apertures coarctate, or contracted, 
 opposed to effuse, as helix, turbo, and ne- 
 rita. 
 
 Fig. 74. Second. Those either having no 
 
 spires, or irregular, or imperfect 
 ones. The patella, or limpet, fig. 74, 
 is an example. 
 
 In this epitome of conchology, we 
 shall describe a part, but not the 
 whole of the thirty-six Linnrean gen- 
 era, at the same time indicating which are recent, or now 
 living; which are fossil, or extinct; and which are both re- 
 cent and fossil. 
 
 Fig. 75. MULTIVALVES. Genus Pholas, fig. 75. 
 
 Shell bivalve, inequilateral, and gaping; 
 having small accessory valves, a, situated 
 on the hinge and posterior slope; hinge 
 recurved and furnished with a tooth. 
 The name Pholades, imports seek a hi- 
 in reference to the habits of the 
 animals, which live in limestone rocks, or 
 wood, entering when small, and gradually 
 increasing their cells, according to their 
 growth. The largest specimens are found 
 in chalk, which being a soft rock, perhaps 
 admits of a larger growth, in consequence 
 of the ease with which the animal enlar- 
 ges his cell. There is a mastery concern- 
 ing the means by which these animals penetrate the sub- 
 
286 
 
 CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 
 stance of their future prison, which from the size of the 
 aperture must be done when they are very young. The 
 animal undoubtedly has the power of dissolving the stone 
 and wood by means unknown to man. The idea of fric- 
 tion with the shell, is untenable, since this is covered with 
 raised net work, with the points sharply defined. This 
 shell has not been found in the fossil state. 
 
 Fig. 76. BIVALVES. Genus Mytilus, fig. 76. Shell lon- 
 gitudinal, equivalved; the beaks nearly straight 
 terminal and pointed; hinge without teeth. 
 Shape either folded or lobed, crested or atten- 
 uated towards the apex. This is the muscle of 
 common language. To this genus belongs the 
 pearl-bearing shell; (mytilus margaritiferus,) 
 of the Indian fisheries. The whole genus are inseparably 
 attached to other substances. 
 
 The species in which pearls are found, are most abun- 
 dant, and in the greatest perfection, on the coast of the 
 Persian gulf and of the island of Ceylon. The term 
 pearl oyster is commonly applied to this shell, but incor- 
 rectly as is obvious, since the genus is Mytilus, and not 
 Ostrea. 
 
 In the great pearl fisheries which supply the eastern 
 markets, the number of fish annually brought up by di- 
 vers, is almost incredible. Many of the shells contain 
 no pearls, but some contain two or three. Those of two 
 grains, sell from about 1,50 to 2 dollars each, those of five 
 grains, from 8 to 10 dollars each: those of eight or nine 
 grains are of arbitrary value, because they are very rare. 
 The finest specimens sometimes bring enormous prices, 
 being considered invaluable, and fit only to adorn the per- 
 sons of eastern potentates. 
 
 Of the Mytilus, there are about forty recent, and two 
 fossil species. 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 Genus Ostrea. Shell bivalve, gene- 
 rally with unequal valves, and slightly 
 eared, hinge; without teeth, but furnish- 
 ed with an ovate hollow, and usually 
 with lateral transverse grooves. 
 
 This genus includes the scallop, or 
 pecten, fig 77, which, however, unlike 
 the oyster in the habit of the animal, 
 and the general form of the shell, 
 
CONCttOLOGY. 
 
 287 
 
 with it in the mechanism of the hinge, the part on 
 which the generic distinctions depend. 
 
 The locomotive powers of the scallop are exerted in a 
 singular manner. On the ground a rapid progress is made 
 by opening and shutting the shell suddenly, and with so 
 much muscular force, as to throw it five or six inches 
 each time. In the water, an equal dexterity is evinced 
 by the animal in raising himself to the surface; probably 
 by the same means, and of directing his course at pleas- 
 ure. When disturbed he shuts his valves, and sinks to the 
 bottom like a stone. 
 
 Of the Ostrea, there are fifty living; and thirty-six fossil 
 species. 
 
 Fie. 78. 
 
 Genus Argonaula. 
 
 UNIVALVES* 
 
 Shell, an involuted univalve; the 
 spire turned into the opening, very 
 thin, with a tubular double dorsal 
 keel, fig. 78. 
 
 The art of navigation is supposed 
 to have owed its origin to the expert 
 management of this instinctive sail- 
 or. He was observed by the ancients, (and subsequent 
 experience has confirmed the observation,) to raise 
 himself to the surface of the sea, by ejecting a quantity 
 of water, and thus diminishing the specific gravity of his 
 vessel. When floating in a calm, he throws out two or 
 more tentacula, or feelers, to serve as oars. If a favoring 
 breeze springs up, he spreads a fine membranous sail, on 
 two extended limbs, and steering with his other arms, 
 shews his naval skill by numberless evolutions. In case 
 of danger, he draws in a little water, hauls in, and coils up 
 his tackle, and sinks to the bottom. This is rarely, if ev- 
 er, found in the fossil state. 
 
 Fig. 79. Genus Patella. A shield-formed, sub-conical 
 univalve, without a spire; sometimes with a 
 perforation through the summit, fig. 79. Fig* 
 74, a perforated Patella. 
 
 The name Patella, is from the resemblance of 
 some species to the knee-pan, There is considerable va- 
 riety in the forms of the species, but all are fixed firmly to 
 the rocks or stones, by the animal which is covered by 
 the shell. 
 
 It is both fossil and recent. 
 
288 
 
 CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 Fig. 80. Genus Dentalium. Shell univalve, sub-conical, 
 a little curved, tubular, not chambered, open at both 
 ends. Fig. 80. 
 
 The form, as the name expresses, is like that of 
 teeth, or tusks, especially like the tusks of an ele- 
 phant. 
 
 These shells are found partly buried in the sand, 
 and the animal, which some naturalists have sup- 
 posed to be free and unattached to his shell, may be 
 observed to sink deeply into it, in order to avoid danger. 
 The species are few, and entirely recent. 
 
 Fig. 81. Genus Cypraa. Shell univalve, involute, 
 
 obtuse, smooth; aperture effuse at both ends, 
 linear, toothed on both sides, longitudinal, fig. 
 81. 
 
 This genus is remarkable for the high pol- 
 ish, and often beautiful colors, with which it 
 is adorned in its native state. Many of the 
 species are quite common, and therefore not 
 so highly prized by collectors as the more rare. They 
 are often set for snuff boxes. 
 
 The inhabitant of this shell, it is said, has the power of 
 quitting it, and of forming a new one better fitted to his 
 necessities, or convenience. "The Cypraea live deeply 
 buried in the sand, from whence it is said, at the full moon, 
 and during its increase, they leave their habitations, for 
 the benefit of conchologists, and crawl forth in a state of 
 nakedness, to expatiate on the rocks above, and to begin 
 a new dwelling." This accounts for the great numbers, 
 and high state of preservation in which these shells are 
 found. Naturalists, however, doubt the ability of these 
 animals to leave their shells. 
 
 The name of this genus appears to be derived from that 
 of the Cyprian goddess, on account of the great beauty of 
 the species. 
 
 Genus Bulla. Shell univalve, convolute, 
 unarmed; aperture sub-coarctate, or a little 
 contracted, oblong, longitudinal, entire at the 
 base, fig. 82. 
 
 The shell of this genus is enclosed in a 
 mantle, or fold of the animal, instead of form- 
 ing an exterior shield, as in most cases. 
 Some of them are river shells, but they most- 
 ly live in the sea, buried a few inches in the mud. 
 
CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 289 
 
 The name Bulla, a bubble, is descriptive of the swelled, 
 or puffed form of the shells of most species. 
 
 Genus Valuta. Shell univalve, convo- 
 lute, columella, or pillar, plaited, or screw- 
 ed, the lower plaits being the largest: it has 
 neither lip nor umbilicus, fig. 83. 
 
 These shells are easily discriminated by 
 the plaited columella, and by which they 
 are particularly distinguished from the 
 genus Conus. The plaits are longitudi- 
 nally inclined and not nearly horizontal as 
 in the genus Murex. The name of this genus is ex- 
 pressive of the form of the shell, veluta, "rolled up cylin- 
 drically." The genus contains many shells of considera- 
 ble beauty, and on the whole, is among the most elegant 
 known. 
 
 The recent species are numerous, besides which eigh- 
 teen fossil species are known. 
 
 Fig. 84. Genus Buccinum. Shell univalve, spiral, 
 gibbous, or protuberant, aperture ovate, end- 
 ing in a canal turned to the right; with a short 
 beak; interior lip flattened, fig. 84. 
 
 The direction of the canal towards the 
 right, that is, from the exterior lip, is very 
 characteristic of this genus. The name Buc- 
 cinum, signifies a trumpet or horn<, but is 
 often misapplied, since many of the species 
 are less like a horn than those belonging to 
 other genera. 
 
 This genus is divided into several families. The shells 
 of some, having little resemblance to each other in form; 
 but a reference to the peculiarity of the beak will gene- 
 rally distinguish this genus. Fossil and recent. 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 Genus Strombus. Shell univalve, spiral, ex- 
 panded; aperture having the lip unusually dilat- 
 ed, and ending in a canal inclined towards the 
 left, or from the pillar, fig. 85. 
 
 One species of this genus is well known Bun- 
 der the name of Conch-shell, the interior of 
 which is of a beautiful pink color, and was for- 
 merly in fashion in ornamental jewelry. 
 25 
 
290 CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 Some members of this genus might easily be mistaken 
 for Murices or Buccina; but the Strombi have a depres- 
 sion, or sinus on the dilated wing, which is separate from 
 the groove at the base of the shell, next the pillar. At- 
 tention to this, will lead to the distinction. It is both re- 
 cent and fossil. 
 
 Fig. 86. Genus Murex. Shell univalve, spiral, often 
 formed with longitudinal membranous sutures; 
 and beset with spines; aperture terminating in a 
 canal, either straight or turned up backwards, and 
 not inclining to the right or left, fig. 86. 
 The very peculiar form of the aperture or canal, is a 
 very distinctive feature in this genus. This is oblong- 
 oval, or perfectly oval, and does not gradually contract 
 into a canal, like the Strombi, and Buccina, but suddenly 
 opens into it at the same or nearly the same width, which 
 it retains through the whole length of the beak. 
 
 The famous Tyrian purple was extracted from an ani- 
 mal inhabiting one species of this genus. A single vein 
 near the head contains the coloring liquor; but the art of 
 dyeing, in latter times, has disclosed more beautiful, and 
 much less costly colors than this produces. 
 
 The name Murex means rough or rock-like, a desig- 
 nation which fails to apply in many of these species. It 
 is both recent and fossil. 
 
 Fig. 87. Genus Turbo. Shell univalve, spiral; aper- 
 
 ture contracted, round and entire. Fig. 87. 
 
 One of the best distinctions of this genus 
 is the round aperture. The shells often 
 closely resemble those of the Trochus genus, 
 but, in these, the aperture is angular, often 
 the only mark of distinction between the two 
 genera. 
 
 The Turbo might at first be mistaken for the spire of 
 another shell, but its unbroken base and round aperture 
 will generally distinguish the genus. The name Turbo, 
 ineans any thing which whirls around, as a top, in refer- 
 ence to the spiral form of the genus. It is both recent 
 and fossil. 
 
 Genus. Cvnus. Shell univalve and turbinate. Aper- 
 ture effuse, longitudinal, linear, toothless, and entire at the 
 
CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 291 
 
 Fig. 88. base. Columella smooth, base attenuated, 
 sometimes marked with oblique grooves. 
 Aperture sometimes dilated; whorls, mostly 
 flat, often channelled, rarely crowned. 
 
 The great beauty of this genus, both in 
 form and coloring, renders it highly interest- 
 ing and valuable to the lovers of this science. 
 The rare species are sought after with avidity 
 by shell collectors, and the most beautiful kinds often sell 
 for considerable sums. The Conus gloria-maris, and the 
 Conus cedonulli, sometimes bring from twenty to twenty- 
 five guineas for single shells. 
 
 The name Corius, a cone, refers to the shape of the 
 germs. 
 
 Fig. 89. Genus Trochus. A spiral, sub-conical 
 
 univalve; aperture four sided and some- 
 what angular, having the upper part of the 
 margin converging towards the pillar, 
 which is oblique. Fig. 89. 
 
 In some species the aperture tends to an 
 oval form, but these are distinguished from 
 the Turbines by a tooth-like projection. It 
 must, however, be confessed, that there is 
 much difficulty in distinguishing some specimens of these 
 two genera from each other. In general the Trochi have 
 the form of a pointed cone, capable of standing nearly 
 erect on their bases. The word Trochus has a similar 
 meaning to Turbo the common name is top shell, or but- 
 ton shell, the shape being similar to that of a common 
 spinning top or an ancient conical button. 
 
 Fig. 90. Genus Helix. Shell univalve, spiral, 
 
 translucent, brittle; aperture coarctate, or 
 contracted, lunate or circular, having the 
 segment of another circle taken from the 
 whole area, fig. 90. The common land snail 
 is a good example of this genus. The 
 whorls are contiguous, and the body of the 
 shell always forms a lunate projection into 
 the aperture, and this character will distinguish the Heli- 
 ces, from the Trochi and Turbines. Another mark of the 
 genus is tenuity, or thinness and translucency. 
 
292 
 
 CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 Fig. 91. Genus Nerita. Shell univalve, spiral; 
 
 gibbous, flat underneath, aperture semi- 
 orbicular, or semi-lunar, having uniformly 
 the pillar lip, or columella straight. Fig. 
 91. 
 
 The Nerita is a genus well character- 
 ized, and therefore easily distinguished, the straight pillar 
 lip being a uniform mark, which at once separates them 
 from the Helices, which their forms most resemble. No- 
 thing can exceed the beauty and delicacy with which 
 some of these shells are marked, or the rich tints of color 
 with which others are stained. It is both recent and fos- 
 sil. 
 
 Extinct Fossil Shells. Such shells as have not been 
 found in the recent, or living state, are considered as ex- 
 tinct. It is obvious that this criterion must, however, in 
 the present state of knowledge, be exceedingly uncertain, 
 since further investigations most probably will shew that 
 many species now considered as lost, will be found still 
 living. Had all the shells unknown to Linnaeus, been 
 considered extinct, a great proportion of those now in 
 the cabinets of collectors, would have been among the 
 lost number. Still there is, perhaps, no other rule by 
 which naturalists can be guided, than to consider every 
 Fig. 92. unfound species of shell, as 
 
 well as of quadrupeds extinct, 
 though there is a thousand fold 
 greater prospect of finding new- 
 species of the former, than of 
 the latter. 
 
 Encrinite. This is a genus 
 of singular and curious animals, 
 which being found among the 
 lower strata of rocks, are sup- 
 posed, by those who think there 
 were successive creations, to 
 have been among the first in- 
 habitants of this earth. 
 
 The Lily Encrinite, fig. 92, 
 is a beautiful fossil, so called 
 from its resemblance to the 
 form of that flower. It was an 
 
CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 293 
 
 acephalous or headless animal, attached by a root-like 
 base, to other substances. This base was jointed as seen 
 in the figure, and on its top were placed five wedge shaped 
 bones, which constitute the smooth circular central part, 
 around which are disposed five other pieces, called ribs. 
 On the upper edge of these are placed bones forming two 
 arms, each of which divide into articulated fingers, and 
 tentacula, or feelers, which, when closed, bear a lily-like 
 appearance, (as in the figure,) and when expanded, form 
 nearly a circular net of jointed meshes. These enclosing, 
 would secure the prey and direct it into the stomach, 
 which, probably was situated in a central cavity, at the 
 upper part of the base. These animals appear to have 
 had considerable range for the seizure of their prey, with- 
 out possessing absolute locomotion, the peculiar mode 
 of articulation, affording them a great degree of mobility, 
 with considerable security against dislocation. 
 
 These remains are found in that species of limestone 
 called oolite, at Stonefield, in England, and are often in 
 such abundance, that a considerable proportion of the 
 rock appears to be formed of them. 
 
 No living analogue of this animal is known. 
 
 Fig. 93. Belemites. This is a conical, spindle-shaped 
 stone, of brown radiating spar, generally ter- 
 minating at the small end in a point, and having 
 at the larger end, a conical^'cavity, naturally re- 
 taining a conical testaceous body, divided into 
 chambers, by plain concave partitions, and pier- 
 ced by a siphuncle, or orifice, fig. 93. 
 
 This extinct fossil occurs in great abundance 
 in the kind of limestone called lias, in several 
 parts of England. It is also found in the newer 
 limestone groups of this country. 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 Ammonites. A multiocular, or many 
 celled, spiral shell, with contiguous appar- 
 ent turns; the chambers being divided by 
 winding partitions, and pierced by a siphun- 
 cle or winding orifice, placed at the outer 
 side, fig. 94. 
 
 More than seventy species of this fossil 
 are found, and have been determined and 
 25* 
 
294 CONCHOLOGY. 
 
 named by the English geologists. It is found in the lime- 
 stones of different names and ages, and also in chalk and 
 clay. No living analogue of this genus, has ever been 
 discovered. 
 
 Fig. 95. Orthocer atites. A multiocular, and slightly 
 bent, cylindrical, or slightly conical univalve shell; 
 the chambers separated by a plain septa, concave 
 towards the larger end, and pierced with a siphun- 
 cle, fig. 95. 
 
 This is considered one of the earliest creations, 
 by those who suppose that the days of creation 
 were indefinite periods, and yet it is a shell of great com- 
 plexity, showing that the most simple organizations, do not 
 necessarily belong to the lowest strata. 
 
 Nautilus. A many celled spiral univalve, 
 the turns contiguous, the outer one including 
 the others; the chambers separated by plain, 
 or nearly plain partitions, placed transverse- 
 ly, and concave outwards; these are perfora- 
 ted by shelly tubes, connected by a tubular 
 aperture, running across the chambers, so as to form a 
 complete siphunculus, fig. 96. 
 
 * To observe the chambers and siphuncle, the shell must 
 be sawn into two parts longitudinaly. It is both fossil and 
 recent. 
 
 The name Nautilus signifies sailor, and under this term 
 was formerly included the Argonauta, which, from its 
 supposed skill in sailing, gave name to the whole. 
 
 The great difference in the internal structure of the 
 shells have induced subsequent conchologists to separate 
 the genera. The present Argonauta is the true sailor, 
 though the credit is popularly given to the "Nautilus," 
 which it is said, " taught men how to sail." 
 
 There is a considerable number of species of this genus, 
 both fossil and recent, some of which are so small as only 
 to be defined by means of a microscope, while others are 
 nearly a foot in diameter. 
 
 Fossil Insects. Insects, owing to the delicacy of their 
 structure, and the nature of the substance, which enters in- 
 to their composition, appear, generally, to be unfitted to 
 
FOSSIL FISHES. 295 
 
 sustain those changes which convert animal substances in- 
 to fossils, and hence few insects have been found in this 
 state. The crustaceous coverings of the bodies and limbs 
 and the hard wing-cases of a few genera, are the chief, 
 and, perhaps, the only fossils which can be referred to this 
 class. 
 
 Fig. 97. The Trilobite, or what is called in 
 
 England, the Dudley Fossil, fig. 97, is con- 
 sidered by some an insect, but by others a 
 bivalve shell. Its superior covering, the 
 only part distinctly preserved, is oblong, 
 ovate, convex, and marginated; the ante- 
 rior, wider part is gibbous, and furnished 
 with two semilunar, tubercular projec- 
 tions resembling eyelids; and posterior to, 
 and on the inner side of each of these, are 
 two round tubercles. Adjoining to this part, commences 
 a series of scale-like, transverse slips, so disposed, that the 
 three rows of these connected slips, form three longitudi- 
 nal, transversely divided lobes, gradually diminishing to 
 the lower termination. In some specimens, the fossil is 
 nearly globular, showing that the animal had the power 
 of coiling, or folding himself together, like the millipede. 
 It is doubtful how this animal accomplished locomotion, 
 since it is not certain, that any indications of legs and 
 feet have been observed. This insect fossil has been 
 found four or five inches in length, though the common 
 size is much less. 
 
 It occurs abundantly in the organic limestone formation 
 at Trenton Falls, New York. 
 
 Fossil Fishes. Mr. Parkinson says, that " The fossil 
 remains of fishes are found in such various states, under 
 such different circumstances,. and in the formations of such 
 distant periods, as cannot but lead the zealous inquirer to 
 expect, that he shall derive from their examination, infor- 
 mation of considerable importance." 
 
 The fish, in some specimens, are found nearly entire, 
 the harder parts, " all in their natural situations, with their 
 scales, and even skin preserved. In others, all the other 
 parts are removed except the skeleton, the bones of which 
 either retain their original relative situations, or have un- 
 dergone considerable distortion, or even dislocation. In 
 
296 FOSSIL FISHES. 
 
 some instances, not only separation of these parts has ta- 
 ken place, but thue greater part of the skeleton has been re- 
 moved." Organic Remains, 277. 
 
 There is, probably, no class of animals, the remains of 
 which are found in the fos.sil state, that are capable of be- 
 ing referred to so many living analogues as fishes. Ac- 
 cording to Mr. Lacepede, more than thirty Asiatic, African 
 and American species, have been found in the neighbor- 
 hood of Verona, in Italy. The most celebrated locality of 
 fossil fish is at Monte-Bolca, in Italy, and it cannot be 
 doubted, that the catastrophe, whatever it might have 
 been, which caused this vast accumulation of the finny 
 tribes, must have been almost instantaneous, and that the 
 fishes were not only suddenly deprived of life, but, imme- 
 diately afterwards, buried in the deposite where they are 
 now found. This appears from the singular circumstance, 
 that one fish, was found in the very act of swallowing an- 
 other, having apparently had not sufficient time before it 
 died, to let go its prey. Now, when any fish (especially if 
 furnished with an air bladder,) dies, it remains at the bot- 
 tom of the water for two or three days, it then rises to the 
 suaface, decays, and the bones sink to the bottom. Henee r 
 if some time had elapsed between the death of this fish and 
 its burial, it would, instead of being caught in the earth, 
 have rose to the surface of the water, and at least separa- 
 ted from the victim it was about to swallow. This is 
 probably the reason why fossil fish are so rare, even among 
 strata, known by other remains, to have been deposited 
 from the sea. They first rise to the top of the water, af- 
 ter being deprived of life, where they remain until the 
 flesh is so decomposed, that the bones separate, and are 
 dispersed. We may, therefore, conclude that in most, if 
 not in all instances, where fossil fish are found, they must 
 have died and been buried by some extraordinary catas- 
 trophe or convulsion. 
 
 Besides the proof just adduced of the suddenness of the 
 revolutions which have entombed fishes, in almost all 
 cases, the remains have been t found in postures indicating 
 a violent death. Thus at Eisleben, in Thuringia, where 
 there is a locality of ichthyolites, the fish are in every 
 possible attitude, some of them three feet long, often lying 
 on their backs, or recurved into constrained positions, 
 with their heads crushed and disfigured. The strata, en- 
 closing them is a marly slate, impregnated with copper 
 and bitumen. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF SHELLS IN STRATA. 297 
 
 The fish at Monte-Bolca are by some thought to owe 
 their destruction, and the origin of the rock in which they 
 are enclosed, to an adjoining volcano. The formation 
 in which they are found is a marly slate. This 
 though not volcanic, might have arisen from the disturb- 
 ance of a volcano. The remains as now found, show that 
 most of the fish were enclosed in the earth while in an 
 entire state, and many of them are still so perfect, that 
 their generas have been determined, as the following list, 
 among others, found there, is sufficient to show. The 
 shark, ray, file-fish, sun-fish, globe-fish, trumpet-fish, pike, 
 silurus, herring, pipe-fish, cod-fish, blenny, goby, macke- 
 rel, bull-head, gurnard, gilt-head, perch, flounder, flying- 
 fish, eel, dory, and many others. 
 
 Thus it may be observed, that although the remains of 
 most quadrupeds are those of extinct species, a great 
 proportion of the fossil fishes are. those of living genera. 
 
 Arrangement of shells in strata. Although, as stated 
 at the beginning of this article, the succession in which 
 organic remains occur in the strata, from below upwards, 
 coincides, in a general sense, perfectly, with the succes- 
 sion, in which they were created, that is, plants, and " the 
 moving creature that hath life," and the birds, were form- 
 ed before the quadrupeds and man; still this general fact 
 proves nothing with respect to the *' successive develope- 
 ment of organization," as some have attempted to show. 
 Could it be proved that from the most simple organiza- 
 tion, found in the lower strata, there was a regular gra- 
 dation towards the most complex, there might exist some 
 ground for a pretence, that there ijad been a gradual and 
 constant improvement in the works of creation, leading 
 to the atheistical supposition, that nature had improved 
 by experience. But in detail, this gradual developement 
 of organization does not hold true, since animals of a 
 more complex structure, are ofteii found in deeper strata, 
 or below those which aretess^o. 
 
 "It has been conjectured by some naturalists," says 
 Mr. Parkinson, " who had become convinced of the com- 
 paratively late creation of land animals, and of man, that 
 the peopling of this planet had commenced in enduing 
 with the principle of life, beings of the simplest forms 
 and organizations, and that by the influence of certain ex- 
 ternal causes, acting through passing ages, those changes 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF SHELLS IN STRATA. 
 
 had been gradually wrought in succeeding animals, from 
 which have resulted the numerous differences which con- 
 stitute the various tribes, rising from the almost lifeless 
 sponge to the highly complex and more perfect animal, 
 man. On this hypothesis it might be expected, that those 
 beings which had possessed life under its most simple 
 modifications, would be found in the earliest strata; and 
 that, in proportion to the lateness of the period at which 
 the strata had been formed, would be the degree of com- 
 plexity in the organization of the inhabitants whose re- 
 mains they contain. But investigation has ascertained, 
 that such a conjecture, with respect to shells, is ill-found- 
 ed. In the carboniferous and mountian limestone, are dis- 
 covered the remains of shells, of apparently the earliest 
 creation, which are unexpectedly found, with hardly an 
 exception, to exceed, in complexity of structure, all the 
 shells which have been discovered, either in any subse- 
 quent formation, or living in our present seas. It is in this 
 early creation that those shells are found which possess 
 that complicated structure, very rarely found in shells of 
 this day, which enabled their inhabitants to rise and sink 
 with them in the water. Such are the many chambered 
 univalves, the Nautilus, Ammonites, Orthoceratites, fyc 
 Parkinson's Org. Remains, p. 254. 
 
 The hypothesis of the gradual developement of organic 
 life, which it is thus shown cannot be sustained by facts, 
 is both sceptical and unphilosophical. Its object is to 
 prove that after the simplest forms of plants and animals 
 had existed for ages, from these, there gradually resulted 
 other plants and animals of more complex kinds, and so 
 on in progressive improvement, until both, during the 
 lapse of myriads of ages, arrived at their present state of 
 perfection. It is sceptical because it either acknowledges 
 no creator, or denies his power to form at once the most 
 perfect beings; as though the same power which created 
 an oyster, wanted the experience of millions of years, to 
 form quadrupeds and man. Thus shewing that the work 
 of creation, for this reason, instead of being finished in 
 six days required millions of years. It is unphilosophi- 
 cal, inasmuch as it supposes that new genera and species, 
 of different and more complex kinds, have been derived 
 from others which were less so; whereas in truth, we 
 find that nature is invariable in this respect; not a solitary 
 instance being known where this has happened either in 
 
MARINE AND FRESH WATER SHELLS. 299 
 
 plants or animals, Will any one, in his senses, believe 
 that the oak ever sprung from the polypod or mushroom, 
 that the flying fish came from the sponge, or that man 
 began his race in the form and capacity of an ape? If 
 this is ridiculous, the doctrine of progressive organic de- 
 velopement is equally so, since it is founded on these very 
 suppositions. 
 
 Alternating Marine and Fresh Water Shells. It has 
 been supposed that in various parts of Europe, there was 
 sufficient evidence of alternating marine and fresh water 
 shells, embedded in strata, and that, therefore, those parts 
 of the earth where such phenomena exist, must at some 
 remote period, have been alternately covered by salt, and 
 fresh water. In France, there occur beds of gypsum and 
 marl, in which are found the remains of quadrupeds, and 
 above these, occur marine shells; above which there is 
 another fresh water formation. 
 
 The gypsum and marl being considered fresh water de- 
 posites, it is supposed that the bones found in them, be- 
 longed to animals which inhabited the shores of the lake, 
 which once existed there. 
 
 From such facts, Cuvier and Brongniart, inferred that 
 these different beds demonstrated the repeated alternations 
 of the sea, and of fresh water on the same tract, and that 
 while the sea deposited marbles and slates, the lakes in 
 their turn formed gypsum, marls, &c. But while maturing 
 such opinions, these naturalists found it necessary to ad- 
 mit, that gypsum might be formed from salt, as well as 
 from fresh water, and finally that marine and river shells 
 were really mixed together. Still, Cuvier maintains the 
 alternation of fresh and salt water formations; which doc- 
 trine is, however, strongly opposed by several naturalists 
 of great ability. Metherie objects entirely to the suppo- 
 sition, that because the bones of land animals, and fresh 
 water shells, are found in these formations, that therefore 
 there must have existed a fresh water lake, but sees no 
 difficulty, in supposing that both were carried where they 
 are now found, by the current of a river, which also de- 
 posited the matter in which they exist, in the sea, the wa- 
 ter gradually retiring as the deposition was formed. 
 
 M. M. Brard, and St. Fond, are of opinion, that all the 
 shells found in these depositions, originally existed in the 
 same water; but that in process of time, perhaps from the 
 
300 MARINE AND FRESH WATER SHELLS. 
 
 increase of the saltness of the sea, a separation took place, 
 the inhabitants of the shells, which are at present found in 
 the fresh water formation, having migrated to situations 
 more congenial to their natures. 
 
 A dispute now commenced between these naturalists, 
 and Cuvier arid Brongniart, on the points of distinction 
 between marine and fresh water shells, and in the course 
 of which, the reader will find, 1st. that some shells live 
 both in fresh and salt waters, thus the Patellae of rivers 
 and those of the sea, differ hardly at all, in their shells. 
 2nd. That in many other instances, besides that mentioned 
 by Cuvier, land and sea shells have been found mixed with 
 each other; thus at Grignon, Lamarck found forty-eight 
 river and land shells, among those which were decidedly 
 marine, and all of them in the fossil state. 3d. It appears 
 that the comparative thinness of land and river shells, as 
 a distinctive mark between them and those of the sea, 
 though often a true test, is not always so. And 4th, it ap- 
 pears that Cuvier and Brongniart, had founded their opin- 
 ion of the fresh water origin of the upper bed of gypsum, 
 in the Paris formation, on the presence of two shells only, 
 which they considered, of course, to be of fresh water 
 growth; but one of which, Lamarck supposed to be a sea 
 shell. 
 
 Now all these appearances may readily be accounted for, 
 even admitting that there do exist fresh and salt water 
 formations over each other, by supposing that such pla- 
 ces were once the estuaries, or outlets of rivers, into the 
 sea. At the mouth of every river may be found more or 
 less fresh water shells, mixed with those of the sea. It 
 cannot be otherwise, since the current floats these light 
 bodies, after being separated from the animal, to consider- 
 able distances, and of course must occasionally deposit 
 them among those thrown along the coast, by the sea. It 
 would hence seem, that the revolutions of the earth, in- 
 sisted on by Cuvier, and in consequence of which the sea 
 is supposed several times to have changed its bed, and to 
 have alternated on the land with fresh water, are no longer 
 to be considered, in accounting for the changes which the 
 earth has undergone. 
 
 It has been already shown that the facts observed at the 
 mouth of the Rhone, will account for the mixture of ma- 
 rine and land shells, under the most common circumstan- 
 ces. See * Delta of the Rhone in the Sea." 
 
GEOLOGY AND MOSAIC HISTORY. 301 
 
 COINCIDENCE OF GEOLOGY WITH THE MOSAIC HISTORY. 
 
 Almost from the commencement of geological inves- 
 tigations, designing men have attempted to show, that 
 the physical history of the earth, and that of the creation 
 by Moses, could not be reconciled that the former, pre- 
 sented facts which were incompatible with the statements 
 of the latter, and therefore, that revelation and reason, 
 were here in direct opposition. 
 
 Hence it was, that in the early history of this science, 
 the church looked with jealousy upon these investigations, 
 and even went so far as to restrict philosophers in their 
 pursuits, or at least in their publications, and to denounce 
 those who pretended to make discoveries, which they 
 could not reconcile with the Mosaic record. 
 
 At that time, it is true, that little was known on this 
 subject, and these alarming facts have long since been 
 shown to accord entirely with revelation. But as the 
 earth has been more extensively explored, new and un- 
 explained facts have been constantly unfolded; and these, 
 in their turn, have been made to bear against revelation; 
 and have consequently, in many instances, operated 
 against the free inquiries of those who had determined 
 not to lift their hands against the Holy Scriptures, though, 
 they were made to believe, that geology presented facts, 
 which could in no way be reconciled with the common 
 understanding of revelation. 
 
 Judging from the effects of causes now operating on 
 the surface of the earth, it has been supposed impossible, 
 that the deep strata of its crust could have been formed 
 within the period assigned by the sacred history. The 
 whole earth, indeed, seemed to bear such marks of anti- 
 quity, as could not be reconciled with any hypothesis of 
 its recent origin. Time was, therefore, wanted: for the 
 cosmogonist found that it was impossible to bound his 
 speculations within the narrow limits allowed by the 
 sacred historian. It was consequently neccessary that he 
 
 26 
 
302 COINCIDENCE OF GEOLOGY 
 
 should either come out boldly, and deny that authority, 
 or invent some new interpretation of the text, by which 
 the scope of his speculations should be free and unbound- 
 ed. 
 
 In this dilemma, the celebrated theorist, Whiston, in 
 about 1696, first proposed that the book of Genesis 
 should be so interpreted, as to allow theoretical geolo- 
 gists full and ample scope for their cosmogony, without 
 being suspected of heretical opinions; and thus were the 
 Scriptures made to bow down before geology. 
 
 This, we believe, was the first innovation which was 
 made upon the Mosaic history, for the accomodation of 
 geologists; but certainly not the last; for at the present 
 day it is the practice of some philosophers, and even 
 those who profess their belief in the truth of the Scrip- 
 tures, to interpret them for the express accomodation of 
 their own understandings. 
 
 Now if a geological, or any other fact contradicts the 
 Scriptures, they are not the words of truth, and if this is 
 the case, let the fact be shown; for if the Scriptures con- 
 tradict the truth, they cannot be of divine origin, and, 
 therefore, ought not to be the rule of our faith; for it is cer- 
 tain, that truth can never be inconsistent with itself. But 
 before we reject or misinterpret this record, let us be 
 certain that our facts are true ones, and that they do not 
 coincide with the plain and obvious meaning of the sa- 
 cred text. 
 
 We have the satisfaction of believing, that the systems 
 of Inspiration and Nature have both emanated from the 
 same Divine authority, and that when both are under- 
 stood they will harmonize with each other; and it will 
 be our object to show, in the following pages, that even 
 taking the Scriptures in their most obvious sense, there 
 is no want of harmony between inspiration and natural 
 phenomena, so far at least, as relates to the Mosaic his- 
 tory, and the facts of geology. 
 
 Our knowledge of the primitive or ancient world, is 
 derived entirely from two sources, viz. first, The his- 
 tory of the Creation by Moses, as contained in the first 
 chapter of Genesis; and, second, The investigations of 
 geolpgy. 
 
 The information to be derived from Genesis is of various 
 kinds, and of the highest importance, since it is the only 
 source whence we gain any consistent account of the 
 

 WITH THE MOSAIC HISTORY. 303 
 
 origin of the universe and of ourselves. We shall, how- 
 ever, confine ourselves chiefly to such parts as relate to 
 geology, and shall proceed with the understanding that 
 this history is from an inspired pen; that it is written in 
 a manner by which its great outlines are adapted to a 
 plain and common apprehension, and that the author, in 
 this respect, intended his words should be received in 
 their most obvious meaning. 
 
 CREATION OF HEAVEN AND EARTH. 
 
 " In the beginning God created the heavens and the 
 earth." Gen. i. 1. 
 
 That is, in the beginning of time, the earth was created, 
 for, before this, there was nothing by which time could 
 be measured, or its beginning dated. All was eternity. 
 
 <; The earth was without form, and void, and darkness 
 was upon the face of the deep." V. 2. 
 
 How long the earth continued without form, and in 
 darkness and chaos, we have no means of knowing. Had 
 this information been of importance to man, God would 
 have revealed it to Moses, and he would have recorded it 
 for our use. On this point, therefore, we have a right 
 to conjecture, and may believe, without the least violation 
 of the sacred text, that the materials of which the earth is 
 composed, were created a thousand, or a million of years 
 before they were brought into a form fit for the habitation 
 of man. 
 
 That the earth was not from eternity is shown by the 
 first words of the history; for eternity has no beginning, 
 and what is created cannot always have been. Besides, 
 we have the direct testimony of inspiration, that there 
 was a period when the earth did not exist. " Before the 
 mountains were brought forth, or ever thou hadst formed 
 the earth, and the world, even from everlasting to ever- 
 lasting, thou art God." Ts. xc. 2. Hence, although we 
 are bound to believe that this world had a beginning and 
 was a part of the work of creation, still there is nothing 
 on record which restricts us with respect to its antiquity. 
 Theoretical geologists may, therefore, allow themselves 
 full scope in this part of "the history, with respect to 
 time, provided they do not go beyond the " beginning." 
 The primitive rocks, in which no organic remains exist,. 
 

 304 COINCIDENCE OF GEOLOGY 
 
 we may consider, without violation of Scripture authori- 
 ty, as having been millions of years in forming, but, it is 
 much more reasonable, we conceive, to suppose, that at 
 some unknown period, they were, like the other parts of 
 creation, brought into existence at the immediate com- 
 mand of the Creator; for, not being stratified, there is no 
 reason to believe that their formation was a work of time. 
 The secondary rocks, containing the remains of organized 
 beings, stand in a different relation with respect to time. 
 These show, by their stratified structure, that they were 
 gradually deposited from a fluid, and, therefore, that time 
 was consumed in their formation. But every one, who 
 believes the Scriptures, is bound to believe also, that 
 since these rocks contain organized substances, they were 
 formed since that period, when it was said, "Let the 
 waters, under the Heaven, be gathered into one place; 
 and let the dry land appear," for, before that period, there 
 is no account of the creation of either plants or animals. 
 
 Whence did the first Light emanate? And God said 
 let there be light; and there was light. In Hebrew, 
 ' light was." V. 3. 
 
 This is the first particular creative act, stated in the 
 history; the first verse containing merely a general de- 
 claration that the heavens and the earth had been created: 
 the manner in which the latter was brought from its 
 chaotic state, into a condition fit for the residence of or- 
 ganic beings, and the succession in which these beings 
 were created, forming the succeeding narrative. 
 
 Various opinions have been advanced, concerning the 
 nature of this light, and the source whence it proceeded. 
 Some have supposed that it was electrical, and others 
 that it was phosphorescent, and in both cases, that it did 
 not emanate from any particular point, but that it was 
 diffused through the space surrounding the earth. Others 
 again, have believed that it proceeded from a meteor, 
 which was created for the purpose of enlightening the 
 earth during the first three days, and before the sun was 
 called into existence. But there exists no analogy for 
 such a hypothesis; and it would even be derogating from 
 the Wisdom and Power of Him, who three days after- 
 wards, set the great lights in the firmament, to suppose 
 that He should have made an evanescent one, for the use 
 of the earth, while as yet it contained neither plant nor 
 
WITH THE MOSAIC HISTORY. 305 
 
 animal. There is no instance recorded, where the crea- 
 tive fiat has been employed for such a purpose, nor does 
 the language of Moses necessarily imply, that the sun 
 and moon were not created at the time when God said, 
 41 let there be light." When we come to the fourth day's 
 work, we shall attempt to show, that the luminaries had a 
 previous creation, but were first made to shine upon the 
 earth on that day. 
 
 " And God divided the light from the darkness." V. 5. 
 
 Whatever might have been the source whence this light 
 proceeded, it is plain from this declaration, that it could 
 not have been generally diffused around the earth, for had 
 this been the case, it is impossible- for us to apprehend, 
 how it could have been divided from the darkness. Qn 
 the contrary, the terms of the record lead to the belief, 
 that at this time, the earth had commenced her diurnal 
 revolutions, and the light. emanating from a fixed point, 
 was divided from the darkness by the first succession of 
 day and night. This, indeed, is affirmed by what imme- 
 diately follows. *' And God called the light, day; the 
 darkness he called night; and the evening and the morn- 
 ing were the first day." 
 
 Creation of the Firmament. " And God said, let there 
 be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide 
 the waters from the waters." V. 6. 
 
 Firmament. Heb. Expansion. The original word is 
 Rakiah, which comes from a root, signifying to stretch out, 
 or expand like a curtain. It also means, to make hard and 
 firm by treading, stamping, or beating with a hammer* 
 But it appears to be the former signification only, which- 
 applies to the present case. 
 
 It is apparent that Moses intended to adapt his account 
 of the creation, to unlettered common sense, and to des- 
 cribe natural event*; as they would have struck the eye of 
 a common observer. Hence the firmament is called 
 heaven, because it is over our heads, and for the same 
 reason, the sun, moon and stars, in v. 15, are said to be 
 placed in the firmament. Now heaven, as the word is 
 here employed, means nothing more than the blue vault 
 of the sky; and therefore is synonymous with firmament. 
 
 * Bush on Genesis. 
 26* 
 
306 COINCIDENCE OF GEOLOGY 
 
 Firmament is the atmosphere which we breathe, and 
 which science has taught, reaches to the height of about 
 forty-five miles from every part of the earth's surface. 
 The stars are millions of miles beyond this firmament, 
 but since they are seen through, they appear to the eye to 
 be placed in it, and the Mosaic history is adapted to this 
 illusion. This is one among many existing proofs, that 
 the narrative of the creation was intended to describe 
 natural phenomena as they meet the eye, rather than to 
 give a system of physics to the minds of philosophers. 
 
 " And God made a firmament, and divided the waters 
 which were under the firmament, from the waters which 
 were above the firmament." V. 7. 
 
 By this act, the atmosphere was made to absorb a part 
 of the waters which had previously covered the earth, and 
 thus to elevate them above the surface. The quantity of 
 moisture contained in the atmosphere, differs greatly in 
 different countries, and at different times; but that it is 
 capable of elevating large quantities of water, is sufficient- 
 ly proved by the fall of "dew and rain upon the earth. The 
 atmosphere is incapable of absorbing any of the solid in- 
 gredients with which the water on the earth is mixed; a 
 striking mark of design, for were the salt of the sea taken 
 up with its waters, and thrown upon the earth, in the form 
 of rain, not only almost the whole vegetable kingdom 
 would be destroyed, but also, all terrene animals. 
 
 MOSAIC, AND NATURAL SYSTEMS OF PLANTS. 
 
 After the sea was formed, by the gathering of the wa- 
 ters into one place, and the dry land made to appear, the 
 earth being thus prepared for the growth of vegetation, 
 and the residence of organized beings, then *' God said let 
 the earth bring forth grass, and the herb yielding seed, 
 and the fruit tree, yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed 
 is in itself upon the earth; and it was so. V. 1 1. 
 
 Here we find a remarkable coincidence between the di- 
 visions of the vegetable kingdom, by Moses, and the most 
 improved systems of natural botany, at the present day. 
 
 In the 11th verse, instead of grass, the Hebrew means 
 tender, or budding grass,* or grass sprouts; thus appa- 
 
 * Marginal reference. 
 
WITH THE MOSAIC HISTORY. 307 
 
 rently intending to include all the small, or inferior plants 
 with which the earth is clothed, and which to common ob- 
 servation, spring up without seeds, or are propagated by 
 their roots. Many low plants, of the moss kind, also bear 
 capsules, which appear like buds, though they produce no 
 flowers, or visible seeds; and these in popular language, 
 would come under the general denomination of grass. 
 
 The terms, therefore, warrant us in concluding, that in 
 this division, the author intended to embrace generally, 
 those plants which give verdure to the earth, but whose 
 seeds were concealed, or not apparent, and thus to distin- 
 guish them from " the herb yielding seed," or those whose 
 seeds form the most obvious part of the plant. If there 
 is nothing unreasonable in this conclusion, then this divis- 
 ion includes those tribes now known under the title of 
 Cryptogamous, or flowerless plants. 
 
 In this division, there are neither flowers, nor apparent 
 seeds; reproduction being effected by parts, termed spo- 
 ruleSi as in the flags, ferns, mosses, &c. 
 
 The " herb yielding seed," by the most obvious con- 
 struction, applies to that division of plants now called Mo- 
 nocotyledonous, or such as produce seed, with a single 
 cotyledon or seed lobe, as wheat, barley, and the grasses. 
 In many of the useful plants of this class, the part most 
 apparent, is the seed, as in the saccharum, (sugar cane,) 
 sorghum, (broom corn,) oat, wheat, rye, millet, &c.; and 
 hence, " seed-yielding plants" would be one of the most 
 natural distinctions between these, and the cryptogamia, 
 and smaller grasses, where the reproductive parts are ei- 
 ther entirely concealed, or so small as to be apparent only 
 by close inspection. 
 
 " The tree yielding fruit, whose seed is in itself," that 
 is, in the fruit, is a description which clearly forms a third 
 division of the vegetable kingdom. This division was un- 
 doubtedly intended to inclu :e the larger vegetables, or 
 trees, properly so called, and the description applies with 
 singular accuracy to many of the most common fruit-bear- 
 ing plants, in most parts of the world. The apple, pear, 
 peach, almond, grape, bread fruit, orange, chestnut, bean, 
 pea, melon, and many other domestic, as well as wild 
 plants, which from the most ancient times have been best 
 known, and most esteemed, bear their seed within their 
 fruits, and are thus readily and naturally distinguished 
 from wheat, barley and other plants of this kind, where 
 the seed is apparent to the sight. 
 
308 COINCIDENCE OF GEOLOGY 
 
 
 This division, therefore, corresponds to the present class 
 in Natural Botany, called the Dicotyledonous, or plants 
 whose seeds consist of two cotyledons, or seed lobes, and 
 which class, besides those already mentioned, includes 
 many of the largest and most important vegetables. 
 
 Thus we arrive at the surprising fact, that the three 
 grand divisions of the vegetable kingdom, made by Moses 
 not merely bear an analogy to the most improved Natural 
 Systems of Botany, of the present day, but that the two 
 systems, in their great outlines, are nearly identical, and it 
 is worthy of notice, that the existence of this analogy is 
 owing to the perfection to which natural botany has been 
 brought, by the recent investigations of profound natural- 
 ists. Thus do philosophers, unawares, confirm the inspi- 
 ration of the scriptures, for there is not the slightest prob- 
 ability that the system of Moses could have been founded 
 on. botanical knowledge then existing, and therefore could 
 not have been derived from any human source. 
 
 We do not pretend that the descriptions of Moses are 
 so definite as to include all the plants of each of the pres- 
 ent classes, to the exclusion of all the others. But that 
 his definitions apply to the most common and useful vege- 
 tables of each class, and are such as to form natural dis- 
 tinctions between these, which would be apparent to a 
 common observer, it is thought we have made fully to ap- 
 pear, and thus to have shown that the progress of a hu- 
 man science towards perfection, has only served to approx- 
 imate its great outlines more nearly to a system founded 
 on an inspired knowledge of nature, and written 3000 
 years ago. 
 
 From this we may infer the impropriety of wresting the 
 plain and obvious meaning of the Scriptures, so to make 
 them agree with what we call scientific facts, and espe- 
 cially on subjects still in controversy, as are many of those 
 belonging to geology. If we will but let the sacred wri- 
 tings stand until our sciences become perfect, we shall 
 then see their coincidence, and if we do not, it will be in 
 time to amend the Scriptures so as to make out the agree- 
 ment, when it is clearly proved that science is right, and 
 Scripture wrong. We refer here, particularly, to the 
 translation of the days of creation, into indefinite periods, 
 a subject which we shall examine in its proper place. 
 
 The discoveries of geology, with respect to the order in 
 which fossil plants, shells and bones occur, show a con- 
 
WITH THE MOSAIC HISTORY. 309 
 
 sistency with scripture, little less extraordinary than that 
 we have shown to exist between the Mosaic and modern 
 botany. 
 
 In the order of creation, we have seen that plants of the 
 lowest grades were first brought into existence, and that 
 those of the more perfect kinds were formed afterwards. 
 In the strata of the earth, the same corresponding order 
 exists: the Cryptogamous plants being found deepest, and 
 below those of the Monocotyledonous tribes; while above 
 these, the Dicotyledonous species occur. We shall throw 
 the details of these, and other coincidences into the form 
 of a table, a few pages hence. 
 
 Sun and moon made to appear. The work of the fourth 
 day consisted in setting the great lights, and also the stars, 
 in the firmament. 
 
 *' And God made two great lights, the greater light to 
 rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night; he 
 made the stars also." V. 16. 
 
 44 And God set them in the firmament of the heaven, to 
 give light upon the earth; and to rule over the day." V. 
 17, 18. 
 
 The original word for made, is not the same with that 
 rendered create. The latter term signifies to re-form, or 
 renovate, while the former more often implies, constituted, 
 appointed, or set apart* 
 
 The language does not, therefore, necessarily imply 
 that the sun and moon were created on the fourth day. 
 but only, we conceive, that they were made to appear and 
 act as rulers over the day and the night, at that time. If 
 we suppose, with others, that Moses stated the story of 
 the creation, as it would have appeared to human eyes at 
 the time, these luminaries would undoubtedly have looked 
 like a new creation; when, in truth, they might have ex- 
 isted from the time when it was said, 4 ' Let there be 
 light." 
 
 We infer this from the circumstance, that the newly 
 formed earth must have been surrounded with dense va- 
 pors, since, until the third day, the atmosphere rested en- 
 tirely, on a continuous ocean of water. The mist spoken 
 of afterwards, shows that the newly formed earth, supplied 
 
 * Bush on Genesis. 
 
310 COINCIDENCE OF GEOLOGY 
 
 the firmament with abundance of moisture, for some time 
 after the dry land had appeared. We know that at the 
 present day, aqueous exhalations are peculiarly dense on 
 the ocean, and that they often hide the heavenly bodies 
 for many successive days. Hence, when nothing but 
 oceans existed on the surface of the globe, with the same 
 atmosphere which we have at this day, it certainly cannot 
 be unreasonable to conclude, that the sun and moon might 
 have been entirely obscured, and prevented from throw- 
 ing their direct rays upon the earth, for the space of three 
 days. During this time there would have been a diffusive 
 light, while the sources whence it came would be invisible. 
 
 Now, on the third day, the dry land appeared, and, 
 therefore, the source of these exhalations became dimin- 
 ished, so that they, of course, became less dense than 
 before. Under such circumstances, from what we observe 
 of meteoric phenomena, at the present time, we should 
 expect that by the fourth day, the exhalations and clouds 
 would entirely disappear, and that the sun would shine 
 forth in all his splendor. To the eye of an imaginary 
 spectator, therefore, this would appear as a new creation, 
 since the sun had never before shone upon the renovated 
 earth; and, at night, the moon and stars would appear 
 under the same aspect. 
 
 This supposition accounts satisfactorily, we think, for 
 the division of light from darkness on the first day, and 
 the succession of day and night, by the diurnal revolution 
 of the earth afterwards, for, as at the present time, when 
 the face of the sun is invisible, there is still a division of 
 light and darkness, or day and night. 
 
 Hence, as it is not incompatible with the terms of the 
 history to believe, that the sun and moon were created on 
 the first day, is it not more probable that this was the case, 
 and that " the light was divided from the darkness," by 
 the first revolution of the earth, than it is, that a phospho- 
 rescent light was created expressly for the use of an un- 
 inhabited earth, for so short a period, and during which, 
 we cannot account for the succession of day and night? 
 
 Signs, Seasons, Days, and Years. Besides "dividing the 
 light from the darkness," and " ruling the day and night," 
 the sun and moon were to be for " signs, and for seasons, 
 and for days, and for years." V. 14. 
 
 The vicissitudes of the seasons are caused by the annu- 
 
WITH THE MOSAIC HISTORY. 311 
 
 al revolution of the earth around the sun, together, with 
 the obliquity of the earth's axis. It is, therefore, the real 
 motion of the earth, instead of the apparent motion of the 
 sun, by which these changes are produced. The language 
 is, however in conformity with that employed in other 
 parts of this history, the effect being attributed to the mo- 
 tion of the sun instead of to that of the earth. 
 
 In addition to the effects, which these changes have 
 upon the face of the earth, and the interests of the hus- 
 bandman, the four seasons were particularly noticed in 
 ancient times, because they fixed the periods of the sacred 
 festivals. 
 
 The length of the year, is the time occupied, by the 
 earth, in making one complete revolution around the 
 sun, during which the sun appears to make 365 diurnal 
 revolutions around the earth. The sun, therefore, in 
 effect, is the cause of the seasons, the days, and the years; 
 for, without his light and heat, none of these changes 
 would take place; and, to this day, when it is universally 
 known that the diurnal and annual revolutions of the sun 
 are only apparent, his motions, in common language, are 
 still spoken of as real, and time is every where measured 
 by his motions instead of those of the earth. Thus, we 
 say, the ' sunrises in the east," and "sinks in the west," 
 
 &c. ; ; V_ 
 
 That the historian here meant, we should understand, 
 by the word day, the time included between two set- 
 tings of the sun, or a period which" we call twenty-four 
 hours, instead of an indefinite period, as some have 
 claimed, for the days of creation, that, by the word 
 seasons, he intended the common seasons of the year; and 
 that by this term, was signified, from syring to spring 
 again, or a term of 365 days, we believe, no one will deny, 
 who desires to give the scriptures a fair and honest inter- 
 pretation. 
 
 Creation of Creeping and Flying Things. On the 
 fifth day, "God said, let the waters bring forth abundant- 
 ly, the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may 
 fly above the earth, in the open firmament of heaven." 
 V. 20. 
 
 This is often rendered creeping, instead of moving crea- 
 ture. The root, in Hebrew, (sheretz,) is said to be deriv- 
 
312 COINCIDENCE OF GEOLOGY 
 
 ed from a verb which signifies to bring forth or multiply 
 abundantly, so that the translation ought not to be the 
 creeping, but the rapidly multiplying creatures.* 
 
 The meaning is obviously intended to include the larger 
 reptiles, as well as all the small animals inhabiting the 
 water, as insects, worms, and shell fish, many tribes of 
 which are known to be exceedingly prolific. The rapidi- 
 ty with which some shell fish, as the oyster, multiply, may 
 be inferred from the vast numbers which are consumed for 
 food; and there is reason to believe that other species, 
 which are placed without the ordinary reach of man, or 
 which he does not use for food, are equally prolific. The 
 great thickness and extent of some strata, composed almost 
 entirely of shells, are a sufficient proof of the almost infi- 
 nite fecundity of these animals. 
 
 The word rendered/a^, (in Hebrew oph,) and by .which 
 its meaning is limited to the birds of the air, is said more 
 properly to signify flying thing,\ and that the original will 
 admit of such a meaning as to include flying insects, ap- 
 pears from Levit. xi. 20. All fowls that creep, going 
 upon all four. We may therefore understand that flying 
 insects, as well as shell-fish, reptiles and birds, were cre- 
 ated on the fifth day. 
 
 Creation of Mammalia and Man. On the sixth and 
 last day of the creation, the " beasts of the earth," " cattle 
 after their kind," and lastly man, were brought into exis- 
 tence. 
 
 The " beast and cattle" are supposed to include the 
 whole division of what are now called Mammalia, or milk- 
 giving quadrupeds, the amphibious quadrupeds having 
 been created on the fifth day. 
 
 Coincidences betiveen Genesis and Geological facts. 
 Having thus taken such notices of the history of the crea- 
 tion, as our object requires, we will next proceed to show 
 the coincidences between the successive creations, and 
 the results which geology has been the means of unfold- 
 ing. 
 
 It was long since remarked by geologists, that impres- 
 sions of ferns, and other cryptogamous plants were found 
 
 * Professor Jameson's Ed. New Phil. Jour. 1832. t Ibid. 
 

 WITH THE MOSAIC HISTORY. 
 
 313 
 
 in the deepest secondary strata, or in the first deposited 
 earth which contained any signs of organic life; while on 
 the other hand, it was well known that the bones of mam- 
 miferous animals, existed only near the surface. Suc- 
 cessive discoveries have completed the series, and have 
 shown that there exists an exact correspondence between 
 the order of creations, as stated by Moses, and of the fossil 
 remains of vegetables and animals discovered by geology. 
 
 The basis of the following table is contained in Profes- 
 sor Jameson's new Philosophical Journal, published at 
 Edinburgh, in 1832. In the references to Genesis, the 
 events on which geology can throw no light, are in 
 italics. 
 
 In the original table, there is no reference to the dis- 
 tinctions which Moses has made with respect to the dif- 
 ferent kinds or classes of plants, and which we have 
 shown to form the most striking coincidence between 
 scripture and science. This coincidence so far as we 
 know, has never before been shown to exist in detail, 
 and this discovery, if we may so call it, has not only 
 been added to the table, but the whole has been enlarged, 
 about one half, by additional quotations from different au- 
 thorities. 
 
 TABLE OF COINCIDENCES BETWEEN THE ORDER OF EVENTS, 
 
 AS DESCRIBED IN GENESIS, AND THOSE UNFOLDED 
 
 BY GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 IN GENESIS. 
 
 Gen. i. 1, 2. In the 
 beginning God crea- 
 ted the Heavens and 
 the Earth. And the 
 Earth was without 
 form, and void; and 
 darkness was upon the 
 face of the deep; and the 
 spirit of God moved 
 upon the face of the 
 waters. 
 
 V. 3, 4, 5. Creation 
 of light. 6, 7, 8. Cre- 
 ation of the expansion 
 
 DISCOVERED BY GEOLOGY. 
 
 It is impossible to deny that the waters of 
 the sea have formerly and for a long time, 
 covered those masses of matter which now 
 constitute the highest mountains; and further 
 that these waters, for a long time, did not 
 support any living bodies. Cuvier's Theo- 
 ry of the Earth. 
 
 Again, " Thus it is rational to believe 
 that shells and fishes did not exist at the 
 period of the formation of the primordial 
 layers." Cuvier's Rev. of the Globe, p. 68. 
 
 It is unnecessary to stop to prove, that 
 our continents have once formed the bed of 
 the sea; there is no longer any division of 
 
 27 
 
314 
 
 TABLE OF COINCIDENCES CONTINUED, 
 
 IN GENESIS. 
 
 or atmosphere. 9, 10. 
 The sea formed by the 
 gathering of the waters 
 into one place, and the 
 appearance of dry land 
 
 12. Creation of ten- 
 der, or budding grass. 
 
 12. Herb yielding 
 seed. 
 
 Wheat and barley 
 are monocotyledonous 
 plants. 
 
 12. And the fruit tree 
 yielding fruit after his 
 kind, whose seed is in 
 itself. 
 
 Pears, apples, peach- 
 es, chestnuts, are dico- 
 tyledonous plants. 
 
 14 to 19. Sun, moon, 
 and stars set in the fir- 
 mament, to divide the 
 day from the night, and 
 to be for signs, and for 
 seasons, and for days, 
 and for years. 
 
 20. Let the waters 
 bring forth abundantly, 
 the moving creatures 
 that hath life. 
 
 Creation of flying 
 things. 
 
 DISCOVERED BY GEOLOGY. 
 
 opinion among naturalists upon this point. 
 De IMC, Lett. Geol. p. 301. 
 
 Cryptogamous plants in coal strata. Ma- 
 ny authors. 
 
 In the formation of coal and anthracite, 
 the vegetables are almost all cryptogamia, 
 as ferns, equisetums, &c., and plants of the 
 monocotyledonous tribes, some of which 
 were of arborescent species, now no longer 
 existing. Adolphe Brogniart. 
 
 There may be a connection between an 
 extraordinary profusion of monocotyledo- 
 nous plants, and a youthful condition of the 
 world. Lyell, vol. i, p. 147. 
 
 Brown Coal is formed of large trees, 
 whose texture is still to be discerned, and 
 from scattered leaves, they undoubtedly be- 
 longed to dicotyledonous families. Count 
 Sternberg. 
 
 (Brown Coal is considered a more recent 
 formation than common coal, or anthra- 
 cite.) 
 
 Shells in the Paris basin. Cuvier. 
 
 Shells in Alpine and Jura limestone.- - 
 Humboldt. 
 
 Fish in Jura limestone. ib. 
 
 Shells and vegetable remains are found in 
 the next order below those of fish and ovip- 
 arous reptiles. Sir H. Davy. 
 
 Teeth and scales of fish in Tilgate sand- 
 stone. Mr. Mantell. 
 
 The remains of birds with those of fish 
 and oviparous reptiles. Kir H. Davy. 
 
 Bones of birds in Tilgate sandstone. 
 Mr. Mantell. 
 
 Elytra of winged insects in calcareous 
 slate at Stonesfield. ib. 
 
TABLE OF COINCIDENCES CONTINUED. 
 
 31$ 
 
 IN GENESIS. 
 
 21. Creation of rep- 
 tiles. Every living 
 thing that moveth, 
 which the waters 
 brought forth abun- 
 dantly. 
 
 24,25. Creation of 
 mammalia; the beast of 
 the earth after his kind, 
 and cattle after their 
 kind. 
 
 26, 27. Creation of 
 the human race. 
 
 DISCOVERED BY GEOLOGY. 
 
 Bones of crocodiles at Monheim. Von 
 Bush. 
 
 Bones of saurian animals at Stonesfield. 
 Mr. Mantell. 
 
 Remains of sea turtles and lizard like an- 
 imals, at St. Pierre. Dr. Ure. 
 
 It will be impossible not to acknowledge, 
 as a certain truth, the number, the largeness, 
 and the variety of the reptiles which inhab- 
 ited the seas, and the land, at the epoch at 
 which the strata of the Jura were deposited. 
 Cuvier. 
 
 There was a period when the earth was 
 peopled by oviparous quadrupeds, of the 
 most appalling magnitude. Reptiles were 
 the lords of the creation. Mantell. 
 
 Animals analogous to the frog, toad, and 
 salamander, existed when the strata were 
 disordered by the revolutions of the globe. 
 Dr. Ure. 
 
 Bones of mammiferous quadrupeds, are 
 found only when we come to the formations 
 above the coarse limestone, which is above 
 the chalk. Cuvier. 
 
 The remains of quadrupeds of extinct 
 species, occur next above those of birds and 
 oviparous reptiles. Sir H. Davy. 
 
 It is only in the loose and slightly con- 
 solidated strata of gravel and sand, and 
 which are usually called diluvial forma- 
 tions, that the remains of animals, such as 
 now people the globe, are found. Sir H. 
 Davy, Co?isolalions of Travel. 
 
 It is a fact, that as yet, no human bones 
 have been discovered among fossil re- 
 mains Cuvier's Rev. of the Globe, p. 81. 
 
 But found covered with mud, in the caves 
 of Bize. Journal. 
 
 The great question concerning human re- 
 mains in a fossil state, stands now before 
 the world, in an entirely different aspect, 
 from what it did when Cuvier published 
 his work. Granville Penn. 
 
 Human bones, supposed to be fossil, have 
 been found in the caves of Durfort and Kos- 
 ritz. Outlines of Geology. 
 
 In some few instances human bones oc- 
 cur, but the era to which their possessors 
 ought to be referred, has not been satisfac- 
 torily ascertained. Though some are more 
 modern, others seem to claim an ante-dilu- 
 vian antiquity. Sharon Turner. 
 
316 
 
 TABLE OF COINCIDENCES CONTINUED. 
 
 IN GENESIS. 
 
 Genesis, chapter vii. 
 The Deluge of Noah. 
 " And the waters pre- 
 vailed exceedingly up- 
 on the earth; and all 
 the high hills that were 
 under the whole heav- 
 en were covered." V. 
 19. 
 
 The Deluge happen- 
 ed A. M. 1656, being 
 2348 years before the 
 Christian era, and 4184 
 before 1836. 
 
 DISCOVERED BY GEOLOGY. 
 
 In the delta of the Ganges, human bones 
 have been found ninety feet deep. Von 
 Hoff. 
 
 If there be any thing determined in ge- 
 ology, it is, that the surface of our globe has 
 been subjected to a vast and sudden revolu- 
 tion, not longer ago than five or six thou- 
 sand years. Cuvier^s Rev. Globe, p. 180. 
 
 A universal deluge, seems clearly proved 
 by the utter extinction of the primeval race 
 of animals. Dr. Ure. 
 
 The Alps and Carpathians, as well as 
 every other mountainous region which I 
 have visited, bear the same evidence of hav- 
 ing been modified by the force of water, as 
 do the hills of the lower regions. Dr. Buck- 
 land. 
 
 Geology fully confirms the scriptural his- 
 tory of the Deluge. Prof. Silliman. 
 
 The numbers 4, 5, and 6, we will not conceal, are liable 
 to be interchanged among themselves, in respect to place, 
 and we shall derive no argument from them, farther than 
 what arises from the circumstance, that they are all 
 placed in one group.. Still the number of coincidences 
 here shown, between the order of the epochs of creation, 
 assigned in Genesis, and that discovered by geology, are 
 calculated, not only to excite the attention of scientific 
 men, but also that of theologians, as forming an additional 
 argument to the truth of inspiration. 
 
 Human science, in the probability of chances, as illus- 
 strated by La Place, has put us in possession of an instru- 
 ment for estimating the value of these coincidences; and 
 we* feel amply entitled to take advantage of it, for that 
 purpose, for no case could well be pointed out, where it 
 would be more correctly applicable than in this, where the 
 coincidences assume a definitely successive numerical 
 form. We are entitled to adopt, even the language of 
 La Place, and to say, " by subjecting the probability of 
 these coincidences to computation, it is found, that there 
 is more than sixty thousand to one, against the hypothe- 
 sis, that they are the effects of chance."! 
 
 " It is thus, then, that the discoveries of geology, when 
 more matured, instead of throwing suspicion on the truths 
 
 * Jameson's Journal. 
 
 t System du Monde, Book V*. 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 317 
 
 of revelation, as the first steps in them led some to main- 
 tain, have furnished the most overpowering evidence in 
 behalf of one branch of these truths.* 
 
 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 At the commencement of this article, we noticed that 
 hypothetical geologists required more time than was al- 
 lowed by Moses, to account for various phenomena which 
 the earth presents; and that so early as the time of Whis- 
 ton, it was proposed so to interpret Genesis, as to leave 
 geologists full scope for their speculations. 
 
 From that time to the present, there have not been 
 wanting authors, who either through motives of self-con- 
 venience, or a desire to reconcile science with revelation, 
 have ventured to call the days of creation, periods of 
 great, or indefinite length. 
 
 To believers in revelation, this cannot be an unimpor- 
 tant subject. If the very commencement of the book of 
 inspiration, can be interpreted in a sense so entirely dif- 
 ferent from its plain and obvious meaning, what portion 
 of scripture conveys truth to the understanding? And if 
 the translation does not convey the intended meaning of 
 the author in this case, where are common readers ta 
 look for such meaning? 
 
 We propose, therefore, to examine the question, whe- 
 ther the terms, in which the Mosaic history of the crea- 
 tion is written, will by any fair interpretation, allow the 
 belief that the periods therein called days, were intended 
 to mean indefinite time, or whether they were periods of 
 more than twenty four hours. 
 
 If the scriptures are true, they must be so in their most 
 plain and obvious sense, and if any scientific fact contra- 
 dicts this sense, then, to a common understanding, they 
 do not convey the truth. 
 
 If an author uses the same terms in different places, 
 and apparently in the same sense, we are bound to believe 
 that he means the same in every case. If he intends to 
 convey different ideas, by the same terms, standing in 
 similar connections, and this without warning his readers,. 
 
 * Jameson's Journal. 
 27* 
 
318 DAYS OF 
 
 he cannot be a correct writer, because he is not only in-- 
 consistent with himself, but cannot be understood; and 
 therefore he is not to be credited. 
 
 It is believed that no one will deny, that whatever may 
 be said of the prophecies, the narratives of the Old Tes- 
 tament were intended, by their authors, to be understood 
 by ordinary capacities, nor will it be claimed that the 
 author of Genesis has been so inconsistent with himself, 
 as on that account, to raise a suspicion of his veracity. 
 
 This author has not only given us the history of the 
 creation of all things, but also of the destruction of the 
 ancient world by a flood of water. 
 
 Whoever reads the account of the latter, "will there find, 
 that " the flood was fort^days upon the earth," or 'that it 
 rained forty days; and that " the waters prevailed upon 
 the earth an hundred and fifty days." And, whoever 
 reads the account of the creation, will there find that the 
 whole work was performed in six days; each day's work 
 being described by itself, and the day carefully number- 
 ed, that in so important a work, there should be no 
 doubt either with respect to the succession of the seve- 
 ral creations, or to the time occupied in finishing the 
 whole. 
 
 Now these narrations being from the same pen, being 
 also continuations of the same general history; and the 
 word day being employed in the same unqualified manner 
 in both cases, no reader can doubt, if the translation con- 
 veys the meaning of the historian, that he intended they 
 should be understood to signify the same periods of time 
 in both narratives. 
 
 From the statements of Moses, therefore, we are as 
 fully entitled to the belief, that the waters of the deluge 
 prevailed upon the earth for an indefinite period, or that 
 a day of the deluge was a thousand years, and thus that 
 its waters covered the earth for the term of 150,000 
 years, as we are to believe that a day of creation was an 
 indefinite period, or a term of a thousand years, and thus 
 that 6000 years were occupied in the work of creation. 
 
 If the terms of the history allow any difference with 
 respect to the lengths of the days, this would certainly be 
 in favor of those of the deluge, since the plural is there 
 employed, while the singular only is used in the descrip- 
 tion of the creation, and each day is expressly confined 
 within the " evening and morning." But no one, we 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 319 
 
 believe, has proposed to consider the days of the deluge 
 of greater length than twenty-four hours, though from the 
 words of the record, we cannot perceive, why they should 
 not, equally with those of the creation, claim to be peri- 
 ods of a thousand years. 
 
 But it is needless to extend these considerations. If 
 the words of Moses were intended to mean that a day of 
 creation was a period of a thousand years, or any other 
 period, more than a natural day, why have not the trans- 
 lators so rendered it? No man in his senses will pre- 
 tend that Christianity required one translation, and geo- 
 logy another; or that the Hebrew is better understood at 
 the present day, than at the time when the Bible was 
 translated. 
 
 Finally, with a few exceptions, it is the universal be- 
 lief of the Christian world, and ever has been, that the 
 work of creation occupied only six natural days, arid this 
 alone is a sufficient proof that the common translations 
 convey no other meaning. The exceptions, therefore, 
 could not have been derived from the translations, and 
 we shall show directly, that they could not have been de- 
 rived from any fair construction of the original. 
 
 Does the word DAY, in Gen. i. admit of any other inter- 
 pretation than the common one? We think it has been 
 shewn above, that if the history of the creation has been 
 fairly translated, it is impossible its author should have 
 intended to convey by the word day, any other meaning 
 in that history, than a period of twenty-four hours; and 
 that this is proved by the universal understanding of the 
 Christian church, and of the Christian world. But since 
 some declare that this universal understanding is owing 
 to a misinterpretation, or at least, that the terms of the 
 original will admit of a construction different from the 
 common one, we will here enquire of commentators, how 
 far this is true. 
 
 Mr. Faber's Theory making the Mosaic days 6000 Years. 
 The most conspicuous theologian who interprets Moses, 
 so as to extend the days of creation to periods of great 
 length, is Mr. Faber, an English writer well known as the 
 author of the " Three Dispensations," and other works, 
 some of which are in common use, and in high estima- 
 tion in this country. 
 
320 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 Mr. Faber says, " that the six demiurgic days, instead 
 of being nothing more than six natural days, were each a 
 period of very considerable length, may be proved partly 
 by analogy of language, partly by the very necessity of the 
 narrative, partly by ancient tradition, and partly, (and that 
 most decisively,) by the discoveries, or possibly the re- 
 discoveries of modern physiologists" 
 
 With respect to the analogy of language, Mr. Faber 
 says, that in Scripture, nothing can well be more indefi- 
 nite than the term which we translate by the English 
 word day. Sometimes it signifies a single revolution of 
 the earth round its axis; sometimes it denotes a revolution 
 of the earth round the sun, or what we call a natural year, 
 &c. 
 
 " The question therefore is," says he, " what specific 
 period it describes in the Mosaical history of the crea- 
 tion." If God labored six natural days, and rested on the 
 seventh natural day, the very terms of the statement will 
 imply that he resumed his labors on the eighth natural 
 day, or on the first day of the following natural week. 
 But did he resume his labors on the eighth natural morn- 
 ing. " Most assuredly he did not, and if he did not re- 
 sume his labors on the eighth natural morning, then his 
 Sabbath, or day of rest, extended beyond the seventh 
 natural day, therefore a single natural day could not be 
 the measure of the divine Sabbath." 
 
 " But at what time did the divine Sabbath,, thus plainly 
 extending beyond the limits of the seventh day, termin- 
 ate?" asks our author and to himself replies, " In good 
 truth, its termination has not even yet arrived; for the 
 creative labors of God have never been resumed." To 
 show the truth of this, Mr. Faber quotes from the heathen 
 " Institutes of Menu," as follows: " He, whose powers are 
 incomprehensible, having created the universe was again 
 absorbed in the Supreme Being", changing the time of ener- 
 gy for the time of repose;" and then says, " The time of 
 God's energy was doubtless the period of the creation." 
 We are sorry that Mr. Faber is obliged to quote Indian 
 heathenism instead of scripture to support his doctrines. 
 But leaving this to the reader's own comments, we will pass 
 at once to the author's conclusions on this part of his sub- 
 ject. 
 
 From the above data, he says the divine Sabbath has 
 not yet terminated, nor will it terminate, until " the pre- 
 dicted dissolution of the present order of things." 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 321 
 
 " Thus it appears," says he, " that the divine Sabbath, 
 instead of being limited to a single natural day, is in truth, 
 a period commensurate with the duration of the created 
 universe; what that duration will be, no one knows save 
 the Father only." 2 Peter iii. 10, 13. But this we know, 
 that the world has existed about 6000 years. " The divine 
 Sabbath therefore is a period of not less duration than six 
 millenaries."* 
 
 Having come to this odd conclusion, Mr. Faber goes 
 on to show that the analogy of language requires us to 
 " interpret homogeneously the seven days, which consti- 
 tute the great week of God" Hence as the Sabbath day 
 was a period of not less than 6000 years, so each of the 
 other days must have been periods of at least 6000 years. 
 
 Thus, does the learned Mr. Faber call upon his fellow 
 Christians, whether geologists or not, to believe that He 
 who said, " Let there be light, and light was," " who 
 brought all things out of nothing by the word of His pow- 
 er," occupied at least 36,000 years in creating this little 
 earth, a mere speck, a mote, when compared with his 
 other works, the " hosts of heaven," the universe. 
 
 Let us look for a moment at the bearing of this theory. 
 Since u the ways of God are equal,"" there is every reason 
 to believe, that if time was required in the creation of this 
 earth and the garniture thereof, a proportionate quantity 
 of time was also required in the creation of the other 
 planets of our system, for there is not the least probabili- 
 ty, that if the creative power required at least 36,000 
 years to form our earth, that the same power could at the 
 same time have been at w'ork in the production of the 
 other planets. Mr. Faber's theory does not allow such a 
 supposition; for no reason can be assigned, why the pro- 
 cess of creation occupied so long a period, except the 
 want of power to finish it in a shorter time; and there- 
 fore since the entire power of the Creator must have been 
 occupied on our earth, it is plain that no other work 
 could have been accomplished at the same time. 
 
 Now since there are twenty-eight planets in our sys- 
 tem besides the Earth, if we consider the latter of a medi- 
 um size, then the time occupied in creating the whole 
 would be twenty-nine times 36,000 years, without refer- 
 
 * Three Dispensations, vol. i. 115, lib. 
 
322 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 ence to the creation of the sun. But the sun contains 
 500 times as much matter as all the planets put together, 
 and therefore according to Mr. Faber's doctrine, we can- 
 not see why it must not have occupied 500 times as long 
 a period for its creation as all the planets. 
 
 According to this doctrine then, it must have taken 
 nearly five hundred millions of years for him who said, 
 " Let the dry land appear," and it was so, to have created 
 and made this our solar system. What time then must 
 have been occupied by the same creative power in the 
 formation of those myriads of worlds which the vault of 
 the heavens contain, for ** He made the stars also." But 
 enough of this. And now if Mr. Faber's theory does not 
 fairly lead to such conclusions, then the folly of drawing 
 them must fall on the writer of this book, and not on him- 
 self. 
 
 But whether our present conclusions are true or false, 
 we will call upon any man, even on our author himself, to 
 reconcile another bearing of his theory with itself, or in 
 other words to show how it is possible that a definite por- 
 tion of time should be perpetually increasing in length. 
 Thus, Mr. Faber says, that the length of the Sabbath is 
 the length of all the other days, and that God having 
 rested from his labors 6000 years at the present time, 
 therefore each day of creation is now, or was 6000 years 
 long. But he goes on to inform us that the said Sabbath 
 has not yet terminated, nor will it terminate until the pre- 
 dicted dissolution of the present order of things; or in the 
 language of Menu, " the time of repose has not yet 
 changed for the time of energy.*' 
 
 Now since the length of the Sabbath, and all the other 
 days depend entirely on the length of time which God has 
 rested, or will rest from his labors, then it plainly follows, 
 that had Mr. Faber written his theory at the expiration of 
 twenty-four hours after the last creation, the length of 
 the days, according to himself, w'ould have been only 
 twenty-four hours long, for the same reason that he makes 
 them 6000 years long at the time he did write. And so 
 he who lives 6000 years hence, and reads Mr. Faber's 
 theory, will find that according to it, the days of creation 
 were 12,000 years long, and so on, until " the time of re- 
 pose is changed for the time of energy." 
 
 Does any ancient tradition, or any discovery of modern 
 physiologists, warrant a grave and learned author to em- 
 ploy such logic as this? 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 323 
 
 Again, if the days of creation were 6000 years long, 
 then we must believe that it was 18,000 years after the 
 waters were gathered, and the dry land made to appear, 
 before man was created that it was 12,000 years after 
 the creation of plants before animals were brought into 
 existence, and that it was 12,000 years after the sea was 
 formed before it brought forth the '* moving creature." 
 
 But Mr. Faber finds, from the very necessity of the narra- 
 tive, that a considerable portion of time must have elapsed 
 between the creation of plants, and the creation of ani- 
 mals, otherwise the herbivorous tribes must have perished 
 for want of food. 
 
 In this part of his theory, it must be confessed that the 
 author has shown a marvellous degree of sagacity, having 
 discovered this necessity in a passage where less acumen, 
 or less anxiety to support a theory would certainly have 
 looked for it in vain. 
 
 The words of the narrative which afford this necessity, 
 are found in Gen. xi. 5. "God made every plant of the 
 field before it was in the earth; and every herb of the 
 field before it grew." The remaining part of the same 
 verse explains this, " for the Lord God had not caused it 
 to rain upon the earth, and there was not a man to till 
 the ground." Thus plainly showing, that although the 
 process of vegetation usually requires rain and tillage, yet 
 in this case it was perfected without either.* 
 
 It was plainly, from the words of the text, a miraculous 
 creation of full grown vegetables, without the planting of 
 seeds, and without the process of vegetation. 
 
 It appears from this verse, says Dr. Adam Clarke, that 
 God created every thing, not only perfect as respects its 
 nature, but also in a state of maturity; so that every ve- 
 getable production appeared at once in full growth, and 
 this was necessary, that man, when he came into being, 
 might find every thing ready for his use. 
 
 Now although nothing can be more obvious than that 
 the sacred historian intended we should understand by 
 this language, that the first plants did not pass through the 
 gradual process of growth as they afterwards did, but 
 that they were called into existence in full maturity, yet 
 from these very words, Mr. Faber infers that we are un- 
 
 * Bush on Genesis. 
 
324 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 der the necessity of concluding that the whole vegetable 
 kingdom was created in the form of seeds; and because 
 in the ordinary course of nature, these seeds could not 
 have grown in time to have supplied herbivorous animals 
 with food, which were created two days after; so these 
 days must have been at least 6000 years in length, for 
 otherwise the cattle of the field would have perished for 
 want of food. 
 
 Now, independently of what we must consider a total 
 perversion of the meaning of the text, this interpretation 
 is utterly inconsistent with what follows, for it is clear, if 
 we are guided by analogy, (which is one of the corner 
 stones of Mr. Faber's theory,) we must allow that the ani- 
 mals were created in the young state, as well as the 
 plants, and granting this to have been the case, then it is 
 plain that the seeds would have vegetated into herbs, .at 
 least as soon as the young animals could have been fitted 
 to partake of such food. 
 
 But that the animals were created in full maturity, as 
 well as our first parents, no one can have the least doubt, 
 otherwise who nursed and brought them up, since they 
 had neither fathers nor mothers. 
 
 It is unnecessary to follow Mr. Faber in further de- 
 tails. The propriety of his interpretation, he has attemp- 
 ted to prove, as already stated, 
 
 1. By analogy of language. 
 
 2. By the very necessity of the narrative. 
 
 3. By ancient tradition, and 
 
 4. By the discoveries of modern physiologists. 
 
 With respect to the last ground of proof, he quotes Cu- 
 vier on the revolutions of the globe, to show that the earth 
 has undergone great changes since its first creation, and 
 which no one denies. But on this point he advances 
 nothing new, or which in the least degree shows the ne- 
 cessity of his new interpretation. It is therefore needless 
 to follow him through this portion of his argument. 
 
 And now, in taking leave of Mr. Faber, we must be al- 
 lowed to express the astonishment we have felt, that a 
 Christian writer of his reputation, should have so far lent 
 himself to the support of a theory, as to have seen in an- 
 cient traditions, or the discovery of modern physiologists, a 
 sufficient reason for giving the sacred scriptures a mean- 
 ing, which otherwise, he does not pretend they could have 
 had. What! a man professing to teach the sacred truths of 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 325 
 
 the Bible, and yet warping its plain and obvious meaning, 
 for the express purpose of making it agree with heathen 
 philosophy, or the views of modern naturalists! we hope 
 that no successor of Mr. Faber's, will ever venture on such 
 hazardous ground. 
 
 Is it not enough that infidels profess to be wise above 
 what is written; and do not christains put weapons into 
 the hands of unbelievers, when they turn the plain and ob- 
 vious meaning of the sacred text aside, even for the sake 
 of argument? 
 
 The discoveries of modern geologists, so far from cal- 
 ling for new interpretations of the Bible, are constantly 
 confirming its truths as commonly understood. 
 
 Let us then adhere to Moses, until we find some fact 
 which clearly proves a discrepancy between revelation 
 and nature. 
 
 Prof. Silliman's Theory. We are aware that several 
 American Geologists, who deservedly stand high in public 
 estimation, and who also revere the Sacred Scriptures, 
 still see in the mechanism of the earth a necessity of ex- 
 tending the days of Genesis to longer periods than twenty 
 four hours. Among these are Professor Silliman of New 
 Haven, who has given the world his views on this sub- 
 ject. 
 
 His communication contains at considerable length a 
 detail of the Geological facts, which he considers incom- 
 patible with the common reading of Moses. Also, copious 
 extracts from "Mantel's Geology of the South East of 
 England," and from " Prof. Jameson's Edinburgh Jour- 
 nal." 
 
 The latter is understood to be the production of Prof. 
 Jameson himself, and is a critical examination of the 
 Hebrew text, with respect to the word which we trans- 
 late day, and in which, with Mr. Faber, he comes to the 
 conclusion that it may signify a long period of time, 
 though he does not pretend to fix its length. 
 
 On the subject of Hebrew criticism we hare nothing to 
 offer; but he who can read the English translations of the 
 Bible cannot but have observed, that the word day is 
 there, often made to signify long periods. "They that 
 shall come after him shall be astonished at his day" Job 
 xviii. 20. In this case it undoubtedly means the period of 
 a man's life; and the same use is made of it in common 
 28 
 
326 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 language every where. How often do we hear persons, 
 both old and young say, in "my day such a thing was 
 unknown." "In my day such a thing would not have 
 been tolerated," &c., meaning the whole period of their 
 past lives. 
 
 In these cases we employ the word to mean a compara- 
 tively short, though an indefinite period of time, in the 
 same manner as the scriptures do, and from which, we 
 perhaps have derived this mode of expression. But when 
 we say a day, or first day, or second day, we mean a nat- 
 ural day, of twenty four hours, and this, and no other, ac- 
 cording to the best philologists is the meaning of scrip- 
 ture. But this point we must refer to the criticism of 
 Prof. Stuart, which will be found a few pages forward. 
 
 With respect to the geological facts which Prof. Silli- 
 man has brought forward, in order to show a physical ne- 
 cessity for extending the length of the Mosaic days, we 
 had seen most of them stated in other works, and had con- 
 sidered that although, perhaps some of them could not be 
 satisfactorily explained in the present state of geological 
 knowledge, yet, that not one of them taken separately, pre- 
 sented a single point, which any man could show to be con- 
 tradictory to the common reading of Genesis. 
 
 If we take for an example, Mr. Mantel's account of 
 the Portland and Wealden formations (p. 28, 29,) which 
 are among the strongest cases Prof. Silliman has adduced 
 with respect to apparent age, who will say, that under the 
 existence of former circumstances, these formations were 
 not began and finished within the compass of a few cen- 
 turies, or at most of a few thousand years. 
 
 It is true, that the deep vegetable soil, containingpebbles 
 and the roots of petrified trees, the stems of which shoot 
 into the limestone strata above, the fossil remains of a 
 tropical forest; and the alternate elevation, and submersion 
 of the island itself, would seem to show that a lapse of ages 
 was required to produce the phenomena which the geolo- 
 gy of Portland exhibits. 
 
 And so also, of the Wealden formation. Its diameter 
 of 200 miles, and its thickness of 2000 feet, would seem to 
 point back to a very remote age for its commencement 
 
 But let us see for a moment, what evidence these phe- 
 nomena exhibit of the lapse of time. 
 
 With respect to vegetable soil, Mr. Mantel says it 
 appears to be such. But allowing the fact, who will ven- 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 327 
 
 ture to predicate any definite length of time on its forma- 
 tion. Possibly it was washed into its present location; 
 and if not, if it was formed by the decay of vegetation, even 
 then certainly, no immense length of time is required for 
 its production, for the artificial mounds of Ohio, which 
 contain undecayed human bones, are covered with a soil 
 so rich as to produce the largest trees of the forest. And 
 besides, it is understood that the Portland soil was formed 
 under a tropical climate. 
 
 Neither can great portions of time be predicated on 
 on water-worn stones, since those on our shores must have 
 been formed since the commencement of the present " or- 
 der of things" which all naturalists agree was compara- 
 tively within a recent period. And it is most probable 
 those found in recent strata were formed before the 
 creation of organic existences, and while yet " darkness 
 dwelt upon the face of the deep." 
 
 With regard to silicious petrifactions, into which the 
 trees were changed, it is acknowledged that we know 
 nothing with certainty, of the length of time required to 
 produce this change on the Portland fossils. But reason- 
 ing from analogy we may conclude that this process oc- 
 cupied only a century or two at most, since we know that 
 the silicious springs of St. Michaels, one of the Azores, 
 have the property of incrusting vegetables with an exter- 
 nal coat of silex in a very short time, perhaps in a day or 
 two, and that as fast as the wood decays, its place is sup- 
 plied with silicious matter, until the whole is replaced by 
 solid stone. 
 
 It is known also, that the ends of cedar posts which are 
 set into the ground, sometimes become petrifactions, be- 
 fore their upper parts are entirely decayed. 
 
 We may therefore believe that where this change is ef- 
 fected at all, the entire process is completed in a few cen- 
 turies. It is probable at any rate, that the process must 
 cease with the entire absence of the woody matter. 
 
 As to the deposition of the limestone embracing these 
 petrifactions, we have again no means except that of anal- 
 ogy, of judging at what rate it took place, and therefore, 
 perhaps there are as many reasons for believing that it re- 
 quired only centuries, rather than thousands of years for 
 its formation. 
 
 We know that limestone is constantly forming at the 
 present day, by the deposition of its particles from water. 
 
328 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 Thus in Tuscany, a certain spring, or rather springs de- 
 posit solid limestone, at the rate of at least half a foot 
 per year, making a formation of 500 feet thick in 1000 
 years, or of 3000 feet thick in one of Mr. Faber's Mosaic 
 days. 
 
 In reference to the submersion and re-elevation of Port- 
 land, we have given an account of a parallel instance in 
 the Temple of Serapis, which occurred within the histori- 
 cal era. See p. 117. 
 
 Now when we consider, that the several processes form- 
 ing most of the phenomena exhibited at Portland Island 
 might have proceeded at the same time, viz. those of pet- 
 rifaction, fossilization, and the deposition of limestone, 
 where is the necessity of disturbing the common reading 
 of the sacred historian in order to gain a series of ages to 
 account for such phenomena? 
 
 Who knows what preparations took place for the pres- 
 ent order of things while " the earth was without form, 
 and void," and what man can say what violent changes, 
 what dislocations of the lower strata, and what upheaving 
 of mountains were effected when God said "Let the waters 
 under the heaven be gathered together into one place, and 
 let the dry land appear." Undoubtedly the most tremen- 
 dous convulsions took place at that command, by which 
 hills and mountains were elevated and the great valleys of 
 the earth formed. 
 
 Days of Creation indefinite periods. But while Prof. 
 Silliman sees a necessity in the mechanism of the earth, 
 for extending "the days of creation to periods of time of 
 indefinite length," (p. 53,) he finds in various parts of the 
 scriptures themselves^ full liberty to make such an inter- 
 pretation. 
 
 With respect to the word day, he says it could have had 
 no application previously to the revolution of the earth, 
 before an illuminated sun, which did not happen until the 
 fourth day. But *we think it has been shown that when 
 God said " Let there be light, and light was," then the sun 
 was created. If our arguments have convinced the reader 
 that this was so, then this objection is done away. 
 
 But Prof. Silliman has brought many passages of scrip- 
 ture where the word day evidently signifies a longer term 
 than twenty-four hours; in some instances the whole of a 
 man's life; in others it is used for a set time, or short pe- 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 329 
 
 riod, though its length is not defined. Examples are, " So 
 also shall the son of man be in his day" " Rejoiced in my 
 day" " One day is with the Lord as a thousand years, 
 and a thousand years as one day" "These are the gene- 
 rations of the heavens, and of the earth when they were 
 created in the day that the Lord God made the earth and 
 the heavens," " Shall accomplish as an hirelinghis day"- 
 " Whose day is come when iniquity shall have an end," 
 " He will not spare in the day of his vengeance." 
 
 In all these cases, and more might be selected, it is 
 plain that the word day is not confined to the period of 
 twenty-four hours. 
 
 But we would inquire what analogy of language, or of 
 meaning exists between " one day is with the Lord as a 
 thousand years," and " the evening and the morning were 
 the first day, or the second day." Or indeed,, how the 
 use and meaning of the word day, in any of the above pas- 
 sages can show that the same word, when defined as it is 
 in the narrative of the creation, between the morning and 
 the evening, signifies an indefinite series of ages. 
 
 If a man says, " On the first, or second day of my arri- 
 val, I saw the king;" and at the close of his narrative tells 
 us, " I have suffered many and great perils in my day," 
 who would understand him to mean by these different 
 uses of the same word, the same periods of time. And 
 yet we can see no reason why this is not as fair an exe- 
 gesis of the traveller's account, a& that of Genesis, when 
 it is maintained, that because Moses at the close of his 
 narrative employs the language, "in the day that the Lord 
 God made the heavens and the earth," therefore the terms 
 of time which he had before defined as the first day, and 
 the second day, signify periods of indefinite length. 
 
 That the sacred historian understood Him, under whose 
 inspiration he wrote, to mean that the world was created 
 in six natural days, all parts of the narrative, both of the 
 creation and the deluge, amply testify. Professor SilJiman 
 allows that Moses so understood it. 
 
 " It is granted," says he, (p. 70,) " that Moses might 
 have understood the word, (day,) according to the popular 
 signification, and that this sense would be the most obvi- 
 ous one to every mind not informed as to the structure 
 of the globe; even those who are learned on other sub- 
 jects, but ignorant of geology, always adopt, in this case 
 the literal and obvious meaning." 
 28* 
 
330 DAYS OF CREATION, 
 
 We are utterly at a loss what to say of this concession 
 of the learned Professor. Is it so then, that the servant 
 of the Lord God, who wrote down the words of inspira- 
 tion as they were communicated to him, was so deficient 
 in knowledge or understanding, as to stand corrected by 
 the geologists of the present day? Who committed the 
 error? Who made such a mistake as to put a single day 
 for myriads of years, for time indefinite? Was it Moses? 
 Certainly not, for he only acted as the instrument by 
 which God communicated to this wicked world the narra- 
 tive of the creation and the fall of man. Did Moses mis- 
 understand the intent and meaning of the inspired com- 
 munications, or is his language such that it may convey 
 error instead of truth? If so, why have not errors been 
 found in other parts of his narrative. Who then made 
 this mistake? Before we venture a reply to this question, 
 had we not better ascertain more certainly that our facts 
 are clearly incompatible with the sacred history as it 
 stands, and as it is commonly understood, and as Moses 
 understood it? 
 
 Coal Formations. But says Professor Silliman, "In 
 the usual mode of understanding the account, all the im- 
 mense deposites of coal, and of vegetable and aquatic ani- 
 mal remains, with their vast strata and mountains must 
 have been made within seventy-two hours, for there was 
 no dry land until the third day, and consequently no ve- 
 getables." (p. 69.) * * " According to the popular under- 
 standing," he continues, ** the transition and secondary 
 mountains with their coal beds, plants and animals, were 
 therefore, formed in two or three natural days, by physical 
 laws, which is incredible, because it is impossible," (p. 
 70.) 
 
 It is believed that no one, who has given the least at- 
 tention to this subject, ever supposed that these deposites 
 were made within three days. Nor does the history ren- 
 der such a belief at all necessary. Coal is constantly 
 forming at the present day, as is proved by specimens of 
 lignite partially converted into that substance. The dif- 
 ferent formations in which coal is found, show also by 
 their different ages, that coal has been formed at various 
 periods of time, 
 
 When God said, " Let the earth bring forth grass, the 
 herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after 
 
DAYS OF CREATION 33 f 
 
 his kind," there is no doubt but the dry land which had 
 so recently been prepared, was immediately covered with 
 vegetation from the herb, to the largest trees of the forest, 
 and these all in full maturity. How soon after this, those 
 violent changes commenced, which swept these vegeta- 
 bles into lakes and estuaries, to form the first, or lowest 
 beds of coal, is unknown to us; nor ean we now ascer- 
 tain what periods of time elapsed between the formation 
 of different beds of coal lying one over the other, twenty 
 or thirty of which are pierced by some coal shafts. The 
 fact, however of superincumbent coal beds is sufficient to 
 prove beyond all doubt, that the vegetables of which they 
 were formed were deposited at different-periods of time. 
 
 It is agreed by all naturalists, that the origin of coal 
 was wood, but no one has yet, shown what the conditions,, 
 or circumstances were, under which one is converted into 
 the other, and much less the lime which nature requires 
 for such a process. 
 
 Now supposing, (and no one can show to the contrary,) 
 that the wood of which the oldest beds of coal are formed 
 was gathered immediately after the last day of creation- 
 then according to Dr. Hale's Chronology, we have 2256 
 years for the carboniferous process, down to the time of 
 the deluge; and 3155 years more for the same process to 
 continue down to the Christian era, making 5411 to the 
 latter period; the whole forming a lapse of 7245 years at 
 the present time. 
 
 It is true that many coal beds are at a great depth from 
 the surface, and the strata by which they are covered are 
 ancient, though not primitive formations; while other 
 carboniferous deposites are clearly of a more recent date. 
 
 But since it is impossible to determine what periods of 
 time are required to convert wood into coal, or how much 
 time elapsed between the depositions of vegetable matter 
 forming the older and newer beds, and as we know no- 
 thing of the circumstances, or degrees of heat, under which 
 this conversion was effected, so it is in vain to conjecture 
 from any analogy observed at the present day, at what 
 period of the world the process commenced. 
 
 As we understand the inspired historian, there is allow- 
 ed us little more than 7000 years, in which to account for 
 the formation of coal beds, and their phenomena, and yet, 
 since these beds were formed at a period when tropical 
 plants grew to enormous sizes under high northern lati- 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 tudes, and when this globe was subject to mighty convul- 
 sions, they might have been formed and covered with the 
 intervening strata, within the term of two or three thou- 
 sand years. 
 
 With respect to vegetable and animal remains found in 
 limestone and other secondary rocks, we are equally ig- 
 norant of the periods at which they were entombed, and 
 therefore in reference to time, they must be placed on the 
 same ground with the coal formations. 
 
 At the close of his treatise on the " Consistency of 
 Geology with the Sacred History," Professor Sillimar* 
 has the following 
 
 " REMARK." 
 
 " Suppose that there are inhabitants at the poles of the 
 earth, how might they understand the days of creation? 
 to them a day of light is six months long, and a night of 
 darkness is six months long, and the day made up of 
 night and day, covers a year, and it is a day too, limited by 
 morning and evening." (p. 80.) 
 
 As this stands alone, and closes Professor Silliman's 
 treatise, we are led to suppose that the question it con- 
 tains was considered important, and unanswerable. We 
 must therefore, view it as deserving a special reply; and if 
 we should succeed in solving the problem to his satisfac- 
 tion, we hope thus to become the humble means of advan- 
 cing Professor Silliman one step towards a coincidence of 
 opinion with Moses, in respect to the days of creation. 
 
 In the first place, since there are no inhabitants at the 
 poles, the supposition itself is without foundation, and 
 therefore we might justly, on this ground, give an evasive 
 answer; but taking no such advantage, we will suppose 
 that the poles are inhabited, then let us see whether the 
 people would, or would not, be sensible of the diurnal 
 revolutions of the earth. 
 
 Our answer requires it to be remembered, that the sun 
 always shines on just one half of the earth, and therefore 
 that the vicissitudes of summer and winter of light and 
 darkness, at the polar circles are caused by the alternate 
 approach and recession of these parts towards, and from 
 the sun's light. 
 
 Now as the Arctic, and Antarctic regions alternately 
 enjoy the light of the sun, so they must of necessity be 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 333 
 
 alternately immersed in the dark shadow of the earth. 
 But this alternate change cannot take place without throw- 
 ing these parts into such a position with respect to the 
 sun, that his rays will reach both poles at the same time, 
 which takes place twice in each year, to wit, on, or about 
 the 21st of September and the 21st of March, therefore, 
 at these seasons there is a diurnal succession of day and 
 night at both poles. 
 
 Besides, as the earth gradually turns each pole in suc- 
 cession towards the sun, so the line dividing the annual 
 darkness from the light, must by degrees recede from and 
 approach each pole; and as the earth turns constantly on 
 her axis, and as the light of the sun alternately reaches 
 23 beyond each pole, it is clear, that before the seasons 
 of total night and entire day at the poles, there must be 
 there a period when day and night succeed each other, 
 making together twenty-four hours, as they do at the 
 equator. 
 
 Thus it is plain that were the poles inhabited, the peo- 
 ple there, equally with those of the equator, would be ac- 
 quainted with days, '* limited by morning and evening. 1 '' 
 
 These inquiries and remarks, have not been made in a 
 spirit of contradicting the opinions of others, but under, 
 the sober conviction, that geology as yet presents no facts 
 which when carefully examined, will be found to conflict 
 with the Mosaic History of the creation, as it is commonly 
 received, and as it is allowed the sacred historian himself 
 understood it. 
 
 Scripture proof that the Mosaic days were of common 
 length. Unless these days were of common length, how 
 can the sun and moon " be for signs, and for seasons, and 
 for days and for years?" If the days were six thousand 
 years, or indefinitely long, what must have been the length 
 of the scripture seasons and years? 
 
 Again, " six days shalt thou labor and dk> all thy work,, 
 but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God; 
 in it thou shalt do no work. .For, in six days the Lord 
 made heaven and earth, the sea and all that in them is and 
 rested the seventh day. Wherefore, the Lord blessed the 
 Sabbath day, and hallowed it." Exodus- xx, 
 
 Thus it appears that this commandment was expressly 
 founded on the fact, that the heavens and ; the earth were 
 created in six days, and is designed to be in imitation and in 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 perpetual commemoration thereof. "Six days shalt 
 thou labor and do all thy work." " For in six days the 
 Lord made heaven and earth." But the seventh day is 
 the Sabbath, "in it thou shalt not do any work," for the 
 Lord rested on the seventh day, and " therefore blessed 
 the Sabbath day and hallowed it." 
 
 Now the commandment to work six days, and rest on 
 the seventh, being in commemoration of the work of crea- 
 tion, and of the resting of the Creator, after it was finish- 
 ed; we would inquire whether this command is not in ef- 
 fect, an express declaration that the creative days were of 
 the same length as those on which men were commanded 
 to labor, and to rest. If therefore, it is discovered, that 
 this is not the case, then we may humbly conceive that 
 the command itself, though religiously observed through 
 all generations to the present time, is no longer binding 
 ?upon us; for if the days of creation were periods of 1000 
 years, then by the terms and connection of the command, 
 men are required to labor 6000 years, and to rest 1000 
 years. The command, therefore, being an impossibility, 
 we are not bound by its requirement. 
 
 But the express declaration of the inspired writer, that 
 " in six days the Lord made heaven and earth," cannot by 
 any mode of exegesis be made to apply to other than or- 
 dinary days, for this declaration refers to a period, when 
 the commandments were given to Moses, that is, about 
 2500 years after the creation, and therefore long after the 
 ordinary course of nature had been established. These 
 days therefore could only have referred to such as be- 
 longed to that period, 
 
 Criticism of Prof . Stuart. We have already extended 
 this subject much further than was originally intended, 
 but still, the question whether the Hebrew word, transla- 
 ted day, in the history of the Creation, admits of any other 
 meaning, remains to be more particulaaly examined. 
 
 In this examination we must depend entirely on the 
 opinions of Hebrew philologists, and we are gratified that 
 it is in our power to offer such authority, on this part of 
 our subject, as that of Prof. Stuart, of Andover, first sta- 
 ting, that the Hebrew word yom is that which is translated 
 day, the plural of which is yamim. 
 
 On this word, Prof* Stuart writes to the author as fol- 
 lows. 
 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 335> 
 
 " The inquiries you make concerning the word yam, in 
 Genesis i. I will briefly answer. It does not signify an 
 indefinite period of time, but always some specific and 
 definite one, when employed as it is in Gen. i. in the singu- 
 lar number. It sometimes means a specific day of the 
 week; sometimes to-day, that is this day; sometimes a spe- 
 cific day, or season of calamity, joy, particular duty, 
 action, suffering &c. It is only the plural yamim, 
 which is employed for time in an indefinite way, as, in 
 many days to come, days of my life, &c. But even 
 here the plural in most cases is a limited one limited 
 by some adjective, numeral, &c. and yamim signifies, 
 therefore, a limited portion of time; often it stands for 
 a year" 
 
 "In general, the Hebrew word that means either day or 
 days, corresponds quite well with our English word, by 
 which we translate it. Thus, when we say, in the day of 
 his calamity he will repent; in the day of his prosperity 
 he will rejoice; in the day when God will judge; all the 
 days of his life; his days will be short; in past days; at a 
 future day; &c., we express ourselves in all respects as 
 the Hebrew scriptures do. 
 
 " But when the sacred writer in Gen. i. says, the first 
 day, the second day, &c., there can be no possible doubt, 
 none I mean for a philologist, let a geologist think as he 
 may, that a definite day of the week is meant, which 
 definite day is designated by the numbers^rsf, second, third, 
 &c. What puts this beyond all question in philology, is 
 that the writer says specifically, that the evening', and the 
 morning were the first day, the second day, &c. Now is 
 an evening and a morning a period of some thousands of 
 years? Is it in any sense when so employed, an indefinite 
 period? The answer is so plain and certain that I need 
 not repeat it." 
 
 " Plain as it is, however, I have never seen a geologist 
 notice it. He has his reasons, no doubt, for this, and one 
 reason also, may be, that he analyzes his rocks and his 
 coal strata, somewhat better than he does Hebrew roots. 
 What have a priori speculations, however, to do with such 
 a matter? If Moses has given us an erroneous account of 
 the creation, so be it. Let it come out, and let us have the 
 whole. But do not let us turn aside his language to get 
 rid of difficulties that we may have in our specula- 
 
 
336 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 " When the great Lord of the Sabbath ordained that 
 the seventh day of the week should be kept as holy time, 
 because * on the seventh day, God rested from all his 
 work, and finished his work in six days,' how, in the name 
 of common sense, did Moses expect, in communicating 
 such a command, that the people of Israel would under- 
 stand him as meaning a period of 6000 years, for each of 
 the days in which God created? And, if they did so un- 
 derstand him, what reason could this be for the Hebrews 
 to keep holy every seventh day of the week? The whole 
 thing bears on the face of it, the appearrnce of something 
 monstrous and incredible. No philologist can ever be- 
 lieve it." 
 
 " Then as to the taste of such a conceit. The Creator, 
 ' who spake and it was done; who commanded and it stood 
 fast,' who said * let there be light, and light was;' this great 
 and glorious Creator the Almighty God, 36,000 years in 
 making a world!" 
 
 Andover,5th Feb., 1833. 
 
 Mr. Penn's Criticism. It is believed that few, at the 
 present day, will venture to throw themselves into the 
 scale of philology in opposition to Professor Stuart; and 
 yet to show the coincidence of authority on this point, 
 we will quote the opinion of another able critic who, at 
 the same time, has spent many years in geological inves- 
 tigations. 
 
 In the sequel of twenty octavo pages, which Mr. Gran- 
 ville Penn* has written on this subject, he comes to the 
 following conclusions, and which the reader may observe, 
 are precisely those- of Prof. Stuart. 
 
 The Hebrew noun yam, which means day, is always 
 definite in its import, and essentially excludes the wide, 
 and extensive notion which we attach to the English word 
 period. The peculiar signification of yamim, the plural 
 Qtyom, is a point totally irrelative to the present question, 
 which turns exclusively upon the singular yom; that sin- 
 gular noun, which is the word used by Moses in his history 
 of each day of the creation, and which alone we have to 
 consider, never in any single instance denotes a year, but 
 
 * Author of the " Comparative Estimate of the Mineral an<L Mosai- 
 cal Geologies," London, 1825, 2d Ed. 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 337 
 
 only each of the individual parts of a year, which lie be- 
 tween two sun sets. It is true, that it sometimes is repre- 
 sented as denoting time, but in that case it always denotes 
 and defines, actual time, or time actually impending and 
 we might with just as much foundation affirm, that the 
 Greek singular hemera, the Latin dies, the French jour, 
 or the English day, are terms peculiarly indefinite, and 
 would be more accurately expressed by periodus, petiodc, 
 and period, as to affirm it of the Hebrew singular yom. 
 
 Since then yom in the singular, is the term applied by 
 Moses to each of the six days of creation since the ope- 
 rations executed in each of those days were creative acts, 
 to which acts time could contribute no co-operation and 
 since the series of those six days, with the following 
 seventh day, were specially presented, as the exemplar of 
 seven days, to be perpetually observed from thenceforth, 
 in sequence, and succession, in imitation and commemo- 
 ration of them there is no ground whatever, either in 
 true, criticism, or true philosophy, that will at all, either au- 
 thorize, or justify, an interpretation of the days of creation 
 different from that which they received from the age of 
 the historian until a recent date namely, a measure of 
 time lying between two sun-sets.* 
 
 Thus it appears beyond all doubt, that the Hebrew 
 word yom, which is translated day, as it is employed in 
 the Mosaic history of the creation, cannot be extended to 
 a period beyond twenty-four hours, without a gross mis- 
 interpretation, or wilful violation of the plain and obvious 
 meaning of the sacred writings. 
 
 WHAT ARE THE GEOLOGICAL FACTS WHICH CONTRADICT 
 THE COMMON UNDERSTANDING OF GENESIS. 
 
 Having, we hope, shown to the satisfaction of the read- 
 er, that the hypothesis of a longer period than six natural 
 days, for the completion of the work of creation, is not 
 only unwarranted by the terms of the common transla- 
 tions, but is entirely incompatible with many other pas- 
 sages of Scripture; having also proved, by the best philo- 
 
 * Comparative Estimate, vol. i. p. 288295. 
 29 
 
338 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 logical authorities, that the terms in which the history of 
 the creation was originally written, cannot be made to 
 signify that a day of creation was a period of more than 
 one diurnal revolution of the earth; we will now examine 
 some of the facts and circumstances, which have been 
 supposed not to coincide with the common reading of 
 Genesis. 
 
 We have shown, in the preceding work, that it is not 
 an uncommon circumstance to find shells, plants, and the 
 bones of various animals in the deep strata of the earth, 
 and we have stated that many of these are of species now 
 unknown, and are, therefore, considered extinct. 
 
 Some authors who are professed believers in the truths 
 of inspiration, have proposed to account for these ap- 
 pearances, by supposing that there have been many suc- 
 cessive creations before the earth was brought into its 
 present form, and sometime between that period called in 
 Scripture, " the beginning," and the time when the pre- 
 sent races were created. In this manner it has been pro- 
 posed to avoid the difficulty concerning the Mosaic days; 
 to account for the extinction of the lost species during 
 the lapse of ages, and thus give geologists ample time to 
 reconcile all the appearances which the earth presents, 
 both with reason, philosophy, and scripture. 
 
 The only ground on which it can be claimed that such 
 a hypothesis may be reconciled with scripture is, that we 
 are not bound to believe the work of creation detailed by 
 Moses was the first, since we are no where told that this 
 was the case; and, as it is plain, that the heavens and the 
 earth were created before that time, that is, in the " be- 
 ginning," why may we not suppose that animals of the 
 lower orders, such as live under water, might not also 
 have been created at that time? It appears to us, how- 
 ever, that this docrine cannot be adopted by those who 
 acknowledge the inspiration of the scriptures; for, besides 
 its want of coincidence with what is implied in the history 
 of the creation, namely, that the work was commenced 
 on the first day and finished on the sixth, we are express- 
 ly told in Ex. xx. that the whole creation was begun and 
 finished within the compass of six days. 
 
 We are bound, therefore, by the terms of the Scrip- 
 tures, to believe, that every organic substance, found in 
 the strata of rocks, however ancient they may appear to 
 be, and whether of plants, fish, or quadrupeds, originated 
 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 339 
 
 within the six days of creation, mentioned by Moses, and 
 that these are the exact representations of their parents 
 then made, or the parents themselves of all similar races 
 now existing. 
 
 It is in vain to undertake to support the scriptures by 
 denying some parts, and adopting others, as best suits our 
 convenience. As well may we reject the whole at once; 
 for if one part is false, all are so. Hence if we can be- 
 lieve that a single plant or shell, found in the earth, was 
 created before the period alluded to in Genesis, it would 
 be useless to declare our assent to the truth of the scrip- 
 tures generally, (and at the same time, account for this 
 appearance, by supposing a more ancient creation than is 
 mentioned by Moses,) since the account he gives excludes 
 any such idea; and, consequently, the two facts cannot be 
 made to coincide with the history. To suppose, there- 
 fore, that the organic remains of strata, were formed be- 
 fore the time alluded to in Genesis, implies a denial of the 
 truth of that history. 
 
 Strata supposed to be more ancient than is allowed by 
 Moses. Some of the secondary strata which have ap- 
 peared to geologists to claim a more remote antiquity 
 than the Mosaic history allows, are of the following 
 kinds. 
 
 First. Limestone, containing shells of extinct species, 
 and which, from their situations, bear marks of great ap- 
 parent antiquity. " It must always have been evident to 
 unbiased minds," says Mr. Lyell, " that successive strata, 
 containing, in regular order of super-position, distinct 
 beds of shells, and corals, arranged in families, as they 
 grow at the bottom of the sea, could only have been 
 formed by insensible degrees, in a great lapse of ages" 
 
 Second. The great number of different strata, observ- 
 ed in some formations, and occasionally amounting to 
 several thousands, are, in the opinions of others, sufficient 
 to indicate a lapse of time which the sacred history does 
 not recognise. 
 
 Third. The great amount of alluvial matter, known to 
 exist in some lakes, and the formation of land on the bor- 
 ders of certain seas, (considering how slowly these de- 
 
340 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 positions take place,) have been thought to indicate more 
 time than can be accounted for by the common under- 
 standing of the scriptures. 
 
 Fourth. Allowing that every kind of limestone has 
 been formed of shells, how is it possible, inquires another, 
 that at their present rate of increase, such immense moun- 
 tains of this rock could have been formed within the peri- 
 od of 6000 years? 
 
 ' ; - ' ' 
 
 Fifth. The coal formations, being supposed of vege- 
 ' table origin, seem to prove that plants were in existence 
 at a period vastly more remote than their creation, ac- 
 cording to the Mosaic history. 
 
 Lastly. The fossil remains of various animals, the 
 species of which, are now supposed to be extinct, and 
 which appear to have been in existence before the crea- 
 tion of man, are thought to show that more time elapsed, 
 before, or during the progress of the creation, than is in- 
 dicated by the vulgar understanding of Genesis. 
 
 These, and a great variety of other circumstances and 
 appearances, have been declared by some naturalists, to 
 be entirely inconsistent with the supposition that organ- 
 teed beings were only brought into existence within the 
 recent period of 6000 years. 
 
 The reader will observe, that the evidence, if so it may 
 be called, in all these cases, is merely circumstantial, and 
 entirely dependant on the opinions of the observers; and 
 that hence, while some could see nothing in the facts, 
 which might not be accounted for within the period of a 
 few thousand years, others would see appearances, which 
 could be reconciled only with the lapse of ages. 
 
 Our ignorance concerning the formation of strata. In 
 reasoning on the facts which the strata of the earth pre- 
 sent, we are under the necessity of bringing them to the 
 test of some hypothesis which we may adopt, and which 
 we believe most likely to account satisfactorily for them, 
 by considering the circumstances under which they ap- 
 pear to exist. For, having never witnessed the formation 
 of such rocks, we are obliged to reason entirely from 
 analogy, and to draw our conclusions from such parallel 
 
OF CREATION. 341 
 
 facts, as our own experience or that of others, may hap- 
 pen to furnish us. 
 
 Of the actual circumstances under which these strata 
 were formed, or the time necessary for this purpose, we 
 are entirely ignorant, and this is acknowledged by the 
 most experienced geologists. 
 
 On this subject, Daubuisson speaks as follows: " The 
 nature of this cause and the manner in which it acted, are 
 most likely removed forever from our knowledge; no effect 
 of the same kind is ever now produced. All the circum- 
 stances of the divisions of the mineral masses into strata, 
 both in the primitive and actual states, are very far from 
 being known to us; and we are constrained to say, that to 
 determine respecting stratification, its circumstances and 
 its laws, still remains a problem to be resolved, and is, 
 perhaps, the most important one in geology.* 
 
 "We are," says Baron Cuvier, "in the most absolute 
 ignorance, respecting the causes which have occasioned 
 the diversity in the substances of which strata are com- 
 posed. We are unacquainted even with the agents, which 
 may have held some of them in solution; and it is still 
 disputed respecting several of them, whether they owe 
 their origin to the agency of fire or water."! 
 
 De Luc speaks to the same effect. " These strata," 
 says he, " the formation of which has entirely ceased, 
 must have been the effects of primordal causes which no 
 longer subsist."! 
 
 Notwithstanding such opinions, and sounder ones do 
 not exist on this subject, still there are those, who, not 
 contented with knowing the facts as they are, begin to 
 conjecture concerning the manner in which these forma- 
 tions were deposited, and bringing every thing down to 
 the test of their own knowledge, wisdom, and experience, 
 come forth with a body of facts which show most clearly 
 that the common understanding of some parts of the sa- 
 cred writings must be entirely changed, to accord with 
 these discoveries, otherwise the whole Christian code will 
 be in jeopardy. Thus declaring that the Creator, in the 
 formation of this world, could not have subjected matter 
 to natural laws which men cannot now explain, without 
 
 * DavJmisson, Beok 1, p. 352, f Prelim. Disc. p. 27.. 
 
 * De Luc, Lett. Geol p. 72. 
 
 29* 
 
842 AY9 OF CREATION 
 
 jeopardizing the whole moral code which, in mercy, he 
 has given us. 
 
 " It is revolting to reason" says Mr. Granville Penn, 
 " and, therefore, to true philosophy, to observe how stren- 
 uously physical science, though expatiating on the won- 
 ders of creation, has labored to exclude the Creator from 
 the details of His own works, straining every nerve of in- 
 genuity to ascribe them all to secondary causes; and with 
 what undisguised relief of thought, it exchanges the idea 
 of God for that of nature."* 
 
 So far as we know, all writers who have brought geo* 
 lo'gical phenomena to contradict the common reading of 
 the scriptures, have reasoned on general circumstances 
 and appearances, rather than on particular facts. Wheth- 
 er this has arisen from a tenderness towards the scriptures, 
 connected with a desire to keep such glaring facts as exist, 
 from the knowledge of the world, for its moral good, we 
 do not pretend to know. But we do not hesitate to believe, 
 that no one has yet published a single geological fact^ 
 which, when fairly and candidly examined, would in the 
 opinion of sound judgment and discretion, be found to 
 stand in the light of such proof, against the common read- 
 ing of Genesis, as would be required to invalidate the 
 foundation of any well grounded opinion, commonly re- 
 ceived among men. 
 
 Inferences from organic strata. Concerning the strata 
 containing shells, although their appearance proves noth- 
 ing with respect to the period at which they were formed, 
 (any further than that this must have been since the crea- 
 tion of the living remains which they contain,) or the 
 time occupied in their formations; still, from certain cir- 
 cumstances, we may fairly draw several conclusions con- 
 cerning them. Thus, the fact that they contain shells; 
 shows that they were formed under water; and since one 
 series of strata rest upon another, this proves that the low- 
 est series were formed first. The shells, and the stratified 
 structure of these rocks, also indicate that the matter of 
 which they are composed was deposited from water. 
 
 As a matter of hypothesis, we may infer also, that the 
 lower strata of these rocks were formed during the time 
 when the earth was passing from a state of chaos, to that 
 more perfect condition which it assumed, during, and 
 
 * Comparative Estimate, vol. i. p. 117. 
 
DAYS OF cftEATioff. 343 
 
 after the creation of animals; for, at that period, there is 
 reason to believe that the agitation of the waters conse- 
 quent upon the changes which took place, would cause 
 them to transport and deposit large quantities of loose 
 matter from one place to another. Meantime the rapidly 
 multiplying creatures of the water, which undoubtedly 
 were originally created in all parts of the sea, might be 
 supposed to have been swept along with the turbid waters, 
 and fallen to the bottom with their deposites. Nearly all 
 parts of the earth show that the present dry land has been 
 thrown up from the bottom of the sea; but evidently not 
 at the same time, and the fact that these elevated strata 
 contain shells, shows that this land was under water at the 
 time, and perhaps long after the creation of animals. The 
 convulsions by which these strata were elevated, may be 
 well supposed to have occasioned movements in the water t 
 by which depositions of great depth, containing shells, 
 might have been made in a short period. 
 
 No geologist can prove at what epoch these elevations 
 of land took place. Some have supposed, indeed, that 
 the shells they contain were formed while *' darkness waj 
 upon the face of the deep," and before " the waters were 
 gathered together into one place." But this, as we have 
 shown, supposes a creation anterior to that detailed in 
 Genesis; and, therefore, as the strata themselves contain 
 nothing which contradicts the hypothesis, that they were 
 formed after the creation of animals, it is most reasonable 
 to believe that this was the case. 
 
 With respect to the great number of different strata 
 which some formations present, no practical geologist of 
 the present day, would ever propose to offer them as indi- 
 cations of absolute time. Dr. Macculloch, in his account 
 of the ** Western Isles," has described a tract of country, 
 which, says he, " may be considered as exceeding twenty 
 miles, on a line taken transversely to the bearings of the 
 strata; and throughout this space, computing from enume- 
 rations taken at different places, there are probably not 
 less than 40,000 strata." This great number is owing en- 
 tirely to displacements occasioned, probably, by subterra- 
 nean convulsions. " It is probable," says the author, 
 ** that this tract consisted once of a series of horizontal 
 strata, of perhaps, four substances only; and that, in con- 
 sequence of numerous displacements, they have assumed 
 the complicated and deceptive appearances which they 
 
344 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 now present."* These four substances are quartz rock, 
 mica-slate, chlorite-slate, and hornblende slate. 
 
 In another part of his work, the same author says, " Ge- 
 ologists have endeavored to compute the antiquity [that is 
 of the earth] by various means, often by very ' childish 
 chronometers,' when deposites of peat, and accumulations 
 of stalactites, have been adduced as measurers of time. 
 Thus also, by measuring the annual depth of earth depos- 
 ited in the valley of Egypt, it has been attempted to fix 
 the period at which the Nile begun to flow. But this is 
 equally vain; since the multitude of modifying causes 
 must render all such deposites useless, even as the means 
 of an approximation, independently of the fact that all are 
 not the produce of rivers. "f 
 
 This is considered a sufficient reply with respect to com- 
 puting time by the number of strata. 
 
 Limestone formations. But if, as many have supposed, 
 limestone is an animal product, the vast masses of this 
 rock, which occur in most countries, are much the strong- 
 est proofs which the earth exhibits of her antiquity. The 
 oldest limestone, however, exhibits no marks of organic 
 origin, but is arranged among primitive rocks, as may be 
 seen by the tabular arrangement in the preceding volume. 
 It is the secondary limestone only which contains shells, 
 arid it cannot be denied, that, in some instances, consider- 
 able beds of this species, appear to be almost entirely com- 
 posed of these remains. But there is much difference in 
 this respect, in different formations which are considered 
 of the same age. In the oolitic group of Western Erope, 
 shells are very abundant, while in the Italian, Alpine, and 
 Grecian limestones, which represent the same series, very 
 few organic remains are found.;): It may be difficult to 
 account satisfactorily for this disparity, if these rocks 
 were formed at the same time and of the same materials. 
 
 Possibly, however, the Italian limestones were formed 
 at the mouths of ancient rivers, whose waters passing 
 through primitive limestone countries, brought down cal- 
 careous matter, which being deposited in a shallow sea, 
 might embrace the shells there growing. At the same 
 
 * System of Geology, vol. i. p. 93. t Vol. ii. p. 60. 
 
 t De la Bec/ie, Man.' GeoL p. 323. 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 345 
 
 time we may suppose, that the European limestones were 
 formed in deep water, out of the reach of such calcareous 
 deposites; and, therefore, consists entirely of shells. 
 
 Beds of shells formed by sea currents. But the great 
 difficulty on this subject, is to conceive how such vast beds 
 of organic limestone could have been formed of shells, 
 without requiring millions of years for their growth. It 
 was in consideration of this subject, that the Editor of the 
 Quarterly Review, vol. xlii. (1829,) declares that the earth, 
 instead of being millions of years, was millions of ages in 
 forming. 
 
 The idea of geologists, who require so much time for 
 these formations, appears to be, that the shells must of ne- 
 cessity have grown and perished in the exact places where 
 their remains are now found, and that one generation must 
 have lived on the remains of the other, in succession, un- 
 til they formed the masses which we now see. 
 
 But there is not the slightest probability from the very 
 nature of the case, that this was the mode in which these 
 masses were formed. For, in many instances, we find 
 them of considerable thickness in the centre; gradually 
 becoming thin towards the edges, and of small extent; 
 the very form, a mass of shells would have assumed had 
 they been swept together by currents of the sea, and 
 quite different from that which would have been produced, 
 had they lived and died on each other. In the latter case, 
 there is no reason why these masses should ever assume 
 the form of hills, but, on the contrary, we should natural- 
 ly suppose that in similar climates, and under the same 
 circumstances, these testacea would increase as rapidly in 
 one place as in another, and thus, that the strata they 
 formed would be widely extended, and every where of 
 the same thickness. Whereas, we find that beds of shells 
 in the same vicinity, are often entirely insulated. Be- 
 sides, many of these shells are known to be such as bur- 
 row in the sand and mud, and unless we suppose that 
 these masses were formed by currents, we are under the 
 necessity of believing, that such species forsook their na- 
 tural haunts for the purpose of living and dying on the 
 remains of their ancestors. 
 
 Besides, we know from the reports of naval men, who 
 have been employed in surveying sea coasts in various 
 countries, that beds of shells are constantly forming at 
 
346 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 the bottom of the ocean, by the agency of currents, and 
 sometimes at the depth of several thousand feet. 
 
 In the strait of Gibraltar, Capt. Smyth found shells at 
 the depth of 950 fathoms, carried thither probably from 
 comparatively shallow parts, by the strong current which 
 flows through that channel. Capt. Vidal detected on the 
 coast of Ireland, large quantities of shells at depths vary- 
 ing from forty-five to 190 fathoms; and also in the same 
 region a bed offish bones extending two miles along the 
 bottom of the sea, in eighty and ninety fathoms of water. 
 
 " Analogous formations," says Mr. Lyell, 4i are in pro- 
 gress in the submarine tracts extending from the Shetland 
 Islands to the North of Ireland, wherever sounding can be 
 procured. A continuous deposite of sand and mud, re- 
 plete with broken and entire shells, echini, &c., has been 
 traced for upwards of twenty miles to the eastward of the 
 Faroe Islands, usually at the depth of from forty to 100 
 fathoms. In one part of this tract, fish bones occur in 
 extraordinary profusion, so that the lead cannot be drawn 
 up without some vertebrae being attached. This 'tone 
 bed,' as it is called by the surveyors, is three miles and a 
 half in length."* 
 
 The sea, undoubtedly, is almost every where forming 
 beds of shells, by its currents in the same manner, and 
 which in the course of a few centuries at longest, might 
 reasonably be supposed to form stratified organic rocks, 
 of hundreds of feet in thickness, cemented by the sedi- 
 mentary matter of rivers, with which the sea abounds on 
 every coast. How then does it become necessary to al- 
 low ages of time for these formations. 
 
 The objection that has been brought against the theory 
 of accumulation by currents, in the fact that many, or 
 most of the shells still retain their sharpest angles, and 
 most delicate parts uninjured, will be found of little 
 weight when the circumstances are considered. 
 
 All shells will swim in water of sufficient depth, even 
 after the animal has perished; and, under water of mo- 
 derate depth, most species will float to great distances 
 without the slightest injury. In several extinct species, 
 which are found in the greatest abundance in limestone, 
 the specific gravity of the shell was so near that of water, 
 
 *VoLiii. p. 295. 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 347 
 
 that the animal had the power of raising or sinking itself 
 at pleasure, probably by drawing in or throwing out a 
 little of that element. Such were the many-chambered 
 univalves already described and figured, the Nautilus, the 
 Ammonites^ and the Orthoceratites. 
 
 On the coast of England, in places where the current 
 is so swift as to remove deep channels in the regular 
 strata, and where rocky masses are often precipitated into 
 the sea, there still live fragile shells and tender zoophytes, 
 (corals and sponges,) in abundance, and in the midst of 
 these violent movements.* 
 
 There is, therefore, we conceive, no difficulty in sup- 
 posing, that shells might have been swept into beds from 
 great distances, and still retain their finest lines and 
 sharpest angles. Those which we find on beaches, where 
 they have been constantly exposed to the friction of the 
 sand, by the motion of the surf, bear no analogy of cir- 
 cumstances to those which remain in deep water. 
 
 Vast number of shells created. Under the hypothesis, 
 that all secondary limestone has originated from living ex- 
 istences, and has been formed within a few thousand 
 years, we must believe that vast numbers of these tribes 
 were originally created, and that they have multiplied 
 with great rapidity. 
 
 With respect to the number created, we are bound to 
 believe that it was peculiarly great, from the terms of the 
 history, for in no other instance is the same language 
 employed. " Let the waters bring forth abundantly the 
 moving creature," are the words of the command; and 
 we shall see, in this case, a coincidence between the 
 scriptures and the facts of geology and natural science, 
 not before noticed. 
 
 As the terms of the command were general, (" Let the 
 waters bring forth,") so must have been the effect; and 
 we are therefore bound to believe, that this creation was 
 not confined to particular portions of the sea, but that 
 the waters in all parts of the earth brought forth an abun- 
 dance of living creatures, and we need not stop to show 
 that shells are included in this creation. 
 
 * LyeWs Geology , vol. i. p. 308. 
 
348 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 Rapid progress of Conchology. There is reason to be- 
 lieve, that no department of nature is so abundantly sup- 
 plied with species and varieties, as Conchology. It is 
 true that there are, at present, more known species of 
 plants than of shells, but the facility of collecting the for- 
 mer, together with the connection which botany has with 
 medicine and domestic economy, makes it the more in- 
 teresting and important science. Yet, it is believed that 
 the comparative number of new species of shells, recently 
 discovered, have been much greater than those of plants. 
 
 Perhaps some judgment may be formed of the pro- 
 gress of conchology, and the vast number of species 
 which probably still remain to be discovered, by compar- 
 ing the system of LinnaBus with that of Lamarck. The 
 former naturalist describes only thirty-six genera of 
 shells, while the latter has determined and described 250 
 genera; and many new species have been discovered 
 within the few years since the last work was written. 
 Hence we may infer, that conchology is only in its in- 
 fancy, at least with respect to the number of species 
 known, and that it is probable, thousands of species if not 
 of genera, still remain to be discovered in this department 
 of nature. 
 
 The number of known species belonging to some of the 
 Linna3an genera are already very numerous, and new ones 
 are almost every day accumulating. Of the genus Conus, 
 Mr. Mawe names 170 species, and of the genus Voluta 
 200 species, and of each of these, there are numerous va- 
 rieties.* 
 
 The subject of fossil conchology has still more recently 
 attracted the attention of naturalists, but when we come 
 to examine the catalogues of extinct species, which have 
 already been determined, and consider that these have 
 been discovered in those few places on the earth, where 
 excavations have been made, chiefly for economical pur- 
 poses, we cannot avoid being struck with an idea of the 
 vast multitude of these species which the earth contains, 
 the most of which still remain unknown. 
 
 Of the genus Ammonites, there have been determined 
 and named 159 species, not one of which are now sup- 
 
 * Mawe's Conchology, p. 87105. 
 
DAYS OF CREATION; 349 
 
 posed to be in the living state.* Of the genus Cerithium, 
 seventy fossil species are known, and of the genus Tere- 
 bratula, fifty species have been determined, and catalogues 
 of both given.f 
 
 In the oolitic limestone alone, there has been already 
 discovered, and described, not less than 1000 species of 
 shells, a great proportion of which occur in England.}: 
 In the Paris basin, the species long since enumerated, 
 amounted to 1200, and an equal number have been found 
 in the more modern formations of the subapennine hills. $ 
 . Now when it is considered that these investigations 
 have only just commenced, and that the parts of the 
 earth which have been examined are mere points, when 
 compared, even with the secondary portions of the whole; 
 when we remember, also, that most of the recent species 
 known, have been picked up along the shores, rather by 
 accident, than through any scientific design; and that the 
 wide oceans, the distant reefs, and the deep waters are 
 still unexplored, and, when we compare these circum- 
 stances with that of the number of shells already known, 
 we cannot but conclude, that there must be in the earth, 
 and in the sea, thousands, perhaps millions, of species, 
 which the eye of man has never yet seen. 
 
 From this vast number of species which it is thus cer- 
 tain have existed, or do still exist, we are led to see the 
 propriety of the peculiar language, which Moses employs 
 with respect to the first act of the fifth day's creation; for 
 since all these species were commanded into being at that 
 time, the term abundantly, as applied to these animals, 
 and these exclusively, has a literal and appropriate mean- 
 ing. 
 
 It has been shown under the article, "Change of Cli- 
 mate," that the temperature of the earth was formerly 
 much greater than at present, and it is well known, that 
 shells of the same tribes, increase in size, in some propor- 
 tion to the heat of the climate, where they are found. It 
 is also a general law, that animals multiply most rapidly 
 in hot climates. It may, therefore, be fairly inferred, that 
 much larger quantities of organic limestone would have 
 
 * De La Beche, Manual, p. 364. t See Parkinson's Fossil Organic 
 Remains. I De La Beche's Catalogue, Manual, p. 323369. Lyell's 
 Geology, vol. i. p. 151. 
 
 30 
 
350 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 been formed during the same period, anciently, than at 
 present. But who knows what beds of this rock are now 
 forming in the depths of the oceans, and who will know 
 until they are elevated for the inspection of geologists? 
 
 Conclusions from the above facts. From all the facts 
 and circumstances thu stated, may we not draw the fol- 
 lowing inferences. 
 
 First. That testaceous animals were originally created 
 in great abundance, and in every part of the sea. 
 
 Second. That these animals increased much more 
 rapidly under the ardent heat of the ancient world, and 
 attained much larger sizes, than at present. 
 
 Third. That beds of shells were formed by the cur- 
 rents of the sea, and not by their accumulation upon each 
 other, by natural increase. 
 
 These inferences being admitted, may we not conclude, 
 that it is possible, all the shell limestone which is known 
 to exist, might have been formed by constant accumula- 
 tions within the period of the nearly 2000 years, which 
 have elapsed between the creation and the deluge. 
 
 Secondary limestone not always formed of shells. It is 
 not necessary, we should suppose, that all secondary lime- 
 etone has been formed of shells, for we find that this pro- 
 cess is constantly going on at the present day, by means of 
 water containing carbonaceous particles. It has already 
 been stated that the waters of San Filippo, formed strata 
 of solid carbonate of lime at the rate of thirty feet in twenty 
 years,* and which, therefore, during the period above 
 named, supposing the same process to continue, would 
 form a mass of limestone 3000 feet thick, which would 
 exceed any known limestone formation in depth. In vari- 
 ous other places, similar depositions are forming. 
 
 It has also been stated in the preceding volume, that 
 limestone containing shells, is now constantly accumula- 
 ting at the delta of the Rhone in the Mediterranean. 
 Large masses are continually taken up from that place, of 
 arenaceous rocks, cemented by calcareous matter, inclu- 
 ding multitudes of shells, of recent species. A cannon was 
 
 * Lyell's Geology, vol. i". p. 204. 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 351 
 
 also discovered and taken up at the same place, imbedded 
 in crystalline limestone.* 
 
 The Coral islands and reefs, also exhibit vast accumula- 
 tions of calcareous matter, which at the present day are 
 constantly increasing. That on the coast of New Hol- 
 land extends in an uninterrupted course to the length of 
 350 miles, and with others, forma continuous line of 1000 
 miles, in length, varying from twenty to sixty miles in 
 breadth, and is probably from 1000 to 1500 feet in depth. 
 This, if thrown up from the bottom of the sea, would form 
 a mountain of organic limestone, of far greater extent 
 than any now known to exist on the face of the earth, t 
 
 Now this immense mass of organic calcareous matter 
 has been forming only since the commencement of what 
 geologists call " the present order of things," or since the 
 sea has occupied its present bed, and which all agree was 
 not at a very remote period, certainly not more than 6000 
 years ago, and yet this is acknowledged by geologists to be 
 the most extensive range of organic mountains in exist- 
 ence. " It far exceeds," says Dr. Macculloch, " any that 
 are known in the extent of its range. "J 
 
 When such a formation is seen and known, or acknow- 
 ledged, to be but of comparatively recent origin, why is it 
 necessary, to suppose that other organic formations, which 
 took place in the depths of the ocean, and of which we 
 know nothing except by conjecture, should have required 
 millions of years for their production? 
 
 The truth is, that no man can prove at what period the 
 ancient rocks were formed, by their appearance, or by 
 any series of intrinsic circumstances attending them, nor 
 can he show, with any degree of certainty, how long a 
 period was required for their production. All agree that 
 the organic rocks were formed under the waters of the 
 ocean, and, therefore, that their growth was concealed from 
 all observation. The few analogies that can be adduced 
 of similar formations, seem to show that the lapse of 
 many ages is not required, to produce extensive calca- 
 reous formations. Who knows what exists in the bottom 
 of the ocean at the present day? or what geologist will 
 deny that the elevation of a few square miles of land 
 
 * LyelPs Geology, p. 234. t See the preceding vol. p. 64. 
 
 * System of Geology, vol. i. p. 339. 
 
352 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 from the middle of the Atlantic, might not entirely 
 change all existing theories with respect to the age of the 
 earth? 
 
 Doctrine of sucesssive creations. The doctrine of a suc- 
 cession of creations, by which some writers have pro- 
 posed to account for the organic relics which they suppose 
 more ancient than those described in Genesis, is not only 
 opposed to the implied meaning of scripture, as already 
 noticed, but, if we are not mistaken, it contradicts one of 
 the most important and interesting series of facts which geor 
 logy has unfolded, and which we have taken especial pains 
 to establish in the preceding pages, viz. that there exists, 
 in the strata of the earth, a regular gradation of organic 
 substances, from the lowest plants to the highest orders 
 of animals, and that, in this respect, there is an exact co- 
 incidence between revelation and geology. Now, if there 
 have been many successive and distinct creations, each 
 creation must have been either of the same kind as that 
 which took place before it, or of a different kind. If, for 
 instance, the first creation was cryptogamous plants, of 
 one species, and the second creation, plants of the same 
 tribe, of another species, the first becoming extinct before 
 the second came into existence; then we are to suppose 
 that the soil and climate of the whole earth was every 
 where the same, and that for thousands of years it was fit- 
 ted for nothing but cryptogamia. This would only seem 
 to show that one species was ordered out of existence, mere- 
 ly that another might be created, under precisely the same 
 circumstances, and thus, that the Creator, for thousands 
 of years, (if so long is required by the theorist,) occupied 
 the earth Only with the lowest vegetables. When plants 
 of the higher orders came into existence, we have to sup- 
 pose a recurrence of the same corresponding process; and 
 so of the testacea, amphibia and mammalia, the earth 
 being fitted for each class in succession, and no other, and 
 that many species of each class were, alternately created, 
 and permitted to go out of existence. 
 
 That the doctrine of successive creations can be true on 
 no other grounds, is shown by the well ascertained geolo- 
 gical facts, above mentioned, viz: that the order in which 
 organized remains occur in strata, from below upwards, is 
 thus: cryptogamous plants, dicotyledonous plants, testacea, 
 amphibia and mammalia. 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 253 
 
 Now had different parts of the earth been prepared for 
 each of these classes at the same time, or had a creation, 
 at the same epoch, consisted of plants, testacea, amphibia 
 and mammalia, the remains of these ought now to be 
 found in series of strata, by themselves, and when these 
 became extinct, to be followed by another series in the 
 same manner; whereas we find, in truth, that the lower 
 strata, never contain the relics of the more perfect animals, 
 but only those of plants, shells, &c. 
 
 The doctrine of successive creations, therefore, cannot 
 be maintained as geologically true, unless we suppose that 
 the lower orders only were created; then annihilated, and 
 again replaced; and that the same law was followed with 
 respect to the other orders of creation; for on no other hy- 
 pothesis, will the several creations correspond with the 
 succession of remains which the strata contain. 
 
 This notion, if not ridiculous, is at least derogatory to 
 the Wisdom and Power of the Creator. 
 
 Does not reason as well as religion, therefore, dictate 
 that before the Holy Scriptures, or any part of them, are 
 wrested from their plain and obvious meaning, (or from 
 the sense in which they have been universally understood 
 by the whole Christian world,) in order to adapt them to 
 what have appeared to some, to be geological facts, that 
 these facts should be more clearly established than they 
 appear to be at present? Will it not be in time to change 
 the meaning of Moses, when geology clearly shows, that, 
 with all his inspiration, he was in an error? or, at least, 
 until geologists agree with respect to the points in which 
 he was mistaken? Still, we are entirely opposed to the 
 suppression of any geological fact because it seems to 
 bear against revelation. Let the whole truth come forth, 
 in a fair and impartial manner, and if the scriptures cannot 
 stand against it, let them fall. No truth is impious, nor 
 will facts, in the light of the present age, ever convict their 
 discoverer of heresy* 
 
 We do not deny the remote antiquity of the earth; it 
 was created at the "beginning" and, therefore, as formerly 
 remarked, men may speculate with safety on the changes 
 it suffered while . " it was without form, and void, and 
 darkness was upon the face of the deep." Here, revela- 
 tion is no guHe with respect to time, and theorists may 
 call millions of ages to their aid in accounting for the phe- 
 nomena which the ancient world presented. But, from 
 30* 
 
354 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 the period when plants and animals were created, we 
 have a guide, at least, with respect to certain parts of the 
 earth's history, which no one may contradict by mere in- 
 ferences, and from which guide, no believer in revelation, 
 can depart with propriety or safety. 
 
 We have no room, at present, to notice the other rea- 
 sons which have been brought to show the great antiquity 
 of secondary strata, nor is this necessary, since they are 
 chiefly predicated on grounds already examined. 
 
 Opinions of Geologists with respect to the antiquity of 
 the present form of the Earth. In concluding the sub- 
 ject of the Mosaic days, and the earth's antiquity, we 
 will cite the opinions of two or three geological wri- 
 ters who appear to have carefully investigated these 
 points. 
 
 Dr. Ure. "We may," says Dr. Ure, "ask, why we 
 should claim, in behalf of our globe, a more ancient ori- 
 gin than that assigned by the inspired chronologist? 
 Will its rank, dignity, and importance, be enhanced by a 
 remote genealogy? Is not this a taint of the pride of 
 ancestry common to the whole family of man? But how 
 can it be safely gratified? Even lynx-eyed science can 
 pierce the dark veil of creation no further than common 
 vision.*' 
 
 Again, " it is to be regretted that any commentators of 
 scripture, misled by the fancied necessity of certain geo- 
 logical schemes of stratiform superposition, should have 
 vexed themselves and their readers, in torturing the He- 
 brew words for day, and evening, and morning, into many 
 mystical renderings. That Moses attached no such vague 
 meaning to the creative days in Genesis, is evident from 
 the language of the fourth commandment in Exodus," 
 " Six days shalt thou labor," &c.* 
 
 Dr. Macculloch. Says Dr. Macctilloch, "They who 
 have attempted a conciliation, by altering the lengths of 
 the periods, have taken an unnecessary, as well as an un- 
 warrantable liberty of interpretation; since they thus wrest 
 the plain words of scripture to their own evil purposes; 
 
 * New System of Geology, p. It. 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 355 
 
 too ignorant to perceive the unbounded hazard of such 
 a principle. And, it may surprise them to be told, boast- 
 ful as they have been, that they have not even read with 
 understanding, the plainest passages of a book, which is 
 far more often read than considered, arid much too often 
 read for the purpose of confirming a religious hypothesis, 
 not for discovering the truth."* 
 
 Baron Cuvier. " We see," says Baron Cuvier, " that,, 
 even in confining themselves to the limits of Genesis,, 
 naturalists have a wide field before them; they soon found 
 themselves in difficulties, and when they had succeeded 
 in attributing to the six days of creation, indefinite pe- 
 riods, ages costing them nothing, their systems took a 
 flight proportioned to the intervals which they could dis- 
 pose of."f 
 
 Ignatius Paradisi. Ignatius Paradisi^ a learned ec- 
 clesiastic of Florence, has advanced a theory by which the 
 facts established by Cuvier concerning the revolutions of 
 the globe are reconciled with the Mosaic cosmogony. 
 
 The first of these revolutions, is that which displaced 
 the materials of which the surface of the globe is formed, 
 from their original position; elevating the mountains and 
 forming the great valleys which the earth now presents. 
 At this time " darkness dwelt upon the face of the deep," 
 no organized beings had been created, and hence among 
 the primitive rocks, no fossil remains are found. 
 
 The second revolution, or series of revolutions, formed 
 the strata now called secondary, and in which are includ- 
 ed innumerable remains of plants and animals. Hence 
 these revolutions took place after God had said, "Let the 
 earth bring forth grass," and " Let the waters bring forth 
 abundantly the moving creature that hath life."* 
 
 Geologists have attempted to show, that between these 
 revolutions, there must have been an indefinite series of 
 ages, and an equal number of creations and annihilations 
 of organized beings, at least before the races now in exist- 
 ence were brought into being. 
 
 But, says Paradisi, it does not seem reasonable to at- 
 tribute to a long duration of time, the production of those 
 
 Geology, vol. ii. p. 62. t Revolution of the Globe, p. 38. 
 
356 DAYS OF CREATION. 
 
 phenomena of the causes and agents of which we are en- 
 tirely ignorant. We find at first, that " The earth was 
 without form and void," Gen. i. 2, and how long it was 
 in this state, we are not told. But when the "Spirit of 
 God moved upon the face of the waters," then took place 
 those first revolutions, the origin and cause of which, 
 geologists have so vainly attempted to conjecture. With 
 respect to the agents employed to effect this revolution, 
 we are entirely ignorant. It is sufficient for us to show 
 that nothing in geology is opposed to the expressions of 
 revelation, but on the contrary that all the new discoveries 
 tend to confirm its truth. . . 
 
 Who will not perceive, in the expression, " The Spirit 
 of God moved upon the face of the waters," the origin of 
 these first revolutions, for the historian immediately pro- 
 ceeds to describe the effects produced. " Let there be 
 light." " Let there be a firmament." " Let the waters 
 under the firmament be congregated," and "Let the dry 
 land appear." 
 
 To see in an instant, light divided from darkness; waters 
 formed into seas, and the dry ground appearing at the 
 command of the Omnipotent, what is it but to exhibit the 
 most violent changes. 
 
 Could the work of the third day, when the mountains 
 were elevated, the waters gathered, and the dry land made 
 to appear, have been performed without convulsing the 
 earth to her centre? And how vain would it be to seek to 
 reduce such phenomena to the ordinary laws of nature? As 
 vain as to attempt to explain by the laws of vegetation, the 
 sudden production of ripe fruits; or by those of animal phy- 
 siology, the instant creation of a man in full size and vigor. 
 Says Cuvier, "the methods of nature are changed, the thread 
 of her operations is broken, and none of the agents she 
 now employs could have produced her ancient works." 
 
 The second series of revolutions happened when our 
 earth was clothed with vegetation, and full of living be- 
 ings with the exception of man, having also many species of 
 animals now extinct. These revolutions are indicated by 
 the remains of plants and animals found in the strata of our 
 globe. 
 
 At this period, only a single pair of our race were in 
 existence. They were placed in the garden of Eden, but 
 they sinned and fell. " Cursed be the ground for thy 
 sake," said God to Adam; and who can tell what horrible 
 
DAYS OF CREATION. 357 
 
 revolutions this earth was made to suffer, when this awful 
 malediction was pronounced? We may believe that with 
 the exception of such as were in Paradise, every creature 
 which had life, perished, and that the whole earth was 
 changed into a dreary desert, fit only to produce briars 
 and thorns. In this awful change ought we not to see 
 that revolution which buried such innumerable numbers 
 of plants and animals in the strata of the earth, and whose 
 remains we find at this day? 
 
 " Thorns and thistles shall it bring forth to thee; and 
 thou shalt eat the herb of the field," was the terrible sen- 
 tence which the sin of man brought upon the earth, and 
 upon himself. 
 
 We know with certainty that the earth has suffered a 
 revolution, which buried the productions of her surface in 
 its ruins; and it is a fact of sacred history, that this same 
 earth was cursed of God, and that in consequence of that 
 curse it was suddenly and entirely transformed, and laid 
 waste. Nor can any known cause, except this curse, be 
 assigned with any degree of probability to account for this 
 revolution. Why, then, have recourse to a long succes- 
 sion of ages to explain such phenomena? Time is not 
 of itself an agent of nature. No extent of time can give 
 to nature, forces which it does not possess, nor agents of 
 which it is manifestly destitute. 
 
 If we inquire where was man, and the animals which 
 survived this revolution, the historian informs us. They 
 were all in the Paradise of delights. Without inquiring 
 into the site of Paradise, it is evident that it was separated 
 from the earth which was cursed. This appears evident 
 from the expressions, Plantaverat autem Dominus Deus, 
 Paradisum Voluptatis; But the Lord God had planted a 
 Paradise of pleasure; and afterwards, Tulit ergo Dominus 
 Deus, hominem et posuit eum in Paradiso voluptatis. 
 Therefore the Lord God took man and placed him in ike 
 Paradise of delight. It evidently follows that Paradise 
 was a very different place from that earth which was cur- 
 sed, and which was afterwards destined to be the abode 
 of Adam and his posterity. Here, therefore, our first pa- 
 rents' dwelt with all the animals which survived the ca- 
 tastrophe consequent upon the curse God had pronounced. 
 The fossil bones which are found so abundantly at the 
 present day, belonged to animals which had been dispersed 
 over the earth. These all perished, and hence many of 
 
358 INDIAN ASTRONOMICAL TABLES. 
 
 their species remain extinct, while the species which were 
 in Paradise are those which now exist. Paradise was 
 then the only place of refuge, as the ark afterwards was 
 during the deluge. Thus may these singular phenomena 
 be explained by the sacred history, and under its faithful 
 guidance do we recognize the second series of revolu- 
 tions, exhibited by the aspect of our earth. 
 
 These are the opinions of some of the most enlightened 
 men who have lately written on this long controverted 
 subject, and we may remark in general, that the more 
 that is known of geology, the greater is the number of ad- 
 vocates for allowing the common reading of the scrip- 
 tures to remain, under a belief that further investiga- 
 tions, will destroy every ground of excuse for a change in 
 the obvious meaning of Moses. 
 
 INDIAN ASTRONOMICAL TABLES. 
 
 Since we are on the subject of the connection between 
 the sciences and revelation, we will end our labors by 
 briefly citing two or three instances, in which infidelity, 
 for a time, was allowed to triumph over the scriptures in 
 such a manner as seemed to show, that either the demon- 
 strations of the exact sciences must be false, or the writings 
 of Moses could not be true. But the reader will see, that 
 in these, as well as in all other cases, inspiration has 
 proved itself the test of truth. 
 
 The Hindoo, or Indian Tables, were calculated by the 
 astronomers of India, and were supposed, by many, to 
 substantiate, in no small degree, the pretensions of the 
 Hindoos to the vast antiquity which they have always 
 claimed for their nation. Here, it was said, were mathe- 
 matical calculations of great abstruseness and accuracy, 
 made by these people, thousands of years anterior to the 
 epochs at which any European nation could trace its 
 origin. 
 
 These tables were first published in Europe by M. 
 Bailly, a Frenchman, who claimed a high standing in the 
 world for learning and eloquence. But had it not been 
 for the influence of Professor Playfair, of Edinburgh, they 
 would have been little known, and, therefore, would have 
 had little influence in depreciating the veracity of Moses. 
 
INDIAN ASTRONOMICAL TABLES. 359 
 
 In a paper which this learned professor read before the 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh, in 1788, he declared his un- 
 qualified belief in the truth and solidity of this Hindoo 
 production. 
 
 No Professor in Europe, had, at that period attained to 
 a higher eminence in the department of mathematics, than 
 Playfair; and being withal a man of amiable manners, and 
 the most eloquent of scientific writers, his open avowal of 
 the truth of a series of mathematical calculations, designed 
 to prove that the Christian had no foundation for his be- 
 lief, could not but have produced strong emotions in the 
 public mind. Some who had never before doubted, now 
 began to waver; while others who had before tried to be- 
 come sceptics, now had sufficient excuse, as they thought, 
 to come out downright infidels. 
 
 Professor Playfair's commentary on the Indian Astrono- 
 my was published in the Phiosophical Transactions for 
 1790. He there says, that it is through the medium of 
 astronomy alone, that a few rays from those distant ob- 
 jects, (the primitive inhabitants of the earth,) can be con- 
 veyed in safety to the eye of a modern observer, so as to 
 afford him a light, which, though scanty, is pure and un- 
 broken, and free from the false coloring of vanity and su- 
 perstition." Thus declaring, that it is through the me- 
 dium of astronomy, and not through that of revelation, 
 that we are to lopk for any knowledge of antiquity, 
 " which is pure, and free from the false coloring 1 of vanity 
 and superstition." >>i< 
 
 With respect to the tables themselves, Professor Play- 
 fair says, " that on grounds which have now been explain- 
 ed, the following general conclusions appear to be estab- 
 lished. The observations on which the astronomy of In- 
 dia is founded, were made more than 3000 years before 
 the Christian era, (consequently 650 years before the del- 
 uge, by the Hebrew chronology,) and, in particular, the 
 places of the sun and moon, in the beginning of the Caly- 
 youg, or age of misfortune, that is 3102 years before the 
 Christian era, were determined by actual observation." 
 
 " Two other elements of this astronomy," he continues, 
 " the equation of the sun's centre, and the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic, when compared with those of the present time, 
 seem to point to a period of this astronomy 1000 or 1200 
 years earlier, (that is 4300 years before the Christian era,) 
 and the time necessary to have brought the arts of calculating 
 
360 INDIAN ASTRONOMICAL TABLES. 
 
 and observing, to such perfection as they must have been, 
 at the period spoken of, comes in support of the same con- 
 clusion." 
 
 Thus, on the authority of Professor Playfair, it was es- 
 tablished that the Hindoo period called Caly-youg, being 
 3102 years before the Christian era, was the epoch at which 
 these calculations were made; then other elements point to 
 a period 1200 years before this, making in all 4300 before 
 the Christian era, so that the astronomical calculations of 
 these heathen philosophers, extended to a period nearly 
 300 years before the creation of the sun, and moon, and 
 planets according to Moses.* 
 
 All this was proved by one of the first mathematicians 
 of the age, for Professor Playfair had made himself re- 
 sponsible for the truth and accuracy of the Indian calcu- 
 lations, as well as for the period at which they were 
 made. 
 
 These important conclusions, solemnly announced from 
 the mathematical chair of Edinburgh, gave them a degree 
 of consequence and authority in the estimation of the 
 world, proportionate to the high source whence they 
 came. 
 
 Few persons could follow the Professor through the 
 calculations from which these demonstrations had been 
 deduced; and fewer still, thought of making public oppo- 
 sition to such authority. 
 
 Thus, infidels believing their cause now settled on a 
 foundation that could not be moved, thought and spoke 
 of Moses and his history, with the utmost contempt; while 
 many Christians, believing that, at least, some truth had 
 emanated from such a source, and being unable to bring 
 any thing but the naked word of inspiration, against 
 what were considered mathematical deductions, were 
 happy when they could avoid all religious discussions 
 with those who, at the onset, were ready to prove that 
 the very foundation of their faith was wanting. 
 
 * This estimate is founded as above stated, on the Hebrew chronology 
 whiah gives 4004 years from the creation to the incarnation. It is how- 
 ever, but fair for the reader to remember, that the Constantinopolitan 
 chronology makes 5504 years between these events, and that Josephus 
 makes the same period to consist of 5200 years. If we adopt either of 
 these periods, the calculations of Play fair do not extend beyond the time 
 of the creation. ';*>.*. 
 
INDIAN ASTRONOMICAL TABLES. 361 
 
 But whether the Mosaic record remained true or false, 
 it is certain that the demonstrations of Professor Playfair 
 did not destroy the verity of all scripture, since the truth 
 of that declaration, " a kingdom divided against itself 
 cannot stand," was confirmed and illustrated in his own 
 case, as the event will prove. Laplace, the French as- 
 tronomer, who was contemporaneous with Playfair, and 
 on whose high attainments the Professor had pronounced 
 a splendid panegyric, Laplace himself, the lover and pat- 
 ron of infidelity, was destined to become the agent, by 
 whom Moses and the prophets were delivered from ob- 
 loquy and contempt; and by which it was demonstrated, 
 that notwithstanding the existence of the Hindoo tables, 
 and the opinion of the Edinburgh Professor, the Scrip- 
 tures might still be a revelation from Heaven. 
 
 " Every thing/' says Laplace, " leads us to conclude 
 that they [the Hindoo tables,! are not of high antiquity. 
 They have two principal epochs, which go back, one to 
 the year 3102, and the other to 1491 years before the 
 Christian era. These are linked together by the mean 
 movements of the sun, moon, and planets, so that one of 
 the epochs are necessarily fictitious " " In fact," he con- 
 tinues, " if we assume for our point of departure, the 
 epoch 1491, and go back, by means of the Indian tables, 
 to the year 3102, before the Christian era, we obtain a 
 general conjunction of the sun, moon, and planets, as 
 these tables suppose; but this conjunction differs too much 
 from the result of our best tables to have taken place, 
 demonstrating that the epoch to which it refers is not 
 grounded on observation. 
 
 44 The tables altogether, and particularly the impos- 
 sibility of the conjunction which they suppose at the 
 same epoch, prove, on the contrary, that they have been 
 constructed, or, at least, rectified in modern times.* 
 
 <4 It is well known," says Baron Cuvier, " that M. Bailly, 
 thinking that the epoch which is used as a period of de- 
 parture, in some of the Indian astronomical tables, had 
 been really observed, has attempted thence to deduce a 
 proof of the remote antiquity of this science among that 
 people, or at least in that nation which bequeathed its 
 knowledge to them. But the whole of this system so 
 
 * Book T. hap. i. 
 *] 
 
362 INDIAN ASTRONOMICAL TABLES. 
 
 laboriously conceived, falls to the ground of itself, now 
 that it is proved that this epoch was subsequently adopted 
 on calculations made backwards, and the result of which 
 was incorrect."* 
 
 M. Bently has discovered that the tables Tivalour, on 
 which, particularly, the assertion of Bailly was founded, 
 must have been calculated about 1281 after Christ, (540 
 years since;) and that the Surya-Siddhanta, which the 
 Brahmins regard as their most ancient and scientific trea- 
 tise on astronomy, and which they pretend was revealed, 
 more than twenty millions of years ago, could not have 
 been composed until about 760 years since. 
 
 These authorities might be considered sufficient to 
 settle forever the famous question of the Indian Tables, 
 which, for a time it is known, was the strong hold of in- 
 fidelity; and yet the opinion of Playfair has been so 
 widely disseminated, and is contained in so many books 
 still in existence, and still read, that we add one other 
 authority, lest in the minds of some, these should not re- 
 move every doubt. 
 
 Delambre, in his History of Astronomy, writes on this 
 subject as follows: 
 
 " The extensive treatise on Indian Astronomy, by 
 Bailly, has been labored with more care than any of his 
 works. We regret only to remark too frequently in it, 
 that spirit of system which predominates in all his pro- 
 ductions. Instead of giving an exposition of the facts, 
 which may enable us afterwards to consider them in every 
 point of view, he espouses an opinion to which he makes 
 every thing conform. He renders it available with much 
 address, and by approximations which are often specious. 
 Sometimes, and especially in his Indian Treatise, he in- 
 trenches himself behind imposing masses of calculations, 
 carefully dissembling whatever may prove prejudical to 
 his cause as well as the objections that might be advanc- 
 ed, and which he himself could not fail to perceive." 
 
 "If we be allowed to hazard a conjecture, we would 
 say, that Bailly never writes but to prop a system framed 
 beforehand; that he glances slightly over the writings of 
 the ancients, reading them in bad translations, and that 
 he runs over all the calculations, in order to pick out ol> 
 
 * Cuvier's Disc. p. 145. 
 
INDIAN ASTRONOMICAL TABLES. 363 
 
 scure passages which may lend some countenance to his 
 ideas." 
 
 " When we inquire why the Indians chose the remote 
 and fictitious epoch of Caly-youg, or misfortune, we per- 
 ceive, in the first place, that it was from national vanity; 
 and in the next, that they might make all the planets start 
 from one point, a conjunction which their method of calcu- 
 lation required. If we further ask, why. they adopted a 
 complicated method which employs divisions and multi- 
 plications of enormous numbers, with so many additions, 
 subtractions, reductions and different precepts, the answer 
 is, that they did not wish for written tables; they wanted 
 numbers which could be put into technical verses, even 
 into songs, so that the calculations might be performed 
 without writing a book. These facts, now well known, 
 through the labors of the Asiatic Society, are alone suffi- 
 cient to subvert the whole system of Bailly." 
 
 " Mr. Playfair, in the 4th volume of the Edin. Phil. 
 Trans, has spoken of the Indian table of sines, believing it 
 to be very ancient. Consequently, he is not surprised at 
 finding no tangents in it, which were unknown in Europe 
 till the 16th century. But as the idea of them is very 
 clearly expounded in the work of Albategni, and as, in 
 the 13th century, we find tables of tangents calculated by 
 the Arabs, we need not wonder if they should be found in 
 the Surya-Siddhanta, whose date is now known to be 
 more ancient. The Professor is astonished at seeing 
 versed sines among the Indians; but his memory has be- 
 trayed him, when he asserts that the Arabs did not know 
 them. He acknowledges that the Indians have not ac- 
 tually demonstrated either of the processes which they 
 point out for these calculations. I would be tempted to 
 believe that they were ignorant of these demonstrations; 
 if they had known the principle, their table would have 
 been probably a little better. Mr. Playfair has not calcu- 
 lated it anew, he has not even had the discernment to 
 perceive the error of the division, 225 substituted, proba- 
 bly by an error of the copy, for the true divisor 235. 5." 
 
 Thus at the touch of truth, vanished the most specious, 
 and apparently the most solid foundation for infidelity 
 that modern times have afforded, and thus did Moses and 
 his history triumph over the vain pretensions of the 
 Hindoos, combined with the demonstrations of one of the 
 first mathematicians of Europe. And, it is not a little 
 
364 EGYPTIAN ZODIACS. 
 
 gratifying to the friends of the Bible, that the "pure and 
 unbroken light which is free from the false coloring of 
 vanity and superstition" was thus freed from contempt 
 and derision, not by the guardians of religion, but by those 
 who were searching for truth solely in honor of the sci- 
 ences, and who would, (at least some of them,) have rather 
 the error had fallen against Moses, than against the In- 
 dian Astronomy. 
 
 EGYPTIAN ZODIACS. 
 
 " No sooner," says the Rev. Mr, Conybeare, " has any 
 new discovery, whatever might have been its subject, oc- 
 curred, (whether it was a fragment of Indian Chronology, 
 or an Egyptian Zodiac, or the mechanism of the Universe, 
 or that of living bodies, or lastly some new fact relating 
 to the structure of the earth,) than the first aspect under 
 which some minds have seemed anxious to view it, has 
 been, whether it would not furnish some new weapon 
 against Revelation."* 
 
 Recent history, especially that department which re- 
 lates to the sciences, constantly affirms the truth of the 
 above observation. In no age have the advocates for un- 
 belief sought after new resources, with so much eagerness, 
 as during the present. The mighty movements of the 
 Christian world, have not only shown a determination to 
 spread the truths of the gospel, where they are still un- 
 known, but also to remove from herself as far as possible, 
 every taint of irreligion. The light of science, and a 
 more general knowledge of the Bible, have long since 
 thrown all the ancient systems of infidelity into oblivion. 
 Even those which were in fashion thirty years ago are 
 now obsolete; so that the errors and the authors against 
 which Dr. Dwight warned his Baccalaureate in about 
 1800, are such as young men are in little danger from, at 
 the present day. The world is too far advanced in know- 
 ledge, to be caught by common-place arguments against 
 religion. All this is well known to the infidel ranks in 
 every part of Christendom, and hence they see the ne- 
 cessity of looking among the higher branches of know- 
 ledge for new weapons. 
 
 * Conybeare and Phillips' Geo. Int. p. 50. 
 
EGYPTIAN ZODIACS. 365 
 
 The progress of the sciences has lately afforded these 
 men their chief hopes, and already several high attempts 
 hare been issued from this quarter. Among these the 
 Systeme des Animaux sans Vertebres, and the " Hydro- 
 geologie" from one hand, and the Expose du Sysleme 
 du Monde, from another, stands conspicuous. 
 
 Meantime, Egypt, that country of wonders and of an- 
 tiquities, of which no one could tell the origin or date, 
 has been for a long period looked upon as a most proba- 
 ble source, whence some strong proof against revelation 
 would come; and from time to time it has been asserted, 
 that monuments had been there discovered, which, could 
 their antiquities be known, would undoubtedly, as counter 
 truths, go far to destroy the influence of the Bible. But 
 the language of the Egyptians being unknown, was the 
 excuse for not proving to the world the antiquity of these 
 monuments, and thus doing away at once, all ground of 
 religious prejudice and superstition among men. 
 
 It was not however, until Egypt was occupied by the 
 army of Napoleon, that monuments which appeared to 
 offer any great available promise for such a purpose, were 
 discovered, and these were the famous Egyptian Zodiacs, 
 which for a time occupied the almost entire attention of 
 all the antiquaries, and many of the learned men of 
 Europe. 
 
 There were two of these Zodiacs, one of which occupi- 
 ed the place of a ceiling in a temple at Dendera, in Upper 
 Egypt, and the other a corresponding situation in a temple 
 at Esne, the ancient Latopolis. At the latter place indeed 
 there were two, in different temples, one of which, how- 
 ever, was of a small size, and of which it is unnecessary 
 to take further notice. 
 
 These works were supposed by many learned men, to 
 afford the most conclusive evidence, (on what ground will 
 be seen directly,) that no history yet known, had recorded 
 the true epoch of the creation of man; and not a few 
 writers exulted in the belief, that at last, reason and sci- 
 ence had triumphed, and that now the minds of men were 
 no longer to be held in religious bondage. 
 
 The Egyptian Zodiacs present the same figures that 
 are employed to represent the several constellations at 
 the present day, but are arranged in a right manner, 
 and are engraved in wood and painted. That of Dendera 
 5s the most perfect. This temple faces the north. 
 31* 
 
366 EGYPTIAN ZODIACS. 
 
 Here the sign of the Lion heads the band; he is direct- 
 ing his course towards the north, and has his feet towards 
 the eastern wall. The Virgin, the Balance, the Scorpion, 
 the Archer, and the Capricorn, follow in the same line. 
 But it is needless to describe what cannot be understood 
 without drawings. 
 
 The force of the argument for the antiquity of this 
 monument, consisted in the supposition, that the peculiar 
 distribution of these figures represented the exact state, or 
 relative positions of the constellations, with respect to 
 each other at the time when it was constructed, and that 
 by astronomical calculations made backward, from the 
 present state of the constellations, it could be ascertained 
 at what period they were actually in the position repre- 
 sented by this Zodiac, and thus the period of its construc- 
 tion would be known. 
 
 Figures of the Zodiacs were first published by the ac- 
 complished Denon, in his work on Egypt, and it appears 
 that the subject excited the most intense" interest among 
 learned men of Europe, and particularly of France. 
 
 " The Zodiacs," says M. Greppo,* " were immediately 
 published, and commented upon with more or less good 
 faith and decorum. Science struck out into systems very 
 bold; and the spirit of infidelity, seizing upon the discove- 
 ry, flattered itself with the hope of drawing from it new 
 support." 
 
 ** It was said that the Zodiacs exhibited the state of the 
 heavens at the most remote periods, and that it was possi- 
 ble from present data, to show when that period was. 
 Accordingly, calculations of great prolixity and abstruse- 
 ness were instituted to prove, what before had been as- 
 sumed, namely, that these monuments were constructed 
 long before the period of scripture chronology. 
 
 These calculations, founded on the sure basis of mathe- 
 matics, were said to be conclusive beyond all controversy. 
 But a difficulty arose, which in the opinion of truth and 
 sobriety, threw a doubt over all such demonstrations. 
 This was, that the philosophers did not agree among 
 themselves, as to the actual time when the Zodiacs were 
 constructed, though several coincided so far as to deny in 
 
 * " Essay on the Hieroglyphic System," by M. Greppo. Translated 
 by J. Stuart, 1830. 
 
EGYPTIAN ZODIACS. 367 
 
 the most positive manner, the veracity of Mjoses. Thus 
 M. Burkard demonstrated that the temple of Esne had 
 stood 7000 years, while M. Nouet, making his calcula- 
 tions from other data, afforded by the same figures, proved 
 that this temple was built 4600 years before the Chris- 
 tian era, that is, about 600 years before the creation, accor- 
 ding to the Mosaic Chronology. M. Dupuis, taking a still 
 different view of the subject, and making his demonstra- 
 tions from some peculiar data which his learning and saga- 
 city had discovered, shows by calculations through which 
 few could follow him, that these temples must have stood 
 at least 15,000 years. 
 
 " Although the sensation which the Zodaical system of 
 infidelity produced, was at first chiefly confined to men 
 devoted to study, there were many others, who when they 
 understood its bearings, were ready to applaud its pre- 
 tended triumphs, so that intelligent, as well as pious men, 
 were grieved to find the common belief of all Christian 
 societies, not unfrequently attacked in their very founda- 
 tion."* 
 
 In the midst of this apparent triumph of infidelity, a 
 circumstance happened, which gave a new excitement to 
 the subject of the Zodiacs. This was no less than the 
 arrival of the planisphere of Dendera at Paris. 
 
 M. Leloraine an enterprising young traveller, in spite of 
 many obstacles was the means of detaching this celebra- 
 ted monument from the ceiling of the temple, and of 
 transporting it to the sea, whence it was shipped, and final- 
 ly reached Paris in 1821. 
 
 M. Greppo describes the intense interest it there excited. 
 44 A.n object of interest," says he, ' 4 to educated men, and 
 of vanity to those who thought themselves such, it could 
 not remain unnoticed by the multitude; and classes of 
 society who knew not even the signification of the term 
 Zodiac, rushed in crowds to behold it. In the journals, in 
 the saloons, the Zodiac was the only topic of discussion. 
 Have you seen the Zodiac? What do you think of the 
 Zodiac? were questions, to which every one was seeming- 
 ly compelled to give a well informed answer, or to be 
 degraded from a place in polished society. 
 
 Greppo. 
 
368 EGYPTIAN ZODIACS. 
 
 The learned could now examiue the original instead of 
 its representations, and thus a new impulse was given to 
 the discussions concerning the Zodiac, and new opinions, 
 and new publications arose in consequence. 
 
 These discussions fermented an unbelieving spirit, even 
 among those classes, which had never before arrayed 
 themselves against the truths of revelation. Rash and 
 unfounded opinions were hazarded; the infidelity of Du- 
 puis, who had made the world 15,000 years old, was 
 spread abroad in Paris, by means of small tracts, and thus 
 the minds of multitudes partook of the poison. 
 
 At this moment, as though an antidote to the virus of 
 infidelity had descended from Heaven, there arrived in 
 Paris, that celebrated antiquary, Champollion, the young- 
 er, from a visit to Egypt. This young man had just be- 
 fore solved the great secret of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, 
 and having examined the Zodiac before its removal from 
 Dendera, he had there deciphered, not only the inscrip- 
 tions which it contained, but also several others, inscribed 
 on several parts of the temple itself. 
 
 Armed with this great discovery, he was enabled to 
 reveal the truth concerning these wonderful monuments, 
 and thus to dispel the dark cloud of scepticism, which 
 seemed destined to spread from the French capital to all 
 parts of the world. 
 
 The title on the Zodiac consisted of the following let- 
 ters, viz: AOTKPTP. These, with certain letters, 
 interspersed according to the rule discovered by Cham- 
 pollion, form the Greek word for Emperor. Besides 
 this, he discovered, in the temple of Dendera, the names, 
 titles, and surnames of the Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, 
 Nero, and Domitian, and upon the portico of Esne, whose 
 Zodiac had been judged many centuries older than that of 
 Dendera, he read the names of Claudius and Antoninus 
 Pius* 
 
 Here then the entire substratum of the Zodiacal system 
 of infidelity was crumbled into dust, and the fabric, which 
 had been erected upon it, with so much zeal and confi- 
 dence, fell at once upon its builders, and covered them 
 with shame and confusion. 
 
 And, here again, it may be remarked, (as was the case 
 
 Stuart's Greppo, p. 184. 
 
BEDS OF LAVA AT ETNA. 36$ 
 
 with the Hindoo tables,) that the facts were not brought 
 to light, by those whose especial duty and interest it is to 
 defend the truths of revelation; but by one who had gone 
 forward of his species in the science of philology; a cir- 
 cumstance of great interest and consequence, in both 
 cases, since iniidelity can never claim, that, in these in- 
 stances, its cause has been crushed by the undue influence 
 of " prejudice or superstition," upon the world. 
 
 It is only necessary to state, in concluding this subject, 
 that the Egyptian Zodiacs have no greater antiquity than 
 the Roman domination of Egypt, which commenced one 
 or two centuries after the Christian era; and that these 
 signs do not, in any respect, relate to astronomy, but are 
 connected with the idle phantasies of judicial astrology. 
 The figures, therefore, which were so lately and confi- 
 dently expected to revolutionize the Christian world, and 
 reduce it to heathenism, are nothing more than what 
 adepts in the pretended science of astronomy, call themes 
 of nativity. 
 
 And now what reader does not see especial marks of 
 Divine Superintendence, in the circumstance, that the so- 
 lution of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, (which had been a 
 principal object among antiquaries and learned men for 
 centuries,) should have been discovered, just at a moment 
 to destroy one of the most specious systems of infidelity 
 ever offered to the world? 
 
 BEDS OF LAVA AT ETNA. 
 
 " I have," says Dr. Ure, " met with persons of consi- 
 derable pretensions to candor and sagacity, who having 
 devoured with greedy eyes, the story told by Brydone, in 
 his Sicilian Tour, about the canon Recupero, conceive 
 that it justifies them in reviling the chronology and cha- 
 racter of Moses."* 
 
 This popular book has been very extensively read in 
 this country, and it is believed that even at this day, the 
 beds of lava at Etna, are often brought forward to prove 
 that there is no truth in the Mosaic Chronology. It is for 
 
 * Cteol, Int. p. 14. 
 
370 BEDS OF LAVA AT ETNA. 
 
 this reason that we here state the circumstances as they 
 are said to have occurred. With respect to the beds of 
 lava, Brydone pretends to publish the opinions of the 
 canon Recupero, who lived in the neighborhood, and who 
 it is stated was a competent judge in such matters. 
 
 This man, of undoubted piety, of great simplicity of 
 life, and well known for his hospitality, is made to say, 
 that in his opinion, a bed of lava requires 2000 years ex- 
 posure to the weather, in order to undergo sufficient de- 
 composition to form a soil of a certain thickness. On 
 examination, it was found, that Etna afforded seven beds 
 of lava, with a thickness of soil between each, equal to 
 that which the canon had said could only have been 
 formed in 2000 years. By this mode of calculation, it 
 was therefore proved that the first eruption, in this series, 
 must have been 14,000 years ago, and there would, of 
 course, be reason to suppose that the mountain itself 
 might be much older than the first bed of lava. 
 
 The manner in which this attempt to raise doubts, with 
 respect to the veracity of Moses was received, shows with 
 what avidity certain characters catch hold of any thing, 
 which looks like a weapon against religion; and, also, 
 how willing many people are to be deceived, when a lie 
 suits them better than the truth. 
 
 This simple story, which no man of common sense 
 would have taken as testimony in the smallest matter of 
 science or business, was immediately brought forward 
 and published to the world, as presenting the most posi- 
 tive facts, in evidence, that the Bible was not true; and 
 although it has long since been proved, that there never 
 existed the least foundation for such an inference, it is 
 still employed to the ignorant as an argument against the 
 Bible, and by some is considered as good evidence even 
 to this day. 
 
 The truth appears to be, that what Brydone believed, 
 or pretended to believe, was decomposed lava, was pro- 
 bably what geologists call volcanic tufa, or volcanic 
 ashes, either of which might have covered the surface of 
 the lava current, a foot or two in depth, in a few hours, 
 instead of its requiring 2000 years, as he makes the canon 
 to suppose. 
 
 That no estimate of time can be made from any such 
 circumstance, is proved by observations on other beds of 
 lava. 
 
BEDS OF LAVA AT ETNA. 371 
 
 " Some of the lavas of Auvergne," says Daubuisson, 
 " have maintained an entire surface, all over blistered, 
 and bristling with asperities, whose edges and angles are 
 still sharp, and well preserved. We might even imagine 
 these lava streams to have just flowed from the bowels of 
 the earth, and that they had hardly had time to cool. It 
 is, however, probable, that these lavas have lain on the 
 soil of Auvergne for 3000 years, exposed to the action of 
 the elements." 
 
 On the contrary, Sir William Hamilton has shown that 
 over the matter which buried Herculaneum, there are six 
 streams of lava with veins of good soil between them. Now, 
 Herculaneum was destroyed about 1800 years ago, which 
 shows that veins of good soil have there been formed in 
 300 years, instead of 2000, as estimated by Brydone. 
 Here we see, that in one case, no soil was formed in 
 3000 years, while in another, veins of some thickness 
 were formed in one-tenth of that time; which proves most 
 clearly, that no inference can be drawn with respect to 
 the age of the lava, from the state of its surface. 
 
 Mr. Daubeny, an experienced observer, has recently 
 visited the famous pit at Aci Reale, on which the Scottish 
 traveller made the canon to speculate, and of which he 
 speaks as follows. 
 
 " At all events, Brydone has been grossly deceived, in 
 imagining that the seven beds of lava seen lying one 
 above the other, near the spot, have been sufficiently de- 
 composed into vegetable mould; the substance which 
 really intervenes between the beds, being nothing more 
 than a sort of ferruginous tuff, just similar to what would 
 be produced by a shower of volcanic ashes, such as 
 naturally precedes, or follows an eruption of lava, mixed 
 up with mud or consolidated by rain."* 
 
 On the same subject, Dolomieu, a distinguished min- 
 eralogist, says, " The canon Recupero deserves neither 
 the praises which have been bestowed on his science, nor 
 the doubts which have been raised concerning his ortho- 
 doxy. He died without any other affliction, than that 
 which was caused to him by the work of Brydone. He 
 could not conceive, for what purpose this stranger, to 
 whom he had rendered services, endeavored to excite SUB- 
 
 * Edinburgh Phil. Jour. vol. xiii. p. 266. 
 
372 BEDS OF LAVA AT ETNA. 
 
 picions concerning the orthodoxy of his faith. This sim- 
 ple man, very religious, and attached to the failh of his 
 fore-fathers, was far from admitting, as an evidence against 
 the book of Genesis, pretended facts which are false, but 
 from which, even if they had been true, nothing could have 
 been concluded. Vegetable earths between the beds of 
 lava do not exist; and the argillaceous earths, which are 
 sometimes found between them, may have been disposed 
 there, by causes, totally independent of the antiquity of 
 Etna." 
 
 We are not a little surprised to find that Mr..Faber, au- 
 thor of that learned work, the " Three Dispensations," has 
 so magnified the story of the lava beds at Etna, as to make 
 out of it, one of his arguments for extending the days of 
 Genesis to periods of 6UOO years. (See an Epitome of his 
 Theory, p. 319. 
 
 " The extension," says he, '* of the six demiurgic days 
 into six very long periods, most effectually nullifies the in- 
 fidel objection, drawn from the ancient eruptions of Mount 
 Etna." 
 
 After describing the lava beds and strata of earth be- 
 tween them, Mr. Faber allows the infidel the full benefit 
 of this argument, and even more. He may if he pleases, 
 date an eruption 30,000 years before the creation of man. 
 *' What then," says the author, '* does such a concession at 
 all tend to disprove the scriptural chronology of man's 
 formation. Most assuredly not: for, if the six demiurgic 
 days each exceed a term of six thousand years, we shall 
 have quite time enough for the eruption, even prior to the 
 formation of man without there being any need to impugn 
 the scriptural authority of that event." Vol. i. p. 159. 
 London, 1823. 
 
 We cannot but hope Mr. Faber has since discovered, 
 that the ground of this argument no longer exists, and also, 
 that there may be danger in disseminating the account, 
 since it is possible some of his readers may believe the 
 facts concerning the beds, without recognizing the coun- 
 teracting force of his arguments. 
 
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