BERKELEY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EARTH SCIENCES MBRARY OUTLINES GEOLOGY: V INTENDED AS A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE MOST INTERESTING PARTS OF THE SCIENCE. TOGETHER WITH AN EXAMINATION OF THE QUESTION, WHETHER THE DAYS OF CREATION WERE INDEFINITE PERIODS. ' DESIGNED FOR THE USE GENERAL READERS. BY J. L. COMSTOCK, M. D. AUTHOR OP AN INTRODUCTION TO MINERALOGY, ELEMENTS OP CHEMISTRY, A SYSTEM OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, AND INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY. SECOND EDITION. NEW YORK. ROBINSON, PRATT, & CO. 259 PEARL STREET. 1836. ENTERED according to Act of Congress, January, A. D. 1834, by J. L. COMSTOCK, M. D. in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Con- necticut. 9' / W Qf.2. a EARTH PREFACE. GEOLOGY is peculiarly adapted to impress the mind of the student with ideas of the Wisdom and Power of the Creator, and to lead him to the acknowledgment of a Great First Cause, In addition to this, it is applicable to various, and highly impor- tant practical purposes. Millions have been expended in boring for salt, in mining for coal, and in searching for metallic veins, when even a slight knowledge of the nature, and geological po- sitions of rocks, as indicated by external appearances, would have shown that such explorations would he fruitless. In the sinking of wells, in excavations for canals, roads and buildings, and for a great variety of other purposes connected with both civil, and military engineering, a knowledge of geol- ogy is often of the highest importance to the contractor, and not less so, to the contracting party. Is it not time then, that we should begin the study of the earth on which we live, and from which, in common with all terrene animals, we derive our subsistence? And can it be doubted, that the knowledge to be derived from this source, is fully as important to the youth of this great, and unexplored country, as that pertaining to the names and sources of rivers, the extent and situation of seas, and the boundaries of nations, states, and towns, which our scholars spend so much time in committing to memory? To supply the deficiency of books on this subject, adapted to general readers and to our higher schools, is the object of this work. Possibly the clergy of our country, who have no time to read extensive geological works, and thus to collect the scattered facts which shew the coincidence, and connection between the Scriptures and geology, may rind this little volume an accepta- ble assistance. At the present day, when infidelity looks almost exclusively among the higher departments of science for aid, ought not theologians, at least, to understand the ground of such hopes, in order to make good their own defence? An ex- perienced soldier always looks well to the strength of his out- With respect to the matter of the following treatise, it is per- haps sufficient to say, that almost every recent systematic geo- logical writer in the English language, as well as many periodi- cal publications, have been consulted. The plan has been to treat of the most interesting and important parts of the science, as a whole, and hence particular notices on American geology have been admitted, only in conformity to this design. To those acquainted with the present state of geology, it IV PREFACE. hardly need be said, that to have prepared a volume which should embrace, and unite, the opinions of even the most recent and respectable authors on many subjects contained within its outlines, would have been impossible: and to those who are not acquainted with this science, it may be proper to state, that from the very nature of many of its subjects, there must always exist a variety of theories to account for the same facts, until more is known concerning them. This arises from the circumstance, that the causes of many phenomena which the earth exhibits, have long since ceased, and therefore, these causes must remain matters of conjecture. Thus coal is found in the earth, in great abundance,, but none is formed at the present day, and therefore the causes which have produced this substance, or at least, the circumstances under which it was formed, remain a subject of theory. In other instances, the causes still exist, but their effects only are apparent, as in the case of volcanoes and earthquakes. In these instances, the leading facts are admitted by all, hut men have chosen to account for them in different ways, and thus different theories have been proposed, to solve the same phe- nomena. Again, in many things connected with the natural history of the earth, the chief circumstance in question, may rest on a va- riety of collateral facts, of the bearing of which, geologists differ in opinion Thus fossil plants, belonging to orders which at present only grow in tropical climates, and the remains of ani- mals whose species are now found, only in the hottest regions of the earth, occur in many parts of Europe, and even in frozen Siberia. Hence some have supposed that the climate of Europe has changed since the deposition of these remains, and that the plants grew, and the animals lived, where their relics are now found: while others, reasoning from what they consider con- flicting facts, maintain that no change of climate has taken place, and that the main circumstance may be accounted for, by supposing that these remains were transported from hot cli- mates. At the present day, geological writers profess to maintain their theories only by facts, and fair deductions from them, and thus investigations are constantly going on, and new facts are perpetually accumulating, so that ultimately, it may be expect- ed that this science will consist of deductions from truths which are generally admitted. But in its progress towards such a state, hypothetical reasonings, under the restrictions which the present advanced state of the sciences impose, are not to be de- precated, since this is often almost the only means by which men are stimulated to that thorough investigation of facts and phenomena, which characterizes the practical geologists of the present day. It must not, however, be understood, that geology consists chiefly of the conflicting opinions of different authorities. On FREFACB. V the contrary, though of so recent an origin, it already embraces numerous series of highly interesting, curious and instructive facts, many of which seem destined to be of great importance to mankind; while others are calculated to excite profound con- siderations. An examination of the earth shows that its crust has under- gone great, and sometimes repeated mutations. The strata which once corresponded, are now completely dislocated, one portion being thrown up, broken, and distorted, while the other is depressed, and equally mutilated; the whole indicating the effects of an enormous force acting from beneath, and at an un- known depth. Every part of the earth, except the most recent deposites pre- sent similar phenomena, more or less striking, and in this man- ner, the original disposition and direction of all ancient stratified rocks, have become changed. In some instances, the changes have been so great, as to repeat the original number of strata many times. In one locality, this effect has been such, as to produce from 30 to 40,000 strata, where the original number was only four. We shall find that these dislocations are marks of wisdom and beneficence, as well as of power; and that this earth would have been but poorly fitted for the residence and comfort of man, had these strata remained in a horizontal position. The organic remains of plants and animals, the relics of a former world, are not only objects of great curiosity, but afford to the mind, subjects of the deepest contemplation. Here we have before us, the remains of vegetables and animals which covered, and inhabited the earth thousands of years ago; and some of them are so unlike any existing species, that no living analogues are any where to be found. Other remains prove, that monstrous reptiles, sixty or seventy feet ia length, once crawled among canes and rushes, which emulated in height, the forests of the present day; while huge quadrupeds of unknown tribes, inhabited the higher grounds, where they reigned lords of the creation. Probably these are the remains of animals which were known to Noah and his family; and possibly some of them belonged to the identical beasts to which Adam gave names. Thus has the earth preserved, for our examination and in- struction, natural bodies of the earliest growth, and with which, no works of art can compare in antiquity. Even the remains of Babylon and Egypt, are infants in age, when compared with these things. With respect to what has been advanced, on the subject of the days of creation, we are aware that the opinions of several American, and some foreign geologists of high standing, are against us. But having examined several learned expositions of the original text, both for, and against the admissibility of a different translation from the common one, we are fully satisfied A* that the word rendered day, connected as it is, in the history of the creation, admits of no other meaning. This, if so, ought forever to settle the question; for the necessity, which geology, or the Hindoo tables, or the Egyptian Zodiacs, or the strata at Etna, seem to present, ought never for a moment, to be admit- ted in the mind of a believer, as an excuse for misinterpreting the plainly intended meaning of the Scriptures. Both the In- dian tables and the Egyptian Zodiacs presented much stronger apparent proofs against the veracity of Moses, than any which geology now opposes to his literal meaning. We have only to add on this subject, that when it can be shown, that the roots in philology admit of a different transla- tion, and the substrata in geology require it, we will cheerfully relinquish the opinion here attempted to be maintained. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. In the preface to the former edition of this work, it was stated that the plan being to treat of the most important and interest- ing parts of the science, articles of American geology had been admitted only so far as might be necessary in conformity to this design. The author has however become convinced by the com- munications of Professors of Colleges, and the Principals of other institutions where the work has been introduced, that fur- ther illustrations from the geology of our own country would make the work more acceptable as a class book; and in con- formity to such hints, the present edition will be found much improved in this respect. For these notices the author is in- debted to a variety of American publications, but more particu- larly to Professor Hitchcock's " Report on the Geology of Mas- sachusetts," and Dr. Hildreth's Communication on the Valley of the Ohio, contained in the 59th No. of Silliman's Journal. The article on the length of the creative days has also been particularly examined, most of it re-written, and several new objections answered. On this part of his work, the author takes pleasure in acknowledging the assistance of the Rev. S. F. Jar- vis D. D. Professor of Oriental languages and Literature in Washington College, Dr. Jarvis has not only had the kindness to collate many passages of the Hebrew text with reference to the meaning of the word yom : but also to translate for his use, the theory of Paradisi, an abstract of which he has given in this work. Besides these additions, the author has made many others, as the subjects seemed to require, the whole amounting to near- ly forty pages, with twelve new illustrations by wood cuts. It is hoped, therefore, that this edition will be found much more worthy of public patronage than the former one. HARTFORD, CT., Jan. 1836. CONTENTS. Page. Adit, great Cornish, - - k J04 Age of the world according to Orpheus, .'-. Cassander, Aleutian Islands, - - 112 American deluge, - - - 34 coal fields, - - - 183 Animals, destroyed by the deluge, - - - extinct, not living species, 235 by what means did the an- cient ones perish, - 237 fossil amphibious, - - 249 Antiquity of Nations, preten- ded, - - - - 8) Ark, Noah's, ... 84 its dimensions, - - 84 * Atmosphere, temperature of the, 23 Anthracite, ... 177 Arrangement of shells in strata, 297 marine and fresh water, 299 Astronomical table, Indian, 358 Breccia, osseous, ... %\ Grande on the fossils of Essex, 230 on those of Sheppey, 231 2 Buckland on the Deluge, 68 on the Kirkdale cavern, 216 on boulders, - 68 on caverns in Germany, 256 Bufibn's Theory, - 13 79-86 Burnet's Theory, - - 13 ialamites approximatus, - 274 !averns, bone, - - 255 of Germany, - - 257 of the Morea, - - 267 !avern of Kirkdale, - - 216 bones found there, 217 Dr. Buckland on, - 216-219 of Gaylenreuth, - 257 of Durfort, - - - 264 of Kosritz, - - 266 /limate, change of, - - 212 Bagnes, flood of 37 Bakewell on the fall of Mount Grenier, 56 Baltic, accumulations in, 47 whether this sea has chan- ged its level, - 48 Basalt, - - - - 159 Basaltic rocks, - 158 veins, ... 19C Basalt, columnar, - - 19$ of Staffa, Baths of San Vignone, - 4( of San Filippo, 40 Beds of shells formed by sea cur- rents, - - - - 345 Bivalves, - Big-bone-lick, bones found there, - - - - - 245 Bone caverns, - 25f Boulders, - * ' .-; 74-75 De la Beche on, 72 of Massachusetts, - -- 7( large one at East Lyme, 75 from Norway, of the Alps, - - - 69 Dr. Buckland on, not so hot as formerly, 214 causes which have chan- ged, - -'" 221 Herschell on, - . 221 change not owing to astro- nomical causes, - 222 Dr. Ure on > 222 changed by the Deluge, 226 change sudden, - - 225 Lyell on, ... 221 further remarks on, - 226 Celcius on the Baltic, - - 47 194 Central heat, ... 133 Lyell on, - 121 Baron Fourier on, - 122 M. Cordier on, - - ]23 does exist, - - - 124 its volcanic agency, - 124 proved by the quantity of lava from volcanoes. 126 Chalk, - - . . : 155 not found in America, 155 Chinese, their false pretensions, to antiquity, 81 Cirknitzersee lake, - - 269 ontinents elevated from the sea, ": * - 127 68 Coal fields, - ffi ^ 151 74C CONTENTS. Page Coal, beds of, ... 170 searching for - - 171 indications of 172 minerals found with, - 173 of Ohio, - - - 174 anthracite, - - 177 origin of coal, - - 177 American coal fields, 183 wood coal, - - 178 marine fossils above, - 179 Columnar basalt, - - 193 Coral reefs and islands, - 62 Conchology, ... 280 Creation, Mosaic history of, 303 of heaven and earth, - 303 days of, - 317 of the firmament, of the sun and moon, - 309 of the creeping things, 311 mammalia and man, - 312 Faber's history of the, 319-24 Crocodile, fossil, Cryptogamous plants, Cuvier on the Deluge, - 78 on distinguishing fossil bones, - - - 233 on ancient species of ani- mals, - 232 thinks there are no new species, - - 236 his arrangement of fossils, 23 on the bone caverns of Germany, - - 25G on Genesis, - 355 Page, Deluge, proofs of, - - 69-70 change of climate by, 78-222 animals destroyed by, 79 historical proofs of, 80 traditions of, 82 was it universal, 84 did it destroy all the primi- tive animals, 86 Buckland on, 59 Ureon, 69 Cuvier on, - - 78 valleys formed by the, 71 effects of in Massachusetts, 75 - 348 Denon on sand downs, - 61 Density of the earth, 19 Diluvial action, - - 76 JL Diluvium, - 160 r 305 Dicotyledonous plants, 308 Dip, - - - - 165 Dodo, extinct, - - 237 Downs, .... 60 De Luc on, 61 249 Doctrine of successive creations, 352 307-309 Durfort, cavern of, - - 264 human bones found in, 264 Dyke, 167 Delambre on Indian astronomy, 362 Days of Creation, - - 317 Faber's theory of, - 319 Silliman's theory of, 325 indefinite periods, - - 328 of common length, - 333 Stuart's criticism on, - 334 Penn's criticism on, - 336 Tire on, > - - 354 Macculloch on, 354 Cuvier on, - 355 Delta of Geneva,. .-*> - 45 of the Rhone, - - 49 ofthePo, 51 j^ of the Ganges, - - 51 Deltas in lakes, 45 in the sea, 47 Deluge, Noah's, time of, - - |r Earth, density of the, - - 19 temperature of, 22 internal heat of, - - 121 has suffered changes, 230 diameter of, - - - 19 newness of proved, - 55 Earthquakes of Calabria, - 105 effects on the obelisks, 106 Prince of Scilla killed by, 1 10 of Lisbon, - - 110 theory of - - - 119 Monte Nuovo formed by, 113 elevation of Chili by, 1 13 Aleutian islands elevated by, - - - 113 island raised from the sea by, ... no Egyptian Zodiacs, - - 364 Elephant, fossil, - 79-238 African, 239 Siberian, - - - 240 bones found in England, 217 could now live in Siberia, 220 found in the ice, - 224-241 with long hair, - - 227 different species of - 238 his form of jaw, - - 239 68 Equisetums, fossil, - - 214 CONTENTS. IX Eruptions, volcanic, 91 Gneiss, - Page. 136 of Vesuvius, - - 93 Globe, constitution of, -*/. 19' of Skaptar Jokul, - 101 density of, - 19 of Etna, ... 98 Great Lizard, - 215 of Sumbawa, - - 103 Greywacke. 148 ofJorullo, - - 102 Granite, - 135 Etna, eruptions of, 98 composition of, 135 beds of lava at, - - 369 igneous origin of, 139 ice found on, - - 100 of cape Wrath, 140 Extinct shells, ... 292 of Actworth, 141 encrinite, - 292 pasing into basalt, 143 belemnites, - - 293 of Glen Tilt, - 145 ammonites, - 293 of different ages, - 145 orthroceratites, - - 249 veins of, - 143 nautilus, - 294 Greenstone, ... 159 protrusion of, 195 Faber's history of the Mosaic Gypsum, .... 154 days, - - 319-324 on the lava beds, - 372 Haldon hill, geology of 73 Fall of Mount Grenier, - 56 Hildreth on Ohio coal, 174 of the Alps, 57 on fossils found in, 170 ^ Falls of Niagara, - - 30 Fish, fossil, of Monte Heber, Bishop, sees a hairy elephant, - 227 Bolca, - - - 297 Henderson on the geysers, 42 Fault, - 167 Historical proofs of the deluge 80 Firmament, creation of, 305 \ Fossil, definition of, - - 229 Hitchcock on granite rocks, of Con way, 141 142 Fossils, division of, the protrusion of green- particular, ... 238 stone, ... 145 Fossil quadrupeds, on the diluvium of Mas- amphibia, - 249 sachusetts, - v ^- : ' 75 crocodile, ... 24 fi History of plants, Mosaic, elephant, - 238 and natural, - 306 mastodon, - - 243 Hooke on earthquakes, 8 hippopotamus, - - 246 rhinoceros, - - 247 Home on the deluge, Hutton's theory, - m>* 80 17 megatherium, - - 247 Human bones, fossil, - 963 human bones, - - 263 how came they in caverns , 267 plants and shells, - - 270 Hyena's bcmes at Kirkdale, 217 plants, ... 272 shells, - .--.- - 292 Ichthyosaurus, - 252 fishes, 295 Iguanadon, - - 215-252 trilobite, - 295 Igneous, origin of granite, 139 Tt rocks, difference in, 146 Ganges, delta of, 51 origin of trap, - - .^ 188 sediment from its water, 54 T Geology, meaning of 1 Iceland, geysers of, Ignatius Paradisi, his theory, 42 355 objects of, - - - 1 Indian astronomical tables, 358 coincides with sacred his- Islands raised from the sea, 112 tory, - - - 301 Islands, coral, formation of G2 Genesis, geology coincides with, - - 313-16 Jorullo, eruptions of, 102 what facts contradict, 3377upiter Serapis, 115 Geography of volcanoes, - 89 Geysers, ... 42iKepler's theory, - - 14 CONTENTS. Page. Kirkdale, cave, - - 216 bones found in, - 217 Kosritz, human bones found in, 266 Land and sea, proportions of, 21 Lava, 160 Lake Cirknitzersee, - - 269 Leibnitz's theory, 12 Lias, - - -N - 156 Limestone, primitive, - 138 secondary, - - 138-152 transition, - - 148 now forming, - 50 cannon covered with, 50 formations, - - 344 Limestone, - - - 304 secondary not always formed of shells, - 350 Light, where did it first eman- tte, .... 304 Lithodomus, - 11 "Lyell on Niagara Falls, - 3 on American lakes, - 35 on change of climate, 221 on the Rhone, - - 48 on the geysers, 44 Ji on the water of the Ganges, 54 on the eastern coasts of England, 58 Macculloch on the earth's di- ameter, ... - 19 on the destruction of rocks, 55 62 - 279 on coral islands, on petrifactions, his 40,000 strata, on the length of creative days, - - 354 Mantel on the saurians, - 25] on the Portland formation, 326 Marcet, Dr. on sea water, Mastodon fossil, form of his grinders, found in America, - 345 first account of, from Cotton Mather, - 224 Petrifactions, Marine worms, Megalosaurus, Megatherium, Megalonyx, Metallic veins, Mineral veins, - ,.j-> - 195 Mines and miners, - - 20 Mica-slate, - |*lonte Nuova formed, - 113-125 131 215-25C - 24" 249 Monte Bolca, fossil fish of, Vlonocotyledonous plants, VIorea, caverns in the, - Vlosaic history of the deluge, coincidence of geology with, ... and natural history of plants, - - - Mosaic days, ... Faber's theory of, - - Silliman's theory of, - indefinite periods, - - Stuart's criticism on, - Penn's criticism on, - of common length, VIountTom, - - - Holyoke, - - - Grenier, fall of, - VIountain slides, Mukivalves, - Noah's ark, Septunian doctrines, Sew-Holland, animals, Sew- Jersey, marl and shells found in, - - Niagara, account of, - Organic strata, inferences from. 340 Oolite, - - - 156 osseous breccia, - - 261 outcrop, - - - 165 outlier, - - - 167 Page, 297 307 268 67 301 306 317 319 325 328 334 336 333 193 193 56 36 281 94 $ 15 236 31 Paradisi, Ignatius, his theory, 335 Parkinson on fossil plants, 276 fishes, - - - 295 Pachydermata, . . 283 Parker's report on Pennsylva- nia coal, ... 183 Peat, - - - - 185 bodies preserved in, - 186 244 Penn, his criticism on the word day, . . . _ Pennsylvania coal fields, - Phytolithus varrucosus, caucellatus, Pittsburg, coal used there, Plastic nature, 196 Playfair on Indian astronomy, Plesiosaurus, Plott, Dr., plastic nature, Plutonians, 336 183 278 274 276 185 6 359 252-254 7 15 CONTENTS. Page Poles, how long are the days at the, - - - -332 Po, river, effects of, 28 delta of in the Adriatic, 51 Pompeii, destruction of, - 96 Porphyry, - - - - 138 Primary rocks, - - 135 Quadrupeds, fossil, - - 231 Ravenna, formerly a sea port, 51 Rafts of Red river, - - 180 of New-Orleans, - - 228 Red sea, coral reefs of, - 6i Remains, organic, - - 228 division of, - - 22S Rennell on the water of the Ganges, - - - 54 Rhone, sea and land shells, at the mouth of, - - 5C delta of in Geneva lake, 45 in the sea, 49 Rhinoceros fossil, 79 species of, - - 247 found on the Lena, - 227 Rock salt, - - - 152 origin of, - 153 Rocks, distribution of, - 55 classification of, 134-161 primary, - - - 135 Sienite transition, - - 147 secondary, - 150 basaltic, ... 159 S tabular view of, - - 161 different ages of, - 164 trap, origin of, - - 188 Slate Romans, animals exhibited by the, - 236 Sumbawa, volcano of, Sand hills, - newness of the earth proved from, 61 Sandstone, - - - - 149 Saurians, - 250-2 Sea, destroying effects of, 57 on the English coasts, mine under the, level of unchanged, - 55 Sea-water, composition of, 21 Secondary rocks, - - 150 limestone, - 152 / Sediment in river water, 53 Shells, - - . 1 .280 beds of formed by the sea, 345 Shells, vast number of, - - 347 marine and fresh water. 299 fossil, Encrinite, Belemnite, Ammonites, - Orthraceratites, - Nautilus, recent, Bivalve, Univalve, Multivalve, Barnicle, Mya, Cardium, Patella, Pholus, Mytillus, - Ostrea, - Argonauta, Dentalium, - Bulla, Voluta, Buccinum, Strombus, Murex, Turbo, Conus. Helix, Nerita, 292 - 292 293 - 293 294 - 294 281 281-283 281-285 - 281 282 - 283 285-287 286 - 286 287 - 288 288 - 289 289 - 289 290 - 290 291 - 291 292 - 137 Signs and seasons, days and years, .... 310 illiman, Prof, his theory of the days of creation, - 325 his remark about the poles, 333 mica, 136 clay, - - - 137-149 structure of, - - 169 Steno, his work on fossils, 7 102 Skaptar Jokul, eruption of, 101 60 Springs, changes caused by, - 39 phenomena of, - - 205 m hills, - - - - 211 silicious, 42 of St. Michael, - - 42 of Iceland, ... 42 58 Stonesfield, remains found in, 252 203 Strata, arrangement of shells in, 292 more ancient than Genesis allows, - - 339 our ignorance concerning, 340 diluvial, - - - - 131 proofs of their elevation, 132 tertiary, - - - 158 xii CONTENTS. Strata, and stratification, horizontal, - inclined, - ,.-.' conformable, Stuart, Prof, his criticism on the word day, - Sun and moon appear, Table of coincidences between revelation and geology,. - Tapir, fossil Temperature of the sea, - v of lakes, - of the earth, of the atmosphere, at various heights, Tertiary strata, of Long Island, - 75 Tiger killed on the Lena, - 226 Theory of volcanoes, - -119! of veins, - - - 198, Button's, - - - 1981 Werner's, - Theory of the earth, Burnet's, Woodward's, Whiston's, Leibnitz, .'-.- Buffon's Kepler's, 14j Plutonian, - 15 Werner's, - - - 15 Button's, Transition rocks,. Page. - 165 Ure, on the plesiosaurus, - 165 on the creative days, - 165 Veins, mineral, 167 theory of, of granite, - - 334 f of basalt, 309 metallic, - of greenstone, - Vegetable fossils, calcareous, 313 silicious, - - 79 Verona fossils, 22 Vesuvius, eruptions of ? ^S 22 destroyed Pompeii, - 22 Volcanoes and earthquakes, 23 connection between, 24 elevation of land by, - 158 Volcanoes, geography of, geological connections of, proximity of to the sea, of Iceland, - elevation of land by, attributed to metallic ele- ments, - attributed to ignition of pyrites, quantity of lava thrown from, - 13 Volcano of Suinbawa, of Jorullo, - of Vesuvius, - - 17 Water, effects of running, - 147 transporting power of, - 295 composition of sea, 188 Wells, Artesian, - - 193 ofModena, - 190 of London, - - 277 Wernerian theory, White mountain, slide of, Univalves, - 283 Whiston's theory, Ure, Dr. on fan palms, - - 215 wants more time, - his tabular view of rocks, 161 Willey fami'y destroyed, on the megatherium, - 148 Woodward's theory, on the cooling of the de- I luge, - - - 222 Zodiacs, Egyptian, Trilobite. Trap, origin of, mountains of, - veins of, Tree, fossil at Glasgow, - Page, 254 354 195 198 140. 191 196 - 195 278 278 - 4 93 - 96 84 - 125 113 - 89 91 - 91 100 - 113 119 - 119 126 103 102 93 26 28 21 205 207 209 15 36 11 302 37 10 364 OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY. THE term GEOLOGY comes from the Greek ge, the " earth, " and logos, " reason," or " discourse," and signi- fies the doctrine, or science of the Earth. The object of Geology is to investigate the phenomena of the external and internal parts of the earth to inquire into the modifications and changes which have taken place in the crust of the globe since its creation, and to account for these phenomena in a rational and scientific manner. This science, though of very recent date, has already been the means of offering to the consideration of the world, most important information, both of a physical and' moral nature. Many important geological facts, it is true, have been long known; but in attempting to account for them, theorists have indulged themselves, until recently, in the wildest imaginations, and the most unfounded and singular fancies. No subject of importance has come down to the philos- ophers of the present age, so incumbered with false theo- ries, false reasonings, and whimsical vagaries, as Geology. It is true, that a few writers of early date have reasoned correctly from the facts then known, but the great mass of authors on this subject, seem to have had no other object in view, but to establish theories founded on plausibilities, without the aid of facts, or observations. From the earliest antiquity men have been inquisitive in relation to the origin and duration of the earth; and the mutations which it has undergone already, or is likely to undergo in future times. In the absence of knowledge concerning the Earth's structure, or of observations on the phenomena which its surface exhibits, it was easier to found theories, and reason for the ignorance then existing, than to undertake long excursions in order to observe facts, from which to reason correctly, and draw just con- clusions. It appears from the remotest records of profane history, that philosophy had assigned to this Earth a perpetual se- ries of mutations, either by fire, or water, or by both. ^ GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. Some supposed that this fair world was occasionally, or periodically destroyed, and again renovated under a new aspect; and that a new creation of men and animals took place after every such renovation. The ancient Egyp- tians believed that this world was subject to occasional deluges and conflagrations, and that the gods by such aw- ful judgments arrested the career of human wickedness, and purified the habitation of man from his own guilt. It was supposed that all the wicked were destroyed by such disasters, and that the few who escaped, were the wise, virtuous, and happy, but that their descendants gradually became wicked, and were in like manner swept away by the wrath of the gods. Baron Humboldt states, that after the destruction of a large portion of the inhabitants of Cumana, in South America, by an earthquake, in 1766, an extraordinary fer- tility ensued, in consequence of the rain which had accom- panied the convulsion. On this occasion says he, the In- dians celebrated, in conformity to an ancient superstition, by festivals and dancing, the destruction of the world, and the approaching epoch of its renovation. The Egyptian priests assigned certain periods of time for the destruction and renovation of the world. Accord- ing to Pritchard, in his Egyptian Mythology, the cycles, or periods of these catastrophes were variously estimated. Orpheus supposed their duration to be 120,000 years; Cas- sander, 300,000 years, &c. The Greek philosophers and stoics also believed that the Earth was liable to be afflict- ed by periodical catastrophes, both by flood and fire. The first, they supposed destroyed the whole human race, and annihilated all animal and vegetable productions, and that the second dissolved the Earth itself, but that this was afterwards renovated, or re-produced. The connection between the doctrine of successive ca- tastrophes, and repeated deteriorations in the moral char- acter of the human race, is more intimate and natural to the minds of men than might at first be imagined. For in a rude state of society, all great calamities are regarded by the people as the immediate judgments of God on the wickedness of man. Thus says Mr. Lyell in our own times, the priests persuaded a large part of the population of Chili, and perhaps believed themselves, that the great earthquake of 1822, which convulsed that country was GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. a sign of the wrath of heaven on them, for the great polit- ical revolution just then commencing in South America. We may observe from the accounts of travellers, and voyagers among barbarous tribes in the South Sea Isl- ands, and in India, that earthquakes are almost universally considered among these people as judgments sent by a supreme, or superior being, on the wickedness of men. In countries not subject to earthquakes, as among the Egyptians, there are still traditions, or forebodings of con- flagrations, as we have already seen; and so far as is known, all nations and tribes, whether civilized or barba- rous, are not without their notions, however vague, of a flood of water which destroyed at least most of the inhabi- tants of their own country. Were it not most probable that this idea has been handed down by tradition from the time of Noah, it would often appear as though it were an innate moral sentiment, designed by divine authority to impress all mankind with the fear of punitive justice. This subject will come under consideration when we come to treat of the Deluge, and we will only remark fur- ther at present, that it is believed, neither the ancient phi- losophers, nor modern barbarians ever entertained any idea of the final' destruction of the Earth, this belief being derived exclusively from the sacred scriptures. We have seen that several ancient nations held to the doctrine of perpetual changes, consisting of the alternate destruction and renovation of the Earth. A similar doctrine is said to have been taught by the Gerbanites, a sect of astrono- mers who flourished before the Christian era. They be- lieved that after every period of 36,000 years, there were produced twenty-five pair of every species of animals, male and female; and that these multiply and spread over the face of this lower world. But that when a circulation of the heavenly orbs was completed, which is finished in the above named space of time, then other species of animals are created, together with new plants and other things, and so it goes on forever and ever. It is the light of revelation alone, to which we are in- debted, at the present day, for that knowledge and under- standing which places us above a belief in the false doc- trines of heathen philosophy. Civilization and experience never yet corrected the speculative philosophy, or the re- ligious opinions of heathenism. GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. With respect to the knowledge which the ancients pos- sessed of geology, nothing of importance can be said. The Greek naturalists, arid the Arabian physicians and philos- ophers have recorded some few geological facts, and seve- ral Latin writers have noticed phenomena connected with earthquakes and volcanoes, especially the rising of islands out of the sea. But the geologist will search in vain, for any facts or speculations concerning the history of the Earth, worthy his notice, until the beginning of the 16th century; when some shells dug out of the Earth at Vero- na, in Italy, became the subject of a controversy which may be considered as having laid the foundation of geolo- gical knowledge. These fossil, or petrified shells were found in 1517, in consequence of some excavations which were made for the purpose of repairing some part of the city of Verona. Such remains it is true, had long before been discovered in various places; but no persons of learning or judgment seem previously to have troubled themselves about such matters. The idea seems to have prevailed, that these were the products of what was then termed '* plastic na- ture;" that is, that shells, and other organic remains, found in the solid earth, above the sea, were not the exuviae of animals, but were formed in the rocks where they were discovered, and that they were nothing more than imita- tions of real shells and bones. This idea was probably suggested, for the purpose of accounting for the appear- ance of shells in places where it was supposed impossible the sea should ever have been; the idea that the sea had changed its bed, or that the strata had been elevated by subterranean forces, being then entirely unknown. At present, such phenomena are readily accounted for on the hypothesis that many parts of the earth, have been thrown up from the bottom of the sea by volcanic force. The shells at Verona furnished matter for much specu- lation, and many writers gave their opinions concerning them, as well as of other fossils found in similar situations. Among these, one writer named Fracastoro, gave it as his settled conviction that these and other fossil shells, wher- ever they were found, had once belonged to living animals, and at the same time ridiculed the notion that the "plas- tic force" of nature ever formed them, or any other such like productions. He also maintained that these belong- ed to animals which grew and multiplied in the places GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 5 where they were found, and that the time of their growth was before Noah's flood, All this no doubt was true; but such new and strange doctrines raised against Fracastoro many bitter opponents. His clear and philosophical views were disregarded, his ideas concerning plastic nature corn- batted, and the passions, as well as the arguments and learning of the times were arrayed against him. The questions discussed, were, first, whether fossil re- mains had ever belonged to living animals; and second, if this be admitted, whether all the phenomena concerning them can be explained in consequence of the changes which took place by the waters of Noah's flood. At this period, the idea prevailed in the Christian world, that the earth had undergone no considerable changes, ex- cept those produced by the general deluge, and that, there- fore, to attempt to show that fossil remains had been ele- vated by any other catastrophe, would be opposing physi- cal appearances against Christian faith. The clergy, on this ground entered warmly into this dispute, but at the same time, it appears that they allowed the subject to be canvassed with considerable freedom, though the argu- ments on both sides were often such as would have little effect on the mind of a geologist at the present day. " The system of scholastic disputation" says Mr. Lyell, (speaking on this subject,) " encouraged in the universi- ties of the middle ages, had unfortunately trained men to habits of indefinite argumentation, and they often prefer- red absurd and extravagant propositions, because greater skill and acuteness was required to maintain them; the end and object of such intellectual combats, being victory, and not truth." No theory at that period, was so whimsical as not to find advocates, and as theories of the earth were chiefly founded in opinions ami conceits, rather than on facts and observations, the greatest latitude was indulged in the dis- play of ingenuity and imagination in their support. Some of the inventions brought forward in the shape of argu- ments, against the doctrine that shells once belonged to living animals, were indeed quite too ridiculous to have come from any source claiming to possess the power of reasoning. Thus one of the opposers of Fracastoro, by name Mattioli, professed to account satisfactorily for the facts in the case of the shells at Verona, and other such like appearances, by supposing that a certain materia pin- 1* 6 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. gwis, or fatty matter, set into fermentation by the heat on the earth, gave form and substance to these objects. Ano- ther author, Fallopio, of Padua, Professor, &c., conceived that petrified shells, had been generated by fermentation, in the places where they were found, and that in some ca- ses, at least, they had acquired their forms by the " tumul- tuous movements of terrestrial exhalations" Fallopio was the renowned professor pf anatomy at the celebrated school of Padua, and whose name, on account of his dis- coveries, is seen in every book of anatomy, to this day. Yet this learned man taught his pupils, from the chair of that famous university, that certain elephants' tusks which were dug up in some part of Italy, were nothing more than earthy concretions. And agreeably to the same doc- trines, he intimated, that in his opinion, some ancient va- ses which were disinterred at Rome, were natural impres- sions, formed by the plastic force of nature, and that they were not the artificial works of man. To the same school of reasoners belonged Mercati, who published a book in 1574, containing some good figures of fossil shells, preser- ved in the Pope's museum, at Rome. In explaining these subjects, the author has no doubt that the fossils there represented, are not real shells, but mere stones, which had assumed the appearances of shells, " through the influ- ence of the heavenly bodies." Olivi, a contemporary author, after much reasoning on these subjects, satisfied himself that fossil shells, bones, and such like things, were nothing more than the " sports of nature." In the midst of those who entertained such fanciful no- tions, which indeed were characteristic of the age, there was not wanting a few, who like Fracastoro, saw their folly, and ridiculous tendency, and who dared to assert the truth on the subject of fossils. Among these was Palissy, a Frenchman, who in 1580, undertook to show that shells and bones, found in rocks, were really animal remains, and that they had been deposited there by the universal deluge, &c. Although similar doctrines, as we have seen, had before been advanced in Italy, it appears that in France they were entirely new, for Fontanelle, who pronounced an eulogy on Palissy before the French Academy, fifty years afterwards, says that he was the first who " dared to as- sert in Paris, that the remains of testacea and fish, had once belonged to marine animals." See Lyell, vol. i. p. 26. GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 7 At about this period a host of writers of various merit, arranged themselves on both sides of the question, " whe- ther fossils were real organic substances; and if so, how they came in the places where they are found?" and other such like subjects. The consequence was, that these wri- ters began to investigate facts in proof of their theories? and from this period may be dated the commencement and dissemination of just opinions on the subject of geolo- gy. At this time, Steno, a Dane of considerable reputa- tion, demonstrated that some fossil teeth found in Tusca- ny, were those of a species of shark still living in the Mediterranean. Steno's work " On Gems, Crystals, and organic Petrifactions inclosed in solid Rocks," was pub- lished in 1669. He also maintained that fossil vegetables had been living plants,* and hinted that these remains might indicate the distinction between marine and river deposites. Steno, as well as some, other writers on these subjects, although anxious to make their doctrines and statements agree with the Mosaic history, alarmed the clergy by their deductions, and hence many theologians again entered the field of controversy. The points which these reverend men were chiefly desirous of protecting from the intrusion of philosophy and physics, were, as before, the Mosaic history, especially that of the Deluge; and knowing little of geology, they accounted those as nearly confirmed heretics, who could not ascribe all marine organic re- mains found in rocks, to the effects of the flood. We shall see that the Mosaic history, is, however, not contra- dicted by supposing the shells in solid strata were de- posited long before that catastrophe occurred. In the mean time, among popular writers, the old doc- trine that petrified shells had never belonged to real ani- mals, still maintained its ground. Even so late as 1677, the famous Dr. Plott, in his ' Natural History of Oxford- shire," attributes the origin of fossil shells and fishes to 11 a plastic virtue latent in the earth." Our limits will not allow us to enlarge on this curious subject, and to detail the different opinions which were * Fossil strictly signifies any thing dug out of the earth, but in geolo- gy this term is restricted to organic bodies which have been petrified, or mineralized by long residence in the ground. Most fossils are supposed to be of antediluvian origin. 8 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. offered to the world by more of the early geological wri- ters, nor is this perhaps necessary, since the specimens already given are examples of the prevailing opinions of the times. The light of truth however, gradually follow- ed the accumulation of facts, and the doctrine of " plastic nature" became obsolete, and ridiculous, in proportion as men reasoned on what they saw. About this time, the celebrated Robert Hooke, a name well known in the annals of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, published his " Discourse on Earthquakes." Hooke was at least a century before his contemporaries, on this subject, and it appears that his discourse did more to induce others to think and reason correctly on geologi- cal subjects, than all who had written before him. He ridiculed most effectually, the old notion that fossil shells were mere stones, so shaped by nature as to imitate such remains, or to use his own words, " formed for no other purpose than to play the mimic in the mineral kingdom." He maintained, also, that many species of shells might be extinct, or not now living; for it was known at that time, that several fossils had been found, of kinds not known in the Jiving state. At the present day, many hundred species of shells are found, which are considered extinct, no living specimens of the same having any where been discovered. But in the days of Hooke this idea was considered as improper, and even heretical, since as was claimed, it derogated from the wisdom and power of the Creator, inasmuch as it was declaring a want of perpetuity in his works. But Hooke, in his defence, declared that such an opinion was not re- pugnant to holy writ, for the scriptures taught that there should be a final dissolution of all things, " and as when that happens, all the species will be lost, why should not some become extinct at one time, and some at another." It will be observed that the early writers of Geology admitted only the two epochs, the creation, and the del- uge, as producing all the appearances which the globe ex- hibits. They did not estimate the effects of earthquakes, running streams, and mountain slides, which in the course of ages have undoubtedly produced very considerable chan- ges on the earth's surface. Hence early theorists attempt- ed to make their doctrines agree with the changes which they attributed to the flood, but which in many instances GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 9" were undoubtedly to be assigned to causes now in opera- tion. There was a prevailing timidity with respect to the conclusions to be drawn from geological facts, lest they should be brought to contradict the Mosaic history. But this apparent want of confidence in the triumph of the scriptures, was rather a desire to keep from the hands of designing men any excuse to deny the veracity of Moses, and which arose partly from want of geological knowl- edge, and partly from the religious character of the times. Under such circumstances, geological theorists directed their efforts to account for the present actual appearances of the earth, by allowing it a certain form at the creation, and then ascribing the changes since made, to theNoachi- an deluge. We will now present the student with a short account of several of the most celebrated early systems, or theo- ries of the Earth; at the same time premising that although some of them are from the pens of those who ranked among the most talented men of the age, still as theories of the earth, they are devoid of any probable foundation in truth. Burners Theory. This was published in 1695,* and its title is strikingly characteristic of that age. It runs thus. " The Sacred Theory of the Earth, containing an account of the original of the Earth, and of all the gene- ral changes which it has undergone, or is to undergo, till the consummation of all things." Burnet supposed that the primeval earth, down to the time of the flood, enjoyed a perpetual spring, and accounts for this assumed fact by assuming that the plane of the ecliptic was then coincident with the earth's axis, and that the commotions during the flood turned the earth into its present position, and thus produced the vicissitudes of the seasons. He endeavors to show, that the original form of the Earth as it rose out of chaos, was so contrived, as to contain within itself the water necessary to produce the deluge. A smooth crust of earth is made to conceal the waters of the abyss from the time of the creation, but the rain on the outside, together with the expansion of the * Professor Brande quotes Burnet's book as being published in 1726, but this was probably a second edition. !0 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. waters beneath by heat, rent this crust, which falling down into the abyss, caused the universal flood, and at the same time, by the inequality of the fragments, formed the moun- tains of the earth as we now see them. " Not satisfied with these themes, he derived from the sacred scriptures, and from heathen authorities, prophetic views of the future revolutions of the globe; gave a terrific description of the final conflagration, and proved that a new heaven, and a new earth will rise out of a second cha- os, after which will follow the blessed millenium." This was called, and is known to the present day as the " Sacred Theory," and as absurd, and utterly void of all foundation as it appears at the present time, it was receiv- ed in that day with great applause. King Charles II. com- manded it to be translated out of the Latin, in which it was written, into English. Addison eulogised it in Latin verses; Steele praised it in the Spectator, and Warton ranked its author among the " first for understanding, judgment, imagination and memory." These encomiums show that Burnet, though ignorant of geology, was no or- dinary writer, and that it was his fine taste, and his inven- tive genius that caught the admiration of men, who, though judges of these qualities, knew nothing of the science about which he wrote. Woodward's Theory. In 1695, another celebrated theory of the earth was laid before the public. It was entitled " An Essay towards a Natural History of the Earth and Terrestrial Bodies, especially Minerals; as also of the Sea, Rivers and Springs, with an account of the Universal Deluge, and of the effects it had on the Earth. By Dr. Woodward, Professor of Medicine at the University of Cambridge." Professor Brande thinks that Woodward must be con- sidered the first geological theorist who professed to have minutely examined the crust of the earth, and to have founded his system on the facts thus developed. He made geological tours into different parts of England, and examined strata, and collected specimens with a view to illustrate his intended work. He also appears to have been the first who drew up a series of geological inquiries, which he sent to his friends abroad for the purpose of ob- taining more extensive information on these subjects. From these circumstances it might have been expected GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 11 that Woodward's views would have been more sound and enlarged than any of his predecessors or contemporaries; but it was the fashion of that day to form theories rather than to state facts, and he fell into this common error. His theory supposes that the whole terrestrial globe fell in pieces and was dissolved by the waters of the flood, and that the strata of the earth settled down from this promis- cuous mass. In corroboration of this view, he insisted that marine bodies, as shells, are lodged in the strata ac- cording to the order of gravity, the heavier shells in stone, arid the lighter ones in chalk, and so of the rest. But this doctrine was immediately contradicted by the fact, that fossil bodies are often, however, mixed, the heavy with the light, in the same stratum. Although Woodward's Theory is not founded on any grounds, even of plausibility, still his book contains many important facts, and in this respect he was greatly in the advance of any of his contemporaries. Whiston's Theory. The next famous work of this school, and equally characteristic of that period, was that of Whiston. Its title was, '* A New Theory of the earth wherein the Creation of the World in six days; the Uni- versal Deluge, and the General Conflagration, as laid down in the Holy Scriptures, are shcrwn to be perfectly agreea- ble to reason and philosophy." Published in 1696. Whiston was originally a disciple of Burnet, ana adopt- ed his views, until Sir Isaac Newton showed there was no probability that the earth's axis had changed its direc- tion, and consequently that the cause of perpetual spring before the flood, as assumed by Burnet. was without foun- dation, on which this part of his master's system was re- linquished. It seems to have been a principal point in all the geolo- gical theories of that day, to account for the general de- luge by the action of some extraordinary natural cause. In conformity to this fashion, Whiston in the first place shows how this earth was originally a comet, which being modified, or re-modelled, was brought into its present shape. The great heat which the earth retained, owing to its igneous origin, inflamed the passions of the whole antediluvian race, so that " every imagination of the thoughts of man's heart was evil continually." The aw- ful catastrophe which swept this wicked race, with the 1-2 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. exception of Noah and his family from the face of the earth, was occasioned by the train of a comet, which passing near the earth, was condensed upon it in the form of a de- luge of waters. It is hardly necessary to say that such a supposition is without a single circumstance in favor of its probability, and therefore, being entirely hypothetical, is unworthy of arguments either for or against it. ^ Whistori was the first_who proposed that the first book of Genesis should bcTmterpreted differently from its ordina- ry -acceptation, so that it should not be heretical to believe that the earth had existed for an indefinite period, before the creation of animals, and man. He had the art to throw an air of truth or probability over the most whimsical and improbable assumptions, and by absorbing the mind of the reader with mathematical calculations, to make him assent to propositions, which in themselves were utterly false. Theory of Leibnitz. Leibnitz was one of the most pro- found mathematicians of his time. His theory was pub- lished in 1680, and is another curious specimen of imagi- nary cosmogony. He supposed that this globe was ori- ginally a luminous burning mass, and that from the time of the creation it had been gradually cooling. When the water which surrounded it in the form of steam, became condensed by the cooling of the earth, then the sea was formed, which at first entirely surrounded it in every part, and was of such depth as to cover the highest mountains. Further consolidation of the earth by cooling, produced rents, which opening into caverns beneath the crust, ad- mitted a part of the universal ocean, thus leaving a por- tion of the earth dry land, preparatory to the creation of man, and for his habitation. He imagined, also, that the temperature of the earth was continually diminishing, and that the level of the sea was constantly sinking. The first idea was considered as entirely groundless by succeeding .geologists, but recently the doctrine of subterranean heat I has been embraced by several respectable naturalists, and I is now the prevailing foundation of the theories of earth- ' quakes and volcanoes. The gradual sinking of the sea, is a*~cfoctrine which has had many strong advocates, and is still supposed to have been proved by various tests. But it will be seen in the progress of this volume, that facts have decided against this hypothesis. : if GEOLOGICAL THEORIES, 13 We might occupy our whole volume with the different theories which have been proposed, to account for the present appearances of this earth, but we must close this part of our subject, by an epitome of those of Buffon, and Kepler, and with a short account of the Neptunian and Plutonian doctrines. Bufon's Theory. This is principally an extension of that of Leibnitz. He adds another comet, which by a violent blow upon the sun, struck off the mass of which our earth is composed in a liquid state, and with the earth, all the other planets which composed our system. From such suppositions, Buffon was enabled to assume data, by which he arrived at several important conclusions. Thus by estimating the heat of the sun (the earth being originally of the same temperature) and comparing it with the present heat of the earth, it could be told) by assum- ing a rate of cooling) how long it had taken to cool down thus far. Then as the other planets had come from the sun at the same time with the earth, it could be calculated by the same rules how many ages it still required to cool the larger ones, so as to admit of their being inhabited, and how far the smaller ones were now frozen, so as to have destroyed all animal life. He accounts for the spherical form of the earth and other planets from their 'being set in motion while ip a semi-fluid state. With Leibnitz, Buffon supposed that the ocean once enveloped the whole earth, covering the high- est mountains, and hence the appearance of shells far above the level of the sea. The water afterwards ran into caverns which opened into the earth, and thus the ocean subsided to its present level. Soon after Bulfon's theory was published, he received an official letter from the Fac- ulty of Theology, at Paris, dated January, 1751, stating that some of his propositions were reprehensible, and contrary to the creed of the Church. One of these propo- sitions were as follows. '* The waters of the sea have produced the mountains and valleys of the land the wa- ters of the Heavens reducing all to a level, will at last de- liver all, over to the sea, which successively prevailing over the land, will leave dry, new continents like those which we inhabit." The objectionable doctrine seems to have been that in the opinion of Buffon, the present moun- tains and valleys of the earth are due to secondary causes* 2 14 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. and that the same causes will destroy all the continents, hills, and valleys, and re-produce new ones, and so on i perpetually, while the scripture doctrine warns us that f there shall be an end of all created things, &c. Buffon was invited to a conference with the Faculty in order to make an explanation, or rather a recantation of his errors. To this he submitted, and having satisfied that body of his Orthodoxy in a written instrument, called his ** Declaration," he was required to publish the same in the next edition of his work. This declaration begins thus. " I declare, that I had no intention of contradicting the text of the Scriptures: that I believe most firmly all there- in related about the creation, both as to the order of time and matter of fact; and I abandon every thing in my book respecting the formation of the earth, and generally all which may be contrary to the narrative of Moses," &c. Kepler's Theory. Kepler, one of the profoundest math- ematicians and astronomers the world has ever seen, offer- ed a theory of the earth more singular and whimsical than any of his contemporaries, or predecessors. His notions, indeed are so odd, and void of common sense, that it might be supposed he intended to ridicule his brother the- orists, by going beyond them in improbabilities, rather than to offer the world his sober opinions. Kepler supposed, or pretended to suppose, that the earth contained a circulating vital fluid, and was possessed of living powers and that a process of assimilation goes on in it as well as in other animals. Every particle of 1 |T|pt.tfir. according to him, is alive, and possesses volition and instinct: hence these particles attract and repel each other according to their several sympathies, or antipathies. Thus the particles of water will repel those of oil because they have an antipathy to each other, but each fluid will readily unite with another portion of the same kind be- cause the particles possess mutual sympathies. Each kind of mineral substance is capable of converting masses of other matter into its own peculiar kind, as animals con- vert their aliment into blood. The burning mountains are the respiratory organs of the globe; and the slates are the organs of secretion, as the glands are those of the animal. The slates decompose the waters of the ocean, in order to prepare its elements to produce earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The metallic veins in the strata GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 15 of the earth, are caries or abscesses of the mineral king- dom, and the metals themselves are the products of decay and disease, and hence the offensive odor of some of these products. These several theories, and a great variety of others have been invented in order to account for the same phe- nomena, and to solve the same problem, viz. in what manner or by what changes, or events, are we to account for the present appearances, or condition of the earth's surface? The reader w r ill observe in general, that these theorists, instead of taking the trouble to observe facts and to draw just conclusions from them, have in the first place formed their systems, and supported them in the best manner they could, calling to their aid, ingenuity, plausibility, and false argument. The science of Geology never progressed, until men saw the folly of forming theories which had no concern with facts. To record facts is the first business of the geolo- gist, and if he cannot account for them in a rational and scientific manner, to let them stand recorded until further investigations. " 4 Plutonian and Neptunian Doctrines. We shall close this part of our volume by an abstract of the theories of Werner and Hutton, commonly entitled the Neptunian and IPhitonian doctrines. The" theories of these two distinguished philosophers for the last half century, have divided the opinions of geo- logical writers, each side insisting in the most positive and uncompromising terms, on the truth of their adopted cause. The Plutonians or Hultonians, attribute most of the present appearances ol 1 the globe, and the changes it has undergone to the agency of fire, not, however, entirely rejecting that of water. The Neptunians or Wernerians on the contrary, affect to prove in as positive terms that these same changes, and appearances may, with the exception of volcanic products, be traced entirely to the agency of water " to aqueous solution, disintegration, and deposition. There is one difficulty in attempting to expound the doctrines of Werner, which is, that we are obliged to take them second handed, from the writings of others, he hav- ing never himself published them in a connected view. In 16 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. speaking therefore of Werner's theory, we can only avail ourselves of such transient glimpses as he has himself thought fit to give us, and must fill up the various chasms with materials derived from the more extended sketches and illustrations of his pupils.* Werner's theory may be thus stated. The matter of our globe was once in a soft, or semi-fluid state, or at least its nucleus was once enveloped by a chaotic aqueous solution, of such a nature as to retain the various earthy bodies found in the lowest strata in chemical combination; but this state of things was of short duration, and during which, there was deposited from the water a variety of crystalline aggregates, such as the different species of granite, and what are called primitive slate, and primitive limestones. These constitute the primary rocks, or form- ations of the Wernerian school, and are supposed to have had their origin before the creation of animated beings, and hence no organic remains, such as shells, are found in these rocks. The second class of rocks are supposed to have been formed during the transition of the earth from its chaotic, to its habitable state, and hence are called transition rocks. These are partly crystalline aggregates, and partly mechanical deposites from water: they contain the fragments of pre-existing rocks cemented together, and sometimes contain imperfect remains of the lower orders of animals and plants, as shells and impres- sions of ferns. Certain kinds of limestone and sandstones belong to this class. These rocks are derived from the fragmentary remains and the disintegration of the primi- tive rocks. The third class of rocks are supposed to have been form- ed by the action of the natural elements on these, and by which they have been broken down, and mechanically diffused in water. The action of frost, water, and attri- tion are supposed to have chiefly produced this effect, after which the materials were deposited in horizontal strata. These are the Floetz, or flat rocks of Werner, and the Tertiary, or secondary rocks of later authors. They abound in vegetable and animal remains, as ferns, shells, fish, and bones. The newer limestone, red sand- stone, and coal strata, belong to this clsss. Brand's Outlines of Geology, p. 2l GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. 17 Above these rocks we find depositions of sand, and gravel, and clay; accumulations of peat, and other sub- stances now in the progress of deposition, and which are included under the general term of alluvial formations. These constitute the fourth class. The fifth class con- tains the products of volcanoes, whether the result of fu- sion or not, such as rocks thrown out without melting, volcanic mud, &c. It is supposed that all the formations as they are term- ed, or all the different kinds of rocks and strata now found on the earth, will fall under one or another of these clas- ses. But it will be seen hereafter, that this theory is, in many respects, unsatisfactory, and that there are several rocks, such as basalt and greenstone, which certainly are not of aqueous origin, and which do not come within Werner's volcanic class. Werner was appointed professor of mineralogy, at the school of Mines, in Saxony", in_1775, and was undoubtely a man of ^ITeTiighest orcler of Talents. His mind was at once sound, imaginative, and richly stored with miscella- neous knowledge. He had a great aversion to the me- chanical labor of writing, and could never be persuaded to pen more than a few brief sketches, and which never contained a connected developement of his geological views. Although the natural modesty of his disposition was excessive, approaching even timidity, yet he indulged in the most bold and sweeping generalization, and he inspi- red all his pupils, some of which became writers of great eminence, with the most implicit faith in his doctrines. " Their admiration," says Mr. Lyell, " of his genius, and the feelings of gratitude and friendship which they all felt for him, we^e not undeserved; but the supreme authority '\ which he usurped over his contemporaries, was probably in \ the event prejudicial to the progress of science. The Plutonic, or Huttonian Theory owes its origin to Dr^Hutton, of Edinburgh. It was published in 1788 y but has Been more recently Illustrated and defendeH irra re- publication by Professor Playfair, also of Edinburgh. We have already stated mat the Plutoniahs attributed the same phenomena to fire, which the Neptunians did to water. The Plutonian?, however, suppose that most stra- ined rocks were deposited from water. Hutton's Theory may be stated shortly, as follows. The materials which compose the present surface of the 2* 18 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES. globe, have been derived from the ruin of ancient rocks, which have been disintegrated and pulverized by the con- tinued action of torrents and currents of water; and by the same means these materials have been transported to the bottom of the ocean. Here they have been consolidated, partly by time, and partly by the pressure of the water, but chiefly by the effects of subterranean heat. By the same cause, more powerfully exerted, that is, by the expansive power of volcanic heat, the strata thus formed, have been elevated from the bottom of the ocean, to occupy the situ- ations under which they now appear. Thus the strata are thrown into different degrees of inclination to the horizon; or are broken and dislocated; or appear in nearly a verti- cal position, depending on the degree offeree, or the point of its application. Sometimes, also, where the heat has been most intense, an entire fusion of the materials has been effected. The rocks which are not stratified, or not composed of layers, as granite, are supposed to have un- dergone complete fusion, while those which consist of layers, as mica slate, are supposed only to have been soft- ened by the heat. The same disintegration, and corrosion, and the same transportation to the sea, is constantly going on with respect to the present rocks, so that finally these materials will again be restored to the sea, to be again raised above its surface by volcanic fire, as before; and as the present continents were formed by the destruction of ancient rocks, so future continents will be formed in their turn, by rocks now preparing for that purpose. It is generally acknowledged at the present day, that Mutton's theory will account for a much greater number of geological phenomena than Werner's. It is impossible, for instance, to account for the present situation of strati- fied rocks containing sea shells, unless we suppose, either that the sea occupied the earth for ages, or that these stra- ta were formed under the ocean, and elevated by some mighty force; and as we know that islands are thrown up from the sea, by volcanic force at the present day, it is reasonable to attribute the same effect to the same cause, anciently. FORM AND CONSTITUTION OF THE GLOBE. GENERAL FORM AND CONSTITUTION OF TUB GLOBE* Although in a popular sense the form of the earth is that of a globe, yet science has long since determined, that its figure is not that of a perfect sphere, but of an oblate spheroid, the diameter at the equator being greater than at the poles. This difference has been variously es- timated, but if we consider the polar, to the equitorial di- ameter in the proportion of 304 to 305, we shall perhaps corne as near the truth as the present state of observations will warrant. This allows the poles a compression equal to 1-305, and the two diameters as follows. Equitorial diameter, about 7,924 miles. The Polar diameter - 7,898 miles. Difference, 26 miles. This estimate is from the authority of Daubuisson. Dr. Macculloch makes the difference somewhat greater, but we need not here go into comparisons on a point where no two authors agree, the difference of a few miles being a matter of no consequence to our present purpose. This form of the earth is precisely such an one as it would have taken had it been a homogenous semi-fluid with a rapid motion around its axis. This form may be illustrated by fixing a ball of soft clay on a spindle and setting it in motion. The ball will be flattened at the poles or axis of motion, and elongated or thrown out, at the cir- cumference, or equator. This is obviously the conse- quence of the greater centrifugal force at the circumfer- ence than at the centre of motion. Density of the Earth. It has been attempted to esti- mate the density of the whole earth from that of a par- ticular mountain. For this purpose Dr. Maskelyne made an experiment on mount Schihallien, a high precipitous cliff in Scotland, in order to ascertain the force of its at- traction, on a suspended plummet; with the view of de- ducing the density of the whole earth by comparing its 20 CONSTITUTION OF attraction with that of the mountain. From such data it was found that the mean density of the earth was to that of the mountain as 9 to 5; and from hence it was conclud- ed that the interior of the globe must be composed of substances, whose density was about double that of the mass of the mountain. But it was subsequently found that the specific gravity of the mountain, an item in these calculations, had been estimated too high, and by the cor- rections made by Mr. Playfair, the density of the earth obtained in this way was found to be only 5. That is, the whole earth, bulk for bulk, is five times the weight of water. This estimate, which is most generally received at the present day, makes it necessary to suppose that the interior of the earth is much more dense than its surface; for the heaviest rock with which we are acquainted has a density of only 3, and the lightest about 2i, while the specific gravity of the ocean is a little more than 1. The specific gravity of the earth's surface including the water, therefore cannot be much above 2i But the mean densi- ty of the whole earth being 5, is more than double that of its surface, and hence the interior of the earth must have a greater density than 5, to counterbalance this want of weight at the surface. From these considerations, it has been supposed that the interior of the earth, instead of being composed of rocks, like the surface, must consist of metallic substances. It has also been shown from mathematical calculations that there is a gradual increase of density towards the centre of the earth, and hence it has been thought still more probable that its nucleus is of a metallic nature. La Place, with this view of the earth's structure, has estimated its density at the centre. If 5, 4 be taken as its mean density and its superficial densities be assumed as 3, 13; 3, 2; 2, 79; and 2, 60, then on the theory of com- pressibility, the density at the centre will be 13, 25; 14, 54; 15, 78; and 20, 10, respectively. The least of these is about double the density of iron and the greatest exceeds that of gold, being about equal to that of hammered platina, the most ponderous of all known substances. But both philosophy and conjecture are alike useless on this subject, for in spite of both, we must remain entire- ly ignorant concerning the composition of the earth's centre. THE GLOBE. 21 Distribution of Sea and Land. Nearly three fourths of the whole surface of the globe is covered by water. The surface of the Pacific Ocean alone, is estimated to be somewhat greater than all the dry land with which we are acquainted. The greatest elevation of land is about 25,000 feet above the level of the sea; but its greatest depression, being con- cealed by the water, cannot be ascertained, and hence the quantity of water which the oceans contain, cannot be es- timated with any degree of accuracy. La Place, however, has made a computation of the mean depth of the sea, founded on the theory of the tides, by which he concludes that it is about twelve miles. Concerning the bottom of the sea, we know little more than that it consists of moun- tains and valleys, like the surface of the land. This is as- certained by the rocks, and islands which rise above the surface of the water, and the reefs and deep water, which are known to exist alternately, below it. The sounding line of the mariner not only detects this unevenness of the submarine surface, but also the steep acclivities of its mountains and the gradual risings of its sand banks. Composition and specific gravity of the Sea. The whole ocean is composed of salt water, though it varies con- siderably with respect to the quantity of solid matter it contains. At the mouths of rivers, and in bays which receive streams from the land, it is obvious that the water cannot be so fully saturated with salt, as it is where the sea is not thus diluted. There is also a difference with respect to the quantity of salt which different oceans con- tain, independently of any such circumstance. This is ascertained, not only by the analysis of their waters, but also by their different specific gravities. It will be remembered that the standard, or unity, by which specific gravities are estimated, is distilled water, which is 1; and therefore the greater the quantity of solid matter any water contains, the greater will be its specific gravity. Dr. Marcet instituted a series of experiments on sea water from different parts of the world, from which he obtained the following results and conclusions. 1. "That the Southern Ocean contains more salt than the Northern, in the ratio of 1.02919, to 1.02757." 2. " That the mean specific gravity of sea-water, near 22 CONSTITUTION OF the equator, is 1.02777, intermediate between that of the northern and southern hemispheres." 3. "That there is no notable difference in sea-water, under different meridians." 4. " That there is no satisfactory evidence that the sea at great depths, is more salt than at the surface." 5. " That the sea, in general, contains more salt where it is deepest and most remote from land; and that its salt- ness is always diminished in the vicinity of large masses of ice." 6. " That small inland seas, though communicating with the ocean, are much less salt than the ocean itself." 7. " That the Mediterranean contains a larger propor- tion of salt than the ocean." Temperature of the Earth. The superficial tempera- ture of the earth, if not entirely due to the heat of the sun, is greatly influenced by it. Still, local circumstances cause considerable variations in different places situated under the same latitudes. These circumstances will be noticed in their proper place. Geological investigations have proved that the tempera- ture of the earth has not always remained the same; but that the climates of different countries, and probably the superficial heat of the entire globe have greatly deteriorat- ed, since the time when the elephant inhabited Siberia, and the mastodon, the forests of North America. This subject will be examined under the articles *' Change of Climate," and " Organic Remains." With respect to the internal temperature of the Earth, the prevailing opinion among geologists of the present day, appears to be that the heat increases in some propor- tion to the distance of descent from the surface. That this is the case, seems to be proved by the experiments made in mines, situated in different parts of the world, an account of which will be given hereafter. Temperature of the Sea and of Lakes. The maximum density of fresh water is at the temperature of 40 degrees of Fahrenheit, and it has been considered that sea-water follows a similar law of condensation. Now water being free in its motions, arranges itself according to its density; that which is at, or near the temperature of 40, occupy- THE GLOBE. 23 ing the lowest place, while that which is warmed by the sun, is superincumbent on this. In 1819 and 1820, Mr. De la Beche made numerous ex- periments, with great care, on the temperature of the Swiss lakes, and from which he found that between the surface and the depth of 40 fathoms, there was a material varia- tion of temperature. From one to five fathoms, in the month of September, the heat was from 64 to 67 ; but below this, the temperature decreased down to 40 fathoms. From 40 to 90 fathoms, the thermometer stood almost uni- formly at 44 ; and from 90 to 164 fathoms, it invariably stood at 43.5. In the winter, these experiments were repeated, and it was found that the temperature of the water followed the same law. The temperature of the sea at different depths, accords sufficiently well with the observations already made ; the temperature diminishing to the depth where the fluid attains its greatest density, below which it remains the same, or at a similar temperature. It appears, however, that there is considersble difference in the temperature of different seas at similar depths. Thus Capt. Kotzebue, in latitude about 36 N. and longitude 148 W. when the surface of the water was nearly 73, found the temperature 57, at 25 fathoms; 52.8, at 100 fathoms; and 44 at 300 fathoms. While the same observer in lat. 30 39' S. found a tem- perature of 49 5' at 35 fathoms ; and in a similar latitude S. 38 8' in 196 fathoms. It will be observed, however, that the same law is maintained, both in salt and fresh water, viz. a decrease of temperature downwards. But this fact is not at variance with the probability of an in- ternal, or central heat, since the waters arrange themselves in the order of their densities, and this would take place, whether the bottoms of deep seas were cold or warm. Temperature of the Atmosphere. -The atmosphere is composed of two gaseous substances, called oxygen and nitrogen, and in the proportion of 20 parts of the first, to 80 of the last. From its refractive powers, it has been calculated that the atmosphere reaches to the height of about 45 miles above every part of the earth. The heat which is constantly radiating from the earth, is absorbed by the atmosphere, so that its temperature in hot climates often exceeds that of the human system. That 24 CONSTITUTION OF the temperature of the air is dependent on the heat of the earth's surface, is proved by the well known fact, that it constantly diminishes as we ascend upwards, or recede from the earth. Hence in the hottest climates, there is a region a few thousand feet above the earth, to which its heat never ascends in such quantity as to prevent perpetu- al congelation. The line of perpetual snow, we should suppose would differ in elevation, (under equal circumstances,) accord- ing: to the distance from the equator. It is, however, liable to considerable variations, probably from local cau- ses. The following table, from Encyc. Brittanica, article Cli- mate, presents the different elevations at which there is constant frost, under different latitudes. Lat. Height in feet. Lat. Height in feet. 15,207 45 7,671 5 15,095 50 6,334 10 ' 14,761 55 5,034 15 14,220 60 3,818 20 13,478 65 2,722 25 12,557 70 1,778 30 11,484 75 1,016 35 10,287 80 457 40 9,001 85 117 From this table, we learn that there is no regular cor- respondence between the latitude and the height of per- petual frost, and that the difference in this respect is much greater than might have been expected from the influence of local causes. Thus the difference between the freez- ing height at the equator, and in latitude five degrees, is only one hundred and twelve feet; though at the other extreme, from eighty to eighty-five degrees, this differ- ence is upwards of three hundred feet. Much the great- est difference is in the temperate latitudes, as between thirty-five degrees and forty degrees, where the elevation is from 10,287, down 9,001, making a difference of 1,286 feet in five degrees. Whether these differences are en- tirely dependent on local causes, we have no means of deciding. In the elevation of mountains to the region of perpetual THE GLOBE. frost, and in such a disposition of things, as that their summits should constantly be covered with snow, there is a striking display of wisdom and design. Such mountains in ardent climates, not only temper the atmosphere below, but serve as perpetual reservoirs of water, during the sum- mer, from the melting of the ice, and thus become the pa- rents of innumerable streams, without which, many re- gions would be uninhabitable. EFFECTS OF CAUSES NOW IN OPERATION ON EARTH S SURFACt. The earth almost every where presents appearancef which cannot be traced to causes now existing, or which have existed since the historical era. No high mountains have been elevated, or deep valleys formed, within the age of history, nor can these great effects be attributed to the slow causes now in operation. It is true that occasional excavations by uncommon floods of water, are made, and now and then there happens a subterranean convulsion, which elevates a small portion of earth ; but such effects, though supposed to have operated constantly, from the re- motest period which the imagination can suggest, will nev- er account satisfactorily, for the changes which the sur- face of the earth has undergone since the creation. We may hence conclude either, that the causes which produ- ced such mighty effects, have entirely ceased, and are un- known to us, or that they operated with infinitely greater force formerly than at present. If we attribute the elevation of mountains, to subterra- nean fire, and the excavation of the great valleys, to floods of water, it is obvious that these causes must have been infinitely more powerful at some remote period than at present. It being one of the great objects of Geology to point out the changes which the crust of the earth has undergone, and if possible to account for them; it becomes necessary that the causes now operating, and the effects of which are apparent, should be distinguished from those, the effects only of which, are certainly known at the present day. We begin with the " Effects of causes now in operation," that we may be enabled to judge how far they have been 26 EFFECTS OF RUNNING WATER. the instruments of producing the changes which it is evi- dent the earth has undergone, and how far with more time, or greater force, they might account for the phenomena which the earth presents. General effects cf running water. It is well known that mountains, or lands elevated far above the level of the sea, attract the moisture of the atmosphere, in some propor- tion to their elevation. By this provision, the higher re- gions of the earth become perpetual reservoirs of water, which descend and irrigate the plains and valleys below. Thus a great proportion of the water which falls upon the earth, is canied first to the higher regions; and then made to descend, often by steep declivities towards the sea, so that it acquires a rapid velocity, and removes a greater quantity of soil than it would do, if the rain was equally distributed on the mountains and plains. Thus without reference to the disintegration or decay of rocks, the wa- ter constantly transports more or less soil and gravel from the hills to the plains. Among the most powerful agents in effecting the decay of rocks, is the mechanical action of water, especially in cold climates. It is well known that water expands in the act of freezing. The effect of this expansion is so pow- erful as to burst bomb-shells, and large cannon, when closely confined in them. When, therefore, water falls into the fissures of rocks, and there freezes, the rocks are rent apart with the force of a powerful lever, and the more porous ones are divided into small pieces. These are often further divided by the frequent fall, and consequent crush- ing and grinding motion of one rock on another, on the declivities of the mountains. Water also has the power of dissolving considerable quantities of some kinds of rocks, especially those of the limestone and gypsum kinds. The oxygen of the atmosphere is another cause of the de- cay of rocks. " This element is gradually absorbed by all animal and vegetable substances, arid by almost all miner- al masses exposed to the open air. It gradually destroys the equilibrium of the elements of rocks, even the hardest aggregates belonging to our globe." Sir H. Davy. When earthy matter has been once mixed with running water, a new mechanical power is obtained by the attrition of sand and pebbles, borne along by the violence of the stream. Rapid streams charged with foreign matter, and thrown against their rocky sides, will in the course of time, EFFECTS OF RUNNING WATER. 2? produce excavations, in consequence of which, rocks are often undermined and precipitated into their beds. The water being thus obstructed, accumulates, and cuts for it- self a new channel, taking with it an additional quantity of earth. In this manner, also, the stream is often made to take a new direction, perhaps obliquely across the valley through which it runs. The unequal hardness of the soil is another cause of change in the direction of streams, and so also are logs of wood, leaves, and other matters with which streams are often charged. When from these, or other causes, a current is made to deviate from its course, it gradually wears a curve into the opposite bank, where the water for a moment accumulates, and then receiving a different direction from the lower side of the curve, shoots across to the opposite side, where a similar curve is soon formed, and the water made to re-cross the channel as before. Thus we often see brooks and rivers crossing and re-crossing the valleys through which they run, many times ; and sometimes, after taking a wide sweep, return- ing again nearly to the point where the same water had passed, an hour, or many hours before. When this hap- pens, and every one has seen such instances, it is often the case that during some over- flow of the stream, the water cuts across the isthmus at A, as seen in the diagram, and thus forms an island. In con- sequence of this, the water not only takes a new direction at that particular point, but often the foundation is thus laid for considerable changes below the island. These serpentine windings, not only take place in trout brooks, but in the largest rivers, and thus become the means of leveling and fertilizing tracts of country of greater or less extent. The Mississippi through a consid- erable part of -its course, cuts across its immense valley in the manner here described, and sometimes after run- ning ten or twenty miles, returns back again nearly to the same point. The fertile valley of the Connecticut has been formed in a great measure, by the same means. The rich meadows, now every year irrigated by its waters have been formed in the course of time, by the changes of its bed. This is shown by the logs of wood uncovered in its banks by every new change its current makes at the present time. Charcoal and other organic substances 550 THE RIVER PO. have been found 20 feet below the present surface of its banks. In estimating the transporting power of water we are apt to forget its buoyancy, and on which indeed it$ power of moving heavy substances, such as rocks in a great mea- sure depends. The specific gravity of many rocks is little more than twice that of water, that of granite and lime- stone being about 2.50, that is two and a half times, bulk for bulk, the weight of water. Hence a stone weighing twenty-five pounds in the air or under ordinary circum- stances, will weigh only fifteen pounds when immersed in water. Those who have never tried the experiment of lifting a stone under water, will be surprised to find with what ease, he can raise a block of granite to the surface, above which, however, with all his efforts he cannot lift it. If a man can lift a stone weighing one hundred pounds whose specific gravity is two, in the air, he can lift one weighing two hundred pounds in the water, because the fluid lifts just one half of its weight. It is from our not taking this circumstance into account, that we are often surprised at the power of torrents to move stones of great size. According to experiments recorded in the Encyclopedia Britannica, a velocity of water equal to three inches per second is sufficient to tear up fine clay, six inches per second, fine sand twelve inches per second fine gravel ; and three feet per second, small stones. It is obvious, however, that the depth of the water will influence these results, and that the power of moving bodies will be in proportion to its depth and velocity. Since the time of historical records, the power of run- ning water has produced many, and great changes in va- rious parts of the world. In some instances, lakes have been filled up, in others, deep ravines have been formed, in others whole districts have been ruined in consequence of rivers having changed their beds, and in others, conside- rable tracts of land have been accumulated, or sometimes swept away by the force of mountain torrents, Effects of the River Po. The Po affords a grand exam- ple of the manner in which a great and rapid stream bears down to the sea, the alluvial matter poured into it by a multitude of tributaries, descending from lofty chains of mountains. The changes gradually produced by this riv- er in the great plains of Northern Italy, since the time THE RIVER PO. 29 of the Roman Republic, have been exceedingly disastrous to some parts of that country. Extensive lakes, and marshes have been slowly filled up, as those of Placentia, Parma and Cremona, while others have been drained by the same cause. Since 1390, the Po deserted its bed through a part of the territory of Cremona and invaded that of Parma, its old channel being still obvious, and retaining the name of Po morto, or dead Po. The town of Bres- sello, which formerly stood on the left bank of the river, now stands, on the right, the river, not the town having changed its locality. In the ancient parish records it is stated, that several churches were taken down and after- wards rebuilt at a greater distance from the new bed of this devastating stream, and in 1471 the friars of a monas- tery pulled down their edifice, and erected it at a greater distance from the Po. To keep this wild stream within bounds, a general sys- tem of embankment, through the plains of Northern Italy, was commenced in the thirteenth century, which has con- tinually been increased until the present time. The in- creased velocity of the river, in consequence of its being thus confined, causes it to transport to the sea a much greater quantity of alluvial matter than it would other- wise do, because there are no sluggish intervals where its waters can deposit their sediment. Hence the delta of the Po, even since the memory of man has greatly increas- ed. The ancient city of Adria was originally a sea port of the Adriatic, but it is now twenty miles from the shore. In the twelfth century, Adria was about six miles from the shore, the Po having added fourteen miles of alluvial soil since that period. But notwithstanding more alluvial matter is carried into the sea in consequence of this embankment, more is also deposited in its bed; for that which would be spread upon the plains during an overflow is now confined within the narrow limits of its banks. In consequence of this con- stant deposition, it is found necessary every year to re- move the mud and sand from the bed of the river, and place it on the embankment, otherwise the water would be in danger of breaking through, and destroying the whole plain below. This system has been so long continued, that at the present day, the Po crosses its plains to a considerable dis- tance, on the top of a high and continued mound like the 3* 30 FALLS OF NIAGARA. waters of an aqueduct, and to the great hazard and terror of the people in the valleys, every spring. M. de Prony, who has recently been employed by gov- ernment, to examine the present condition of this river, and if possible to suggest some method of security against a catastrophe which every year threatens the lives and pro- perty of so many inhabitants, ascertained that the bed of the Po is now higher than the roofs of the houses, in the city of Ferrara, near which it runs. The magnitude of these barriers, already so immense, it is found necessary to increase every year, to prevent an inundation. Lyell and Cuvier. When we consider that the smallest stream breaking through or running over this embankment, would, if not discovered within a few seconds, destroy in spite of all human power, many cities, towns, and villages, with all their inhabitants, we may in some degree conceive of the constant anxiety which those must feel who reside within the danger. Falls of Niagara. This is the most magnificent water- fall in the world. It is situated between lake Erie above, and lake Ontario below, the cataract being formed by the passage of the water, from one lake to the other. The distance between the nearest shores of these lakes is about thirty-seven miles, and the height of Erie above Ontario is, according to Mr. Featherstonhaugh, 322 feet. On flowing out of the upper lake, the river is almost on a lev- el with its banks, so that if it should rise perpendicularly eight or ten feet, it would lay under water the adjacent flat couutry of Upper Canada on the west, and part of the State of New- York on the east. The river where it issues, is about twenty-five feet deep, and three quarters of a mile wide. Its descent is fifty feet in half a mile. Goat Island at the very verge of the cataract divides the water into two parts. The stream on the American side is 1,072 feet wide; and the curvature of the great Horse-shoe fall is 2,376 feet wide, making the width of the whole at the falls, 3,448 feet. Although the aggregate descent from Erie to Ontario is 322 feet, the perpendicular fall at the cataract is less than one half this distance. The following particulars are from Mr. Featherston- haugh's journal. FALLS OF NIAGARA. 31 feet. miles Fall from Erie to the rapids above the Cata- ract of Niagara, 15 in 23 Fall of the rapids to the edge of the Cata- ract, 51 4 Fall of the Horse-shoe Cataract, 150 From Horse-shoe fall to Lewistown, 104 ) . From Lewistown to Ontario, 2 $ 322 36^ There is no doubt but the Falls of Niagara at some re- mote period, were at Queenstown, which is about seven miles below there present situation. The breadth of the gorge or excavation made by the waters, is, on approach- ing the falls, about 1200 feet, but is much narrower to- wards Queenstown. $ The kind of rock through which it passes consists of limestone and shale, the latter a dark colored shelly form- ation, 80 feet thick, lying under the limestone. The lime- stone is 70 feet thick, above which is the ordinary soil of the country. The limestone is hard and lies in horrizontal strata at the edge of the falls; but the shale is soft, and is acted up- on with much greater facility than the limestone, so that the latter rock often overhangs the former perhaps 40 feet at the edge of the precipice. The blasts of wind charged with spray, which rise out of the pool into which this enormous cascade is projected, strike against the shale beds, so that their disintegration is constant; and the superincumbent projecting limestone being left without a foundation, falls from time to time in immense rocky masses. When these enormous fragments fall, a shock is felt, often at considerable distances, ac- companied by a noise resembling a distant clap of thunder. The waters which expand at the falls, where they are divided by the island, are contracted again after their union, into a stream averaging not more than 500 feet broad. In the narrow channel, immediately below this immense rush of waters, a boat may pass across the stream with safety. The pool into which the cataract is precipitated being 170 feet deap, the descending water sinks down and forms an under current, while a superficial eddy carries the upper 32 FALLS OF NIAGARA. stratum back towards the main fall. See Mr. Bakewelt, Jr., on the Fa.lls of Niagara, London Magazine, 1830. There is no doubt but the falls of Niagara were once at Queenstown, as above stated, and have gradually cut their way through the rock to their present situation. Mr. Lyell who refers all the changes which have taken place on the earth's surface "to causes now in operation," states that the recession of the falls have been at the rate of fifty yards in forty years, and therefore a little more than three feet on an average in each year. " If the ratio of recession," says he, " had never exceeded fifty yards in forty years, it must have required nearly ten thousand years for the excavation of the whole ravine; but no probable conjecture can be offered as to the quan- tity of time consumed in such an operation, because the retrograde movement may have been much more rapid, when the whole current was confined within a space not exceeding a fourth, or a fifth part of that which the falls now occupy. Should the erosive action not be accele- rated in future, it will take upwards of thirty thousand years for the falls to reach lake Erie, (twenty-five miles distant) to which they seem destined to arrive in the course of time, unless some earthquake changes the rela- tive levels of the districts. The table land extending from lake Erie, consists uniformly of the same geological form- ations as are now exposed at the falls. The upper stra- tum is an ancient alluvial sand varying in thickness from 10 to 140 feet; below which is a bed of hard limestone about 90 feet in thickness, stretching nearly in a horizon- tal direction over the whole country, and forming the bed of the river above the falls, as do the inferior shales below. The lower shale is nearly of the same thickness of the limestone." " Should lake Erie remain in its present state until the period when the ravine recedes to its shores, the sudden escape of that great body of water would cause a tremen- dous deluge, for the ravine would be more than sufficient lin depth we suppose,] to drain the whole lake, of which the average depth was found, during the late surveys to be ten or twelve fathoms." LyeWs Geology, vol. i. page 179_182. Such is the tenor of Mr. LyelPs reasoning, when at- tempting to " explain the former changes of the earth's FALLS OF NIAGARA. 33 surface by reference to causes now in operation;" and thus to deny the Mosaic history of the creation, and of the deluge. Although he owns that no probable conjecture can be afforded, with respect to the time which has elapsed since the falls of Niagara were at Queenstown, still, it is obvious that the impression intended to be left on the mind of the reader is, that it was about 10,000 years ago; that is about 4000 years before the creation of the world according to Moses, these falls were at Queenstown. And at some fu- ture period, say 30,000 years hence, there will be a great flood in America, just as there have happened great floods at different periods according to what he calls the " uui- formity of the order of nature." Now let us see, in the first place, whether the data sta- ted by the author, can possibly warrant the supposition that the falls of Niagara have been 10,000 years, or even half that time in passing from Queenstown to their present location, Mr. Lyell, who quotes Capt. Basil Hall for his authori- ty, makes the falls 800 yards wide at the verge of the pre- cipice; viz. the American fall 2CO yards, and the Horse- shoe fall 600 yards wide. The channel below the falls towards Queenstown, according to the same authority, is 160 yards wide. Mr. Featherstonhaugh, (Monthly Ameri- can Journal, No. 1,) we have already seen, makes all these widths more considerable. But we will take Mr. Lyell's own account. The old channel being 160 yards wide, is exactly one fifth the width of the present falls. Now supposing the retrograde movement of the cataract had been in propor- tion to its width, then according to Mr. Lyell's estimate it could have been only 2000 years in travelling from Queenstown to its present place; for 160 being a fifth of 800, and allowing the present movement to be at the rate of seven miles in 10,000 years, then, being only a fifth as wide, anciently as now, there is reason to believe that it moved at least five times as fast. But reasoning from the data before us, the time must have been even less than 2000 years, for it is plain that a given quantity of water, say a yard in breadth, would perform the work of ex- cavation more than five times as rapidly as it would if spread over five yards in breadth. It is however but fair to state that the falls at Queenstown were not so high a& 34 TALLS OF NIAGARA. they are at present, and therefore, estimating the quantity of water the same as at present, the movement must have been slower than now. For, we know that the denudat- ing, or excavating power of water, bears not only a pro- portion to its depth and rapidity, but also to the height from which it falls, so that cataracts of little elevation pro- duce no perceptible effects for centuries, while, if the same quantity of water were precipitated from a height of seve- ral hundred feet, the whole precipice would gradually re- trograde up the stream. Allowing, therefore, that the falls moved only at half the rate above estimated, this would fix the time at 4000 years since they were at Queenstown. Now, without giving any opinion as to the real epoch, when this cataract was at Queenstown, for there are no grounds on which such an opinion ought to be formed; still we must be permitted to say that according to the data Mr. Lyell has given us, it is quite plain that the cata- ract of Niagara could not have been more than 3 or 4000 years in moving from Queenstown to its present place, instead of 10,000 years, which impression, if any, he con- veys. American Deluge. With respect to the deluge which Mr. Lyell predicts will happen about 30,000 years hence in North America, we will state the grounds on which his profoundly scientific vision presages a catastrophe so aw- ful to this devoted country. " It was," says he, " contrary to analogy to suppose that nature had been at any former epoch, parsimonious of time, and prodigal of violence, to imagine that one dis- trict was not at rest while another was convulsed that the disturbing forces were not kept under subjection, so as never to carry simultaneous desolation over the whole earth, or even over one great region. **." " In specu- lating on catastrophes by water we may certainly expect great floods in future, and we therefore presume that they have happened again, and again in past times. The ex- istence of enormous seas of fresh water, such as the North American lakes, the largest of which is elevated more than 600 feet above the level of the ocean, and is in part 1200 feet deep, is alone sufficient to assure us, that the time will come, however distant, when a deluge will lay waste a considerable part of the American continent. No hypo- thetical agency is required to cause the sudden escape of FALLS OF NIAGARA. 35 the confined waters. Such changes of level and opening of fissures, as have accompanied earthquakes since the commencement of the present century, or such excava- tions of ravines as the receding cataract of Niagara is now effecting, might break the barriers. Notwithstanding therefore that we have not witnessed within the last 3000 years the devastation by deluge of a large continent, yet as we may predict the future occurrence of such castas- trophes, we are authorized to regard them as part of the present order of nature, and they may be introduced into geological speculations respecting the past, provided we do not imagine them to have been more frequent or gene- ral, than we expect them to be in time to come." Prin- ciples of Geology, vol. i. p. 88. It is on such grounds, that one of the most voluminous and learned among the recent English geologists disputes the Mosaic history of the deluge; and we have introduced the above extract to shew, that even men of argument on other subjects, often reason in the most ridiculous man- ner, and on grounds totally false, when they undertake to deny the truth of the Holy Scriptures. Mr. LyelPs argument runs thus. " Because there are great lakes in North America situated 600 feet above the sea, and because the cataract of Niagara is receding to- wards these lakes at the rate of fifty yards in forty years; therefore we may anticipate great flobds in future, and we therefore presume that they have happened again and again in past times." Consequently we must presume that all the changes the earth has undergone by water, have been produced by such catastrophes, and therefore Noah's flood never happened, and so the Mosaic history is not to be believed. It is plain that Mr. LyelPs zeal to show that there has been no universal deluge made him forget, that in another part of his volume he states that the quantity of sediment which is every year deposited in lake Erie is such, that it will finally be filled up and become dry land, and as he does not expect the cataract of Niagara will drain this lake until the end of 30,000 years, we may hope that it will become solid within that period. But independently of this oversight, no person of the least reflection, whether geologist or not, would for a mo- ment believe that a lake, formed like a dish, and surround- ed on all sides by solid limestone rocks ninety feet thick. dO WHITE MOUNTAINS. as Erie is, could be drained to its bottom in a few hours by the action of its own waters. Suppose the cataract of Niagara now at the outlet of lake Erie and moving into it at the rate of fifty yards in forty years, or a little more than a yard per year, we would inquire of Mr. Lyell how long a period would be consumed in draining it to the bot- tom, and whether the escape of its waters thus sudden, " would cause a tremendous deluge," as he asserts. The title of Mr. LyelPs book being, ' An attempt to ex- plain the former changes of the Earth's surface, by re- ference to causes now in operation" is itself an attack on the sacred Scriptures, but we are happy to believe that Christianity is in little danger from his arguments. Mountain Slides. Instances have happened in various parts of the world, where considerable changes have been produced in the surface of the globe, by the sliding of large portions of earth, together with fragments of rocks, from the declivities of mountains. These changes are readily distinguished from those occasioned by the gene- ral deluge, not only by their local and more recent ap- pearance, but also by the direction in which these precipi- tated rocks remain with respect to the range of the moun- tain from which they have fallen. For the great currents of the deluge left their effects in lines corresponding with the ranges of most of the high mountains and considerable valleys, where they are still to be seen; whereas occasion- al slides leave their effects at the feet of the mountains, in piles, or in downward ranges. Slide of the White Mountains. The White Mountains are situated in New Hampshire, and are the highest land in New England. The slide to be described took place in August, 1826, and was in consequence of the fall of an immense quantity of rain on the mountain. On both sides of the river Saco, innumerable rocks and stone, many of them of sufficient size to fill a common apartment were detached, and in their descent swept down before them in one promiscuous and frightful ruin, forest shrubs, and the earth in which they grew. No tradition existed of any similar catastrophe at former times, and the growth of the forests on the flanks of the mountain clearly proved, that at least for a long interval, nothing similar had occurred. One of these moving masses was after- FLOOD OF BAGNEfi. 37 wards found to have slid three miles, consisting of rocks, earth, trees, &c., with an average breadth of a quarter of a mile. The excavations commenced generally in a trench a few yards in depth, and a few rods in width, and descend- ed the mountain, widening and deepening until they be- came vast chasms. Forests of spruce and hemlock were apparently prostrated with as much ease as if they had been fields of grain. The valleys of the rivers Amunoo- suck and Saco presented for many miles, an uninterrupted scene of desolation ; all the bridges being carried away and the ground strewed with the wrecks of trees and rocks, and in many instances large quantities of soil. In some places the road was excavated to the depth of 15 or 20 feet ; and in others it was covered with rocks, trees and soil to as great a height. In various places, as shown by the remaining marks, the water rose to the height of 25 feet above its ordinary level. But these things are of little consequence when com- pared with the human suffering which this catastrophe occasioned, for a family of nine persons were destroyed on the night of the 28th, and not one lived to relate the cir- cumstances. This family, named Willey, occupied a house at the foot of the mountain, a most lonely place, six miles from any other human habitation. It was a resting place for travellers. On the morning of the 28th, the house was found standing but not a human being was there. In the course of a few days, seven out of the nine bodies were found at a short distance below the house buried under the ruins of the mountain, and most of them shockingly mangled. It appeared that one of the heaviest slides from the top of the mountain had rushed in the most im- petuous manner towards the house, but when within six feet of it had divided, and passed on each side, leaving the house untouched, but sweeping away the stables and hors- es. At this time it is supposed that the family left the house, and met their destruction ; had they remained, all would have been safe. Silliman's Journal for January, 1829. Flood in the Valley of Bagnes, in 1818. The Valley of Bagnes forms a part of the main valley of the Rhone, above the lake of Geneva, in Switzerland. Through thi* 4 38 FLOOD OF BAGNES. valley passes the river Dranse, which falls into the Rhone above the lake. In 1818, in consequence of the fall of avalanches, the Dranse was completely damned up, so that a barrier of ice remained across its channel, until the melt- ing of the snow in the spring, formed a lake in its bed, a mile and a half in length, about seven hundred feet wide, and in some places, two hundred feet deep. To prevent the consequences apprehended from the sudden bursting of this barrier, the people cut a tunnel through it, several hundred feet in length, before the water had risen to any considerable height. When the water had accumulated so as to reach this tunnel or gallery, it ran through, and melting the ice it drained oft* about one half of the lake. But at length, on the approach of the hot season, the cen- tral portion of the remaining mass of ice gave way with a tremenduous crash, and the residue of the lake was emp- tied in half an hour. In the course of its descent, the wa- ter encountered several narrow gorges, and at each of these it rose to a great height, and then bursting its barriers, rush- ed forward with increased violence, sweeping along rocks, houses, trees, bridges, and cultivated lands. For the greater part of its course, the flood resembled a moving mass of rocks and mud, rather than of water. Some fragments of primary rock of enormous magnitude, and which from their dimensions, might be compared, without exaggeration, to houses, were torn out of a more ancient alluvion, and borne down for a quarter of a mile. The ve- locity of the water in the first part of its course, was thir- ty-three feet per second, which diminished to six feet, be- fore it reached the lake of Geneva, where it arrived in six hours, the distance being 45 miles. This flood left behind it on the plains of Martigny, thou- sands of trees torn up by the roots, together with the frag- ments of many buildings. Some of the houses in the town of Martigny were filled with mud up to the second story. After expanding in the plain, where the town stands, it passed into the Rhone and did no further damage. Ma- ny lives were destroyed by this flood, and the bodies of several persons were found on the surface of the Geneva lake, thirty miles from the place where they were swept away. Inundations precisely similar, and from the same cause, are recorded to have happened in former periods. In 1595, the town of Martigny was destroyed by such a flood CHANGES EFFECTED BY SPRINGS. 39* and from sixty to eighty persons perished; and in a simi- lar catastrophe which took place, fifty years before, one hundred and forty persons lost their lives. For several months after the debacle just described, the river Dranse, having no settled channel, shifted its posi- tion continually from one side to the other of the valley, carrying away newly erected bridges, undermining houses, and continuing to be charged with as large a quantity of earthy matter as the fluid could hold in suspension. See Ed. Phil. Jour. vol. i. p. 187: and LyeWs Geology, vol. i. p. 194. Now although we have no disposition to deny that great changes have been wrought on the face of the earth by the power of running streams, the bursting of lakes, &c. yet all these effects combined, utterly fail to account for the appearances enumerated under the article " Deluge." The phenomena presented by the great valleys of the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Jura, cannot be attributed to any cause, but a sudden and mighty torrent of water, such as no one has thought fit to ascribe to the bursting of a lake, and of which history contains no account, except that of the Noachian deluge. CHANGES EFFECTED BY SPRINGS. The theory of springs will be reserved for another place. At present, our object will be to show the effects which springs have had in changing the surface of the globe. It is obvious that springs of pure water, unless uncom- monly powerful, will produce but little effect on the sur- face along which they run, and with a few exceptions, their excavating effects are scarcely to be taken into account. But springs which contain carbonic acid gas, often hold considerable quantities of calcareous matter in solution, and which is deposited along their courses, producing what geologists term calcareous tufa, or travertine. These deposites are generally porous, and mixed with leaves, bits of wood, mud, &c. but when more pure, they are so solid as to be employed for building stones. Ma- ny of these springs are thermal, or warm, and abound chiefly in volcanic countries. In those parts of France and Italy which skirt the Ap* 40 SAN FILIPFO. penines, innumerable mineral springs, chiefly containing carbonate of lime, issue from the ground. As the water evaporates, the lime is left on the surface, and thus the ground in some parts of Tuscany, is covered to a conside- rable extent with the kind of deposite called Travertine, already noticed. In some places these deposites are solid and smooth on the surface, much resembling currents of lava. Baths of San Vignone. This spring is also in Tusca- ny, and affords a striking example of the rapid precipita- tion of carbonate of lime from thermal waters. The spring issues from near the summit of a hill about one hundred feet high. The water is hot, but Mr. Lyell, from whom this account is taken, does not give its temperature. So rapid is the deposition from this water, that a pipe leading from the spring to the baths, and inclined at an angle of thirty degrees, is found to contain a coat of solid limestone half a foot thick every year. A mass of solid rock below the hill, formed by this water, is two hundred feet thick. This is employed as a building stone, and in quarrying it, Roman remains of art, such as tiles, have been found five or six feet below the surface, being cover- ed by the deposite. Baths of San Filippo. These baths are situated only a few miles from those already described. The waters which supply them are impregnated with carbonate of lime, and sulphate of lime, (gypsum.) They flow from the spring immediately into a pond, where in twenty years a solid rock has been deposited thirty feet thick. A curi- ous manufactory, which produces medallions in basso-re* lievo is carried on at this place. The water is first allowed to stand in a cistern where the sulphate of lime is deposited. It is then conveyed to a chamber through a tube, from the end of which it falls ten or twelve feet, the current being broken by numerous small sticks crossing each other, and by which means the spray is dispersed around the room. Here are placed the moulds of the medallions to be formed, which are firsi rubbed over .with a little soap. The water striking on these moulds leaves particles of carbonate of lime, which gradually increasing, leaves exact and beautifully white casts of their figures, SILtCIOUS SPRINGS. 4l The solid matter left by this spring, is a mass of lime- stone and gypsum rock, a mile and a quarter long, the third of a mile in breadth, and in some places at least two hundred and fifty feet in thickness. The length of this deposite terminates abruptly, being crossed by a small stream, which carries away the undeposited matter with the waters of the spring, otherwise it would have been much more extensive. The quantity of matter deposited from these springs, show the newness of the earth, or at least of the present order of things on its surface; for had they existed at the period when Mr. Lyell supposes the cataract of Niagara was at Queenstown, and discharged their waters, and form- ed depositions as they do at the present day, and which it is certain they did at the time of the Romans, these strata ought to have been at least ten thousand feet thick. It is true, however, that these thermal springs being caused by volcanic heat, might have been formed within the last two thousand years. It is apparent from what has been stated concerning cal- careous springs, that in the lapse of ages, considerable changes must have been made in the earth's surface from this source. But it must not be forgotten that this cause is local in its nature, being confined chiefly to volcanic districts: and that even such districts seldom contain springs which work such changes as are above described. Silicious Springs. Although we possess no chemical process by which water can be made to dissolve pure silex, or flint, yet in the great labratory of nature, this effect is produced. There is, however, a process in chemistry, in which, by a previous combination, silex becomes soluble in water, and which, perhaps, affords an analogy to the process employed by nature. If silex be finely pulveri- zed, and then melted with a quantity of common alkali, the whole becomes soluble in hot water. Now springs con- taining any considerable quantity of silex, are always of high temperatures; and it is to the great degree of heat which exists at their sources, together with small portions of alkali which volcanic rocks contain, and which the wa- ter dissolves, that we are to attribute the property these waters possess, of holding silex in solution. Springs con- taining any considerable quantity of silex, are however, exceedingly rare, and are mentioned here, rather on this 4* 42 GEYSERS. account, than for the changes they have produced on the earth's surface. Springs of St. Michael. The hot springs of St. Mi- chael, one t of the Azores, have been long celebrated. These waters rise from among volcanic rocks and hold large quantities of silex in solution. As the waters de- scend from the fountain, they deposite their silex in the form of what is termed silicious sinter, which may be con- sidered as answering to the travertine, or tufa of calcare- ous springs. The herbage and leaves along the course of the stream are more or less encrusted with silex, and exhibit all the successive steps of petrifaction, from a soft state to a com- plete conversion into stone. Branches of ferns, such as now grow in the vicinity, are thus changed, still preserv- ing their appearance of vegetation, except that they have acquired an ash grey color. Dr. Webster, Ed. Phil. Journal. Geysers of Iceland. But the Geysers of Iceland afford the most remarkable examples of the deposition of silex. These springs are situated in a volcanic district; the sur- face of the ground out of which they rise being covered with streams of ancient lava, through the fissures of which, steam and hot water are emitted in various places. The great Geyser, which has excited so much interest, on account of the singular phenomena which it exhibits, rises out of a basin at the summit of a circular mound, composed of silicious incrustations deposited from the spray of its waters. The diameter of this basin or crater is 56 feet in one direction, and 46 in the other. In the centre of this basin is a natural pipe seventy- eight feet in perpendicular depth, and from eight to ten feet in diameter, gradually widening as it opens into the basin. The basin, as the spring intermits, is sometimes empty, but is more commonly filled with beautifully trans- parent boiling hot water, which is often in a state of vio- lent ebullition. During the rise of the water up the pipe, especially when the ebullition is most violent, subterra- nean noises are heard, like the distant firing of cannon, and a slight tremor of the earth is felt near the place. The sound then increases, and the motion of the earth be- comes more violent, until at length a column of water is GEYSERS. 43 thrown up from the pipe in a perpendicular direction, to the height of from one to two hundred feet, attended with loud explosions. This is continued, with interruptions like an artificial fountain r for a few minutes, the water at the same time giving off immense quantities of steam, and vapor, when the pipe is evacuated by the discharge of its whole contents of water, and there follows an immense column of steam, which rushes up with amazing force and a loud thundering noise, after which the eruption, or par- oxysm terminates, and the Geyser becomes quiet. If stones are thrown into the pipe, or crater, during an eruption, they are instantly ejected, and such is the explo- sive force of the steam, that masses of hard rock thrown in, are returned into the air, shivered into small fragments. Mr. Henderson late a resident in Iceland, and well ac- quainted with these phenomena, states that by throwing stones into the pipe of the Geyser, he could bring on an eruption in a few minutes, and that in such cases the frag- ments of stone as well as the water, were thrown much higher than usual. When an eruption had been brought on in this manner, and the water had been ejected, the steam continued to rush up, with amazing force, and at- tended by a deafening roar, for nearly an hour; but the Geyser as if exhausted by this effort, did not give symp- toms of a fresh eruption when its usual interval had elapsed. In the different explanations which have been offered to account for phenomena so singular, and astonishing, and which have been no where else observed, most writers agree in supposing a subterranean cavity, where water and steam collect, and where the free escape of the steam is interrupted at intervals, or until it acquires sufficient force to overcome the resistance occasioned by the pres- sure of the water. This will be readily understood by the annexed diagram, reduced from Mr. Lyell, and we may remark that the theory is the same with that of intermit- ting springs, only that the Geyser acts by steam, while the other is explained on the principle of the syphon, See the Author's Nat. Philosophy, p. 107. 44 GEY3ER8. In explain- ing this cut, suppose wa- ter percolat- ing from the surface of the earth, or from springs below, finds its way into the sub- terranean cav- ity d, by the fissures / /, while at the same time steam of an extremely high tempeiature, emanates from volcanic rocks into the same cavity through the fissures c c. A portion of the steam in the first place would be condensed into water, but its temperature continuing to increase by the latent heat of the steam, the lower part of the cavity would soon be filled with the boiling fluid, while the upper part would be filled by steam under considerable pressure. The steam continuing to form, the water being now too hot to condense it, would soon by its expansive force, drive the water up the pipe or fissure e, 6, what ever might be its height, and thus the basin at the surface would be filled and an eruption take place. When the pressure is thus diminished, the steam in the upper part of the cavity a, would expand, or probably a portion of the boiling water under diminished pressure would be instant- ly converted into steam, and the passage being free, would rush up the pipe in the same manner as is seen and heard on opening the safety valve of a steam boiler. If the pipe be choaked up artificially with stones, even for a few minutes, a great increase of heat would be occasioned, since the steam would thus be prevented from escaping, so that the water would be made to boil in a few minutes, and thus an eruption would be brought on, as stated by Mr. Henderson. This explanation accounts for all the phenomena ob- served in the Geysers, and although we cannot be certain of its truth, still there is every reason to believe that such LAKE OF GENEVA. 45 a cavity exists, and it is certain that steam is the moving power. Mr. Lyell forms a theory of earthquakes on this expla- nation. See Seat and Theory of Earthquakes. DELTAS IN LAKES. Considerable changes have taken place by causes now going on, in consequence of the deposition of earthy mat- ter at the mouths of rivers where they enter lakes, or seas. We have already given an account of the accumu- lation of land along the shores of the Adriatic, in conse- quence chiefly of depositions from the river Po. The quantity of matter thus carried down by different rivers, of similar magnitudes, differs exceedingly; this difference depending much on the rapidity of the stream, and its liability to overflow its banks at certain seasons. Delta of the Lake of Geneva. The Lake of Geneva is thirty-seven miles long, and from two to nine miles broad* The Rhone enters at one end of this lake and the city of Geneva stands at the other. The water where it dis- charges itself near the city is exceedingly clear and trans- parent, but at the upper end it is commonly turbid, in con- sequence of the matter brought down by the Rhone. Mr. De La Beche, after numerous soundings, found that the depth of the water in the middle of the lake was from one hundred and twenty, to one hundred and sixty fathoms; but on approaching the mouth of the Rhone, the water began to grow shallower at the distance of a mile and three quarters from that end of the lake. It may be sta- ted therefore that the strata annually produced by the river are about two miles in length. From soundings it has been ascertained, that in some places the deposites from the Rhone are probably from six to nine hundred feet in thickness; and from the remains of some Roman buildings on the border of the lake, Mr. Lyell judges that this accumulation has taken place within the last eight hundred years. "If," says he, "we could obtain the depth of this accumulation formed in the last eight centu- ries, we should see a great series of strata, probably from 46 LAKE OF GENEVA six to nine hundred feet thick, and nearly two miles in length, inclined at a very slight angle." Mr. Lyell proposes a plan for estimating the time when the Lake of Geneva, or the Leman Lake, will become dry land by the accumulations from the Rhone. The capacity of the lake being obtained, " it would," says he, " be an interesting subject of inquiry, to deter- mine in what number of years the Leman lake would be converted to dry land. It would not be difficult to obtain the elements for such a calculation, so as to approximate at least to the quantity of time required for the accom- plishment of this result. The number of cubic feet of water annually discharged by the river into the lake being known, experiments might be made in winter and summer to determine the proportion of matter held in suspension, or in chemical solution by the Rhone." Such calculations, however, after all the data that could be obtained, would be exceedingly uncertain, and since the elements, proposed by the author, have not been obtained, we do not extract his speculations on this subject. But were it ascertained exactly how much alluvial mat- ter is carried down by the Rhone at the present day, still this would decide nothing definitely with respect to the time during which this accumulation has been forming. According to Mr. Lyell's supposition above cited, a part of the delta has formed at the rate of about a foot in a year, namely, from six to nine hundred feet in eight hundred years. Now allowing that the Rhone has, on an average, deposited a foot of matter a year in the lake, and has con- tinued to do so ever since the deluge, then the accumula- tion ought to be at least four thousand feet thick, which would long ago have filled up the Leman lake, and made it solid ground. The phenomena of this lake, therefore clearly shews that either it has not received the Rhone for so many years, or if so, that its waters contained less solid matter anciently than at present. In either case, it is quite certain that no argument can be derived from the present condition of this delta, in favor of the high an- tiquity of the present form of the earth. But on the con- trary, if any conclusions can be drawn from this source, they are in direct coincidence with the idea that the pre- sent order of things are of recent origin, and therefore in confirmation of the truth of the sacred history of the de- luge. BALTIC SEA. 47 DELTAS IN THE SEA. Accumulations in the Baltic. The question whether the waters of the Baltic sea have been sinking, or whether they have remained stationary, has been a subject of con- troversy since the middle of the last century. Celcius, a Swedish astronomer, attempted to prove that the waters of this sea had suffered a depression at the rate of about forty-five inches in a century, from the earliest times. He contended that the proof of this change rested not only on modern observations, but also on the authority of the ancient geographers, who stated that Scandinavia, now a peninsula, was formerly an island. But most of the argu- ments of Celcius and his followers, show that they did not sufficiently distinguish between the shallowing of the water by the deposition of sediment, and the actual lowering of the sea. It appears that the sinking of the waters, on which estimates were chiefly made, were at the mouths of rivers, and in bays, where in the one case inland sediment might be expected, and in the other where loss of depth might be occasioned by the shifting of sand bars by the current of the sea. But the facts stated concerning the gradual conversion of the Gulf of Bothnia into dry land merit more attention. .Thus it was shown that at Pitea, half a mile of land had been gained in forty-five years, and that at Lulea a mile of ground had been added in twenty- eight years. Ancient ports on the same coast had become inland cities. Considerable portions of the gulf were also shown to have become three fet shallower in the course of fifty years many old fishing grounds had been changed into dry land, and small islands had been joined to the continent. Besides these changes, it was asserted that along the coast of West Prussia, and Pomerania, an- chors, and the hulls of old ships had been discovered far inland. But since it was possible that all these facts might be accounted for by the accumulation of land, instead of the depression of the waters, Celcius derived a stronger ar- gument still for his theory, from the exposure of certain insular rocks in the gulf of Bothnia, which were once entirely covered by water. These rocks, it was shown, had risen in the course of a hundred and fifty years, from below the water to the height of eight feet above its sur- 48 BALTIC SEA. face, and there they stood, the most certain and permanent of all witnesses, that the sea was so much lower than for- merly. To this it was opposed, that this island consist- ed of sand and drift stones, and that during great tem- pests, not only more sand, but additional stones, also, were thrown upon it. Besides this, icebergs, heavily laden with stones and rocks, sometimes floated in this sea, when the ice was breaking up in the spring, and the fact that this low island had gradually increased in height, was readi- ly accounted for, by supposing that the stranded ice fields had forced these stones above the level of the water, where of course they would remain after the ice was melted away. This question, about which volumes were written in the course of half a century, was finally settled by a curi- ous, but conclusive proof, brought forward by the oppo- sers of Celcius. On the Finland side of the Baltic, there grew, close to the water's edge, some large pine trees. Some of these were cut down, and by counting the con- centric rings of annual growth, it was found that they had stood there four hundred years. Now according to Cel- cius, the sea had sunk fifteen feet during that period, so that were this the case, these trees must have commenced their growth in at least two fathoms of water, a thing ab- solutely impossible. It was also proved that the walls of several ancient castles, as those of Sonderburg and Abo, reached the edge of the water at the present day, and therefore, had the water sunk, these foundations must have originally been laid below the level of the sea. Very ample proofs from other sources have also been adduced, that the level of the Baltic has suffered no change for eight hundred, or a thousand years. But notwithstanding the proofs are quite positive that the hypothesis of Celcius can only be substantiated by de- ceptive arguments, drawn from progressive accumulations of solid matter in the water; still there are many intelli- gent men who maintain that the waters of the Baltic are Buffering a constant diminution. So lately as 1821, sev- eral Swedish officers, belonging to the pilotage depart- ment, declared in favor of this opinion. The weight of evidence is, however, entirely opposed to the theory of Celcius, and there can be little doubt but the Baltic Sea has remained at its present level from time immemorial. Geology, vol. i. p. 227. We have been thus particular in this account, that the DELTA OF THE RHONE IN THE SEA. 49 geological student might observe how much difficulty some- times occurs in deciding questions of this nature, and con- sequently how much experience and judgment ought to be exercised before any positive opinion is advanced on some geological points, in themselves apparently of the most simple kind. The great question, also, whether the waters of the ocean are diminishing, as has been maintain- ed by several writers, is involved in the question of the Baltic; for since this sea communicates with all other seas, and oceans, its' gradual depression would prove a corres- ponding diminution of the sea all over the earth. But from the above account there is no doubt, that the supposed sinking of the Baltic is entirely a deception, arising from alluvial accumulations brought down by rivers, and the oc- casional shifting of sand banks by the currents of that sea. Delta of the Rhone in the Sea. We have seen that the Rhone deposits large quantities of sediment in the lake of Geneva, and have noticed with what crystalline trans- parency the waters of that lake are discharged, to continue the same river towards the sea. But says Mr. Lyell, 44 scarcely has the river passed out of the Leman Lake, be- fore its pure waters are again filled with sand and sedi- ment by the impetuous Arve, descending from the highest Alps, and bearing along in its current the granitic detri- tus [broken rocks] annually carried down by the glaciers of Mount Blanc." The Rhone, also, afterwards receives vast contributions of transported matter from the Alps of Dauphiny, and the primary and volcanic mountains of central France, so that when it reaches the Mediterranean, it discolors the waters of the sea to the distance of many leagues. The advance of the delta of the Rhone into the sea, is proved by many circumstances, and particularly by the facts that an island described by Pomponius Mela, an an- cient Latin geographer, is now far inland, and that a loca- tion which was a harbor in 898, is now three miles from the shore. It is also known that Psamodi, which was an island in 815, is at the present time six miles from the sea. As the Rhone enters the sea by several mouths, at con- siderable distances from each other, a large tract of coun- try is brought within its influence, and thus besides ex- tending the land along the shore, marshes of great extent 5 50 DELTA OF THE RHONE IN THE SEA. have, during the lapse of ages been filled up by its annual deposites. In the course of this river, it receives the waters of a vast number of springs containing carbonate of lime in so- lution, and which mixing with the waters of the Rhone, is not deposited until it reaches the sea. Hence the Delta of this river, instead of consisting of loose, incoherent sedi- ment, like the deposites from most other rivers, consists chiefly of solid rock; the carbonate of lime acting as a ce- ment to the sediment, when this exists, or in its absence, forming limestone nearly pure. This is a well ascertain- ed fact, for large masses of this rock are quarried for va- rious purposes, and are found to consist of sand consolida- ted by a calcareous cement, and mixed with broken shells. After the sand has been deposited, the waters still hold a portion of the carbonate in solution, which is thrown down in a purer state, and even sometimes in the form of crys- talline masses. As an example, there exists a cannon in the museum of Montpelier, taken up from near the mouth of this river embedded in crystalline limestone. Thus *we see that solid limestone is now copstantly forming, in which are embedded shells as in the ancient marbles, which some geologists have contended were thou- sands of years older than the creation according to Moses. This circumstance is important and will be adverted to in another place. In a late survey of the coast of the Mediterranean, the ships employed at the mouth of the Rhone were obliged to quit their moorings, when the wind blew strongly from the south-west. Captain Smith, one of the officers on this service, states, that when the ships returned after such a wind, the new sand banks in the Delta were found covered with a great abundance of marine shells, which were swept there by the current caused by the wind. This circumstance appears to explain phenomena of some importance in geology. In some ancient strata it has been claimed that marine and fresh water shells alternate with each other, and hence it has been supposed that at least in such places, the sea had retired for a time, while fresh water occupied its place; after which the sea again resumed its former bed; and so alternately, as often as the different kinds of shells were repeated. But it ap- .pears from the above statement, that the explanation of .such appearances is very simple, and that it is unnecessary DELTA OF THE GANGES. 51 to believe that the ordinary course of nature was changed in order to produce such effects: for,, at the mouth of the Rhone, a strong south-west wind only is required, to oc- casionally mix the shells of the sea with those which are brought down by the fresh water, or which live in its cur- rent. Delta of the Po in the Adriatic. We have already de- scribed the effects which the Po has produced and is now producing, in some parts of the country through which it passes. But we must notice more particularly the chan- ges which this mighty torrent, assisted by the Adige, has produced at its delta in the Adriatic. These two rivers with numerous smaller streams, drain some of the loftiest ridges of the Appenines, together with one side of the great Crescent of the Alps. The combined influence of these rivers have produced an enor- mous increase of alluvial matter along the coast of that sea. From the northernmost point of the gulf of Trieste where the river Isonzo enters, down to the south of Ra- venna, there is an uninterrupted series of recent alluvial deposited, forming dry land, more than*one hundred miles in length, and from two to twenty miles in breadth. There is evidence that this great alluvion has been formed within the last two thousand years. Adria a city which gave name to the Adriatic, was originally a sea-port; it is now twenty miles from the sea. Ravenna and Spina were also built on the sea, but, at the present time, the first is four, and the last ten or twelve miles from the water. Delta of the Ganges. The Ganges and the Burram- pooter descend from Himmala mountains, the most lofty on the globe. The latter river may be considered as a branch of the former, and falls into it long before their united waters reach the sea. The Ganges is discharged into the Bay of Bengal, which forms a vast indenture into the continent of more than two hundred miles in length. The Delta of the Ganges commences more than 203 miles from the Bay of Bengal in a direct line, and 300, if the distance be estimated along the windings of the river. That part of the Delta which borders on the sea, is divi- ded by a vast number of rivers, or creeks, all of which are salt except those which communicate with the pric> 52 DELTA OF THE GANGES. cipal arms of the Ganges. This tract is famous under the name of Sunderbunds being the common haunt of tigers and alligators. Its extent, according to the account of Major Rennell, is equal to the whole principality of Wales. Its base, bordering on the sea, is about two hundred miles in length, and, on each side, it is enclosed by an arm of the Ganges. Besides these, through which the water of this immense river is now discharged, there are six other great openings through the Delta into the sea, each of which has evidently at some ancient period, been the principal bed of the river. During the period of overflow the greater part of this vast Delta is covered with the water of the river, so that the Ganges appears to be flow- ing into a vast lake, instead of itself inundating, and sweep- ing a whole territory of India. So great is the quantity of mud and sand carried down by this immense current, at such seasons, and so vast the quantity of water it dis- charges, that the ocean is discolored by it to the distance of sixty miles from its mouth. In various parts of this delta great accumulations, or islands are formed in the course of a few years, and per- haps as soon swept away, and similar ones formed in oth- er places. Some of these, which are islands during fresh- ets, Major Rennell states, are equal in extent to the Isle of Wight, and thickly inhabited. The people are however, always in danger of being swept away by floods of un- common height. In 1763 such an inundation happened, the water rising six feet above ordinary floods; and conse- quently the inhabitants of one of these districts of con- siderable extent, were, with their horses and cattle totally engulfed, and perished in the water. These examples of the effects of running water in changing the surface of the globe are sufficient for the purposes intended. In all parts of the world, such effects are constantly taking place, to a greater or less extent. The aggregate accumulation of solid ground by the for- mation and extension of deltas on the surface of the whole earth, must be very considerable during every year; and yet these effects are hardly appreciable in relation to the changes they produce on the entire surface of the globe. It is true, that the course of navigation is in a few instan- ces obstructed, or changed by these accumulations, but in general the same sea ports of which the earliest records of history give any account, are still accessible. c SEDIMENT IN RIVER WATER. 53 Had their accumulations commenced at very remote periods as some have contended, and continued to the present time, it is quite certain that many lakes now exist- ing would have become dry land, and that the deltas of rivers falling into the sea, would have been far more ex- tensive than we find they are. All the facts therefore, which are connected with the effects of rivers in the formation of dry land, tend to show that the present form of the earth has not existed more than a few thou- sand years, and that it has suffered no considerable chan- ges from running streams, as one of the causes now in operation. QUANTITY OF SEDIMENT IN RIVER WATER. Having in the preceding pages given such an account of the effects of rivers in forming solid depositions, as our limits will allow, it is proper here to present the geologi- cal student with an account of the estimates and experi- ments, which have been made to ascertain the quantity of solid matter, water is capable of holding in suspension. It is proper, however, that we should also state that few, if any of these estimates can be considered as more than approximations to the truth; still they are such as are quoted by the best writers, and are probably as accurate as any in existence at the present day. Major Rennell states that a glass of water taken out of the Ganges during the height of its annual flood, yields about one part in four of mud. ' No wonder then," says he, " that the sub- siding waters should quickly form a stratum of earth, or that its delta should encroach upon the sea." The same writer, who resided many years in the vicinity of the Gan- ges, computed with great care the quantity of water which that river discharges into the sea, and which by his estimate amounted, during a year, on an average, to eighty thousand cubic feet, for every second of time. When the river is at its greatest height during its annual inundation, and consequently its motion much accelerated, the quan- tity discharged, by the same estimate, was four hundred and jive thousand cubic feet per second. Mr. Lyell has made a computation of the quantity of solid matter carried down by the Ganges, taking as hi& 5* 54 SEDIMENT IN RIVER WATER. data, the experiment of Major Rennell, and his estimate of the quantity of water it discharges. " If it were true," says he, " that the Ganges in the flood season contained one part in four of mud, we should then be obliged to sup- pose that there passes down every four days, a quantity of mud equal in volume to the water which is discharged in the course of a day, or twenty-four hours. If the mud be assumed to be equal to one half the specific gravity of granite, (it however is more,) the weight of matter daily carried down in the flood season would be about sixty times the weight of the great pyramid of Fgypt. If the Ganges discharges 405,000 cubic feet of water per second, which was the estimate of Major Rennell, then, in round numbers the quantity of mud discharged per second, would be 100,000 cubic feet, which being multiplied by 86,400, the number of seconds in 24 hours, would give 8,640,000,000 cubic feet of rnud going down the Ganges per day. The weight of this, (allowing as above,) would be equal to that of 4,320,000,000 cubic feet of granite. Now about twelve and a half cubic feet of granite weigh a ton, but throwing out the half, the matter discharged by the Ganges every day 360,000,000 of tons. This is sixty times the weight of the great pyramid of Egypt, which if solid is computed to weigh 6,000,000 of tons." But although the Ganges may be supposed to transport a much greater quantity of mud, even according to its size, than any other river, sttH there can be little doubt but Major Rennell very far over-rated the quantity of solid matter its waters contained. The Rhine when most flooded, has been computed to contain one part of mud in a hundred of water, and Sir George Staunton by several observations, calculated that the water of Yellow River, in China, contained earthy matter in the proportion of one part to two hundred. In this proportion he estimated that the waters of that river brought down 48,000,000 of cubic feet of solid matter daily. According to the calculations of Manfredi, the celebrat- ed Italian hydrographer, the average amount of sediment in all the running streams on the globe, is one part in 175. From such data, he estimates that it would take a thou- sand years to raise the general bed of the sea a single foot, provided none of this sediment was thrown back again upon the shores. From what has been stated, the reader will observe that DESTRUCTION OF ROCKS. 56 although a considerable number of experiments have been made on this difficult subject, there remains much more to be done before satisfactory results can be offered. It is however certain, that great quantities of solid matter are transported by running streams; and with respect to lakes and ponds there can be no doubt, but they are gradually filling up, and that if the same causes continue which we have described, all these bodies of water will finally be re-placed by dry land. But there can be no possible estimate made of the time required for such an event, since the quantity of solid matter which streams transport, must be constantly de- creasing in proportion as lakes and ponds approach the level of the country in which they are. In a flat country therefore, a lake may remain for centuries without any appreciable elevation of its bottom. The great depth of some lakes at the present day, when these circumstances are considered, is a good proof of the newness of the present order of things on the earth, and consequently of the truth of the Mosaic history of its cre- ation. With respect to the level of the sea, it has been shown that no change has taken place in the Baltic, and we may also state at this place, that it will be seen hereafter, that the remains of Roman buildings show that the Mediterra- nean sea has not changed its level for the last 2000 years. We may therefore conclude, that either the quantity of matter carried into the sea has made no appreciable differ- ence with its general level, or that as much solid matter is thrown on the land at one place as is carried into U in an- other. DESTRUCTION OF ROCKS- The causes now described which have produced chang- es on the surface of the earth, are chiefly such as transport loose materials from one place to another. But there is another cause of change, which although noticed in the first part of this article, must be more particularly descri- bed. This is the destruction of rocks. " If in contemplating," says Dr. Macculloch, * the tow- ering peaks, and the solid precipices of an alpine region, braving the fury of the elements and the floods of winter, 66 FALL OF MOUNT ORENIER. the spectator is at first impressed with the character of strength and solidity, which nature here seems to have conferred on her works, it requires but a moment's reflec- tion, to show that every thing around him bears the marks of ruin and decay. Here he learns to withhold his regret at the perishable nature of all human labors, at the fall of the strong tower, and the solid pyramid, when he sees that the most massive rocks, those mountains which seem calculated for eternal duration, bear alike the marks of vicissitude and the traces of ruin." " In these great revolutions, however, other agents must co-operate; and the first here to be considered is the power of frost. Expanding as it freezes, the water which has entered the fissures acts with irresistible force, and detaches those enormous masses, which in the seasons of winter and spring, daily fall from the mountains. In Greenland, it is said that these effects often take place with a noise emulating thunder; but if less conspicuous, they are sufficiently common in all alpine regions that are subject to the extreme vicissitudes of heat and cold.'* Geology, Vol. i. p. 248. To this cause in a great measure is to be attributed the ruin of sea cliffs, which on some coasts present such stri- king and singular appearances. The constant action of the ocean lashing the inferior parts of these cliffs, also produces its effects, and is often the cause of large masses being precipitated into the water. The perpetual rubbing of the smaller stones against the larger, on the borders of the sea, is another cause which in the course of time pro- duces considerable effects; and hence all such stones have lost their angles and become completely smooth and rounded. Fall of Mount Grenier. The fall of a part of Mount Grenier, one of the calcareous mountains of Savoy, illus- trates the effects of frost, and the gradual undermining of rocks by torrents. Mount Grenier is upwards of 4000 feet high, and rises abruptly above the plain on which it stands. The top, or cap, is an immense mass of lime- stone, 600 feet thick, below which are strata of a softer kind, and it is to the decay of the latter that the fall is at- tributed, the cap being undermined by the gradual erosion and removal of the under strata. The fall took place in the year 1248. The larger masses, says Mr. Bakewell, DESTROYING EFFECTS OF THE SEA. 5T evidently came from the upper, or highest part of the mountain, and the velocity they acquired by the fall must have been at least 300 feet per second, before they reach- ed the ground. As these immense masses struck oblique- ly against the base of the mountain, they thus acquired a projectile force which spread them far into the plain. These masses were in such quantity, and were projected to such distances, as to cover nine square miles of surface, and to entirely bury five parishes, together with the town and church of St. Andre. In the course of years the rains, or currents of water from dissolving snow, have fur- rowed channels between the larger masses of stone, and washing away part of the loose earth, have left an im- mense number of conical hills still remaining. So deep and vast was the mass of ruins which covered the town of St. Andre, and the other parishes, that except a small bronze statue, no individual article belonging to any of them has been found to this day BakeweWs Geology. Fall of Rocks from the Alps. A part of a mountain near Servos, belonging to the Alpine range, and on the road to Chamouny, fell down in the year 1751. This continued several days, mass after mass being precipitated, while an immense volume of dust, the consequence of friction, by the sliding of the rocks on each other, rose so high, and was so dense as to have been seen at the distance of twen- ty-five miles. A succession of reports, like the firing of heavy cannon, announced the fall of these masses day and night. The aggregate amount thus precipitated was estimated by Donali at 3,000,000 of cubic fathoms, or fifteen millions of cubic feet, a quantity suiKcient to form a large hill. DESTROYING EFFECTS OF THE SEA. Mr. Lyell has adduced many instances of the power of sea waves to move large masses of solid rock. In the Shetland Isles this effect has been quite surprising. In 1818, during a storm, a mass of granite, nine feet by six, was thrown by the waves up a declivity to the distance of 150 feet; and, in the winter of 1802, a mass of rock 58 INROADS OF THE SEA. eight feet by seven, and five feet thick, was moved to ths distance of ninety feet, by the same force. The reader who remembers the immense power which velocity gives a sea wave, as above illustratt d, will be at no loss to comprehend why the strongest ships are some- times reduced to fragments in a few minutes; nor will he wonder at the destroying effects which a wide ocean must produce on a coast, which is not guarded by a strong bar- rier of solid rocks. Destruction of the Village of Mathers. The village of Mathers, on the east coast of Scotland, was destroyed by an inroad of the sea, in 1795. This town was guarded by a barrier of limestone rock next the shore; but during a storm the waves of the ocean broke through this barrier, and in one night destroyed and swept away the whole vil- lage. The sea penetrated 150 yards inland, where it has maintained its ground ever since. Eastern Coasts of England. The eastern coasts of England are constantly suffering from the inroads of the sea. On the old maps of Yorkshire, many spots are marked, as the sites of towns which are now sand banks in the ocean. A greater or less portion of the coasts of Nor- folk and Suffolk are every year swallowed up by the sea. The town of Sherringham, on this coast, exhibits a melan- choly proof of this fact. With respect to this town, Mr. Lyell states, that at one point there is now a depth of water of 25 feet, (sufficient to float a frigate) where only 48 years ago, there stood a cliff fifty feet high, with houses upon it. Further to the south are cliffs more than 200 feet high; more or less of which are ever> year precipita- ted into the ocean, in consequence of being undermined by the waves. The whole site of the ancient town of Cromer now forms a part of the bed of ihe German ocean, the inhabitants having gradually pulled down their houses and removed inland as the sea encroached upon them; and, from their present situation, they are in danger of being dislodged by the same cause. From this neighbor- hood, in the year 1822, a mass of earth and rocks was precipitated into the sea, to the extent of twelve acres, the cliffs being 250 feet high; and on the same coast, three ancient villages, several manors, and large portions of a- INROADS OF THE SEA. 59 fcumber of parishes have, from the same cause, gradually disappeared, and been replaced by the ocean. Since the time of Edward the Confessor, as appears by the records, the sea-coast town of Dunwich has lost in succession, a monastery at one time; at another, several churches; at another, 400 houses; and, subsequently, ano- ther church; the town hall and jail, together with many other buildings, all precipitated into the sea. These are given as specimens of the devastating effects of the sea in different parts of the world, and, by which, it appears that if on the one hand, large tracts of coast are forming, and encroaching upon the ocean in one part of the world, as in the Baltic, and on the coasts of Italy, so on the other hand, the sea is encroaching on the land in other parts, probably to an equal extent. In many instances, inundations from the sea, have been the means of effecting, not only great changes in the sur- face of the earth, in a short period of time, but also of de- stroying vast numbers of human beings. On the coast ot Holland these disasters have been peculiarly destructive, as well as on the coast opposite. A considerable peninsula which lay between Groningen and East Friesland, and was thickly inhabited, was partly overwhelmed in 1277, and a considerable portion of the land carried away, with many houses and inhabitants. During the fifteenth century, other portions were destroy- ed by the same cause, and a part of the town of Forum, a place of considerable size, was swept away. In 1507, not only the remainder of Forum was engulphed, in spite of the erection of dams, but also several market towns, villa- ges and monasteries, were entirely destroyed, together with their inhabitants. Further to the north, anciently lay the district of North Friesland. This was a peninsula; but in 1240.. the sea destroyed the land next the coast, and thus formed an island called Northstrand. This island was originally of considerable extent, but the sea, from time to time, swept away small portions of it, until the inhabitants became so concentrated, that when the island was only four geogra- phical miles in circumference, their number was still nine thousand. At last, on the night of the 1 1th of October, 1634, a flood from the sea swept over the whole island, and destroyed at once a great proportion of the inhabi- tants, all the houses, churches and cattle, carrying away DOWNS. even the land that had sustained them. By this dreadful calamity, there was swept away 1300 houses, with all the churches, 50,000 head of cattle, and more than 6000 people. We might continue these accounts with regard to the changes which have taken place on the same coasts to great length; but our design being chiefly to give exam- ples, rather than general details, we will here conclude this part of our subject. DOWNS, OR SAND HILLS. In some sections of country, the fine sand that is thrown up by the sea, is carried by the wind to considerable dis- tances, and in such quantities as to cover the land entirely, and to fill up lakes and estuaries. Occasionally, also, there are sand plains at a distance from the sea, where ve- getation seems never to have taken root, and where con- sequently, there is nothing to prevent the sand from spreading in all directions by the force of the winds. On the coasts of France and Holland, long chains of sand hills have been formed from the sea, which have ef- fected important geological changes, by barring up the mouths of rivers and bays, and thus preventing the ingress of tides, and changing the course of currents. On the north coast of Cornwall, in England, a conside- rable extent of country has been inundated by drifting sand and pulverized shells from the sea shore. Some of the hills thus formed are several hundred feet high. By the shifting of these sands, the ruins of several ancient buildings have been discovered, shewing that these chan- ges have been in progress for many centuries. In some places this sand has become so compact as to be employ- ed for architectural purposes, the cementing agent being oxide of iron, which the water carries, in solution, from the upper to the lower strata. But it is in the East, and especially on the borders of Egypt, that the devastating effects of sand has produced the most calamitious consequences. In Egypt, these are called sand floods, and of their effects De Luc has given the following statement: *' The sands of the Lybian," he says, " driven by the DOWNS. 61 west winds, have left no lands capable of tillage on any parts of the western banks of the Nile, not sheltered by mountains. The encroachment of these sands on districts which were formerly inhabited and cultivated is evidently seen. M. Denon informs us in his Travels in Lower and Upper Egypt, that summits of the ruins of ancient cities, buried under these sands still appear externally; and that but for a ridge of mountains called the Lybian chain, which borders the left bank of the Nile, and forms, in the parts where it rises, a barrier against the invasion of these sands, the shores of the river, on that side, would long since have ceased to be habitable. '* Nothing- can be more melancholy," says Denon, ** than to walk over villages, swallowed up by the sand of the desert, to trample under foot their roofs, to strike against the summits of their minarets, to reflect that yonder were cultivated fields, that there grew trees, that here were even the dwellings of men, and that all have vanished." De Luc draws an argument from these sand floods in favor of the newness of the earth, and of the truth of the Mosaic history of the Creation. *' If then," he continues, " our continents were as an- cient as has been pretended, no traces of the habitation of men would appear on any part of the western bank of the Nile, which is exposed to this scourge of the sands of the desert. The existence, therefore, of such monuments at- tests the successive progress of the encroachment of the sand; and these parts of the bank formerly inhabited, will forever remain arid and waste." " It is, therefore, riot solely to her revolutions and changes of sovereigns, that Egypt owes the loss of her ancient splendor; it is also to her having been thus irre- coverably deprived of a tract of land, by which, before the sands of the desert had covered it, and caused it to disap- pear, her wants had been abundantly supplied. Now, if we fix our attention on this fact, and reflect on the conse- quences which would have attended it, if thousands, or only some hundreds of centuries had elapsed since our continents first existed above the level of the sea, does it not evidently appear, that all the country on the west of the Nile would have been buried under this sand before the erection of the cities of ancient Egypt, how remote soever that period may be supposed; and that in a coun- try so long afflicted with sterility, no idea would even 6 62 CORAL ISLANDS. have been formed of constructing such vast and numerous edifices? When these cities, indeed, were built, another cause concurred in favoring their prosperity. The navi- gation of the Red Sea was not then attended with any danger on the coasts; all its ports, now nearly blocked up with reefs of coral, had a safe and easy access; the vessels laden with merchandise and provisions could enter them and depart without risk of being wrecked on these shoals, which have risen since that time, and are still increasing in extent." " Thus the reefs of coral which have been raised in the Red Sea, on the East of Egypt, and the sands of the desert which invade it on the west, concur in attest- ing this truth, That our continents are not of a more re- mote antiquity than has been assigned to them by the sa- cred historian, in the Book of Genesis, from the great era of the Deluge." FORMATION OF CORAL ISLANDS. It is but recently that any observations tending to in- terest or inform the naturalist, have been made on the production of Coral Islands. But the great extent to which these islands have been formed, together with the rapidity with which it has been said they are increasing, give this subject a considerable degree of interest, not only in respect to geology, but also as it regards com- merce. On this subject Dr. Macculloch says, " The production of the Coral Islands of the great Pacific ocean, which en- danger this navigation and that of the Indian Archipelago, and are tending fast to destroy that of the Red Sea, is a fact completely distinguished from all other subjects of geological investigation. It also forms a most interesting branch of the present inquiries; and it is the more indis- pensible to examine it, because it has hitherto been unac- countably neglected by other geological writers." " It is sufficient here," he continues, ' to speak in the most general terms of a tribe of animals, for whose de- scription, works on Zoology must be consulted. In a popular view, a coral is a calcareous structure inhabited by numerous small animals or polypi; and each form of coral possesses its own species. Each, therefore, forms CORAL ISLANDS. 63 a sort of colony, the inhabitants of which are disposed in minute cells, which they construct themselves, thus pro- ducing the general structure, by their joint labors as if all were actuated by one design and one mind." 44 This is the obvious appearance. But in reality the entire coral plant is one animal. A continuous animal structure pervades the whole, and the calcareous matter in whatever form, must be viewed as the shell, being a secre- tion, or deposition of earth in its substance." Geology, vol. i. p. 337. The coral insects, of which there are many species, belong to the class POLYPI and order Coralliferi, of Cu- vier. See Animal Kingdom, vol. iv. p. 387 95. They are a singular and curious tribe of animals, some of which are too minute to be examined by the naked eye. The Coralliferi constitute that numerous suite of species which were formerly considered as marine plants, and of which the individual are in fact united in great numbers to constitute compound animals, mostly fixed like plants; either forming a stem or simple expansions, by means of a solid internal substance. The individual animals are all connected by a common body, and are nourished in com- mon, so that what is eaten by one goes to the nourish- ment of the general body of all the other polypi. Animal Kingdom, ib. v-v; The common coarse white coral, full of pores may be considered as an aggregate of the shells, or habitations of one family of these animals. On inspecting a piece of this substance while growing, or building under water, when these animals are at work, small whitish protuber- ances may be seen projecting from these pores, which being touched, or on removing the coral from the water, are seen to contract and disappear, but re-appear again when the coral is returned to the water. These are the animals which construct the coarse coral only. Those which build the compact kinds, as the red, white, and black, and which, (particularly the red,) are so much valu- ed for ornamental purposes, are of a different species from these, and are so exceedingly minute as to be of difficult detection. Many species of this tribe are free, and swim with the current, but those which produce the mighty effects about to be described are fixed in their cells. For an account of 64 CORAL ISLANDS. these species, see Parkinson's Organic Remains, and Cv- vier's Animal Kingdom. It is for geography, not for a work of this nature, to describe the islands and rocks produced by the coral tribes. It is here sufficient to mention the islands south of the equator, between the West Coast of America, and New-Holland, crowding the whole of that sea, under a rapid increase, accompanied by still more numerous rocks, destined perhaps to become the seats of vegetations, and the habitations of man; perhaps at length to form a conti- nent in the Pacific Ocean. To these, abounding particu- larly between New-Holland, New-Caledonia, and New- Guinea, I may add those of the Indian Archipelago, inclu- ding Cosmoledo, Chagos, Juan de Nova, Armante, Cocos, and the Maldive, and Laccadive islands. When we consider the feebleness of the means, and the minuteness of the agents, the extent of these reefs and islands is a subject of equal curiosity and surprise. Among these, Tengataboo is sixty miles in circumference and is elevated ten feet above the water. But this is but an insignificant work, when compared with the great coral reef on the eastern coast of New-Holland, which extends in an uninterrupted course the distance of three hundred and fifty miles. This together with several islands of the same, form a continuous line of one thousand miles or more in length, varying from twenty to* sixty miles in breadth. To form a just conception of such a production, we should imagine it exposed from the foundation. It is a mountain ridge, which bears comparison with many of the larger tracts of terrestrial limestone in height; the soundings in that sea being generally from 1000 to 1500 feet deep; and with respect to extent of range, it would far exceed any limestone formation known. Macculloch, vol. i. -337. But though we may be astonished at the vast produc- tions of these diminutive animals, it is their instinct which ought still more to interest and surprise us. For, when we remember that in many other instances, numbers do compensate for individual weakness, and that there are myriads of millions of these constantly at work, our aston- ishment rather arises from a consideration of their num- bers than the amount of their labors. And here we can- not but admire the beneficence of the Creator in having CORAL ISLANDS. 65 given the pleasures of existence to such hosts of instinct- ive beings, and though buried in the depths of the ocean, their enjoyments are not less than if watched by the in- quisitive eye of man. From the very low order of these animals in the scale of being, we should have little reason to expect they would exhibit any evident signs of intelligence; and yet as in other cases, we can here trace the most positive marks of design in the Great First Cause, in the adapta- tion of the means to the end proposed. These animals cannot work above the water, and as they chiefly inhabit an ocean, where the wind constantly blows from one quarter, they raise their structure in a per- pendicular direction on the windward side, so that when they come near the surface of the water, where the rolling of the sea would a part of the time leave them naked, the waves are thus broken and they can continue their labors to the leeward. The effect of this arrangement is the erection of a barrier on the one side, so that these little animals can work with facility and comfort on the other, and under similar circumstances, all the reasoning and ex- perience of man would have answered no better purpose, than the instinct of these little worms. After the windward side has been protected, the next part raised to the surface is at some distance to the lee- ward. The whole, when first seen, consists of a chain of detached rocks usually placed in a circular form, including an area of various dimensions, but often of several hun- dred feet in diameter. In the progress of the work, the intermediate parts, whether circular or straight, are grad- ually filled up, so that on the outside, the walls are per- pendicular, and the water deep, but within, the water grows deeper from the margin towards the centre, produ- cing a solid mass of rock, the upper part of which is in the form of a basin. This cavity is at first a kind of salt lake, but is gradually filled up by the labors of the ani- mals, until finally the sea is so far excluded, that during calm weather the rain freshens the water in it, and thus at once end the labors and lives of these industrious creatures. In process of time, when these animals continue their work around such a basin, so as to prevent the sea from dashing into it, and the rain has washed away all the salt, it becomes a pond of fresh water, forming a supply per- 6* 66 CORAL ISLANDS. haps, for the otherwise perishing mariner, who happens to be wrecked on these bold shores. And this undoubt- edly is but a part of that beneficent design and foresight, for which such myriads of these animals were brought into life. The highest parts of these reefs being towards the wind, at certain seasons of the year, when the tides are low, these parts will be exposed to the force of the waves, which will break off the most slender parts, and wash them to the leeward, where the animals are still at work, and by whom these fragments are welded to the principal mass. In this manner, an island is raised permanently above the water, and by a continuance of the same pro- cess, considerable islands are gradually elevated above high water mark in the midst of the ocean. It is not difficult to imagine how such islands may be clothed with vegetation. The seeds of plants are known to float thousands of miles, and still retain their vegetative powers. Such seeds taking root in the crevices of these rocks produce plants, which by their annual decay, to- gether with the decomposed coral, soon form a soil fit for others. These in their turn decay, and in that warm cH- mate, where vegetation is luxuriant, there is formed in a few years, a soil fit for shrubs and trees. Many of these Islands are only four or five feet above high water mark; and it is apparent; that the mode of for- mation above described, would require many centuries U> elevate them to any considerable height. Indeed, it is not probable that the parts near the shore would ever acquire any additional elevation, since occasional high tides would carry away the vegetable matter deposited there. But as some of these islands are far above the level of the sea, we must look for some other cause of elevation besides the waters of the ocean; and the decay of vegeta- tion. Tongataboo is ten feet above high water, at the water's edge, and even this is higher than can be account- ed for from the causes described. But this is a slight ele- vation when compared with that of many others; for one of the Tonga islands formed entirely of coral, is in some parts more than 300 feet high. It is hardly necessary to remark that this elevation cannot he accounted for by supposing a depression of the ocean, since this cause would have given all the other islands in that sea a simi- lar height, and besides, it is well known that the sea has THE DELUGE. 67 not materially changed its level for the last 2000 years. We must therefore attribute the elevation of these islands to some force acting beneath them; and as we are unac- quainted with any power, equal to such an effect, except that of volcanoes, so there can be little doubt but the force of submarine fire, was the active cause of their elevation. One of these islands, indeed, contains a volcano always on fire. THE DELUGE. No part of the Mosaic history has produced more ridi- cule, among infidels, or has been attacked with greater hopes of success, than that of the universal deluge. "That the whole earth, (say these men,) was ever sur- rounded with water so deep as to cover all its mountains, is a supposition not only unphilosophical, but absolutely impossible. It is unphilosophical, because even admitting that there is a sufficient quantity of water in the sea to produce such a deluge; still no adequate cause can be as- signed for the production of such mighty effects. But allowing a cause which might have moved the whole ocean out of its bed, and cast it upon the land, still such an effect could not have been produced as a universal flood, since it would have required many times more wa- ter than exists on the whole earth, to have covered all its mountains at the same time." We shall not stop to answer these objections, but pro- ceed to show, that notwithstanding these and many more have been urged against the probability of the Noachian flood, still no fact can be better established, since it has the concurrent testimony of sacred, natural, and civil his- tory in its favor. The period of the deluge is fixed by chronological writers at the year 1656, after the creation, corresponding to the year 2348 before the Christian era. These two sums make the period of the creation, 4004 years B. C. According to Mr. Blair, on the 10th day of the second month, which was on Sunday, Nov. 30th, B. C. 2347, God commanded Noah and his family to enter into the ark; and on the next Sunday, December?, it began to rain, and continued to rain forty days, after which the deluge pre- OS THE DELUGE. vailed 110 days, making its continuance 150 days from the beginning. On Wednesday, May 6th, 2348 B. C. the ark rested on Mount Arrarat. The tops of the moun- tains became visible on Sunday, July 19th, and on Friday, November 18th, Noah and all they that were with him came forth out of the ark. Without reference to sacred history, we never could have known the time, when this great flood happened the fact itself, although we ought to require nothing more than the word of that history to establish its truth, is still capable of the strongest proof from the appearance of the earth's surface. Baron Cuvier, after having spent a large portion of a long life in investigating the natural history of the earth, comes to the following conclusions on the subject of the universal deluge. " I can concur," says he, " with the opinions of M. M. De Luc and Dolomieu, thalif^here be any thing deter- mined in geology, it is that the surface of our globe has been subject to a vast and sudden revolution, not longer ago than five or six thousand years; that this revolution has buried and caused to disappear, the countries former- ly inhabited by man, and the species of animals now most known; that, on the contrary, it has left the bottom of the former sea dry, and has formed on it the countries now in- habited; that since this revolution those few individuals whom it spared, have propagated and spread over the lands newly left dry, and consequently it is only since this epoch, that our societies have assumed a progressive march; .have formed establishments; raised monuments, and combined scientific systems." Cuvier Revolu. Globe, 180. The effects of that grand and awful cataclysm are still to be traced in every country, and in nearly every section of country on the globB. Vast accumulations of rounded, or water worn pebbles, huge blocks of granite, and im- mense beds of sand and gravel, are found in places where no causes now in operation ever could have placed them: and still that they have been moved is evident from the circumstances, or the places where they occur. " In the whole course of my geological travels," says Prof. Buck- land, " from Cornwall to Caithness, from Calais to the Carpathians; in Ireland, in Italy, I have scarcely ever gone a mile without finding a perpetual succession of de- posites of gravel, sand or loam, in situations that cannot be referred to the action of modern torrents, rivers or THE DELUGE, 69 lakes, or any other existing causes. And, with respect to the still more striking diluvial phenomena of drifted mass- es of rock, the greater part of the northern hemisphere, from MOBCOW to the Mississippi, is described by various geological travellers, as strewed on its hills as well as its valleys, with blocks of granite, and other rocks of enor- mous magnitude, which have been drifted (mostly in a di- rection from north to south,) a distance, sometimes many hundred miles from -their native beds, across mountains, valleys, lakes and seas, by a force of water, which must have possessed a velocity to which nothing that occurs, in the actual state of the globe, affords the slightest parallel." See Reliquia Diluviana. If it be inquired how it can be ascertained that blocks of granite have been transported from a distance, and that they do not belong to disrupted mountains in the vicinity, it is answered that there is a peculiarity in every formation or range of rocks or mountains, by which the mineralogist can readily distinguish them. Thus the cal- careous rock of Gibraltar, and the iron ore of Elba, spe- cimens of which every collection contains, are readily distinguished even by the most common observer from all other minerals. To the practised eye of a mineralogist, combined with the analysis of the chemist, no difficulty occurs in identifying any specimen with the rock to which it belongs. On the secondary mountains o^ jura, particularly on the slopes facing the Alps, a great many loose fragments of primitive rock, some of them containing a thousand cubic yards, occur. These are strewed over the surface, at the height of two thousand, five hundred feet above the level of the lake of Geneva. They no where stand high- er, or are more numerous than opposite to the largest, and deepest valleys of the Alps. They have undoubtedly travelled across the line of these valleys, their compose tion proving clearly, the mountain ridges from which they came. We may hence infer, that at the period of their transfer from the Savoy Alps, the lake of Geneva did not exist, otherwise they must have remained at its bottom, in- stead of being found on its opposite boundary mountain. Ure's Geology, p. 362. In estimating the transporting power of water, it must not be forgotten, as already noticed, that a solid, when immersed in a fluid, becomes lighter by the weight of the. 70 THE DELUGE. bulk of the fluid which it displaces. Thus, if a rock be twice as heavy, bulk for bulk, as water, then when im- mersed in that fluid, it loses just one half its weight. A man may lift a stone under water with great ease, but if not aware of the above fact, he will be astonished to find that he cannot, with all his might, raise it above the sur- face. There is no difficulty in conceiving that immense blocks of rock may be moved by water, since the weight lost by immersion, is in exact proportion to the bulk; and there- fore if a little brook will move a pebble, by the same law, a great flood will transport a mountain. The blocks of granite found on the opposite side of the lake of Geneva, were probably carried there by the action of the deluge, after which the retiring- waters scooped out the lake, and left both in the situation in which they are now found. Many of the plains in the north of Europe, exhibit on their surfaces, large blocks of granite, called boulders^ with their sharp angles worn ofT, showing that they have been rolled from a distance. Their surfaces never exhibit the smooth- ness of sea-worn pebbles, nor do their forms shew the ef- fects of long-continued friction, like rocks which are found on the shores of the ocean, a proof that the catastrophe which forced them from their original situations was not of long continuance. Sir James Hall has even discovered the traces of such movements on rocks now in their ori- ginal situations in the vicinity of Edinburgh. That dis- trict consists of hills and valleys, the surfaces of which are strewed with the wrecks of former rocks, which have been moved from their ancient positions by some mighty pow- er. Channels, or furrows may be observed on the surfa- ces of solid rocks, across which these have been forced. The clay, covering the surfaces of these rocks, being re- moved, they are found to resemble a road along which ma- ny heavy bodies have been recently dragged, as if every heavy fragment had made a scratch of greater or less depth as it passed. These furrows are parallel to the gen- eral direction in which the diluvial current passed, as shewn by the forms of the hills and valleys. That the diluvial waters reached the summits of lofty mountains, is evident from the boulder Blanc, being thrown over on the high acclivities of Mount ^Tura. " Professor Buckland says, that the Alps and Car- pathians, as well as every other mountainous region which THE DELUGE. 71 he has visited, bear the same evidence of having been modified by the force of water, as do the hills of the lower regions. Besides the evidence which the situations of rocky masses exhibit of a great flood, there are proofs of the same, to be found almost every where among the hills and valleys. Thus many hills have been formed by the removal of the earth, which forms the valley between them, circumstances proving that such valleys did not always exist, but that the strata forming the two hills were once continuous. Suppose that on digging wells, on two hills separated by a valley, there should be found a bed of gravel ten feet thick, then a layer of clay, then a bed of chalk, &c., and that these formations should correspond exactly with each other, both in respect to kind, direction and thickness; then the inference would be unavoidable, that these strata once continued through the valley, and that both the hills and valley were formed by the removal of the earth from the latter, and that this must have been effected by a stream of water now existing, or by a great flood. But in the cases to which we refer no such streams exist, nor from appearances ever did exist, there being no sources of water by which they could be supplied. No adequate cause can therefore be assigned for such an effect, except it be the Noachian deluge. The adjoin- ing cut shows the two hills; the correspondence of the strata through each, and the wells by which they are pierced. Such examples it is believed are of very com- mon occurrence, and would often be observed were due notice taken of the strata when digging wells on opposite hills. Immense beds of sand and water-worn pebbles are found deposited in places and situations which cannot be accounted for on any supposition, except that of a tempo- rary and sweeping flood of waters. 72 THE DELUGE. Mr. de la Beche under the head of " Erratic Block Group,'' 1 " Geolo- gical Manual," p. 157, has described and figured a deposition of gravel which occurs at Warren Point, near Dawlish, and which we copy as an illustration of the subject. The fig- ure is a section of the point, and is a mixed example of a fault, and of transported gravel upon it, b 6, con- glomerates, or pudding stones, and c c, strata of the red sandstone formation, fractured or broken into faults, by the dykes//, so that continuous strata are displaced as seen in the cut. Upon these frac- tured strata rests a bed of gravel a a, composed of chalk, flints, and green flinty sand, mixed with a few pebbles similar to those in the conglomerates b b. This sand has evidently been deposited since the fracture, for it rests quietly upon it, and appears never to have been disturbed since its deposition. The chalk arid green sand of this district have once covered very considerable spaces, though the latter is now seen only on Haldon Hills, near this section, but separated from it by an intervening val- ley. There are many other dislocations so covered on the same coast, (Plymouth); where these appearances can be observed with the greatest ease, especially at low water. " It might be supposed," says Mr. De La Beche, " that thesse chalk flints and pieces of chert, (a flinty stone,) were merely the remains of superincumbent masses of chalk and green sand, which have been destroyed, by meteoric agents, the harder parts falling down on the top of the fracture. We can scarcely consider this physically pro- bable, or even possible; for it supposes the removal of more than 600 feet of sandstone and conglomerate, (for not until that height above this section would the green sand and chalk come on,) without scarcely leaving any of the pebbles, or large masses of the red sandstone, while the flints and cherts, which belonged to the upper, and consequently first destroyed rocks, remain." " Let us now consider," continues our author, " ano- ther class of appearances. Over the whole of this district, (Plymouth,) where transported gravel occurs, the sur- face of the rocks, (it being of no importance what they THE DELUGE. 73 happen to be,) is drilled into cavities and holes, similar to those well known on the chalk of the east of England. The following sections will illustrate this. a, a, gravel, principally of flint and chert, resting in a hollow of the red sandstone, >, b, between Teignmouth and Dawlish, the lines in the gravel following the outline of the cavity. a, a, in the next figure, is gra- vel composed in a great mea- sure of flints, among which are some large rounded pieces of silicious breccia, resting on ca- vities in pipe-clay. " Other examples might easily be adduced, but these are here given, because the geological student can easily ob- serve them. They seem to point to some general agent, which in its passage over the land, has produced similar effects on various rocks, forming cavities and depositing fragments, transported from greater or less distances." Mr. De La Beche further remarks, " that the form of the valleys in that district are gentle and rounded, and such as no complication of meteoric causes, that inge- nuity can imagine, seems capable of producing; that nu- merous valleys occur on the lines of the faults; and that the detritus, (broken rocks,) is dispersed in a way that cannot be accounted for by the present action of mere atmospheric waters. I will more particularly remark," says he, "that on Great Haldon Hill, about 900 feet above the sea, pieces of rock which must have been de- rived from levels not greater than 700 or 800 feet, and even less, occur in the superficial gravel. They certainly are rare, but may be discovered by diligent search. I there found pieces of red sandstone, porphyry, and a compact silicious rock, not uncommon in the greywacke of the vicinity, where all the rocks occur at a lower level than- the summit of Haldon, and where certainly they could not have been carried by rains or rivers, unless the latter be supposed to delight in running up hill." In continuing this subject with respect to the lowlands of Sidmouth and Lyme, Mr. De La Beche says, " it may sometimes be possible, with the aid of ingenuity, to pro- duce a case of transport by a long continuance of such 7 74 THE DELUGE. natural effects as are now seen, but in other situations, such explanations seem altogether valueless, and unphilo- sophical. Not only are gravels brought from various distances, but even huge blocks, the transport of which, by actual causes, into their present situations seem physically im- possible. Professor Buckland mentions that he found among the transported gravel of Durham, twenty varieties of slate and greenstone, which do not occur in places nearer than the lake district of Cumberland. Professor Sedgwick remarks that the boulders of Shap granite, which is so peculiar as not to be confounded with any other rocks in the North of England, are not only drifted over the hills of Appleby, but have been scattered over the plain of new red sand stones; rolled over the great central chain of England into the plains of Yorkshire; embedded in transported matter of the Zees; and even carried to the eastern coast of the Island. Ann. of Phil. 1825. Between the Thames and the Tweed, pebbles, and even blocks of rock, are discovered, of such a character that they have been considered, we believe, by all competent judges, as having been derived from the coast of Norway, where only similar rocks are known to exist. Mr. Phillips states, that the diluvial accumulation in Holderness, on the coast of Yorkshire, is composed of a base of clay, containing fragments of pre-existing rocks, varying in roundness and size. The rocks from which the fragments appear to have been transported are found, some in Norway; others in the Highlands of Scotland, and in the mountains of Cumberland others, in the north western and western parts of Yorkshire; and no incon- siderable portion appears to have come from the sea- coast of Durham, and in the neighborhood of Whitby. In proportion to the distance they have travelled is the degree of roundness they have acquired. Phillips 1 Illus. Geol. Yorkshire. In this country, similar phenomena almost every where present themselves to the eye of the observer. Beds of water- worn pebbles, such as are now found only on the borders of the sea; and immense blocks of granite lying in situations to which it is evident they must have been transported, and where no causes now in operation, could possibly have placed them, are not uncommon occur- rences. THE DELUGE. 75 The whole of Long Island is either a diluvial or a ter- tiary formation, and in which bones are sometimes found. Near the east end of that island lies the skeleton of a whale, a mile from the shore. A part of the bones are, or were, a few years ago, in a good state of preservation. The same formations extend to various distances from the sea, along the coasts of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the other maritime States to Alabama. Through the greatest part of this immense tract, diluvian deposites, with shells are found. In New Jersey, from ten to twenty feet below the surface of this formation, is found a greenish blue marl, containing various shells, as Ammo- nites, Bellemnites, Chama, Ostrea, Terebratula, &c. (These will be found figured and described towards the end of this volume.) Boulders of various sizes are seen in many places. In East Lyme, Ct. near the road leading from Rope Ferry to Saybrook, at a location called Keeney's hill, there is a huge block of granite, weighing by estimate, nearly four hundred tons. Any person, after a moment's considera- tion, would conclude that this rock must have been trans- ported from a distance; for its present situation is in an open field, on or near the summit of a considerable hill, there being no rocks of the same, or indeed of any kind on the surface near it. On examining the neighborhood, however, the inquirer will soon find that it came from a granite hill, of small elevation, situated about two miles in a north west direction, and therefore must have been mov- ed towards the south east, and this is confirmed by the di- rection of the hill on which the rock stands, and of the val- ley below. The erratic rocks of Europe have all been moved in the same direction. Professor Hitchcock, in his report on the Geology of Massachusetts, appears to have examined the diluvial de- posits of that State, with much attention, and has shown that the current there, was also from the north and north west, towards the south east. " The conclusion," says he, " to which I have been irresistibly forced by an exam- ination of this stratum in Massachusetts, is that all the di- luvium, which, had been previously accumulated by various agencies has been modified by a powerful deluge, sweeping from the north and north west, over every part of the State, not excepting' the highest mountains; and that since that deluge, none but alluvial agencies have been operating to change the surface." 76 THE DELUGE. " The diluvium of Plymouth and Barnstable," he conti- nues, " consists almost entirely of white sand, some peb- bles, and a very large number of boulders of primary rocks. These boulders consist chiefly of granite, sienite, and gneiss, with occasional masses of greywacke conglo- merate, common felspar and porphyry. They all corres- pond with the rocks found in place along that coast, in the vicinity of Boston and cape Ann: and no one, it appears to me, can see the marks of degradation along that coast, who will not be convinced that a large portion of the peb- bles and boulders of Plymouth and Barnstable counties, came from thence." p. 142 3. Some of the boulders are from ten to twenty, and even thirty feet in diameter, and frequently occupy nearly the whole surface, so that one can hardly persuade himself, when he examines them at a distance, that they are not genuine ledges. In various parts of the State, the diluvium is piled up in elevations of various extent and height; leaving corres- ponding depressions. Near the extremity of Cape Cod, the hills and valleys thus formed, are of astonishing height and depth, the elevations being sometimes 300 feet; and yet these inequalities are obviously the results of currents of water, since they are precisely of the same shape of those seen in the dry beds of rivers. Examples of the diluvial action, if not equalled in the magnitude of its effects, are still as apparent to the observ- er in almost every part of the State, Another class of effects, from which professor Hitch- cock not only concludes that a mighty current of water once swept over the surface of Massachusetts, but from which he also infers its direction, is the existence of THE DELUGE. 77 grooves, furrows, and scratches upon the surfaces of the rocks that have never been moved from their places. The adjoining sketch, fig. 4, exhibits a rock of this de- scription, near the turnpike from Boston to Chelmsford, near the line between Bedford and Billerica, and not far from the sixteenth mile stone from Boston. The rock is intermediate between gneiss and mica slate. Its strata seams run in the direction of a a; and the grooves and scratches in the direction b b. The direction of these grooves is nearly north and south; and this is their gener- al course in every part of the State, east of Hoosac moun- tain. Commonly, however, they run a few degrees east of south and west of north, A great number of other instances are adduced, present- ing similar phenomena, in different parts of the State, all of which correspond with the above, in respect to the di- rection of the furrows. Mr. De La Beche, after having described the various facts which exist in many parts of Britain, indicating the transportation of rocks, stones and sand, comes to the fol- lowing conclusions. " The probability, therefore, as far as the above facts seem to warrant, is, that a body of water has proceeded from north to south over the British isles, moving with sufficient velocity to transport fragments of rock from Norway to the Shetland isles, and the eastern coast of England: the course of such a body of water hav- ing been modified and obstructed among the valleys, hills, and mountains, which it encountered; so that various mi- nor and low currents having been produced, the distribu- tion of detritus has been in various directions.'! If the supposition of a mass of waters having passed over Britain be founded on probability, the evidences of such a passage, or passages should be found in the neigh- boring continent of Europe, and the general direction of the transported substances should be the same. Now this is precisely what we do find. In Sweden and Russia, large blocks of rock occur out of place, in great numbers; and no doubt can be entertained, that they have been trans- ported southward from the north. The same phenomena are observed in Germany, the Netherlands, and indeed in nearly every part of the old world, where observations have been made. The lower parts of the last named countries contain huge blocks of transported rock, which 7* 78 THE DELUGE. are proved by their mineralogical characters, to have been derived from the northern regions. South of Germany and the Netherlands, various obstruc- tions arise in the form of mountains; and if the supposition of a mass of waters be correct, it would be thrown out of its original course, in various directions, and from lofty mountain ranges, such as the Alps, there would be a re-ac- tion, and a back wave retrograding through the valleys, would leave deposites, perhaps in the form of small hills, as is often seen in various parts of the world. M. Elie de Beaumont has described, probably, the effects of such a backward action, in an imrnense quantity of debris which has been driven from the central chain of the Alps, out- waras. A question of importance now presents itself, with re- spect to the general changes which were produced on the surface of the earth by this moving mass of waters. Did the valleys exist as they do now, when this deluge began, or were they formed by its action? De Luc, Von Bush, Beaumont, and several other geologists of the first class, have presented the world with a detail of facts, from which they all infer that the great valleys existed previously to the catastrophe which tore the rocks from the Alps, and scattered them on either side of that chain of mountains. It is most probable that the same conclusion ought to be drawn, with respect to all other great yalleys, there being no good reason to believe, that they were excavated by the waters which transported the rocks and sand banks above described. Still as we have already noticed, there is no doubt but the mass of waters which moved rocks weighing hundreds of tons, often to the distance of many leagues, produced great changes on the surface of this globe, and that many, or perhaps most of the smaller valleys, as well as the beds of rivers may be attributed to its effects. From the facts and circumstances thus thrown togeth- er, there is sufficient evidence that the earth has been de- luged by a flood of water, which in its course transported great masses of rock from one place to another; excavated valleys, formed hills of diluvial detritus, and finally left its effects on the surface of the globe, which are almost ev- ery where apparent at the present day. Geologists gene- rally agree that this deluge could not have takan place at a very remote period of time; perhaps four or five thou- sand years ago, and therefore this period corresponds suf- THE DELUGE* 79 ficiently near to that at which the Mosaic history states the Noachian deluge to have happened, to convince any un- prejudiced mind that the effects of water above described, can only be imputed to that flood, an account of which is given in the book of Genesis. Animals destroyed by the deluge. The animals suppos- ed to have been destroyed by the deluge, and whose re- mains have been discovered in diluvial deposites, are the following. It is not certain, however, that the destruction of the whole list was contemporaneous, but the bones of all are found in superficial gravels, sands or clays, which believers in the Mosaic account consider as belonging to the effects of the general and punitive deluge. 1. Elephas primigenius, (Blumenbach,) Primitive Ele- phant. Remains found in various parts of Europe. Ve- ry common in Siberia, Russia, and most northern parts of Asia, where the tusks are uninjured, and are dug up and sold for ivory to a great extent. It is also found in the northern parts of North America. This is the mammoth of the Russians. 2. Mastodon maximus 1 (Cuvier,) Great Mastodon. Found in Ohio, Kentucky, New York, and other parts of North America. It has tusks like the Elephant, but was a larger animal. It is the mammoth of the Americans. Of this animal, there are six species, differing chiefly with respect to size. The M. maximus is found only in North America. The other species occur in various parts of Eu- rope, and in South America. 3. Hippopotamus major, (Cuvier,) Great Hippopotamus. Found in various parts of England, and in Bavaria. Hippopotamus minutus. Little Hipppopotamus. It is found in France. 4. Rhinoceros. Cuvier has determined four species of this animal in the fossil state, none of which belong to ei- ther of the three living species. These fossil bones are common in some parts of Europe, but none of them have been found in America. 5. Tapirus giganteus. The bones of the gigantic Ta- pir are found in many parts of France, and in Bavaria, and Austria. 6. Cervus giganteus. Great Elk. Found in Ireland, Silesia, banks of the Rhine, and near Paris. 7. Cervus. Several species of extinct deer are found in various parts of Europe. 80 THE DELUGE. Bos. The Ox. . The bones of the ox tribe are common in several parts of Europe. 8. Hyina. The fossil remains of this animal, are also common in Europe. 9. Equus. The Horse. Common in many places. 10. Megalonyx. (Jefferson,) Green Briar. Virginia. Not yet found in any other place. 11. Megatherium. Buenos Ayres. Historical proofs of the Deluge. Notwithstanding the abundant proofs, which, in the opinions of most geologists r the earth presents, of a general deluge, there are still some respectable writers on that subject, who, giving no credit to the Mosaic History, seek out other causes, to which they attribute the effects generally assigned to that catastrophe. It is a point of great importance in geology, to show clearly, that this earth was once drowned by a flood of wa- ters, because if this be not a truth, few facts in the natural history of the earth can be depended upon, since few are better established, than that there was a deluge. This be- ing in relation to our subject, merely a question of science, we at present claim nothing for the truth of the Mosaic his- tory, as an argument in its favor. The fact of a universal cataclysm is not only shown by the appearance of the earth, but by civil history, by tradi- tion, and by the condition and number of its inhabitants. The paucity of mankind, and the vast tracts of unin- habited land which are mentioned in the history of the primitive ages, show that the human race at present on the earth, are but of recent origin, and that they sprung from a small stock ; and to this may be added that the great number of petty kingdoms and states in the first ages, concur to the same purpose. Hornets Introduction, vol.i. p. 170. The existing population in North America, is in itself sufficient to show the recent origin of the present race of man. Had the millions of people which existed before the deluge, continued to increase in the same ratio that the Americans have, during the last two hundred years, and this without reference to immigration, is it probable that any part of this earth would now remain uninhabited? Were we to make an estimate of the number of inhabitants which North America will contain two thousand years hence, taking the last two hundred as data, where should THE DELUGE. 81 we find a vacant spot, during the existence of such count- less millions; and yet the present race have continued to increase, we suppose, for more than four thousand years. If there was no catastrophe which destroyed the great body of mankind, and had they continued to increase from the creation, is there not every reason to believe, nay, is it not quite certain that their numbers would have been vast- ly more numerous than they actually are ? Pretended Antiquity of some Nations. It has been said, that several nations could trace their antiquity to pe- riods before the historical date of the deluge. These pre- tensions, when carefully examined, have been found, in every instance, to be entirely groundless. It is well known that the Hindoos claim the highest an- tiquity for their nation and their learning. Sir William Jones, who examined the authorities on which these high claims were founded, became convinced, that such preten- sions were without the least foundation in truth. " We find," says that eminent scholar, " no certain monuments, or even probable tradition, (among these people,) of na- tions planted; empires and states raised; laws enacted; cit- ies built; navigation improved; commerce encouraged; arts invented; or letters contrived, above twelve, or at most, fifteen or sixteen centuries before the birth of Christ." Indeed, it is known from the researches of those who have made the literature and antiquities of that nation a subject of study, that they possess no authentic history which dates anterior to the third or fourth century of our era. There is a popular opinion that the Chinese are able to trace the history of their nation to a very remote antiqui- ty; and yet, on examination, they do not pretend to pos- sess any knowledge of their own nation, anterior to the eleventh century before the Christian era, and even this is probably, almost, if not entirely fabulous. We shall notice further on this pointy that the preten- sions which the Egyptians have made to the great antiqui- ty of their nation, appear to have been founded on their mode of reckoning time, by which a year consisted of a lunar month, or thirty days, instead of 365 dajte; and that the claims of the Chaldeans to profound science and re- mote antiquity, are equally unfounded. According to Be- rosus they knew so little of Astronomy, the oldest of the 82 THE DELUGE. sciences, as to consider the moon a luminous body, which sheds its own light instead of borrowing it from the sun. In fine, so far as examination has been made, the histo- ry, the arts, the antiquities, and the languages of all na- tions concur to prove the comparatively recent origin of the present races of men. Tradition proves the Mosaic account of the Deluge. A tradition of the deluge, in many instances very nearly coinciding with the account given of that catastrophe by Moses, has been almost universally preserved among the ancient nations. It is indeed a very remarkable fact con- cerning that event, that the memory, or traditions of most nations ends with some traces of its history, however im- perfect. This is even the case with several of the nations recently discovered, and before unknown to the civilized world, and which therefore could not have derived this tradition from the history of Moses, or from the communi- cations of travellers. Without reciting in detail the abundant proof which au- thors contain on this subject, we must content ourselves by adverting to a few of these traditions. Josephus affirms that Berosus, the Chaldean historian, has related the circumstances of a great deluge in which all mankind perished except a few, and that Noachus, the preserver of the human race, was carried in an ark to the summit of an Armenian mountain. Josephus also testi- fies that Hieronimus, the Egyptian historian, who wrote the antiquities of the PhoBnicians, and Nicholas of Da- mascus, together with other writers, in common with Be- rosus, speak of this same deluge. Likewise there is a fragment preserved of Abydemus, an ancient Assyrian historian, in which it is said, not only that there was a deluge, but that it was foretold before it happened, and that birds were sent forth from the ark three different times to see whether the waters had abated. This frag- ment also states that the ark was driven to Armenia. It is hardly necessary to observe how nearly these accounts agree with that of Moses, and yet it is by no means sup- posed, that they were derived from the sacred writings, but from the traditions of the nations among whom these historians resided. Among the Greeks, Plato mentions the great deluge, in which cities were destroyed and the useful arts lost. THE DELUGE. 83 And Diodorus affirms that there was a tradition among the Egyptians, that almost all animals perished by a gen- eral deluge, which happened in Deucalion's time. Now commentators and scholars inform us, that Deu- calion's flood, and that of Noah's are the same. Plutarch in his account of the sagacity of animals says, that a dove was sent out by Deucalion, which coming back to the ark again, was a sign that the flood continued, but afterwards flying away, proved that there was dry land. Lucian mentions Deucalion's flood, and states that only a remnant of the human family was saved from its effects. He also says that the present race of man was not the first, but that all were destroyed, except Deuca- lion and his family, and that this destruction was caused by the wickedness of man. Many more examples of a similar kind are noted by authors, but we shall only mention that traditions of the flood, more or less mixed with fable, are retained by the Hindoos, Burmans and Chinese. The tradition of the latter refers not only directly to the deluge itself, but also, to the cause of it, viz. the wickedness of man. Similar traditions are also traced among the ancient Goths and Druids, as well as among the recent Mexicans, Brazilians, and Nicaraguans ; to which may be added the newly dis- covered people of Western Caledonia, the Otaheitans, be- fore their conversion to Christianity, and the Sandwich Islanders. See Bishop Newton's works and Home's Intro- duction, vol. i. From these various facts it is manifest that the heathen were not only acquainted by tradition with the fact of a universal deluge, but also with many of its circumstances, and that these traditions often bear a striking analogy to the account given by Moses. In closing this part of our subject, we may remark, that few facts stated in history, can bring to its support so much concurrent testimony, as that of a universal deluge. The face of the earth almost every where records its ef- fects, and often in the most eloquent and striking man- ner, so that the rocks themselves are everlasting witness- es against the folly of unbelievers. Profane history- is not silent on this subject, but brings forward her testi- mony in quantity more than sufficient to establish an or- dinary fact. Tradition though blunted by fable clearly testifies to the same truth. And lastly the Sacred Scrip- 84 THE DELUGE, lures, written by the express command of Divine Authori- ty, have not only described in the most simple and lucid terms this awful catastrophe, but have explained the reason why swell a calamity was brought upon our race. The Ark ef Noah. It has been objected against the Mosaic history, with confidence, and undoubtedly often with considerable effect, that it is very improbable, Noah, at that period of the arts, could have constructed an ark of sufficient capacity to contain specimens of all the ani- mals on the earth, together tvith his own family, and such a quantity of provisions as to sustain the whole for the term of 150 days. But this objection will instantly vanish when the dimensions of this vessel are considered. The dimensions of Noah's ark were three hundred cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty in height, and con- sisted of three decks, stories or floors. Reckoning the cubit at a foot and a half, or eighteen inches, Dr. Hales has proved that the ark was of the burthen of 42,413 tons, as we compute the tonnage of ships at the present day. A first rate man of war is between 2,200 and 2,300 tons, and consequently the ark had a capacity of stowage equal to eighteen such ships, the largest now in use. It might therefore have carried 20,000 men with provisions for six months, besides the weight of 1,800 cannon, and other necessary equipments and military stores for such an armament Can it be doubtful therefore whether this vessel had sufficient capacity to contain eight persons, and about 200 or 250 pairs of four footed beasts, a num- ber, to which according to Buffon, all the various dis- tinct species may be reduced, together with pairs of such fowls, reptiles, and creeping things, as cannot live under water, and provisions for the whole, even for a year.* Was the Deluge Universal? We have stated at the *Dr. Hale's Analysis of Chronology, vol. i. p. 328. The reader \vho desires to pursue this subject, will find a good summary in Home's In- troduction to the Critical study of the Scriptures, voL i. But the books which treat the subject more at large and in connection with Geology,, are Howard's History of the Earth and Man, 4to. Buckland's Reliquiae Diluvianae. Cuvier's Theory of the Earth. Ure's New System of Geology, and Penn's Comparative Estimate of the Mineral and Mosaical Geologies. THE DELUGE. 85 beginning of this article that an objection had been raised against the truth of the Mosaic history, on account of there not being supposed a sufficient quantity of water now on the earth, to cover the mountains as there represented. At the epoch of the creation, the whole earth was surrounded with water, otherwise there is no meaning in the com- mand, " Let the waters under the heavens be gathered to- gether unto one place, and let the dry land appear." If it be objected that this was before the elevation of the hills and mountains, and that the earth at that time was a smooth ball, and therefore might be entirely covered by a thin stratum of water, it requiring much less to cover a smooth, than an uneven surface, still, until it can be shown to what depth the earth was then covered, it cannot be proved that there- was not a sufficient quantity to cover the mountains as they now exist. As there have been no new creations, the quantity of water now existing, is un- doubtedly the same that it was when it surrounded the whole earth. It is now chiefly collected into one continu- ous ocean, the depth of which is in general entirely un- known. Calculations, it is true, have been made, on the quantity of water the oceans, seas and lakes contain, with a view of estimating the aggregate amount on the earth. But it is obvious, that not even an approximation to the truth can be offered on this subject, until more is known concerning the depths of the different oceans, than at present. Besides, it is not necessary to suppose that all the mountains were covered on the same day, or even week, for the deluge might have swept the earth from one country to another, in a manner similar to the great tides of the present day. The only difficulty in the way of such a hypothesis, is the length of time which the moun- tains continued covered where the ark rested. But as there is every reason to believe that the eastern portion of the globe was the only one then inhabited, and as the deluge was a punitive measure, brought on by the wick- edness and violence of man, we may reasonably suppose that it began first, and continued longest in the countries where he dwelt. Perhaps the " windows of heaven" were opened only over that devoted portion of the earth, and from thence the flood swept in all directions to other parts. It is certain that all parts of the earth which have been examined, contain monuments of a sweeping deluge; and that the mountains in various countries were covered 8 86 THE DELUGE. by it, is proved not only by the removal of great masses rock from their places, but also by the organic remains of quadrupeds and fish, found buried at great heights above the sea, and under such circumstances as to show that they were deposited there by water. It is not however supposed that in every instance where such remains are found far above the sea, they were de- posited by the deluge, as it will be seen in another place, that limestone and other strata containing shells have been elevated by subterranean forces. The universality of the deluge is sufficiently proved, therefore, by the appearance of the earth, and that it cov- ered the mountains, at least many of them, there is good reason to believe, independently of the assertions of Scripture, though the physical evidence on this point is perhaps not conclusive. Were all the animals existing in the primitive world preserved in the ark? It is certain that there once existed quadrupeds on the earth, which are unknown at the pre- sent time, and which it is nearly as certain do not any where exist. The remains of these extinct species as we have already shown, are found in almost every part of the world. Did these races perish at the time of the deluge, or did they gradually become extinct, before or since, that catastrophe? Many fossil bones are in such a state of preservation,- as to prove that their races were in existence at no very re- mote period. This is especially the case in cold climates, as in Siberia, where the tusks of elephants are undecayed. Still, time produces the decomposition and total destruc- tion of all organized substances, when exposed to the at- mosphere, or buried in the ground, and among the Sibe- rian bones, there are some which shew its effects much more than others. These, therefore, we may suppose, other circumstances being equal, are the most ancient. But in general, the Siberian bones of quadrupeds, as well as those found in other countries, and attributed to the flood, appear to be of about the same antiquity, and be- sides, these remains, or those of similar species, wherever found, appear to have been buried under similar circum- stances. The kind of deposite in which they are found is every where similar, and apparently of the same age, and hence geologists have generally come to similar conclu- THE DELUGE. 87 sions with respect to their antiquity, and the manner in which the animals were destroyed. A sudden, violent, and general catastrophe, appears to have destroyed these ancient races, and at the same time, to have buried them in its effects. The deposites in which the bones are in- terred, are what geologists term diluvial, that is, belonging to the deluge. This is the latest formation, with the ex- ception of the alluvial, which is constantly deposited at the present time. Taking these circumstances in connection, it is thought that there are sufficient reasons to conclude, that the lost species of quadrupeds became totally extinct at the epoch of the general deluge, the history of which is given by Moses, and that they perished by the same catastrophe which destroyed every individual of the human race, ex- cept Noah and his family. A comparison of the bones of the fossil species, with those of present ones, show that they generally were of a different species. Hence we must come to the conclusion, that not all, or every species of quadrupeds existing be- fore the deluge, were preserved in the ark, but that many races perished by its waters. The divine command to Noah, that he should take into the ark " of every living thing, of all flesh, two of every sort," must therefore be understood as a universal term, with a limited signification, as is often the case in scrip- ture language, and particularly with respect to the word which we translate all. Thus Dr. Hammond, in his note on Cor. i. 13, says that this word is not always to be ta- ken in its utmost extent; " but according to the use in like phrases, in all languages, wherein the universal sign, affix- ed, either to persons, or times, or places, or things, signi- fies only a greater number, but not all, without excep- tion." In like manner, Schleusner observes that the word all, every, in scripture, is often employed indefinitely, to sig- nify various of different kinds; and often, also, to denote many, a great number. In the narrative of the deluge, this word is repeatedly employed in this indefinite manner. Thus, Gen. vi. 17, " And behold I, even I, do bring a flood of waters npon the earth, to destroy all flesh wherein is the breath of life, from under heaven. 11 And in another verse, " for all flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth." Now it does not VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. appear that it was the intention of the Almighty, literally to destroy all flesh, since Noah and his family, together with the animals which he took into the ark, were saved: nor does it appear that every individnal had corrupted his way, for " Noah found grace in the eyes of the Lord." Precisely similar language is used with respect to the animals to be taken into the ark. Thus, verse 19, " And every living thing, of all flesh, two of every sort shalt thou bring into the ark." Now no one will contend that the fish of the sea were intended to be included in this, com- mand, and yet the terms employed " every living thing," would include these, equally with terrestrial animals. The terms of the Mosaic history, therefore, give us lib- erty to conclude, that all the antediluvian species, without exception, were not admitted into the ark; and conse- quently we may consider the extinct species, whose bones are found in the earth, as exceptions to the general terms of the divine command, without the least violation of the intended meaning of the sacred scriptures. The more ancient bones, or those of the same species which are more decayed than others, we may suppose be- longed to animals which died natural deaths, before the time of the catastrophe which destroyed the remainder of the race; while those in a similar state of preservation, and found under similar circumstances, may be considered as having belonged to animals which perished by the same catastrophe. VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. Having, in the preceding pages, given such a history of the changes produced by water, as our limits would allow, we now come to those which have been produced by fire, as the great cause of volcanic phenomena, the most tremendous and startling exhibitions, of which the experience of man can conceive. The effects of water, in changing the form of the earth, we have seen, are, with a few exceptions, gradual, and sometimes so slow, as even to require centuries to pro- duce any considerable results. The changes produced by earthquakes, on the contrary, are often as sudden as they are calamitous and fearful, sometimes in a single VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. 89 hour, or even in a moment, not only reducing to frag- ments the most solid and costly monuments of man, but also mutilating the face of the earth itself tearing down mountains elevating islands in the depths of the ocean, or burying whole territories under inundations of liquid fire. Geography of Volcanoes. It is a striking circumstance, in the history of volcanoes and earthquakes, that these awful exhibitions of nature have hitherto been almost en- tirely confined to certain regions of country. At present the Andes of South America are among the best defined of these regions. Beginning with Chili, in the 46 of south latitude, and proceeding north to the 27 of the same la- titude, we shall find a line of volcanoes so uninterrupted, that hardly a degree is passed without the occurrence of one of these agents in an active state. About twenty are enumerated within that space, and there is no doubt but many more exist, some of which are dormant, and per- haps some have become extinct. How long an interval of rest entitles a volcano to be considered as extinct is not determined. Those which have always been inactive since the era of history, may perhaps be so considered. The volcano of Ischia, in Italy, was silent for a term of 1700 years, after which it again commenced a series of eruptions. The volcanoes of Chili have their chimneys pierced through mountains of granite, thus exhibiting the effects of a degree of force, of which man, without the existence of such phenomena, could have no where gained the least conception. Villarcia is one of the principal volcanoes of this district. It is so elevated as to be visible at the dis- tance of 150 miles, and burns without intermission. Every year the inhabitants of this province experience shocks of earthquakes. In 1822, the whole coast of Chili, to the extent of 100 miles, was elevated several feet by a sub- terranean convulsion, of which we shall give an account hereafter. Proceeding to the north, where the Andes attain their greatest elevation, we find in the province of Quito, G0- topaxi, Antisana, and Pichinca, all of them in an active state, and frequently emitting flames. Tunguragua, is also in the same district. This mountain, in 1797, threw out a deluge of mud, which filled valleys a thousand feet 8* VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. wide, and six hundred deep, forming barriers by which rivers were dammed up and lakes formed. North of Quito, in the provinces of Pasto and Popyan, occur six other volcanoes; and in the provinces of Guatimala and Nica- ragua, which lie between the isthmus of Panama and Mexico, there are no less than twenty-three volcanic mountains, all of them situated between the 10 and 15 of north latitude, some of which are constantly in an ac- tive state. This great volcanic chain, after being thus extended from south to north, nearly in a direct line, is continued through a great part of Mexico, from west to east. Here are five active volcanoes, known by the several names of Tuxtla, Oribaza, Popocatepetl, Jorullo and Colima. Still north of Mexico, in the peninsula of California, there are at least three, and according to some, five burning moun- tains. Thus we see that this volcanic chain extends nearly in an uninterrupted course from Chili to the north of Mexico, a distance of nearly 4000 miles. Another continuous volcanic range, of nearly equal extent, begins at the Aleutian Islands, belonging to Rus- sian America, and by a circuitous route, passes to the Molucca Islands. Through this whole extent, earthquakes of the most terrific description are common. But our limits will not permit the enumerrtion of all the volcanic tracts described by authors. Besides those al- ready mentioned, Kamtschatka has seven burning moun- tains; the island of Java contains thirty-eight great vol- canoes; the Molucca Islands contain several, and among them that of Sumbawa, which, in 1815, suffered one of the most tremendous eruptions recorded in history. The Islands of Jesso and Niphon, and Sumatra, contain more or less volcanoes; and from the Caspian sea, to the Azores is a volcanic range. Of Sicily and Italy, it is hardly necessary to speak in this enumeration, since the descriptions of Etna and Vesuvius; of Herculaneum and Pompeii, are well known, and are sufficient to indicate the volcanic disposition of that part of Europe. The West India Islands have occasionally suffered great calamities from this cause; and Iceland contains many burning mountains, among which is Skaptar Jokul, which in 1783, suffered an extraordinary eruption, which we shall de- scribe. VOLCANIC ERUPTION*, OT The whole number of volcanoes known is about 200. See Von Hoff*s Geology, vol. ii, and LyeWs Geology, voL i. Article " Geography of Volcanic Regions" General Characters and Geological Connections of Vol- canoes. The forms of volcanic mountains are generally so peculiar as to be distinguished from all others. They are commonly of considerable height, and sometimes very lofty. When solitary they are of a conical form, and more or less truncated, that is, bearing the appearance of having been cut off' at the top. "When active, or but re- cently extinguished, the truncation has within it a cavity of greater or less size, called the crater. . The accurate form of a perfect crater is an inverted co- noid, and on Cotopaxi and Teneriffe, they are surrounded by walls of lava, but most commonly this part is composed of ashes which have fallen down during eruptions. The size of the crater does not necessarily bear any propor- tion to that of the mountain. In some mountains both the size and shape varies with every eruption. Proximity of Volcanoes to the Sea. In nearly all in- stances, volcanoes are seated near the sea, or in the vi- cinity of a large body of water, and it was formerly thought that proximity to the water, was absolutely ne- cessary to their action; nor is it certain that this is not the case. The only exception to this general fact, is Jo- rullo, one of the burning mountains of the Andes, which is situated more than a hundred miles from the ocean, nor does it appear that any considerable body of water is near it. It has, however, been suggested, from some circum- stances observed with respect to this mountain, that it may possibly communicate with the sea by a deep fissure. In many instances, volcanoes have thrown out mud or water, instead of lava, and ashes; and in some instances, fish of various kinds have been found in the water thus emitted, though no previous suspicion had existed, of a communication between the mountain and the sea. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. The action of most volcanoes is periodical, or inter- mitting, though this is not the case with all. Vesuvius 92 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS, and JEtna are sometimes dormant for a series of years, but Stromboli, in the vicinity of the former, has been con- stantly burning, ever since two hundred and ninety-two years before the Christian era, being upwards of two thousand years. Jorullo has continued to emit flames ever since 1759, at which time it was elevated from the plain on which it stands. But Vulcano suffered no erup- tion for eleven centuries, and we have already noticed that Ischia lay dormant for seventeen hundred years. The appearances which attend volcanic eruptions, are various. In some instances, flames issue suddenly and silently from the cone, affording only splendid picturesque phenomena. But in others, the scene is the most terrific and appalling of which the imagination can conceive. For these descriptions we must, however, refer to particular eruptions, an account of which will follow. The eruptions of Vesuvius and JEtna, these mountains being in the midst of a highly cultivated people, are best described. Indeed, from the time of Pliny, to the present day, these have been the subjects of interesting and learn- ed dissertations. In general the first appearance of an eruption consists in a column of smoke rising to a great height, and then spreading out in the form which Pliny compared to that of a pine tree. This is followed by explosions from the craters; by trembling of the earth, or perhaps by its alter- nate rising and falling; the whole being attended by a rumbling, subterranean sound, forming both an eruption and an earthquake. Flame is then seen to issue from the cone, attended by red hot stones, often thrown to the height of several hundred feet, producing in the night, those brilliant and terrific phenomena, so often described. During the emission of the black smoke, and before the- flame issues, there are often the most vivid flashes of lightning, which add greatly to the splendor of the scene. After these phenomena have existed for a longer or a shorter time, the melted lava, rising to the edge of the cra- ter, flows over it, and runs down the side of the mountain into the plain below. This is in the form of a torrent of liquid fire, often narrow, but sometimes many miles in width. It sometimes proceeds rapidly, but more often slowly, the last portions of lava passing over the first, in small cascades. Sometimes, or from some mountains, there is much smoke, and but little lava; while from oth- PARTICULAR ERUPTIONS. 93 ers, or at other times, the crater vomits rivers of melted matter, without smoke or flame. The eruption of lava is often followed by showers of ashes, which consist of finely divided particles of lava, and which are often wafted by the wind, to the distance of several hundred miles. The quantity of matter ejected by some volcanoes, is astonishingly great. Brieslak, an Italian geologist, calcu- lated that the quantity of lava which flowed from a volca- no in the island of Bourbon, in 1796, amounted to 45,- 000,000 of cubic feet; and that the quantity from the same, in 1797, was 60,000,000 of cubic feet; and during one eruption from a mountain in Iceland, the lava flowed about ninety miles, having a width of at least twenty miles, and in some places, a depth of several hundred feet. PARTICULAR ERUPTIONS. We shall describe a few volcanic eruptions, selecting only those which have been the subjects of peculiar, or scientific interest, or which have produced extraordinary effects, either with respect to the destruction they have caused, or the quantity of lava they have ejected. Eruptions of Vesuvius. The most ancient eruption of this Italian mountain, of which there is any particular de- scription, was in A. D. 79, at which time, the cities of Her- culaneum and Pompeii were destroyed. It does not ap- pear that any lava, or melted matter was emitted at this eruption; the ejected substances being sand, ashes and mud. But it is certain that this mountain had previously emitted lava, since the streets of these cities are paved with this substance. The first stream of lava, of which there is any account, was in 1036, being the sixth or sev- enth eruption on record. From this period, all the erup- tions which have taken place, are recorded, and many of them described by scientific men, and at great length. Some of them produced considerable changes, not only in the form and appearance of the mountain itself, but also of the country in the vicinity. That of 1538, elevated the land along the coast of Naples many feet, destroyed many villages, and produced Monte Nuovo, which is still 94 PARTICULAR ERUPTIONS. 440 feet in height. A description and figure of this mountain will be given hereafter. From about the end of the 18th century to 1822, the great crater of Vesuvius had been filling up gradually, with lava which boiled up from below, so that the bottom of the cavity presented a kind of rocky plain covered with blocks, crags, and hillocks of volcanic matter. But dur- ing the latter year, in the month of October, the form and appearance of the ancient crater was entirely changed. The explosions at that time were so violent during twenty days, as to break up, and throw out the whole of that ac- cumulated mass, leaving an immense gulf, or chasm about three miles in circumference, and in some parts 2000 feet deep. At the same time about 800 feet in height, of the original cone or top of the ancient crater, was carried away by the explosions, so that Vesuvius became reduced in height from about 4200 to 3400 feet. Forbes in Ed. Journal and Scrope in Jour, of Science. In ascending this mountain, its sloping sides are found to be covered with loose materials intermixed with each other without the slightest order, and just as they fell from the crater. But on arriving at the crater itself, the be- holder is surprised to find that every thing is there ar- ranged in the most perfect symmetry, and that the materi- als are disposed in regular undulating strata. These con- sist of alternate layers, composed of lava, sand, ashes, and scoria, lying in distinct beds, and alternating with each other. These have resulted from the different colors, and coarseness of these materials, and which severally remain in the same situation and succession as they fell from the air during the different eruptions. In some parts of the crater, are seen dykes, or veins of more compact matter intersecting the above described strata. These are on the outside of the cone, and being harder than the volcanic matter through which they have passed, they have resisted decomposition, and therefore project above the surface. These have undoubtedly been formed by the filling up of open fissures with liquid matter forced up from below. At what period they were formed is unknown, but if such fissures are formed by the cooling, and consequent shrink- ing of the crater, after an eruption, it is probable that at the next eruption, these are filled with the fused matter, PARTICULAR ERUPTIONS. 95 so that some of these veins may be formed at every eruption. Fig. 5. In the adjoining diagram, fig. 5, from Lyell's Geology, these veins or dykes, are represented, as also is the cone and crater of Vesuvius, and a part of the ancient Somma, as they appeared in 1828. er, Mount Somma, or the re- mains of the ancient cone of Vesuvius; b, the Pedamentina, a terrace-like projection, enclosing the base of the recent cone of Vesuvius on the south side; c, Atrio del Cavallo, so called because travellers leave their mules there, when they prepare to ascend to the cone, on foot; d, e, the crater of Vesuvius left by the eruption of 1822; /, a small cone in the bottom of the crater, thrown up in 1828. In the bottoms of many craters there are several of these small cones, which are constantly emitting steam, or smoke, and sometimes throw up lava; g g, dykes intersecting the ancient strata of Somma; h h, dykes intersecting the re- cent cone of Vesuvius. Immense volumes of steam, or aqueous vapor, are evolved from the craters of volcanoes, during eruptions. These vapors, being condensed by the surrounding at- mosphere often fall down in torrents of rain. The rain precipitates the volcanic dust from the air, and sweeps that along which had fallen on the declivity of the moun- tain, until a torrent of mud is produced. Such torrents are as much to be dreaded as the inundations of mud which are sometimes thrown from the volcano, and with the exception of the heat, are more disastrous than burn- ing lava, being much more rapid in their descent In 1822, one of these mud streams descended from Vesuvius, and after destroying a district of cultivated ground, sud- W PARTICULAR ERUPTIONS. denly flowed into the villages of St. Sebastian, and Massa, where filling the streets, and some of the houses, it suf- focated seven persons. Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. These cities were overwhelmed, and destroyed in the year A. D. 79, and most probably either by an alluvion of mud, such as we have just described, or by an emission of the same kind of matter from the mouth of the volcano. It has been supposed, that it was by an eruption of lava that these cities were destroyed; but Lippi, an Italian wri- ter, has shown that many facts presented by their ruins are incompatible with this opinion. Thus the casts, or impressions of persons which still remain, especially of a woman, found in a vault at Pompeii, cannot be accounted for on the supposition of flowing melted lava, nor of fall- ing volcanic ashes, for the first would have utterly destroy- ed the form of the body, and the second could not have reached through the roofs of the buildings. " There is decisive evidence," says Mr. Lyell, " that no stream of lava ever reached Pompeii since it was first built, although the foundations of the town stand upon the old lava of Mount Somma, several streams of which have been cut through in making excavations. At Hercula- neum, the case is different, although the substance which fills the interior of the houses and vaults, must have been introduced in a state of mud, like that found in similar situations in Pompeii : the superincumbent strata differ wholly in composition and thickness. Herculaneum was situated several miles nearer to the volcano, and has, therefore, been always more exposed to be covered, not only by showers of ashes, but by alluvions, and streams of lava. Accordingly, masses of both have accumulated on each other above the city, to a depth of no where less than seventy, and in some places 112 feet. The tuff or mud, which envelopes the buildings, consists of comminu- ted volcanic sand mixed with pumice. A mask imbedded in this matter has left a cast, the small lines and angles of which are quite perfect, nor did the mask present the least indication of heat." These cities were both sea ports, and Herculaneum is still near the shore, but Pompeii is at some distance from it, the intervening land -having been made, at various times, by volcanic matter. PARTICULAR ERUPTIONS. 97 Herculaneum was discovered 1713, by the accidental circumstance of a well being dug, which came directly upon the theatre, where the statues of Hercules and Cleo- patra were found. These cities are mentioned by ancient authors, as being among the seven flourishing towns of Campania; they were originally settled by Greek colo- nies. Both at Herculaneum and Pompeii, temples have been found with inscriptions, commemorating the event of their rebuilding after having been overthrown by an earthquake. This earthquake happened in the reign of Nero, sixty- three years after the Christian era, and sixteen years be- fore the catastrophe by which they were finally destroyed. It is supposed that about/me-fourth of Pompeii is un- covered, presenting streets, walls, temples, houses, and monuments of art, many of them in the same condition as they were nearly 2000 years ago. Being covered with a deluge of mud, even the paintings have been preserved, and the wood remains in a perfect state. In some in- stances the walls of the buildings are rent, probably by the earthquake which happened before the fatal eruption, but the edifices chiefly remain entire. Circumstances of great interest and curiosity are every where indicated among these ruins. Columns have been found lying upon the ground half finished, showing that the workmen were driven from their labors; and the tem- ple for which they were designed, remains unfinished. In some places the pavement in the streets has sunk down, but, in general, it remains entire, consisting of great flags of lava, in which two immense ruts have been worn by the constant passage of wheel carriages. When the hardness of this stone is considered, the continuity of these ruts, from one end of the town to the other, is not a little remarkable, for there is nothing like it in the oldest pavements of modern cities. Only a very small number of skeletons have been found in either city, and it is therefore certain, that most of the inhabitants had time to escape, and also to take with them most of their valuable effects. In the barracks of Pompeii, were the skeletons of two soldiers chained to the stocks; and, in the vault of a house, in the suburbs, were the bones of seventeen persons, who appear to have fled there to escape the shower of ashes. They were found enclosed in indurated tuff or mud, which flowed 9 98 ERUPTIONS OF ETNA. from the mountain. In this was preserved the cast of a woman, perhaps the mistress of the house, with an infant in her arms. Though her form was impressed in the rock, nothing but her bones remained. To these bones a chain of gold was suspended around the neck, and rings, with precious stones, were found on the finger bones of the skeleton. The writings scribbled by the soldiers, on the walls of the barracks are still visible; and the names of the owners, over the doors of their houses are often easily read. The colors of fresco paintings on the stuccoed walls, in the interior of the buildings, are frequently almost as vivid as if they were just finished. Some of the public fountains have their pavements decorated with shells, laid out in patterns, still retaining, in all respects, their original condition; and, in the room of a painter, who was, perhaps, also a naturalist, was found a large collec- tion of shells, comprising a great variety of the Mediter- ranean species. These were in as good a state of preser- vation, as if they had remained the same number of years in a museum. The wooden beams of the houses at Herculaneum are black on the exterior, but when cleft open, they appear to be nearly in the state of ordinary wood, and the pro- gress made by the whole mass towards the state of lignite, [mineralized wood,] is hardly appreciable. Even small substances, of vegetable origin, are often found in a state of entire vegetation. Fishing nets are abundant in both cities, and often quite perfect; and in a fruiterer's shop were found vessels lull of almonds, chesnuts, and wal- nuts, all in perfect shape. And what is still more extra- ordinary, in a baker's shop was discovered bread, with the name of the maker stamped upon the loaf, thus, Eleris Q. Crani Riser. On the counter of an apothecary was a box of pills, converted into a fine earthy substance, and, by its side, a small cylindrical roll, evidently pre- pared to be cut into pills. Lyell's Geol. vol. i, p. 350 360. Forbes' Ed. Journal, Jan. 1829. Eruptions of Etna. Etna appears to have been peri- odically active from the earliest times of history, for Diodorus Siculus mentions an eruption of it, which caused a district of country to be deserted by its inhabitants be- " .':; *'-. ' :<* ERUPTIONS OF ETNA. 99 fore the Trojan war; and Thucydides informs us that be- tween the time when Sicily was colonized by the Greeks, and the commencement of the Peloponesian war, that is in 431 B. C., there had occurred three eruptions of this mountain. But notwithstanding notices of this mountain were re- corded thus early, the first eruption which has been par- ticularly described, was the great one of 1669. An earth- quake previous to this eruption, had levelled many of the villages and towns in the neighborhood, and at the com- mencement of which, an extraordinary phenomenon happened in the plain of St. Lio; Here a fissure, six feet wide, and of an unknown depth, opened in the ground, with a loud, terrific, crashing noise, and ran in a tortuous course nearly to the top of Etna. Its direction was from north to south, and its length twelve miles. This fissure, as it opened, emitted vivid flashes of light. Five other parallel fissures of considerable length, afterwards open- ed, one after the other, emitting smoke, and giving out the most horrid bellowings, which were heard to the dis- tance of forty miles. This case may, perhaps, explain the manner in which the dykes were formed in the cone of Vesuvius, already described and figured, for the light emitted by these fissures, would seem to indicate, at least in some instances, that they were to a certain height filled with glowing lava. The lava, during this eruption, having overwhelmed and destroyed fourteen towns, some of them containing three or four thousand inhabitants, at length arrived at the walls of Catania, a populous city, situated ten miles from the volcano. These walls had been raised sixty feet high, towards the mountain, in order to protect the city, in case of an eruption. But the burning flood accumulat- ed against the wall so as to fill all the space around and below that part, and finally poured over it in a fiery cataract, destroying every thing in that vicinity. From Catania the lava continued its course until it reached the sea, a distance of fifteen miles from its source, in a current about 1800 feet broad, and forty feet deep. While moving on, its surface was, in general, a mass of solid rock, or cooled lava, and it advanced by the pro- trusion of the melted matter, through this hardened crust. As an illustration of the intense heat of volcanic mat- ter, the Canon Recupero relates, that in 1766, he ascend- 100 VOLCANOES IN ICELAND. ed a small hill, composed of ancient volcanic matter, in order to observe the slow and gradual manner in which a current of liquid fire advanced from Etna. This cur- rent was two and a half miles broad; and, while he stood observing it, two small threads of lava, issuing from a crevice, detached themselves from the main stream, and approached rapidly towards the eminence where he and his guide were standing. They had only just time to escape, when they saw the hill on which they had stood a few minutes before, and which was fifty feet high, entire- ly surrounded, and, in about fifteen minutes, entirely melted down into the burning mass, so as to be incorpo- rated with, and move on along with it. Discovery of Ice on Mount Etna. A remarkable dis- covery of a great mass of ice on Mount Etna was made in 1828. In that year, in consequence of the protracted heat of the season, the supplies of ice at Catania and the adjoining parts of Sicily, failed entirely, and the people suffered considerably for the want of an article, considered as necessary to health as well as comfort in that hot climate. In this dilemma, the magistrates of Catania directed search to be made for some crevice or natural grotto, on Mount Etna, where drift snow might possibly still be preserved. During this search it was discovered that near the base of the highest cone there lay a vast mass of ice, covered by a lava current. At what period this current was emitted is unknown, nor can it be conjectured what proportion of the ice was melted by the burning matter, but it appears that nothing but the flowing of the lava over this glacier, can account for its preservation. A large number o workmen were immediately em- ployed to quarry this ice for the use of the Catanians; but, it is said, that its hardness rendered the expense of obtaining it so great, that there is no probability of a simi- lar undertaking, unless under similar circumstances. VOLCANOES IN ICELAND. Iceland is both a volcanic country, and a country of vol- canoes. A considerable proportion of its surface is cov- VOLCANOES IN ICELAND^ 101 ered with ancient or modern lava, and it is now subject to the most terrible calamities from this source. With the exception of Etna and Vesuvius, the most complete chronological records of volcanic eruptions are those of Iceland. From these it is ascertained, that from the 12th century, there has never been an interval of more than 40 years, and rarely more than twenty, without eruptions and earthquakes in some part of that country. Single eruptions of Mount Hecla have sometimes contin- ued for six years. In many instances the whole island has been convulsed by earthquakes, during which moun- tains were rent asunder, hills sunk down, and rivers have deserted their former channels. Eruption of Skaptar Jokul. In 1783, this volcanic mountain suffered one of the most extraordinary erup- tions recorded in history, both with respect to the quantity of lava it threw out, and the calamities it occasioned. The river Skapta, a considerable stream, was for a time, completely dried, by a torrent of liquid fire from this mountain. This river was about 200 feet broad, and its banks from four to six hundred above the level of the water. This defile was not only entirely filled to a con- siderable extent by the lava, but it also crossed the river by the dam thus formed, and overflowed the country be- yond, where it filled a lake of considerable extent, and great depth. This eruption commenced on the llth of June, and on the 18th of the same month, a still greater quantity of lava rushed from the mouth of the volcano, and flowed with amazing rapidity, sometimes over the first stream, but generally in a new course. The melted matter having crossed some of the tributary streams of the Skapta, com- pletely dammed up their waters, and caused great destruc* tion of property and lives by their overflow. The lava, after flowing for several days, was precipitated down a tremendous cataract, called Stapafoss, where it filled a profound abyss, which that great water-fall had been exca- vating for ages, and thence the fiery flood continued its course. On the third of August, a new eruption poured forth fresh floods of lava, which taking a different direction from the others, filled the bed of another river, by which 9* 102 VOLCANOES IN ICELAND. a large lake was formed, and much property and many lives destroyed. The effects of this dreadful calamity may in some meas- ure be imagined, when it is known, that although Iceland did not, at that time, contain more than fifty thousand in- habitants, there perished nine thousand human beings by this single eruption, making nearly one in five of the whole population. Part of them were destroyed by the burning lava itself, some by drowning, others by noxious vapors which the lava emitted, and others in consequence of the famine, caused by the showers of ashes which cov- ered a great proportion of the island, and destroyed the vegetation. The fish also, on which the inhabitants de- pended, in a great measure for food, entirely deserted the coast. The quantity of lava which Skaptar Jokul emitted during this eruption, was greater than is recorded of any other volcano. The two principal branches or streams of lava, flowed chiefly in different directions. The length of the smallest was forty miles, and of the other fifty miles. The breadth of that branch which filled the Skapta, was from twelve to fifteen miles, and the other about seven miles. The ordinary depth of each was about 100 feet, but in narrow defiles it was more than 600 feet deep, and in many places from 200 to 300. Allowing that the united breadth of this vast lava stream, was 20 miles, and the whole length 90 miles, then this mountain, at a single eruption, threw out a quantity of lava which covered a surface of 1800 square miles, an area equal to the fourth part of the State of Connecticut, and nearly one half the size of Rhode Island. When it is considered that the depth of the whole might average 150 feet, we may go into calculations concerning the quantity of matter thrown out, but we can have no conception of the force required to elevate such a stream of melted rock through the crust of the earth. Eruption of Jorullo, in 1759. Jorullo is situated in the interior of Mexico, about 100 miles from the nearest sea. This mountain, as already stated, affords the only known instance of a volcano, at a distance from some ocean. It also affords an instance of the production of a new vOl- canic mountain, within the memory of man. VOLCANO OF SUMBAWA. 103 In June, 1759, subterranean sounds of an alarming kind were heard by the inhabitants of this district, and these were followed by earthquakes, which succeeded each other for two months. In the month of September, flames were seen to issue from fissures in the ground, and from the same place, red hot rocks were thrown to an immense height. Soon after, six volcanic cones were formed of lava and the fragments of rock, thrown up from the earth, in the same neighborhood. The least of these was three hundred feet in height. In the midst of these cones, rose Jorullo, which was formed in the same manner, and soon rose to the height of 1600 feet by the accumulation of lava and fragments of rock. The small cones ceasing their action, Jorullo became the great outlet of volcanic matter, and continued to emit lava and large fragments of primi- tive rock, for many months. Jorullo has continued to emit flames ever since its formation. Volcano of Sumbawa. Sumbawa is one of the Molucca Islands; and the mountain from which occurred, on some accounts, the most extraordinary volcanic eruption of which any accounts have been recorded, is called Tomboro. This eruption commenced on the 5th of April, 1815, but was most terrific on the llth and 12th of that month, nor did it cease entirely, until sometime in the following July. The explosions so much resembled the firing of heavy can- non at a distance, that the people of many vessels at sea, supposed there was a great naval engagement within hear- ing, but could not imagine what nations were engaged. The commanders of some ships, and of several English forts, gave orders to prepare for battle, though they were several hundred miles distant from the mountain. At Su- matra, these tremendous explosions were distinctly heard, though not nearer than 900 miles from Tomboro. They were also heard at Ternate, in the opposite direction from Sumatra, at the distance of 720 miles from the mountain. So immense in quantity, was the fall of ashes, that at Bima, forty miles from the mountain, the roof of the Eng- lish Resident's house was crushed by the weight, and many other houses in the same town were rendered uninhabita- ble from the same cause. At Java, 300 miles distant, the air was so full of ashes, that from this cause, at mid day, it is said the darkness was so profound, that nothing like 104 EARTHQUAKES. it had ever before been experienced, during the most stormy night. Along the coast of Sumbawa, the sea was covered with floating lava, intermixed with trees and timber, so that it was difficult for vessels to sail through the mass. Some captains, though at a long distance at sea, mistook this mass for land, and sent out their boats in order to ascertain the safety of their situations. The sea, on this and the neighboring coasts, rose suddenly to the height of twelve feet, in the form of immense waves, and as they retired, swept away trees, timber, and houses with their inhabi- tants. All the vessels lying near the shore, were torn from their anchorings, and cast upon the land. Violent whirl- winds carried into the air men, horses, cattle, trees, and whatever else was in the vicinity of the mountain. Large trees were torn up by the roots, and carried into the sea. But the most calamitous part of the account still remains; for such were the tremendous effects of the burning lava; the overflowing of the sea; the fall of houses; and the vio- lence of the whirlwind, that out of 12,000 inhabitants on this island, only twenty six individuals escaped with their lives, all the rest being destroyed in one way or another. The whole island was completely covered with ashes, or other volcanic matter. In some places, the bottom of the sea was so elevated, as to make shoals, where there was deep water before; and in others, the land sunk down, and was overflown by the sea. The details of this awful calamity were collected, and published by Sir Stamford Raffles, then Governor of Java, who required all the residents in the various districts un- der his authority, to send him a statement of the circum- stances which fell under their several observations. Sec hs\ Hist, of Java; and Brande's Quart. Jour. vol. i. EARTHQUAKES. Having thus given a short history of a sufficient num- ber of volcanic eruptions, to acquaint the geological stu- dent with the phenomena, and of the tremendous as well as calamitous effects of these mighty agents, we will next refer to the subject of earthquakes, as resulting from the same cause. EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. 105 Earthquake of Calabria. "Of the numerous earth- quakes," says Mr. Lyell, "which have occurred in different parts of the globe, during the last 100 years, that of Cala- bria, in 1783, is the only one of which the geologist can be said to have such a circumstantial account, as to enable him fully to appreciate the changes which this cause is ca- pable of producing in the lapse of ages. The shocks be- gan in February, 1783, and lasted nearly four years, to the end of 1786." The importance of the earthquake in question, arises from the circumstance, that Calabria is the only spot hitherto visited, both during and after the convulsions, by men possessing sufficient leisure, zeal, and scientific information, to enable them to collect and de- scribe with accuracy, the physical facts which throw light on geological questions. Lyell, vol. i. p. 412. Authors who witnessed the phenomena of these convul- sions, are quite numerous. Among them, it is said that Pignataro, a physician, who resided at the centre of the earthquakes, and who kept a register of the number and force of the shocks, is among the most correct. The Royal Academy of Naples, also sent a commission from their own body to Calabria, accompanied by artists, with instructions to describe and illustrate by drawings, the ef- fects of these terrible convulsions: and Sir William Ham- ilton, who surveyed this district before the shocks had ceased, has added many facts not recorded by others. Our limits, will however, allow only a very brief summa- ry of the facts, from these several sources. The subterranean concussions were felt beyond the con- fines of Sicily; but if the city of Oppido, in Calabria, be taken as the centre, a circle around it, whose radius is twenty two miles, would include the space which suffered the greatest calamities. Within this circle, all the towns and villages were almost entirely destroyed. The first shock, which took place on the 5th of Febru- ary, 1783, threw down, in the space of two minutes, a greater part of the houses, within the whole space above described. The convulsive motion of the earth, is said to have resembled the rolling of the sea, and that in many in- stances, it produced swimming of the head, like sea-sick- ness. This rolling of the surface, like the billows of the sea, was like that which would have been produced by the agitation of a vast mass of liquid matter under the ground. 106 EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. In some walls which were shattered, the separate stones were parted from the mortar so as to leave an exact mould where they had rested, as though the stone had been care- fully raised from its bed in a perpendicular direction; but in other instances, the mortar was ground to powder be- tween the stones, as though they had been made to re- volve on each other. It was found, that the swelling, or wave like motions, and those which were called vorticose, or whirling, often produced the most singular and unaccountable effects. Thus, in some streets, in the town of Monteleone, every house was thrown down, except one, and in some other streets, all except two or three; and these were left unin- jured, though differing in no respects from the others . In many cities all the most solid edifices were prostrat- ed, while those which were slightly built, escaped; but, in others, it was precisely the reverse, the massive build- ings being the only ones that remained standing. Fig. 6. But, perhaps, the most singular effect was that produ- ced on a pair of obelisks, at the convent of St. Bruno, where the different stones, composing these monuments were moved on each other, in a manner altogether unac- countable, unless, indeed, it can be supposed that the earth, where each stood, underwent a rapid gyratory mo- tion. The shock which shook the convent is said to have been of that kind which writers describe by the term vor- ticose, or whirling. The annexed cut, fig. 6, will convey an idea of these effects. EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. 107 The pedestal of each obelisk remained in its original situation and place; but the separate stones were turned partly around on each other, as represented in the figures; some of them being moved eight or nine inches out of their places, but none were thrown down. It appears from the statements, that in many instances, where the ground was fissured, the motion must have been from below, upwards, for these fissures opened and closed alternately, as though the ground, in that particular spot, had been violently lifted up with a force from below, by which a fissure was formed, but. the force ceasing in- stantly, the ground again assumed its former position, and the fissure closed. Perhaps the escape of some gas or steam through the fissure, produced this effect. In many instances, these fissures were so wide as in an instant to swallow up men, trees, and even houses, and when the earth sunk down again it closed upon them so entirely, as not to leave the least vestige of what had hap- pened, nor were any signs of them ever discovered after- wards. In the vicinity of Oppido, the centre of these convulsions, many houses were precipitated into the same great fissure, which immediately closed iver them; and, in the same neighborhood, four farm houses, several oil stores and dwelling houses were so entirely engulphed, that not a vestige of them were seen afterwards. In some instances these chasms did not close. In one district, a ravine, formed in this manner, a mile long, 100 feet broad, and thirty feet deep, remained open; and in another, a similar one remained, three quarters of a mile long, 150 feet wide, and 100 feet deep; in another in- stance, there remained such a chasm thirty feet wide and 225 feet deep. In various places, the ground sunk down, and lakes were formed, which, being fed by springs, have remained ever since. The convulsions also removed immense masses of earth from the sides of steep hills into the val- leys below, so that, in many instances, oaks, olive or- chards, vineyards and cultivated fields, were seen grow- ing at the bottoms of deep hollows, having been removed from the side hills of the vicinity. In one instance, a mass of earth 200 feet thick, and 400 feet in diameter, be- ing set in motion by one of the first shocks, travelled four miles into the valley below. The violence of the upward motion of the ground was 108 EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. singularly illustrated by the inversion of heavy bodies ly- ing on the surface, and which can hardly be accounted for, except on the supposition that they were actually thrown to a considerable distance into the air. Thus in some towns, a considerable proportion of the flat paving stones, were found with their lower sides uppermost. Mr. Ly- ell accounts for this effect, by supposing that the " stones were propelled upwards by the momentum which they had acquired, and that the adhesion of one end of the mass being greater than the other, a rotary motion had been communicated to them." But it is difficult to conceive how a whirling motion, so rapid as to produce such an ef- fect, could have been communicated to a whole town, without producing some consequences still more extraor- dinary. In the plain of Rosarno, a different effect was produced from any yet described. This plain consists of an alluvial soil, which after the commencement of the earthquakes, was found covered with circular hollows, containing wa- ter, and around the hollows, were fissures radiating from their sides in every direction, as represented by fig. 7. 1 Fig. 7. These were for the most part about the size of carriage wheels, but sometimes larger or smaller. When filled with water to within a Foot or two of the surface, they appeared like wells, but more commonly they were filled with dry sand, sometimes with a concave, and at others with a convex surface. On digging into the earth, these cavities were found to be funnel shaped, the moist loose earth in the centre, indicating the tube through which the water had ascended. The annexed cut, fig. 7, is intended to represent a section of these inverted cones, when the water had disappeared, leaving nothing in it but dry mi- caceous sand. This sand appeared to have been brought EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. 109 up from beneath by the water which was sometimes found over the sand. Pi* 8- But our limits will not allow the description of other ef- fects and appearances, which this dreadful calamity produ- ced, some of which are equally curious and inexplicable. We must not, however, close this account without re- ference to an incident connected with the destruction of human life, as well as to the number of responsible beings which were suddenly called to the world of spirits, by this appalling act of a mysterious Providence. The Prince Scilla had persuaded many of his people to betake themselves to their fishing boats, as a place of safety, on the first indications of an earthquake, which in that volcanic country are so well understood, and which create so much alarm. The Prince himself had set the example, by going on board of one of these boats. On the 5th of February, when the first violent shock happen- ed, many of these people were sleeping in their boats near the shore, while others were on the shore, at a place little elevated above the sea. With this convulsion the earth rocked, and suddenly there was precipitated a great mass of rock from mount Jaci, on the plain where the people had taken refuge, and immediately after, the water rose to a great height above its ordinary level, and swept away the sleeping multitude. The wave then instantly retreated, but soon after returned again with increased violence, bringing back many of the people, and animals, which it had carried away. At the same time every boat in the vicinity was overwhelmed, or dashed against the beach, and thus destroyed. The Prince who was an 10 110 EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. aged man, with 1400 of his people were thus swept away and perished in the sea. The number of human beings who were destroyed by this series of earthquakes, was estimated by Sir William Hamilton, at about 40,000, besides which, nearly 20,000 more died by epidemics, which were occasioned by in- sufficient nourishment, and the noxious vapors arising from the new lakes and pools of water, which this terrible catastrophe occasioned, thus making the whole number that perished 60,000. In countries where volcanoes exist, and which are also subject to earthquakes, experience has taught, that the earthquakes cease, or become harmless, so soon as an eruption from the mountain commences. On the suppo- sition that the earth constantly contains within it an ocean of lava or melted matter; that earthquakes are caused by some disturbance of this liquid; and that volca- noes are its chimneys, or outlets when thus disturbed, this fact would admit of an easy explanation. In another place we shall bring forward many circumstances, to show that this theory may be true, and shall only remark here, that the Calabrian earthquakes may be brought as an item in support of this doctrine, for neither Etna nor any of the Italian volcanoes, suffered the least sign of eruption during these destructive convulsions. Earthquake of Lisbon. This great earthquake happened in the month of November, 1755, and with respect to the wide extent to which it was felt, exceeded all others of which there is any account. The first intimation of its approach was a loud subterra- nean noise, somewhat like distant thunder, and immedi- ately afterwards, the city of Lisbon was shook with such violence as to prostrate nearly all its houses. The wretch- ed inhabitants with so short a warning were unable to take the least precaution for their safety, so that in about six minutes, 60,000 people perished. The sea at first retired, and laid bare the bed of the har- bor, after which it immediately rolled back, in an immense wave, rising fifty feet at least, above its ordinary level. The largest mountains in Portugal were shaken to their foundations, and several had their summits rent in a man- ner which struck every beholder with astonishment. EARTHQUAKE OF LISBON. Ill But the most extraordinary and calamitous effect which was produced at Lisbon, was the sinking of a quay together with the thousands of inhabitants with which it was cover- ed. This work was built entirely of marble, and just fin- ished at an immense expense; and on it after the first shock, a vast concourse of people had collected as a place of safety, having left the city to escape the fall of the houses. But it proved the most fatal spot in the vicinity, for at the next shock the earth opened and instantly swallowed up the whole quay, with the multitude which had there assembled, and so completely were the whole retained by the closing of the earth, that not a single dead body ever rose again to the surface. A great number of small boats and other vessels, near the quay, filled with people, as a place of safety, were also precipitated into the yawning vortex, and it is stated that not a single frag- ment of any of these boats were ever seen afterwards. It was believed that the water where the quay stood was un- fathomable, but its depth was afterwards found to be 600 feet. The immense area over which this earthquake was felt, is very remarkable; for not only was every part of Spain and Portugal convulsed, but the shocks were perceived with greater or less intensity in England, Holland, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, Corsica, the West Indies, at Morocco and Algiers in Africa, and in a part of South America. At Algiers the shock was so violent as to throw down many buildings; and a village, not far from Morocco, was swallowed up, and 10,000 in- habitants perished. A great wave from the sea, swept nearly the whole coast of Spain. At Cadiz its height is said to have been sixty feet, and its devastations in pro- portion. The shock was also felt by ships far at sea, and, in seve- ral instances, the concussion was such as to make the people suppose their vessels had struck on a rock. In one instance it is said that the people on board a vessel off the West Indies, were thrown up a foot and a half from the 'leek. This circumstance may be accounted for from the inelasticity of water, so that a violent and sudden movement of the bottom of the ocean, would be commu- nicated to the surface and to the ship, through the me- dium of the fluid, with nearly the same force, as though the vessel had been on the ground itself. 12 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS. Islands raised from the Sea. Numerous instances are recorded of the elevation of islands, of greater or less ex- tent, from the bottom of the sea. Writers of antiquity i ave mentioned several such in- stances. The elder Pliny says that the celebrated islands of Rhodes and Delos, according to tradition, are sea born, and that, after these, several smaller islands rose up frc m the bottom of the sam^ sea. Strabo also asserts, posi- tively, that Hiero was produced in the midst of flames, and both Plutarch and Justin relate, that the formation of this island was attended with much fire, and a great boil- ing of the sea. But we are not entirely dependent on the ancients for facts of this kind, many instances of the elevation of isl- ands having been witnessed in later times. Captain Tillard, of the Royal British Navy, was an eye witness to the rising of an island from the ocean, in 1812. At some distance off the cor.st of St. Michael's, one of the Azores, an immense body of smoke was observed to issue from the water, and from the midst cf the smoke, there suddenly burst forth a black column of cinders, ashes and stones, in the form of a spire. This was accompanied by vivid flashes of lightning from the thickest part of the vol- canic smoke, and the whole was surrounded by occasional water spouts. The water, at this place was thirty fathoms deep, and after the volcanic phenomena had lasted fourdays, the cra- ter began to appear above the surface of the water, and soon became twenty feet high in the midst of an island 400 feet in diameter. At this time the cliffs of St. Mi- chael's were shattered by an earthquake, and the island continued to rise until it became at least 200 feet above the level of the sea. This island was named Sabrina, after Captain Tillard's ship. It did not, however long continue visible, for being formed chiefly of ashes and cinders, and not by the eleva- tion of the solid rocks, it wr s soon swept away by the waves of the ocean. Aleutian Islands. In the year 1 806, there arose from the sea a new island, among the Aleutian group, north of Kamtschatka. This, according to Langsdorf, who after- wards visited the spot, was four geographical miles in cir- cumference; and the geologist, Von Bush, infers from its MONTB NUOVO, 113 not having subsided, that it does not like Sabrina, consist of ejected volcanic matter, but of solid rock, thrown up from the bottom of the sea. In 1814, another island was added to the Aleutian group, from the bottom of the sea. This was much larger than the former, and its highest part was elevated to the aston- ishing height of 300D feet above the level of the sea. In 1820, a new island was thrown up among the Ionian group, on the coast of Greece. In 1757, eighteen small islands were elevated from the sea, in the vicinity of the Azores. In 1783, the same phenomenon happened on the coast of Iceland. Many other instances of sea born islands are recorded, but we need not extend this list, our chief object being to show that islands are elevated from the ocean by the force of volcanic action. Elevation of Land by Volcanic Power. In November, 1822, there happened a series of subterranean convulsions on the coast Chili, which continued three months, and which shook that part of South America to the extent of 1400 miles from north to south. On the morning after the first shock, the whole line of coast along Valpariso, to the distance of 100 miles, was found to have been raised above its former level. Mrs. Graham who was present, and who writes this account, states that on thci morning of the 20th, the wreck of an old ship, which lay at a small distance from the shore, but which could not be approached, on account of the depth of the water, was now easily accessible. She also found the former bed of the sea, along the shore, laid bare, with muscles, oysters, and other shell fish, adhering to the rocks on which they grew, and abundance of fish, dead and on dry land. At Valpariso, the elevation of the land was found to be three feet, but at other places, the rise was from four to five feet. Formation of Monte Nuovo. Monte Nuovo, or New Mountain, was chiefly thrown up on the night of the 29th of September, 1538. Its situation is in the neighborhood of Naples; a region every where volcanic. The site of the present Monte Nuovo was formerly a lit- tle town, where invalids resorted on account of the ther* 10* 114 FORMATION OF MONTE NUOVO. mal baths which existed there. On the evening above mentioned, after many previous shocks of an earthquake, the ground opened in the form of a wide fissure, which ran towards this town, with a tremendous noise, accompan- ied with the discharge of pumice stones, blocks of lava, and ashes. At the same time a gulf, of considerable ex- tent, opened in the suburbs of the town, by which many houses were swallowed up. The sea also retired, leaving its bed naked along the shore. The fissure which had reached the town, continued to discharge volcanic matter for 36 hours, during which time., its quantity was such as to form the mountain in question. Fig. 9. The annexed drawing, fig. 9, will shew the form of this mountain, No. 1, the mountain. No. 2 a part of the cra- ter. Its height has been lately determined to be four hun- dred and forty feet above the level of the bay of Naples. Its base is eight thousand feet, or nearly a mile and a half in circumference, and the depth of the crater, four hun- dred and twenty-one feet from the summit, so that the bottom of the crater is only nineteen feet above the level of the sea. No lava flowed from this crater, but the matter ejected, which fell down and formed the mountain, consisted of masses of ancient lava, ashes, pumice, and slaty stones. These blocks of ancient lava, prove the volcanic origin of the ground below the present mountain. We have thus given such an account of volcanoes, earth- quakes, and the elevation of islands and land, by subterra- nean fire as our limits will allow. TEMPLE OF JUPITER SERAPIS. 115 The design of these facts, is not merely to satisfy the curiosity of the reader, but as will be seen in the sequel, to account for phenomena which the earth presents, by show- ing an analogy between the effects of known and unknown causes. Thus the earth almost every where indicates, by the position of its strata, that its crust has been disturbed by subterranean forces; and marine remains, shew that a great proportion of the dry land has once been under the sea. That these changes have been effected by the same cause which elevates islands from the sea at the present day, we shall endeavor to show in another place. Temple of Jupiter Serapis. In a few instances, it is known that portions of land have several times changed their level, with respect to that of the sea; and of which the following is an interesting and curious example. The temple of Serapis, a celebrated monument of anti- quity, is situated on the little bay, called Baiae, within the bay of Naples. A geological examination of the coast of Puzzuoli, along this bay, shows that the land has been elevated about twenty feet'at a period not very remote, so that without the evidence presented by the temple, there is sufficient proof that the land in the vicinity has changed its level. If the coast along the hore, between Naples, and Puz- zuoli be examined, it will be seen that the tract of fertile land which intervenes between the present shore, and the high rocky cliffs, was evidently once under the water, and that the ancient shore was near these cliffs. The inland cliff near Puzzuoli, is in many places about eighty feet high, and quite perpendicular. At its base, the new deposite attains the height of twenty feet above the sea. This consists of sedimentary matter, mixed with marine shells showing that it was formed under the water. H6 TEMPLE OF JUPITER SERAPIS. The annexed cut, fig. 10, from Mr. Lyell, will explain the situation of this coast in 1828. ez, on the right, shows the situation of antiquities, on a hill south of Puzzuoli; 6, an- cient cliff, now inland; c, terrace composed of marine deposites of recent date. #> on the left, represents the re- mains of Cicero's villa, at the north of Puzzuoli; 6, an- cient cliff, now inland; c, terrace composed of recent ma- rine deposites; d, temple of Serapis* The soil of these level deposites, is considered so valu- able, that a wall has been built for its protection against the washing of the sea; but in some places, the wall has been thrown down, so that the strata are exposed. These consist of alternate layers of mud and pumice, enclosing abundance of marine shells. One stratum contains large quantities of the remains of ancient art, as tiles, and pieces of Mosaic pavement.* The remains of the works of art are found below, as well as above the marine shells. Among the shells, are ihe Cardium, Donax, Buccinum, and Ostrea. (These will be found, figured and described, towards the close of this, volume.) Now there are no tides in the Mediterranean, by which these shells could have been cast upon the shore; and the remains of ancient buildings at other places, show that there has been no change in the level of this sea, for the last two thousand years; hence we must conclude, that the land along this coast has been elevated about twenty feet above its former level. But in addition to the above evidence, the remains of the temple of Serapis, show that that edifice has under- gone several changes of level, when compared with the sea. With respect to this temple, Mr. Lyell, who has lately visited the spot, says, " It appears, from the most authen- tic accounts, that the three pillars, now standing erect, continued down to the middle of the last century, half buried in the new marine strata above described. The upper parts of the columns being concealed by bushes, * Ancient Mosaic pavement consists of small pieces of stone, generally marble, of different colors, arranged in figures, sometimes representing groups of men and animals, in commemoration of some historical event. These are cemented so as to form a continuous solid mass. The floors of ancient churches and temples were often thus made. TEMPLE OF JUPITER SERAPIS. 117 had not been discovered, until 1750, when they were seen to form part of a splendid edifice. On examination, the pavement was found, still entire, and upon it lay a number of magnificent columns, a part of which were of African breccia,* and a part of granite. The original plan of the building could be traced distinctly: it was of a quadran- gular form, seventy feet in diameter, and the roof had been supported b) forty-six noble columns, twenty-four of which were of granite, and the rest of brecciated mar- ble. The large court had been surrounded by apartments, supposed to have been used as bathing rooms; for a thermal spring, still employed for medicinal purposes, continues to flow from just behind the ruins, and the water of this spring, it is said, was conveyed to the cham- bers by marble conductors." Lyell, vol. i. p. 453. Since the discovery of these remains, many antiquaries have entered into elaborate discussions, on the question to what deity this edifice was consecrated; but from its situation, and construction, there is more reason to sup- pose that it was a bathing house, than a heathen temple. But our object will be to show what geological changes these antiquities indicate. Fig. 11. The annexed cut, fig. 1U represents Serapis, as it now appears, reduced from the drawing of Mr. Lyell. These pillars are forty-two feet in height, and their surfaces are smooth and entire to the height of about twelve feet above the pedestal, the reason of which will appear directly. Above this, is a zone, twelve feet in length, where the marble has been pierced by a marine perforating shell fish, called by Cuvier, Litho- domus. It is a species of the Mytilus of Linnaeus, and the Modiola of Lamarck. * Breccia is a rock composed of broken, angular pieces of stone, gene- rally of various colors, cemented by the hand of nature. The pillars of the capitol, at Washington, are of this kind of marble. 118 TEMPLE OF JUPITER SERAPIS. These animals enter the stone by a small orifice, which they make themselves when quite young, and as they in- crease in size they enlarge their habitations in proportion. They are nourished by the sea water, which is admitted through the small aperture. These animals have not the power, or perhaps inclination to leave their cells, hence their houses during life, become their tombs at death. The limestones on the shores of the Mediterranean, are frequently full of the excavations of these animals. The genus Pholas, also contains some species which penetrate rocks. Both are figured under the articles " Multivalves" and " Bivalves," towards the end of this volume. These animals cannot pierce silicious rocks, such as granite. As these animals cannot live, except when immersed in salt water, we must infer that these* pillars were fora long time submerged, and that during part of that period, their lower portions were covered up by the rubbish already mentioned, while their upper ends reached above the wa- ter. This accounts for the reason why their middle por- tions only, are peforated by these animals. On the pave- tnent of the temple lie several columns, broken in pieces. These are perforated on their fractured ends, as well as on other parts, showing that they had lain under water for a long time after they were broken. The platform of the temple is at present just under the water, and the upper part of the perforations on the standing columns is at least twenty-three feet above the water, from which it is clear that these columns must have continued for a long time immersed in the water, while in an erect position, after which they must have been raised, by the rising of the ground to their present elevation. Thus it appears, that the temple of Serapis was first de- pressed by the sinking down of the ground where it stands, so that the water of the sea surrounded these pil- lars about twenty feet above its present level; after which, it was again raised to its present situation, by the eleva- tion of the coast. It is hardly necessary to say, that the cause of these changes, was undoubtedly the same which has produced the elevation of islands, and the sinking down of the ground in other places. VOLCANOES. 119 SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. It was formerly believed that the seat of volcanoes was superficial, and that the heat which fused the rocks, and sent them forth in the form of lava from the mouths I of volcanoes, was owing to the combustion of mineral i coal. It is a sufficient refutation of this hypothesis, that were the whole interior of the earth composed of coal, it j must have long since been exhausted in the vicinity of an- j cient burning mountains. Also, that no geologist ever supposed coal to exist below granite mountains, which are \ often pierced by volcanic apertures. The cause of volcanoes has also been attributed to the spontaneous ignition of pyrites, or metallic sulphurets. With respect to this theory, in the first place, there is no evidence that the interior of the earth is composed of j the sulphurets of the metals, nor is this in the least degree I probable; and second, were this ascertained to be the case, and could the theorist contrive to perpetuate its ig- nition, or to make it occasional, as circumstances re- quired, still it would fail to account for the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanoes. But lastly, the products of volcanoes are not such as would result from the ignition ( of the sulphurets of the metals. This is sufficient. Since the great discovery of Sir H. Davy, that the earths and alkalies are the oxides of metallic substances, it has been proposed to account for volcanoes and earthquakes, by the admission of water to these metallic elements. This theory may be thus stated. If pure potash or soda be deprived of its oxygen, there remains a brilliant silver-white metal, so light as to swim on the surface of water. These metals have an affinity of oxygen so strong, that when thrown on water, the fluid is decomposed, the oxy- gen being absorbed by the metal so rapidly as to occa- sion a degree of heat, which sets the hydrogen on fire. Thus by throwing these metals on water, combustion is excited, and the oxides of potassium, and sodium, or in other words, pure potash or soda is formed. Now if we suppose that at the creation, the elements of things were formed in a distinct and separate state, and that the condition of the earth's surface at the present time is owing to the exercise of chemical affinities, then we might 120 SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. consider the interior of the earth, at the present time, to be composed of elements in their simple and uncom- bined state. This being admitted, the earth at a certain depth consists of the bases of these earths, and alkalies in their uncombined and metallic forms; for, being excluded from any substance containing oxygen, there has been no opportunity since the creation, for these substances to combine and form compounds. It is well known to chem- ists, that the metallic bases of the alkalies may be kept in their elementary states for any length of time, by exclud- ing them from the air, or by immersing them in naptha, a substance containing no oxygen. Hence, as combustion is excited when these metallic bases come in contact with water, (if the above suppositions be true,) there exists an analogy, by which it has been thought the phenomena of earthquakes might be accounted for, by the admission of water to these substances. There are, however, insuperable difficulties in this hy- pothesis. Carbonate of lime is one of the most abundant materials of which the crust of our earth is composed. This, in the opinions of many geologists, had its origin in organized remains, being the product of sea shells, consol- idated in a manner, which it is unnecessary here to ex- plain. It is quite certain that a great portion of limestone is really the product of moluscous animals, of which the coral reefs, and the mountains of shells, are a sufficient proof. If, therefore, lime is the product of organized be- ings, it was not created in an elementary form, and there- fore cannot produce the fire of volcanoes by the union of its elements, though calcium its base, may excite flame by contact with water. Silex, or flint, another substance which enters largely into the compositon of the earth., and of which the primi- tive rocks are chiefly composed, does not possess an in- flammable base, and therefore cannot be supposed to par- ticipate in causing any igneous phenomena. The specific gravity of the earth, also, being at least five times that of water, shows that it is not composed, principally, of substances lighter than that fluid. Besides, the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanoes, even admitting the interior of the earth to be composed of metallic elements, are. not such as could be accounted for by the admission of water to these substances; nor are the products of volcanic action, in the form of lava, pumice, SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 121 and ashes, such as would result from the oxygentation of metallic elements. This theory, therefore, has not even plausibility in its favor. In the present state of geological knowledge, it is not to be expected that any theory which can be proposed, will account for every circumstance connected with earth- quakes and volcanoes. But that which explains the great- est number of these phenomena, is founded on the hypo- thesis of a "central fire," that is, a mass, or masses of la- va, or melted matter, deeply seated towards the centre of the earth. The two hundred volcanoes, existing in diffe- rent parts of the globe, are the chimneys, or occasional outlets of this ocean of liquid fire. When this mass is disturbed, as by the admission of water, an earthquake is the consequence, and this becomes more or less disastrous, according to the degree of inter- nal commotion. When the pressure of the steam, into which the water is converted, becomes excessive, then the lava is forced up one of the chimneys, and poured forth on the surface of the earth, and thus a volcano is produced, and at the same time the internal pressure is relieved. The hypothesis of a central fire, under various modifica- tions, appears to be the prevailing doctrine of the geolo- gists of the present day. " If," says Mr. Lyell, "we sup- pose a great number of large subterranean cavities, at the depth of several miles below the surface of the earth, wherein melted lava accumulates, and that water, penetra- ting into these, is converted into steam; this steam, togeth- er with the gasses generated by the decomposition of melt- ed rocks, may press upon the lava, and force it up the duct of a volcano, in the same manner as it drives water up the pipe of a geyser. (The geyser is described under "Silicious Springs.") But the weight of the lava being immense, the hydrostatic pressure, exerted on the sides and roofs of such large cavities, and fissures, may well be supposed to occasion, not slight tremors, such as agitate the ground be- fore an eruption of the geyser, but violent earthquakes. Sometimes the lateral pressure of the lower extremity of the high column of lava, may cause the more yielding stra- ta to give way, and to fold themselves into numerous con- volutions, so as to occupy less space, and thereby give re- lief for a time, to the fused, and dilated matter. Some- times, on the contrary, a weight equal to that of the vertical column of lava, pressing on every part of the roof, may 122 SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. heave up the superincumbent mass, and force lava into ev- ery fissure, which on consolidating, may support the arch, and cause the land above to be permanently elevated. On the other hand, subsidences may follow the condensation of vapor, when cold water descends through fissures, or when heat is lost by the cooling of the lava." If this globe, towards its centre, is composed of an igne- ous fluid, then we might expect that the nearer we ap- proach it, or the deeper we descend below the surface, the higher we should find the temperature, and many ex- periments tend to prove that this is actually the case. Baron Fourier, who has investigated this subject with much attention, concludes, " that the rays of the sun pen- etrate the globe, and occasion annual and diurnal varia- tions in its temperature, but that these periodical changes cease to be perceptible at a certain depth under the sur- face. Below that depth, the temperature caused by the sun has long ceased to have any influence. If, therefore, it is found that the temperature of the deep recesses of the earth become perceptibly greater, in proportion as we re- cede from its surface, it is impossible to ascribe this in- crease to the influence of the sun, and consequently it can proceed only from the primitive heat of the earth, and with which it was originally endued. It has long since been conjectured that the heat of the earth increased in some proportion to the distance of descent from its sur- face; but it is only within a short period, that experiments have been instituted, for the purpose of ascertaining whether this conjecture was well founded, and if so, to de- termine the ratio of increase. With this view, many mines have been accurately examined, and the fact of a gradual increase of temperature downwards, has been found general. In the mines of Cornwall, England, Capt. Lean made the following experiments and observations, in the month ofDecember. At the surface the temperature of the air, was 50 Fah- renheit. At 120 feet below the surface, the air was 57. At 600 feet below, temperature of the air 66, of water 64. At 962 feet below, air 70, do. water 74. At 1200 feet below the surface, air 78, water do. 78. These, with other experiments in different mines, seem- ed to show that the increase of temperature downwards, was nearly in the ratio of one degree, for every sixty five feet. SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 1 From M. Cordier, who has written a treatise on this sub- ject, we learn that the number of mines in which experi- ments have been made is about forty. These mines are situated in France, England, Switzerland, Peru, Saxo- ny, and Mexico. The whole number of experiments made are about 300, some being on the air of the mines, some on the water, and others upon the rocks, or earth. From all these observations, made apparently with such caution as to prevent the possibility of any considerable error, M. Cordier derives the following conclusions. 1. "If we reject a certain number of observations as uncertain, all the rest indicate, in a manner more or less certain, that there exists a remarkable increase of tempe- rature, as we descend from the surface of the earth to- wards the interior. It is reasonable then, to admit this increase." 2. " The results collected at the observatory at Paris, are the only ones that can be depended upon with cer- tainty, for obtaining a numerical expression of the law of this increase. This expression gives fifty one feet as the depth which corresponds to an increase of one degree, in the subterranean temperature. And we would remark in passing, that according to this result, the temperature of boiling water under the city of Paris* would be at the depth of 8,212 feet, or about a mile and a half." 3. '* Among all the other results, a small number only afford numerical expressions of the law sought for, suffi- ciently approximate, to be taken into account. These ex- pressions vary from 104 to twenty four feet for one de- gree of increase; their average in general, indicates an in- crease more rapid than has generally been admitted. Their average has so much the more weight, as embracing the results of many series of long continued observa- tions." 4. " Lastly, in grouping together by countries all the results, admissible on any principle, I am led to present a new and important idea, to wit, that the difference between the results collected at different places, are referable not solely to the imperfection of the experiments, but also ta a certrin irregularity in the distribution of subterranean heat in different countries." M. Cordier describes at length, the manner of making experiments on this subject, in order to prevent local er- rors, and from all that himself and others, have done and written, he draws the following inferences. 124 SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 1. "Our experiments fully prove the existence of an internal heat, which is natural to the terrestrial globe; which depends not on the influence of the sun, and which increases rapidly with the depth." 2. "The increase of subterranean heat in proportion to the depth, does not follow the same law throughout the globe. It may be twice, or even thrice as great in one country as in another." 3. " These differences are not in a constant ratio to the latitude or longitude." 4. " Finally, the increase is certainly much more rapid than has heretofore been supposed; it may be as great as twenty-seven, or even twenty-four feet for a degree, in some countries. Provisionally however, the mean must not be put lower than forty-six feet." We must therefore consider it as proved beyond all doubt, that below the crust of the earth, there exists either a mass of burning lava, or some other cause, by which there is perpetually maintained a considerable degree of heat; and there is reason to believe that a very high tem- perature exists towards its centre. That this internal temperature is caused by a melted mass, such as we have supposed to exist, is not, it is be- lieved, incompatible with any known phenomenon, but on the contrary, certainly accords with many of the effects already specified. But there are other effects which are unaccountable, ex- cept on such a hypothesis; and one of these is the con- nection, which has often been ^observed to exist, between one volcano and another, and also between earthquakes and volcanoes. If there exists in the earth an extensive igneous fluid, communicating with the open air only by means of volcanic apertures, we should expect, that when this fluid by any means was set in motion, the surface of the ground would partake of such motion, and that in case this fluid should be pressed for want of room, it would be forced out at these apertures. Now the wave-like motion of earthquakes is a pheno- menon almost universally observed, and even where the shock is slight it produces nausea, like sea-sickness. This motion is inexplicable if the earth is composed of solid unyielding strata; but if we suppose its crust rests upon a fluid, liable to agitation, the solution becomes natural and easy. This motion may be strikingly illustrated by SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. 125 covering a dish of quicksilver with sand or soil, and then giving the vessel a slight agitation. The connection between volcanoes and earthquakes has been so generally observed, that no one at the present day denies that their causes must be the same. Earth- quakes precede volcanoes, and when a wave of the lava reaches an aperture, there happens an eruption, and the earthquakes are diminished in force, or cease entirely, because the internal pressure is thus relieved. In proof of this connection, the elevation of all new islands, and the formation of all new volcanoes, and most commonly the eruptions of old ones are preceded by, or accompanied with earthquakes, especially where the latter have sometime lain dormant. The elevation of Sabrina, of the Aleutian Island, of Monte Nuovo, and the forma- tion of Jorullo, together with what is generally known of Vesuvius and Etna, are examples. It is true that, in some instances, earthquakes happen, both at great distances from volcanoes, and in their vicini- ties without any eruption. But, when this is the case, the most calamitous consequences are produced, because the confined matter which causes the earthquakes cannot escape. This was the case, as already noticed, with re- spect to the earthquakes of Calabria, which destroyed 60,000 people, there being no eruption either of Etna or Vesuvius. It is probable that this was prevented, by the masses of cooled lava, by which these apertures were clogged. The great earthquake of Lisbon was also un- attended by volcanic eruptions. When the shocks commenced which ended in the ele- vation of Monte Nuovo, it was expected, of course, that an eruption of Vesuvius would ensue, but instead of this, after the earthquake had continued with great force for twenty-four hours, the earth opened with a tremendous noise, and, throwing out blocks of lava, pumice and ashes, formed that mountain in 1538. Vesuvius, with a single slight exception, had remained dormant from 1306, and shewed no signs of commotion during the elevation of Monte Nuovo. Now, had there been less resistance at the crater of Vesuvius, than there was on the plain, there would have been an eruption; and no new mountain would have been formed. But Vesuvius continued torpid until 1631, during which period Etna was peculiarly ac- tive, suffering frequent and terrible eruptions. This cir- 11* 126 SEAT AND THEORY OF VOLCANOES. cumstance affords a strong argument in favor of a sub- terranean communication between these two mountains, Etna occasionally serving as an outlet for the elastic fluids, and lava, a part of which would otherwise be emitted at Vesuvius, and, perhaps, the latter in its turn, answering the same purpose during the torpid state of the former. Again, the earthquake of Lisbon, as already stated, was felt in all parts of Europe, and also in Africa, and South America, as well as by ships sailing in the intermediate seas. Now it cannot be reasonably supposed, that a sub- terranean convulsion could be communicated by the mere vibration of the earth, to the distance of so many thou- sand miles, and especially from one side of the Atlantic to the other, under the ocean. If there existed no other evidence than this, of an interior fluctuating medium be- low the crust of the earth, it would be more philosophical, as well as reasonable, to infer that such an one did exist, than to believe that the earth was capable of transmitting a vibratory motion, however strong, to the distance of one fourth of its circumference. Finally, another proof of the existence of an immense mass of igneous matter under the surface of the earth, is the quantity of lava emitted by some volcanoes. Many instances might be adduced, but we will here only refer to that of Skaptar Jokul, in 1783, an account of which has been given. There the quantity of lava covered a sur- face equal to ninety miles long, and twenty broad, making an area equal to 1800 square miles. The depth or thick- ness was generally about 100 feet, but, in some places, to a considerable extent, 600 feet deep. Perhaps, therefore, it would not be an over estimate to call the average depth 150 feet. This quantity, if consolidated, would by calcu- lation have formed a massive globe, of about six miles in diameter. Now if the matter of this eruption came from the im- mediate vicinity of the mountain, it is plain that the strata under it for six miles in extent must have been thrown upon the surface, and a cavity produced of a proportionate size; but this is highly improbable, if not absolutely impos- sible, from the very nature of the case, because if we suppose & cavity, or definite space whence the lava pro- ceeded, we must also suppose it constantly full of igneous matter, at least in the neighborhood of the aperture, otherwise it would not have flowed from the crater. For, ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS. 127 we cannot believe that in a cavity of such dimensions, steam, or any other elastic body could have operated in such a manner as to throw out all, or the greatest part of its contents. From all we have adduced on this subject, we cannot but conclude, that the phenomena of earthquakes and vol- canoes, indicate the existence of an ocean of melted lava, constantly existing at an unknown depth under the sur- face of the earth, and that these phenomena may, in most of their varieties, be accounted for by such a hypothesis, and by no other which has yet been proposed. It is, therefore, reasonable to infer that such a mass of igneous matter does actually exist. ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS FROM THE SEA. The occurrence of sea shells, and the remains of marine animals, at a distance from any existing ocean, is a fact of common observation. Some of these remains are deeply buried in solid strata, while others are found in alluvia near the surface. We have noticed in the pre- liminary part of this work, that such remains excited the attention of the earliest geological observers, and that for want of a more philosophical mode of accounting for these phenomena, they were then considered, not real shells, but the products of plastic nature. A great proportion of Italy is covered by an alluvial soil, containing sea shells, and occasionally the remains of quadrupeds, both of living and extinct species, such as the elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, mastodon, &c. In this country, in the states of New- York, of Ohio, and indeed throughout the great valley of the Mississippi, fossil shells are found; and, as in Italy, there occurs also the remains of ancient quadrupeds. The theory, long since suggested, that the great lakes of North America, are the deeper beds of an inland sea, which once covered a great extent of land, a part of which is now dry, has undoubtedly many circumstances in its fa- vor, and indeed may be considered as a well founded geo- logical fact. In this instance, if, as some geologists sup- pose, this ancient sea has been drained by the bursting of some barrier, it is a circumstance which will account for 128 ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS. the appearance of shells not situated higher than the bed of the former sea. But it is believed that in many places, marine organic remains are found, much more elevated than any reasonable hypothesis could have placed the bed of the former sea. The situations of these cannot, there- fore, be accounted for on the supposition that they were left by the retiring waters. In Italy, besides the more common marine remains of shells and small fish, there are found the bones of whales and dolphins, and sometimes entire skeletons of these fish occur at the elevation of 1200 feet above the sea. The bones of whales, thus found, are in a high state of preservation, and are often encrusted with oyster shells, a good proof that they have not been transported, and that the sea for a long time remained over them, after they had been denuded of their flesh, But it will be seen by the following extract from Cuvier, that such appearances are much more common than has been supposed. "The lowest and most level lands," says he, "when penetrated to a great depth, exhibit nothing but horizon- tal strata, consisting of various substances, almo&t all of them containing innumerable productions of the sea. Similar strata, similar productions, compose the hills, even to a great height. Sometimes the shells are so nu- merous, that they form, of themselves, the entire mass of the stratum. They are almost every where so completely preserved, that even the smallest of them retain their most delicate parts, their slenderest processes, and their finest points. They are found in elevations, above the level of every part of the ocean, and in places to which the sea could not now be conveyed by any existing causes. They are not only enveloped in loose sands, but are encrusted by the hardest Atones, which they penetrate in all direc- tions. Every part of the world, both the hemispheres, all continents, all islands of any considerable extent, exhibit the same phenomena. They have, therefore, lived in the sea, and have been deposited by the sea; the sea therefore, must have existed in the places where it has left them." When we find in many parts of the world, stratified rocks, forming the summits of the highest mountains, ele- vated many thousands of feet above the level of the sea, ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS, 129 and when we suppose that the objects we are contempla- ting, were once covered by water, we are strongly im- pressed with the changes which the relative levels of the water and land must have undergone. And when we find the remains of shell fish embedded in these strata, we can- not hesitate to admit that these rocks have once been cov- ered by the ocean. When, lastly, we observe that those beds, which must once have been horizontal, are now ver- tical; that they are inclined, broken, bent and dislocated in innumerable ways, we are forcibly led to conclude that their present distance from the sea has been accompanied by violent alterations in the form of the surface; and that it has been produced by the action of enormous powers. Macculloch, vol. i. p. 86. Allowing that these strata have once been under the sea, and which, from the circumstances, is proved beyond all doubt or controversy, the question to be examined, is r whether the ocean has retired to a lower level, or whether the land, by some enormous force, has not been elevated above the water. The phenomena of shells in strata, were once attributed to the Mosaic deluge, but we need not at the present day, employ arguments to show the impossibility of such an ori- gin. 150 days was too short a period to have produced such effects. It has been ascertained that some of the Peruvian moun- tains contain sea shells, at an elevation of fourteen thou- sand feet above the level of the sea; and that the nature of the strata in which they are contained, is such as to show that these mountains must for a long period have been submerged. Hence it is plain that no hypothesis con- nected with the deluge, can explain this fact. Now if the sea has retired in a gradual manner, from such a height, within a period of five or six thousand years, its level ought now, at this rate of depression, to be at least four thousand feet lower than it was two thousand years ago; but facts, with respect to the Baltic and the the Mediterranean, tend to prove, that since the Christian era, the ocean has not changed its level, in any apprecia- ble degree. There is therefore, not the least probability, or even possibility, that marine organic remains situated above the sea, or imbedded in strata at a distance from it, can be ac- counted for by any supposition connected with the depres sion of the waters of the ocean. 130 ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS. If now we examine the facts and arguments tending to show that the land has been thrown up from the bottom of the sea, we shall find that the evidence amounts to little less than absolute demonstration that this has been the case. In the first place, strata composed of fragments of rocks of any considerable size will take the horizontal direction. It is true that deposites of fine matter, as clay, and sand T from water, will at first take the impression, or form of the bottom when this is uneven, but if the strata be of any considerable thickness, the layers will assume a horizon- tal level. But we shall find on examination, that very few stratified rocks in any part of the world, have preserv- ed their coincidence with the horizon. On the contrary, they are inclined at various angles, and are sometimes even quite vertical; clearly evincing that they have been disturbed, and dislocated by some violence, since their formation, ** If," says Dr. Macculloch, " the highly inclined posi- tion of strata were not itself a proof of their elevation, evi- dences of motion are found in a great number of phenom- ena. In their curvatures we find proofs of disturbance; we find even more decided evidence to the same purpose in their fractures. But when we see that these fractures are accompanied by a separation of parts which were once continuous, that one portion of a stratum occupies a higher or lower place than another, and that this separation is often attended by a difference in the angle of inclination of the separated parts, we have every proof that can be de- sired, of an alteration in the horizontal position of stratified rocks, since the period when they were consolidated." Geology, vol i. p. 88. In the kind of materials of which many inclined strata are composed, we have additional evidence of their eleva- tion. We have stated that depositions of sediment from water will at first take the form of an uneven bottom; but we need not stop to prove, that fragments of rock of any con- siderable size will not rest on the sides of steep declivities, but will roll or slide down by their own gravity. Now, " it is notorious," says Dr. Macculloch, < that the conglom- erates which form such conspicuous strata in many coun- tries and which prevail chiefly at the boundary which sep- arates the strata called secondary, from the primary, are ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS. 131 often found in positions, not only highly inclined, but ab- solutely vertical. As the materials of these are often of such bulks as to weigh even many hundred pounds, it is evident, that the original position of the strata which con- tain them must have been horizontal." It is well known also, that certain marine worms which live in sand, and inhabit straight tubular shells, invariably penetrate the sand in a vertical direction, whether the surface be horizontal or not. If the strata remain undis- turbed these shells remain in the position seen at Fig. 12. And it needs little reflection to see that a concave, or dish formed shell, when it sinks in water, must reach the bottom with its convexity downwards, and hence in all recent formations, such shells are always found in this position. But in the inclined strata, of which we arespeak- ing, such tubular shells are found making various angles with the horizon, though they preserve their perpendicu- larity with respectto the strata: as represented at b. Fig. 13, Fig- 13. while had the strata been pierced after its disturbance, it would have been in the direction of c. The concave shells, under like circum- stances, are found to have changed their positions, their cavities being no longer upward, but inclined ac- cording to the position of the strata. On the same sub- ject Dr. Ure says, " the erection of subaqueous strata into primitive mountains and plains, was evidently accompan- ied with universal disruption. Innumerable fragments of both the upborne, and upbearing rocks, were tossed about and washed down into the congregated waters, along the precipitous shores, and over the beds of the primeval ocean. These shattered fragments becoming agglutina- ted by their own pulverulent cement, soon recomposed continuous strata, which bear internal evidence of the vio- lence which gave them birth. Thus were formed the transition rocks of geologists, mineral masses which de- note the passage between the upright primitive, and the horizontal secondary strata, between those of inorganic and organic evidence." The convulsions which after a long interval caused the deluge, have dislocated many of these conglomerates, so 132 ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS. Fig. 14 that strata of rounded pebbles assuredly agglutinated in a horizontal position, are now found standing in upright walls. Thus the famous pudding stones of Valor- sine in Savoy, are a kind of greywacke schist, containing rounded fragments of gneiss and mica slate, six or seven inches in diameter. That stones previously rounded by attrition, should build them- selves up into a nearly perpendicular wall as seen at Fig. 14, and stand steadily thus, till fine particles of hydraulic cement should have time to envelope and fix them in their places, is an absurd and im- possible supposition. It is therefore de- monstrable that these pudding stone strata were formed in horizontal, or slightly in- clined beds, and erected after their accre- tion. Such effects would be produced, in the convulsive emergence of the pebbly banks out of the primeval ocean, either at the deluge, or by some preceding catastrophe. There are mountains 10,000 feet high, in the Alps, formed of firmly conglomerated pebbles. Another and most striking proof that the rocks have- been elevated by some force acting beneath them, is ex- hibited by primitive mountains in various parts of the world. Here we find granite in the centre, with stratified rocks, as gneiss, mica-slate- and clay-slate, leaning against its sides, sometimes nearly in a vertical position. Now as these stratified rocks must have been deposited on a hori- zontal level, or nearly so, and surely not in the highly inclined positions in which they are found, it is evident that their original positions must have been changed, and their inclinations caused by the same force which elevated the primitive mountains. Under the article " Classification of Rocks," this sub- ject is illustrated by a wood cut, to which the reader is referred. It thus appears sufficiently evident, that at least a great proportion of the habitable earth was formed in strata under the sea; and that subsequently to its being conso- lidated chiefly in the position and form of horizontal layers, it has been violently elevated above the water, by ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS. 133 some tremendous subterranean power. Hence the strata are found oblique, dislocated, and rent asunder in nearly every part of the world; and from this cause it is, that the sea and land have exchanged places, and the mountains have been elevated; but to the same cause, even to the destruction of that continuity and harmony which seems to have existed in the form of the primitive globe, we must attribute many of the greatest conveniences and comforts which the present earth affords. Had no disturbing forces interposed, there is reason to believe that the inferior strata, now in many places eleva- ted into hills and mountains, would forever have been concealed from the knowledge of man; for was the earth every where covered with horizontal strata, lying in regu- lar layers, one upon another, the same kind of formations would every where exist; and of which we should know nothing below the depth of actual excavations. Metallic vein?, salt, and coal would afford no indications of their existence at or near the surface. There would have been no mural precipices, or mountain declivities, or out- croppings of strata, by which the geologist, or practical miner would be enabled to judge of the interior. Nor would there have been any spring of water issuing from the surface of the earth, for it is the inclination of the strata which directs the water to the surface, and its un- evenness which allows it to break forth in the form of springs. In plain level districts, no water rises to the surface. In these, and many other examples which might be noticed, we cannot but see the traces of benevolence and design, even in the " wreck of matter " which this earth every where displays; and which at every step, forces us to acknowledge, not only the Power, but the Wisdom and Kindness of the Almighty Builder of this our habitation. With respect to the agent which has thus thrown moun- tains and continents from the depths of the oceans, and has dislocated the frame work of the globe, we can con- ceive of none except volcanic, of sufficient power to pro- duce such effects. It is true that no continents or exten- sive mountains, have been elevated from the sea, since the historical era, but we have a sufficient number of examples of the effects of this power, even during the present age to shew that the established order of nature would not be changed by the elevation of a continent, 12 134 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS. The elevation of land to the extent of a hundred miles on the coast of Chili; the rising of the Sabrina island out of the ocean; and of the Aleutian islands on the coast of Kamtschatka, out of the same the changes made by the force of volcanoes in the neighborhood of Naples, and the effects of the earthquakes of Calabria and Lisbon, (all of which we have described in the preceding pages,) afford analogies by which it is not unreasonable to conclude, that it was the same kind of force which broke in pieces the crust of the primeval globe, and raised the habitable earth from the ocean's bed. At what period of the creation these great changes took place, we must remain in ignorance, but it is improbable that they were all effected at the same time. On the con- trary, the appearance of the strata seem to indicate a suc- cession of revolutions at different, and perhaps remote periods from each other. These revolutions appear to have been before the creation of man and animals, and probably by such means did the Wisdom and Benevolence of the Creator prepare a place for their reception and comfort. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS. The most simple division of rocks is into Primitive or Primary, and Secondary. The first consisting of those which are supposed to have been originally formed, such as granite and its associates, and the second such as were formed by the disintegration, or destruction of these. In the early state of geological knowledge, this was the re- ceived classification. In the first kind no organic re- mains, as plants or shells, are found, and hence they were supposed to have been formed before the creation of or- ganized beings. In the secondary, these remains exist, sometimes in great abundance. To this classification the celebrated Werner added the Transition class, which con- sists of the larger fragments of the primitive, and whicli is intermediate between this, and that usually called se- condary. At present, there are a considerable variety of classifi- cations, some of which are too prolix and complicated for a popular work, while others are forbidding on account of the technical language in which they are written. PRIMARY ROCKS. 135 Perhaps the best which we can adopt, as embracing all the others, without their minute subdivisions, is the fol- lowing: 1. PRIMARY. 2. TRANSITION, OR INTERMEDIATE. 3. SECONDARY, comprising, a. THE LOWER SECONDARY SERIES. b, THE UPPER SECONDARY SERIES. 4. TERTIARY. 5. BASALTIC, AND VOLCANIC ROCKS. 6. DILUVIAL, AND ALLUVIAL DEPOSITES. PRIMARY ROCKS. These compose the great frame, or ground-work of the globe. They form the most lofty mountains, and at the same time extend downward below all other formations. One of the principal rocks of this class is granite. This is a compound rock, being composed of three distinct min- erals aggregated into a solid form. These are quartz, felspar, and mica. Quartz has commonly a white color, a glassy lustre, and does not divide into layers when broken. It often forms a large proportion of the granite. Felspar has a yellowish, or milk white color, and when broken, often divides into layers of considerable thickness, with smooth shining faces. Mica is also sometimes white, but more commonly of a dark green color. It consists of thin flexible leaves, adhering slightly together, and easily separable by the nail. This is well known un- der the name of isinglass, and when in large plates is used for economical purposes, as the dead lights for ships, windows for stoves and lanthorns, &c. Granite never consists of strata, or layers, like gneiss and mica-slate. These minerals differ greatly in their respective propor- tions in different rocks. They also differ widely with respect to size, some granites being composed of crys- tals, or grains, a foot in diameter; while in others the grains are no larger than those of sand. The other Primitive rocks, are Gneiss, Mica-slate, Clay -slate, Primitive Limestone, Porphyry, and Sienite; to which some add several others. This whole class is generally crystalline in its struc- 136 MICA-SLATE. ture, and never contain the fragments of other rocks, or any organized substance. Gneiss, and mica-slate are composed of the same ma- terials as granite, but differently arranged. They are al- so generally composed of much smaller grains than granite. In Gneiss the felspar and quartz are aggregated closely together, forming strata, or layers, between which inter- vene scales of mica. Hence gneiss is a stratified rock, and when broken at right angles with the strata, presents a striped appearance, the quartz and felspar being nearly white, while the mica is deep green or black. Mica-slate is chiefly composed of quartz and mica, the felspar being in only small quantities, or in some instances nearly absent. The quartz is commonly in fine grains. and the mica usually predominates, or at least is much the most apparent. Some specimens of this rock appear to be almost entirely composed of small scales of mica, closely adhering together. Mica-slate differs from gneiss in containing a less pro- portion of felspar, and in being more distinctly stratified? or slaty in its structure. It is readily divided into layers, or tables, by means of wedges, and is extensively employ- ed for economical purposes, especially for flagging the side walks of cities. Gneiss is intermediate between granite and mica-slate in its structure, and is often found interposed between these rocks, lying over the former, and under the latter. Indeed these rocks pass by insensible degrees into each other, the granite gradually becoming stratified runs into gneiss, while the gneiss becoming fissile forms mica-slate. These three are called granitic rocks, and form together a great proportion of the solid crust of our globe. The adjoining wood cut from Daubuisson, represents the most common relative positions of granite, gneiss and mica-slate, as they occur on the earth. The centre or middle mass, 1, projecting high above the side strata, is granite. The flanking planes, 2 2, are gneiss, appearing as though they had been elevated to their present situation by the tremendous force which lifted up the granite. The mica-slate, 3, 3, is seen rest- ing against the gneiss. The two latter rocks have the appearance of once having been in a horizontal position. CLAY-SLATE. 137 Fig. 15. the mica-slate being superincumbent on the gneiss, and this on the granite; and we shall see in another place that this was undoubtedly the case, g is a great bed of quartz, included in the micaceous beds, and being much less subject to the disintegration by the weather, rises above the mica. 4 4 r are beds of clay-slate, or roof-slate, on the outside of the mica-slate. 5, is an overlaying mass of porphyry, resting on the mica, and clay-slate. 6, a small bed of mica-slate resting between the central peaks of granite, with the strata bent and sloping in opposite di- rections, forming a dish-like cavity. Above 7 is seen a bed of clay and gravel in strata, lying nearly horizontal on the upright edges of the clay-slate, demonstrating their subsequent and independent formation. In many instances there is sufficient proof exhibited by the rocks themselves, that the primitive strata were once in a horizontal position, and that they owe their present vertical position to a force exerted from below, and by which the granite, being elevated, has raised up the once superincumbent rocks, and given them their various in- clinations. This subject has already been examined, un- der " Elevations of Continents from the Sea." Clay-slate. Roof-slate. This rock is exceedingly fis- sile, and being divided into thin plates, is in very general use for the roofing of houses; its appearance, therefore, is too generally known to need description. This is the most distinctly stratified of all the primitive rocks, and it is a singular circumstance, that its strata are commonly very highly inclined, sometimes nearly, or quite vertical. This rock is associated with granitic rocks, being often superincumbent on mica-slate. 12* 138 PORPHYRY. Primitive Limestone. This is called primitive, to dis- tinguish it from the secondary, or that which has been more recently formed; for limestone is of all ages, from that which is now forming at the mouth of the Rhone, to that which has the antiquity of the granitic mountains. Primitive limestone is crystalline in its structure, and is found associated with granite, gneiss and rnica-slate. being often intermixed with the latter, or alternating in layers with it. No organic remains are found in this rock, and hence, like granite, it is supposed to have been form- ed before the creation of living beings. When white and pure, it is known in the arts, under the name of statuary marble, of which the finest specimens of ancient as well as modern sculpture are made. It is found particularly in Italy, Switzerland, and the Grecian Archipelago. The Carara marble is a primitive limestone. Secondary Limestone contains shells and other organic bodies is compact, and not crystalline in its structure, and is associated with secondary rocks. Thus may the two kinds be distinguished. Porphyry derives its name from a Greek word, signify- ing purple, because the first rock to which this name was applied had a purple color. At present, however, any rock having a compact, or paste-like base, with imbedded crystals, is called by this name, whatever its color may be. Porphyry has the appearance of having once been in the form of a soft paste, into which crystals of various kinds, but most commonly felspar, have by some unknown means been introduced. When associated with granite, porphyry is considered a primitive rock, but is sometimes secondary, and sometimes volcanic. It may, perhaps, be considered as the connecting link between granitic rocks, and those of igneous origin. The columns of some of the most ancient and splendid edifices were made of porphyry, of which the remains are still in existence. The great hardness of this rock; the high polish which it is capable of bearing, and the variety and beauty of the colors which it often presents, afford a combination of qualities for splendid and enduring archi- tectural purposes which is found in no other mineral body. But the labor of forming pillars thirty or forty feet in height, and five or six feet in diameter, of this ma- IGNEOUS ORIGIN OF GRANITE. 139 terial, such as the ancients constructed, is much too great and expensive for the present age. Porphyry, though not an uncommon rock, seldom oc- curs in extensive formations like granite and limestone. Sienite. This rock is composed of quartz, felspar and hornblende. It may be considered as a granite in which the mica is replaced by hornblende; it, however, some- times contains small portions of mica. Its structure is granular like that of granite, and its prevailing color is yellowish white, mottled with black, giving it a grey ap- pearance. The cit) of Boston contains many magnificent columns of sienite. It is associated with granite, into which it gradually passes, as the mica takes the place of the hornblende. IGNEOUS ORIGIN OF GRANITE. It was formerly believed that granite was of aqueous origin, that is, that the materials of which it is composed were first dissolved in water as preparatory to their as- suming that solid and crystalline form, which we see at the present time. Now chemistry has long since taught us that no substance in the labratory of art, nor so far as is known, in that of nature, ever assumes the crystalline form until it has been dissolved in some kind of fluid; and indeed a single consideration would seem to show, beyond all question, the necessity of such solution, for otherwise there could be no motion among the particles of which the crystal is formed, and without motion it is equally certain that these particles never could take their places according to the laws of affinity, or in other terms, never could as- sume crystalline forms. The kind of fluid in which the particles are dissolved, it is obvious, must depend on the kind of substance. Thus some substances are soluble in water, others in acids, and others in caloric. Now, although the materials composing granite are scarcely soluble by any artificial means, still there is no doubt but under a very high temperature, with the combined aid of pressure, they would be soluble in water, or in caloric alone, and the phenomena, as we shall see, afford conclusive evidence that the latter was the solvent, 140 IGNEOUS ORIGIN OF GRANITE. and that the materials composing granite were once in a melted state. The igneous origin of granite is satisfactorily proved, from the phenomena of its veins; from the calorific effects of these veins on the walls of the rocks, through which they have protruded; from the intrusion of granitic matter between the strata of various rocks through which such veins have been forced, and lastly from the passage of known igneous rocks into granite. The igneous origin of trap rocks has long been ac- knowledged by all competent geologists, but the general agreement that granite had the same origin is only of re- cent date. The proofs however of the origin of both are nearly the same. Under the " Origin and phenomena of Trap Rocks" it will be seen that dikes or veins of basalt often pro- trude through the strata of other rocks, and that where they come into contact with these strata, the effects of heat are always apparent. The illustrations by diagrams, also prove that these veins, or dikes were forced through the fissures, or spread between the strata of the rocks, while the former was in a soft or semifluid state. The same phenomena are found to attend veins of granite which traverse other rocks, there being every indication that these veins were forced up from below in an ignited and softened state. Fig. 16 The diagram Fig. 16, will show the man- ner in which granite sometimes traverses stratified rocks. This drawing is from Dr. Macculloch's repre- sentation of granite veins passing through gneiss at cape Wrath in Scotland. These veins it may be obser- intersect each otherin various direc- tions, and are curious- ly branched and contorted. The mass of granite below the stratified gneiss, is also apparent, and as the veins end before reaching the surface of the gneiss, we cannot but in- IGNEOUS ORIGIN OF GRANITE. 141 fer that they were forced up in a softened state from the underlying granite with which their trunks are incorpora- ted. Similar instances, that is, of granite veins traversing stratified rocks, and also rocks of granite, are known to occur frequently and in various parts of the world. In Europe such cases were formerly considered singular and important phenomena, and as they went to prove the ig- neous origin of granite, they were described with great prolixity and exactness. But the progress of observation has shown that granitic veins are quite common, and that particularly in mica slate, examples may be seen in al- most any place, where circumstances allow the rock to be examined a few yards below the surface, and often on the surface itself. In this country, Prof. Hitchcock of Amherst College, in his Report of the Gejology of Massachusetts, has de- scribed and figured many such cases; some of which we shall take the liberty of inserting at this place. Fig. 17. Fig. 17, (fig. 11, in Prof. Hitchcock's work,) represents a vein of granite protruding through strata of hornblende slate. It occurs at Ackworth, New Hampshire, and is a remarkable locality of beryls, rose quartz, and crystalized mica. " As the traveller approaches this spot," says the author, " he will observe while several miles distant, a remarkable 142 IGNEOUS ORIGIN OF GRANITE. conical half naked peak, chiefly of white granite, shooting up about 300 feet above the surrounding country. This is the hill represented below, (Fig. 17,) as seen on its north- western side, along which the road passes. The prevail- ing rock in the vicinity is gneiss; but in this elevation it is chiefly hornblende slate, traversed by an enormous granite vein, a, and exhibiting at least two protruding masses, b, and c, of granite. The vein varies from one half, to four rods in thickness, and the mass b, is four or five rods across: c, is only ten feet wide. The general direction of the laminae of the slate is north and south, and the dip from 15 to 20 east: but we have here the most decisive marks of its having been irregularly upheaved, and distur- bed by the protruding granite. Near the foot of the hill, the slate is bent upwards, so that the chord of the curve is several rods long. But it is a curious fact, that the axis of the elevating force seems not to have coincided with the direction in which the vein was erupted. For the highest point of the curve of elevation, near the foot of the hill, is to the right of the vein at h; and as we ascend the hill we find the slate curved upwards near the vein more and more, as is shown by the drawing. Indeed the granite of the vein seems to lie on the elevated edges of the slate; so that the lower side of the vein dips northeasterly; and does not cut the slate perpendicularly. These facts would seem to evince, that the vein made its way through the slate, not along the line of the greatest pressure, but on the north side of it: probably because there the slate yielded most readily. We may suppose the melted granite below to have gradually elevated the slate, until at length it burst its way laterally through the rock. Such cases, I believe do sometimes occur in existing volcanoes. " The masses of granite ,and c, are probably other exam- ples in which the molten matter burst its way laterally through the slate. And it is an interesting fact in regard to the mass b, that in some places it still projects over the slate several feet, forming in fact an overlaying mass. In- stances of this kind I have rarely met with in the granite of New England." Page 480. Fig. 18, also from Prof. Hitchcock's work, represents a nearly perpendicular ledge of mica slate in Conway, Mass. The strata as shown by the drawing, are much contorted, indicating disturbance during their deposition, or while they were in a soft and yielding state, a, a, are strata of com- PASSAGE OF GRANITE INTO BASALT. 143 Fig. 18. mon mica-slate: i, is a stratum of amphibolic slate. The whole surface exhibited is fifteen feet long and eight feet high. Through this ledge runs a vein of fine grained gran- ite a foot wide. "The object of giving this sketch" says Prof. Hitchcock, 44 is to show that this vein has produced no derangement of the mica-slate: for the different particles of that rock occu- py the same relative position on the different sides of the vein. Hence the vein was introduced subsequently to the consolidation of the slate; and probably it was injected in- to an open fissure." PASSAGE OF GRANITE INTO BASALT. Dr. Hibbert describes the manner in which granite has gradually passed into basalt in one of the Shetland Isl- ands. The basalt extends from the island of Mickle Voe, northwards to Roeness Voe, a distance of twelve miles. On the west of this there is a considerable mass of granite, and the transition from the one into the other is thus de- scribed. " Not far from the junction we may find, disper- sed through the basalt, many minute particles of quartz. This is the first indication of an approaching change in the nature of the rock. In again tracing it still nearer the granite, we find the particles of quartz dispersed through the basalt becoming still more numerous, and larger, an increase of magnitude even extending to every other de- scription of particles. The rock may now be observed 144 PASSAGE OF GRANITE INTO BASALT. to consist of separate ingredients, of quartz, of hornblende, felspar, and greenstone; the latter substance, (greenstone,) being a homogenous commixture of hornblende and fel- spar. Again as we approach still nearer the granite, the disseminated portions of greenstone disappear, their place being supplied by an additional quantity of felspar and quartz. The rock now consists of three ingredients, fel- spar, quartz, and hornblende. The last change which takes place, results from the still increasing accumulation of quartz and felspar, and from the proportionate dissem- ination of hornblende. The hornblende eventually disap- pears, and we have a well characterized granite, consisting of two ingredients, felspar and quartz." Ed. Journal of Science, vol. L p. 107. We see from these examples, that granite has been forced from below into the fissures of other rocks which were superincumbent, consequently, which were deposited after the granite was formed. In several instances it may be observed also, that the granite does not reach the sur- face, by which it is proved that these veins could not have entered from above, a theory long maintained by those who claimed that granite was of aqueous origin. Besides, the indications of fusion which these veins present, the pas- sage of granite into basalt, a rock which all agree bears the marks of fire, is additional evidence that they had a com- mon origin. But if we consider granite veins to have forced their way from below, in a state of igneous fusion, then we might expect, that when the mass came into contact with stratified rocks, the strata would be separated, and that the fluid matter would run between them, at least to a short distance, and especially near the surface, where the pres- sure would present little resistance to the separation of the strata. Now this is precisely what is known to have hap- pened in numerous instances, one of the most striking ex- amples of which occurs at Glen Tilt, in the Grampian mountains in Scotland. At this place, veins of red granite are seen branching out on the northern side of the glen, from the principal mass, and meeting the slate and limestone which forms the southern side. The granite veins run in all directions, in- termingling with, and disturbing the strata of the other rocks, in such a manner as to prove, not only that the granite was in a fluid state at the time of its intrusion, but also, that it was forced up with great violence. GRANITE OF DIFFERENT AGES. 145 Fig. 19. ^K^^'^ - 2P^^^^-^L>^I!1^-- A J/jN/v.J'^-***-!!^!!!'*' 1 ^ *** The diagram Fig. 19, from Dr. Macculloch, represents the appearance of these rocks. " The granite at this lo- cality" says Mr. Lyell, " often sends forth so many veins as to reticulate the lime stone and shist, the veins diminishing towards their termination to the thickness of a leaf of pa- per, or a thread. In some places fragments of granite ap- pear entangled as it were, in the limestone, and are not visibly connected with any larger mass; while sometimes on the other hand, a lump of the limestone is iound in the midst of the granite;" a, granite 6, limestone, c, argilla- ceous shist. The ordinary color of the limestone at Glen Tilt is lead blue, and its texture large grained; but where it ap- proximates to the granite, particularly where it is pene- trated by the smaller veins, the crystalline texture disap- pears, and it assumes an appearance exactly resembling hornstone. This change was undoubtedly produced by the heat of the intruding granite. These facts and circumstances are considered sufficient to show the igneous origin of granite, though an abundance of others of a similar nature might be adduced from au- thors. GRANITE OF DIFFERENT AGES. All the older geological writers believed that granite was the primitive rock of our globe, and the one on which 13 146 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IGNEOUS ROCKS. all others reposed. They also considered this rock as every where of a similar age, the idea of successive forma- tions of granite having never until recently been advanced. These opinions were founded on the general facts, that this rock lies beneath all others, and that it contains no organic remains, which facts even at the present day, we must acknowledge to be generally true. More extensive obser- vations have however shown many exceptions to these facts, there having been discovered instances where gran- ite not only penetrates through, and reposes on stratified rocks, but also where the rocks invaded by it contain or- ganic remains. Thus Dr. Macculloch describes a consid- erable mass of granite in the Isle of Sky, which is incum- bent on limestone, and shale. The limestone at some dis- tance from the granite contains shells, but in its immediate vicinity, no shells appear, the limestone being converted into pure crystalline marble. This change, as well as the destruction of the shells, is attributed to the heat of the granite at the time of its protrusion. In different parts of the Alps, similar phenomena occur, where according to the observations of Beaumont, and oth- ers, granite is seen penetrating through secondary strata, which contain belemnites and other fossil organic remains. In Norway, also Von Bush discovered a mass of granite overlying a bed of secondary limestone, containing a vari- ety of fossil shells. These and other instances of the kind, must however be considered as exceptions to a general rule, there being no doubt, but the granite which universally forms the deeper portions of the crust of our globe, is the .eldest of our rocks. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IGNEOUS ROCKS. After having shown that granite, as well as greenstone is an igneous rock, the inquiry naturally arises why these two rocks differ so widely in appearance, if indeed they have had the same origin? This is a question which our present knowledge does not enable us to answer with any degree of certainty, nor indeed do geologists profess to do more than offer plausible conjectures to account for these differences. TRANSITION OR INTERMEDIATE ROCKS. 147 The composition of greenstone is hornblende and fel- spar, that of granite is felspar, quartz, and mica. The crystals in the greenstone are commonly small, often too minute to be distinguished by the naked eye, while those of granite are generally of considerable size, often many inches in diameter. Some geologists have supposed that the difference in the size of the crystals, might be accounted for by the differ- ence in the time of cooling, since chemistry in some in- stances has shown, that the same materials will form large crystals when cooled slowly, and small ones when codled suddenly. It has been conjectured therefore, that the trap- pean rocks were erupted under the sea, and that the pres- sure of the water, and the rapid abstraction of the heat, by its agency has caused the difference in texture. But if we admit that the granite was fused at a greater depth and in larger quantities, and account for the difference of texture on these conditions, still it is difficult to conceive why such conditions should produce such changes in the composi- tions of the two rocks, the greenstone containing little or no mica or quartz, while the granite contains only an oc- casional portion of hornblende. If we compare granite, and the varieties of trap with the volcanic products of the present time, or with those of an- cient, extinct volcanoes, we shall find in general little an- alogy, either in appearance or composition between them. No volcano either ancient or modern, has ever been known to emit either granite, or trap; though the latter and some volcanic products have considerable affinity. It is possible that future observations may throw light on this subject, but at present though geologists generally agree that granite, trap and lava were all once in a state of fusion, yet no one has given any satisfactory theory to ac- count for the differences they present in appearance, tex- ture and composition. TRANSITION OR INTERMEDIATE ROCKS. Next in order to the primitive are the Transition rocks. The term transition comes from the Latin transitio, in reference to their removal or change of place. These rocks are above the primitive on which they rest* 148 TRANSITION OR INTERMEDIATE ROCKS. This formation is composed of the larger fragments of all the primitive rocks, consolidated into continuous masses. The manner in which the transition rocks were formed, appears to be sufficiently obvious. At the time when the waters were gathered into one place, to form the sea, or when the primitive rocks were thrown up from the ocean, the disruptions and dislocations consequent upon these mighty movements, reduced the highest parts of the primitive to fragments, which falling down upon the sides of the mountains, covered them with their ruins; and these becoming agglutinated by the pulverulent cement, produ- ced by the friction of these fragments, formed the rocks in question. In the course of their consolidation, organized beings of the lowest orders, such as sea shells, falling in their crev- ices were there embedded; and thus it is proved that these rocks were formed after the creation of organized beings. That they were formed next after the primitive rocks, is proved by their lying immediately on them. The rocks belonging to this class are Greywacke, Trans- ition Limestone, Slate and Sandstone. Greywacke. This uncouth word, which we have bor- rowed from the Germans, the French Geologists have ex- changed for the term traumate, which signifies fragment- ary. Greywacke is a slaty formation, which includes the frag- ments of many other rocks. These fragments vary in size, from that of the head to the smallest grains. Some- times it consists almost entirely of rounded pebbles, ce- mented together by sand and oxide of iron. It is then called conglomerate, and no longer retains its slaty char- acter. When the grains are small, and it is stratified, it becomes slate; and when not stratified, it passes into sandstone. The Rhode Island coal mine is in a grey- wacke formation. Transition Limestone. This is an abundant rock, be- ing that which is employed in making quick-lime for mor- tar, and also in many countries, as a building stone. Ma- ny of the common variegated marbles belong to this formation. Some specimens are finely colored, and bearing a high polish, form beautiful slabs for tables and fire-places. SANDSTONTS. 149 This rock sometimes underlays large sections of coun- try, and in other instances rises into extensive ranges of mountains. The great caverns which are described as existing in different countries, and which often contain the remains of animals, are of this class. Some transition limestones contain abundance of ma- rine organic remains, and hence must have been formed under the ocean. In other instances, no fossil relics are found, but the rock is composed of angular, or water- worn fragments, consolidated by a calcareous cement. The presence of such fragments will always distinguish the transition from the secondary limestones. In England and Wales, this is a very extensive and im- portant formation, and contains not only vast quantities of organic relics, but various metallic ores. " In Derby- shire," says Mr. Bakewell, " where the different beds of limestone have been pierced through by the miners, the average thickness of the three uppermost, is 160 yards; the beds are separated by beds of trap, or basalt, resem- bling ancient lavas." Slate. Clay slate, although often associated with prim- itive rocks, as already noticed, is also found with those of the transition class. But we have already given a suffi- cient description of this rock. Porphyry. This is also, sometimes a transition rock, being so considered when it is found associated with rocks of this class. Sandstone. This rock, as its name indicates, consists chiefly of sand, cemented into a solid form. It often con- tains water-worn pebbles, angular pieces of other rocks, as granite, fragments of slate, nodules of quartz, &c. being evidently made up of the ruins of former rocks. Its color is commonly red, owing to the oxide of iron it contains, and which serves as a cement to the grains of sand of which it is composed. Sandstone, by an uninterrupted continuity, passes into greywacke. The only difference appears to be, that the latter rock is commonly stratified, and of a darker color, not having, like the sandstone, a tinge of red. Where the greywacke is not of a slaty structure, it becomes sand- stone. 13* 150 SECONDARY ROCKS, SECONDARY ROCKS. The secondary rocks have, by some, been divided into the lower secondary, and upper secondary, the second being superincumbent on the first; but as it is difficult to determine where the lower series terminate, and the up- per one commences, we shall follow the more simple meth- od of considering the whole as merely secondary forma- tions. The same difficulty, indeed, is applicable to the termination of the transition series, and the commence- ment of the secondary. The chief differences being, that the secondary is not so generally composed of fragments, shows less of the crystalline structure, and contains or- ganic remains of known existing species; while the tran- sition class is more fragmentary; more crystalline, and contains few, or no shells, known to be recent, or living. The principal secondary formations, are Coal, Seconda- ry Limestone, Chalk, Oolite, and Sandstone. The last named rock, we have placed among the transi- tion series; and undoubtedly that which is composed, in considerable proportion of the fragments of other rocks, belongs there; but many sandstone formations appear more properly to be arranged as secondary rocks. The actual inquirer will often find himself at a loss to deter- mine, from the position of strata, with respect to each other, which are the transition, and which the secondary; because, in many instances, the secondary, as well as the tertiary, to be next described, will be found lying imme- diately upon the primitive. This arises from the fact, that no formation of the secondary series extends to every part of the earth. Did the different formations cover the earth entirely, as the coats of an onion surround each other, there would exist neither doubt nor difficulty on this subject; for then the same characters would identify the different classes, in all parts of the earth, and each could be known, merely by its depth under the surface. But instead of this, it is quite common, even in countries of no conside- rable elevation, to observe the primitive rocks projecting above the surface, or lying only a few feet beneath the soil. It is, therefore, only in certain parts of the earth, that the relative positions of strata can be determined, as a whole, for it is obvious, from what we have stated, that in some places, the newest formations overlay the oldest, COAL FIELDS. 151 without the intervention of any other. In such situations^ however, as afford opportunities for observing the several strata lying superincumbent, the same relative positions are found every where to exist, or to exist so uniformly as to lead to definite general conclusions. Coal. This well known substance affords several vari- eties, differing in color, from dark brown, to jet black; and containing variable proportions of carbon and bitu- men, with more or less impurities. The English mineral coal, is stated by mineralogists to contain from fifteen to forty per cent, of bitumen, and from forty to eighty per cent, of charcoal. Black, or common coal, is found in regular strata, or beds, from a few inches, to several yards in thickness. Several beds commonly occur under each other, being separated by strata of clay or sandstone. These series of strata are called coal fields, or coal measures. Coal Fields. Every coal field has its peculiar series o strata, which vary in thickness from those of any other The coal beds are also separated by deposites which dif- fer in thickness, in kind, or in arrangement, from those of other formations. Hence each coal field is a distinct and independent deposite, and is in no way connected with any other coal field, with respect to the sources whence their materials were originally derived. Hence they are all of limited extent, and most commonly basin-shaped concavities, which have the forms, and so far as can be ascertained, the appearance of once having been lakes, or ponds of greater or less depth and extent. In some of the large coal fields, the original formation of the lake cannot be traced, but in many smaller ones, it is distinctly ascertained. The number of coal beds, and the various intervening strata through which the shafts of some coal mines pass, often amount to great numbers. In a coal field belong- ing to Lord Dudley, in Staffordshire, a ,haft was sunk to the depth of 939 feet. The beds passed through in this shaft, which the miners distinguish by different names, are sixty-five. The number of beds of coal, are eleven, of which five are above the principal bed, called the main coal, and five below it. The main coal is about three hun- dred feet below the surface, and consists of thirteen diffe- 153 ROCK SALT. rent beds, lying close to each other, but separated by their layers of slate clay. Its thickness is about twenty-seven feet. To convey an idea of the regularity of these strata, we here give the names of a few of them, and the succession in which they occur, beginning with the lowest. thick. thick. 9 Gravel, 6 ft. 1 Slate-clay, 90 ft. 2 Limestone, 30 3 Slate-clay, 230 4 Coal, 2 5 Slate-clay, 120 6 Coal, 15 7 Slate-clay, 8 8 Coal, 10 10 Coal, 9 11 Slate-clay, 27 12 Slate-clay, 6 13 Coal, 6 14 Slate-clay, 21 15 Coal, (main,) 29 16 Bituminous shale, 7 See " Origin of, and Searching' for Coal." Secondary Limestone. This is also called carboniferous, and mountain limestone. Its texture is compact, and not crystalline, like the primitive limestone before described. Its prevailing colors are grey, or yellowish white, but it is sometimes bluish, or black. This formation is some- times extensive, underlaying large districts, and rising into considerable mountains. The hills of this formation, often present mural, or wall-like precipices, and rocky, uneven dales. It is considered a more recent rock than transition lime- stone, and is often composed, almost entirely of marine shells, sometimes only slightly adhering together. It also contains the bones of animals, chiefly of extinct species, but sometimes of those now living, and which are never found in the transition class. It is often difficult, howev- er, to distinguish this rock from transition limestone, into which it insensibly passes. Rock Salt. Although this salt cannot properly be clas- sed as a rock, yet as it forms considerable beds, and is, withal, an important article, it is proper to describe its geological bearings and associations. In its impure state, as it is raised from the mine, rock salt is in large solid masses, of a crystalline structure, with a reddish, or bluish color. When pure, as it sometimes occurs in the mine, it is perfectly colorless, and transpa- rent, like the best flint glass. ORIGIN OF ROCK SALT. 153 Rock salt is found at various depths below the surface, At Cheshire, in England, where vast quantities are raised, the first bed is o'ne hundred and thirty feet deep, and sev- enty-eight feet thick. This is separated from the next bed by a stratum of clay-stone, thirty feet thick. The lower bed has been penetrated one hundred and twenty feet, but has not been sunk through. The principal known deposites of salt, are those of Car- dona, in Spain; those of Hungary, and Poland; that of Caramania, in Asia; the extensive formations of Germany and Austria; those on each side of the Carpathian moun- tains, and those of South America. According to the traveller Chardin, rock salt is so abundant in Caramania, and the atmosphere so dry, that the inhabitants sometimes build their houses of it. Origin of Rock Salt. At Posa, in Castille, there is a deposite of rock salt, within the crater of an extinct vol- cano; and in the island of Sicily, there exists more or less of the same mineral, in such situations as to indicate that it has been formed by the evaporation of sea water, by volcanic heat. But if subterranean heat has in a few in- stances produced salt by evaporation, still the situation and appearances of these formations generally, are such as to preclude any rational supposition, that they have been formed in this manner. The most natural hypothesis that has been offered, to account for the existence of this salt, especially in certain situations, is that which attributes it to the gradual evapo- ration of pools, or lakes of salt water left by the ocean, when it retired from the present continents, in conse- quence of their elevation. This theory, too, might be considered as receiving strong support from the fact, that in some of the Polish mines, sea shells, the claws of crabs, and vegetable impressions have been found. But on the contrary, most salt mines are entirely with- out any organic, or other remains, by which any gleam of light is thrown upon the history of their origin. Were these formations the solid matter, left by the desiccation of salt lakes, we should suppose that fossil sea animals, as well as shells, ought to be found every where, and in abundance. Another, and still stronger objection to this hypothesis, is the great purity of subterranean salt, when compared with that obtained by the evaporation of sea water. 154 GYPSUM. With the exception of foreign impurities, such as clay and sand, rock salt is nearly pure muriate of soda; while sea water, by evaporation, produces, muriate of magne- sia, and sulphate of soda, besides muriate of soda. The mode in which rock salt is disposed in the earth, is also against the hypothesis of evaporation. That of Cheshire, instead of being in strata, is found in distinct concretions. To these difficulties, it may be added, that the depth of sea water required to produce some of the larger masses of rock salt, must not only have been unfathomable, but incomprehensible. The salt hill of Cardona is 663 feet in height, and is solid muriate of soda. Now, according to the experiments of Dr. Marcet, 500 grains of salt wa- ter, yielded 21 1-2 grains of solid matter, of which 13.3 parts were muriate of soda. From 10,000 parts of sea water, Dr. Murray obtained 220 parts of common salt. According to such data, if the salt of Cardona was formed in a lake, by evaporation, the water not only yielded pure muriate of soda, but must have been more than 27,000 feet, or more than five miles in depth. Finally, this subject appears to be one of great difficul- ty, for although geologists have made the theory of these formations a matter of much interest and inquiry, no ra- tional hypothesis concerning them has yet been proposed, Gypsum. Sulphate of Lime. This is known under the name of Plaister of Paris, and is so common as to need no description. This substance, like rock salt, is seldom found in extensive formations. It occurs both with primitive and secondary rocks, and, from the species of shells it sometimes contains, has been considered a fresh water formation. Beds of gypsum commonly al- ternate with those of marl and limestone. The greatest deposite of gypsum described, is that of Paris, which extends about twenty leagues. At Mont- matre, near Paris, two formations of this substance may be observed; the. lower is composed of alternate beds of little thickness consisting of gypsum, often crystalline, alternating with lime and clay-marls. The upper forma- tion is the most important and remarkable. It is about sixty-five feet thick, and, in some places, lies immediately under vegetable mould. This is especially interesting, from the number and variety of organic relics it contains, from its being the chief source whence the celebrated THICKNESS OF CHALK BEDS. 155 Cuvier drew the skeletons of so many extinct species of animals. See Organic Remains. Chalk. In England, chalk is a very important forma- tion, both on account of its extent and its perfectly dis- tinctive characters. It is also found in France, Ireland, Spain, Germany, Italy and Poland; but it is a singular fact, that no deposites of chalk have been found beyond the limits of Europe. In the New World, through the whole extent of the two Americas, not a specimen of chalk has been found. The chemical properties of chalk are those of carbon- ate of lime, viz. lime 56; carbonic acid 44=100. When well burned, chalk is said to make as good quick lime as the hardest marble. In the Isle of Wight, the harder kinds are employed as building stones; and, at Dover, chalk is used in the construction of docks, or other ma- sonry which is covered by the water. Some very ancient buildings are constructed of this material, and among them the Abbey of St. Omar, in France, which is said still to retain all its beautiful Gothic ornaments in great perfec- tion. With respect to the antiquity of chalk, it is considered a more recent formation than coal, and between it, and the tertiary, or newer secondary formations. Beds of chalk generally contain nodules of flint and organic remains, especially those of shells, sponge, star- fish, madrepores, &c.; but some beds are entirely without flints. Countries underlaid with chalk are generally far from being flat or level, but, on the contrary, are remark- able for their undulations of surface, the hills having smooth rounded outlines, with deep indentations or hol- lows in their sides. Thickness of Chalk Beds. Chalk beds vary in thick- ness from a few inches to 1000 feet or more. At Dover, the beds containing flints are about 50(4 feet thick, and those without flints 140 feet thick. At Culver cliff, in the Isle of Wight, where these beds are disposed vertically, and where Mr. Conybeare says there is the best oppor- tunity afforded to ascertain their thickness, this has been found about 1300 feet. But, generally, this formation in England varies from 600 to 1COO feet in thickness. 156 LIAS. .:^y Oolite. This is also called Roestone, because it is com- posed of small globules resembling the roe of fishes. It has generally a yellowish brown, or ochery color. It is a variety of common limestone, from which it does not differ in composition. These globules do not, however, in all cases, compose the entire mass; sometimes they ap- pear to be embedded in solid limestone, and in other in- stances they are wanting entirely. In England this formation is superincumbent on chalk, and often contains shells and other organic remains. It is employed as a building stone. St. Paul's church and Somerset house being constructed of this material. It is however, said not to be a durable stone. With respect to the manner in which these globules were formed, Mr. Bakewell remarks, that it is not yet ascertained whether they have resulted from a tendency to crystalline arrangement, or whether they are of ani- mal origin. We should think neither would account for them; but that they were formed in springs, or other run- ning water containing lime, by a gradual deposition of carbonaceous particles on a small nucleus, as a grain of sand, kept in agitation by the stream. Lias. This name is said to be a corruption of the word layers, because this rock is usually stratified. It is one of the Oolitic group, and passes by insensible shades into Oolite. It is an argillaceous limestone, usually found in the conformable position. It retains a uniform mineralogical character throughout a great portion of Eng- land, France and Germany. It is often rich in organic re- mains, and especially of the saurian reptiles. In this country it is described by Dr. Hildreth, as ex- isting on the Little Muskingum in Ohio. Color yellow- ish white when exposed to the air, but greyish white when taken from the bed; structure compact, fracture con- choidal, with an earthy surface; adheres to the tongue; composition carbonate of lime, with a little carburet of iron. In properties and appearance it approaches near- ly to chalk. Dr. Hildreth says, " that it stands the weather without exfoliation, and would make a most beautiful building stone." The associations of this rock in Ohio, will be seen by the diagram fig. 20. LIAS. 157 Fig. 20. ft. Order of the series ascending. 1. Limestone; compact, dark, and in strata, from six inches, to two feet in thickness. This bed is eight feet thick. 2. Bituminous Coal, very pure; structure slaty; three feet thick. 3. Water lime, in thin beds reposing on the coal. Thickness, six feet. 4. A Chloritic rock; color deep, almost verdigris green. Four feet thick. 5. Lias, which we have already described. 6. Calcareous tufa. It is porous, as if pierced in all directions by small worms. Six feet thick. 7. Hard sparry limestone, of a light dove color, tinged with brown. Thirty feet thick. 8. Sandstone, the lower part in strata of a few inches thick, and contains some fossil remains. 100 feet thick. 14 158 VOLCANIC AND BASALTIC ROCKS. 9. Argillaceous, loamy soil, rich, and covered with timber. Ten feet thick. TERTIARY STRATA. The Tertiary, or third formation, as the name indicates, was deposited after the secondary, and may be considered as proceeding from the disintegration of this and the pri- mary series. With respect to its relative antiquity, the tertiary is newer than chalk, and old^r than the Diluvial and Allu- vial deposites. When these, therefore occur in the series the tertiary formations are between the chalk and the diluvium. The Tertiary strata consist of beds of clay, sand, marl, pudding stones, and the newer limestone deposites, such as are found in the Paris basin, and in the Isle of Wight. These formations often contain abundance of fossil shells and plants, together with the bones of fish and quadru- peds. The famous locality of fossil fish at Monte Bolca, in Italy, is in tertiary strata. In North America this formation is very extensive, rea- ching without interruption along the sea coast from Long Island to Louisiana aud extending in some parts several hundred miles inland. It consists of sand and clay often mixed with an abundance of sea shells. The valley of the Connecticut is in a considerable proportion of the same formation, consisting of sand and clay, though the shells are absent. The whole of Long Island, Martha's Vine- yard, and Nantucket are also tertiary formations. In gen- eral, tertiary strata shew no marks of disturbance, being deposited since the lower rocks were disrupted. VOLCANIC AND BASALTIC ROCKS. These owe their origin to volcanic fire, and have been either ejected from burning mountains, or forced up to the surface of the earth in a melted state by volcanic action. Some of these rocks occasionally cover all the formations hitherto described, and as volcanoes are still active, they BASALT. GREENSTONE. 159^ r may and indeed do, cover the most recent deposites of sand and gravel. This division is known under the name of unstratified rocks, which also includes granite. Many geologists sup- pose that granite also had an igneous origin; and this in- deed appears to be the prevailing opinion of the ablest writers of the day. Basaltic or Trap rocks, including also those formed of lava, cover the other formations, in a very irregular, and uncertain manner. In France, large districts of country are buried under ancient lava, and the northern parts of Great Britain abound with basaltic rocks. The word trap, is said to come from the Swedish trap- pa, which signifies a stair, or step, because rocks of this kind often separate in such a manner as to form stairs. The application of this term is far from being definite, some geologists meaning by it such unstratified rocks as basalt, greenstone, porphyry, and their associates; while others have confined it to such rocks as are chiefly com- posed of hornblende, whether stratified or not. The for- mer application of this term is undoubtedly the most com- mon and appropriate. The most important volcanic rocks are Basalt, Green- stone, and Lava. Basalt. The color of this rock is dark greyish black, or brownish grey. It is found in large shapeless masses* or in columnar prisms, with from three to nine faces. These columns are of all sizes, from a few inches to sev- eral feet in diameter, and sometimes four hundred feet in height. They are composed of joints, or blocks of the same angular shapes, resting one upon another. The tex- ture of basalt is fine grained, or compact, and it often contains other minerals embedded in it, such as felspar, quartz, mica, leucite, and oxide of iron. It also exhibits hollow cavities, or vesicles, apparently formed by bubbles of air during its fusion. The Giant's Causeway in the North of Ireland, is composed of basaltic columns. Greenstone. This is a compact, hard, tenacious rock of a dark greyish color, with a greenish tinge. It is es- sentially composed of hornblende and felspar. This rock occurs in beds of greater or less extent, sometimes forming extensive ranges of mountains. In this conntry 160 DILUVIUM, greenstone is a common rock. The range of mountains on the west side of the Connecticut, reaching from New- Haven to Northampton, is of this rock. In some places, their height is several hundred feet. These rocks, as .will be seen in another place, are undoubtedly of volcanic origin, having been elevated to their present situation through fissures, by the force of subterranean fire. Lava. This term comes from the Gothic, and signifies to run, in reference to the flowing of volcanic matter. The products of volcanic mountains often present ver\ different appearances, and hence have received several names, as volcanic slags, volcanic enamel, cellular lava, compact lava, pumice, &c. But in general terms, all the liquified products of volcanoes are called lav a, and for the purposes of elementary geology, this definition is perhaps sufficient. The colors of lava are most commonly yellowish, or greenish gray sometimes running into sulphur yellow, and greyish black. Some are compact, while others are full of small pores, and others are fibrous with a silky lustre; but all the different kinds run into each other, so that it is often difficult to make distinctions between them. DILUVIUM. Diluvia, or diluvial deposites, are generally supposed to have been formed during the general deluge. They consist of sand, pebbles, and blocks, or fragments of va- rious kinds of rocks, not generally existing in the districts where these deposites are found at the present day, and hence they must have been transported from a distance. In many instances, the diluvial rocks appear to have been moved from great distances, their dimensions and situations at the same time indicating a water power of much greater force, than any which has been described, except the Noachian deluge, and it is therefore considered reasonable to attribute these effects to that cause. See Deluge. TABULAR VIEW OF ROCKS, dtC. 161 ALLUVION. Alluvia, or Alluvial deposites are such accumulations of sand, mud, and soil, together with fragments of wood, as are constantly forming at the present day, by the cur- rents of rivers and brooks, or by the rain which falls on hills and mountains. These are formed by causes now constantly operating, and we have shown that considera- ble changes have been wrought on the earth by such causes. We have now given a short account of each formation, and species of rock which compose the great bulk of the earth. There are however, several rocks described in more extended treatises on this subject which we have omitted, and which occasionally form considerable hills, or underlay certain districts of country. This deficiency with respect to names, will be supplied by the following view of M. Boue's classification of rocks, corrected and extended by Dr. Ure, of Glasgow. This contains the names of all the known members of each class, and by it the student will be enabled to observe the synonomous terms, with the classification we have employed. TABULAR VIEW OF ROCKS AND MINERAL STRATA, Class I. PRIMITIVE OR INFERIOR Concomitants. ROCKS. Order I. Gneiss. Granite, Hornblende rocks Limestone, Quartz rock, Gypsum. . / : . .* " : " - ' -- Order II. Mica-Slate Mica-slate, Porphyry. Order III. Clay-Slate. Talc-slate, Chlorite-slate, Gneiss, Whet-slate, Alum-slate, 14* 162 TABULAR VIEW OF ROCKS, &C. Dolomite, Gypsum. Class II. TRANSITION OR SUPER- MEDIAL ROCKS. Order I. Greywacke. Conglomerate, .Clay-slate, Flinty-slate, Alum-slate, Limestone, Dolomite. Class III. MEDIAL OR CARBONI- FEROUS ROCKS. Order I. Old Red Sandstone. II. Mountain Lime- stone. III. Millstone grit. IV. Coal Strata. Coal-Sandstone, Slaty-clay, Bituminous Shale, Coal, Carbonate of Iron, Calcareous Marl, Compact Limestone. ClaSS IV. SUBMEDIAL OR SECON- DARY ROCKS. " n '.*"' 'ii . ' Order I. New Red Sandstone. Order II. Magnesian Lime- Bituminous Marl- stone. slate, Copper Slate with Flints, Breccia-like Gypsum. TABULAR VIEW OF ROCKS, &C. 163 Order III. Red Marl. Gypsum and Salt. Variegated sandstone. Order IV. Shell Limestone, In Germany called or second flat Muschelkalk, said Limestone. to be wanting in England. Order V. Third flat Lime- Argillaceous beds, stone, or Jura Lias of England. Limestone. Oolite, or calcareous Freestone, Marls. Order VI. Iron Sand and Chlorite Chalk, Green Sand. Order VII Chalk. Chalk Marl, Chalk with flints. Class V. SUPERIOR OR TERTIARY ROCKS. Order I. London, Paris and Plastic Clay, Isle of Wight ba- Clay-tnarl, sins. Sand, lignite and salt water shells. Order II. First Tertiary Blue London Clay, Limestone. Chloritic Limestone. Order III. First Local brack- Marls, ish water deposite. Gypsum. Order IV. Second Tertiary Marls, Limestone. Burh-stones of Paris basin, and Isle of Wight. Class VI. VOLCANIC PRODUCTS. 164 COMPARATIVE AGES OF ROCKS. Order L -Basaltic Rocks. Basalt, Greenstone, Porphyry. 'i * :*' '---' J > ' Order II. Lava. Lava, Pumice. It will be observed in this classification, that the same formation or kind of rock sometimes occurs more than once, or is arranged under several different classes or or- ders. Thus limestone is sometimes primitive, at others, transition, secondary) or tertiary; and clay-slate and sand- stone are sometimes associated with one formation, and sometimes with another. When, therefore, a rock, under the same name, is supposed by its associations,, to have been formed at different periods, it is classed severally with those of its own age. Thus limestone is of all ages, and consequently belongs to all the classes, except the vol- canic. The same is more or less the case with sandstone and clay-slate, and several others. COMPARATIVE AGES OF ROCKS. We have already noticed, Under the descriptions of the different formations, their relative ages, tut a recapit^ ulation is required in order to bring this subject distinctly before the reader. It requires no arguments to show that the lowest for- mations must be the oldest, since these must have been deposited before those which lie above, or upon them. It is true that a mountain of granite, when shaken, or uplift- ed by an earthquake, may fall and spread its ruins on the plain below, but such an occurrence would readily be de- tected, since the situation of its fragments would show that this was not an original and undisturbed formation. Granite and its associates, besides being placed lowest in the order of position, are, as we have already seen, en- tirely destitute of organic remains. It ought, however, to be noticed that Dr. Macculloch, in a single instance, in one of the Hebrides, observed gneiss overlaying a bed of limestone, which contained bivalve shells. But the ex- COMPARATIVE AGES OF ROCKS. 165 treme contortions of the gneiss, on that island, are suffi- cient to show, that a bed really superior in its general po- sition, may appear to be inferior at some particular points. Fig. 21 Thus let a a a, fig. 21, be the contorted sub- stratum of gneiss, and b, c, d, e, a superior and incumbent bed of organic limestone, fol lowing its flexures. Now it is clear, that if these beds be visi- ble only at the point d, the limestone will appear to be below the gneiss, though the error would readily be cor- rected by an examination at any other point. Such apparent exceptions do not however, affect the general fact, for nothing in geology is more clearly estab- lished, than that granite and its associates lie below all other rocks, and hence must be older than any of their super-strata. The transition rocks come next to granite, with respect to position, and consequently with respect to antiquity. In these, organic remains begin to occur, as plants and shells. Next to these are the lower, and then the upper secon- dary rocks. In these are found fossil relics in great quan- tities, as shells, fish, and some of the amphibious tribes. Above the secondary come the tertiary strata, and in these formations, are found the bones of quadrupeds of ex- tinct species. Volcanic products are both of ancient and modern date. Diluvial deposites are supposed to be of no greater an- tiquity than the Noachian deluge, having been formed en- tirely by that catastrophe. In these, the remains of huge quadrupeds, as the elephant, mastodon and rhinoceros, are found. Alluvial products are the most recent in the order of strata; being, like volcanic products, constantly forming. STRATA AND STRATIFICATION. Most secondary, and several primitive rocks, are com- 166 STRATA AND STRATIFICATION. posed of layers, or portions, resting one above another, with seams between them. These portions or layers, are called strata, and formations of this kind are called strat- ified. In general, such rocks are fissile, and may be divi- ded into flat tables, or layers in the direction of their stra- ta. These rocks have apparently been formed by gradual depositions from water, accumulated one upon the other. Unstratified rocks show no signs of such gradual accumu- lation; they present no lines of stratification, nor are they fissile in one direction more than in another; such are gran- ite, greenstone, and basalt. Fig. 22. Strata are said to be horizontal, when they coincide with the direction of the horizon, or have lit- tle or no inclination, as represented by fig. 22. It is very rare, however, that such strata are found, except among the most recent de- posites, the secondary and tertiary strata, in nearly every instance being more or less inclined. Dip. The inclination of strata from a horizontal posi- tion, is called their dip, the amount of the dip, being the quantity of the angle, which the line of inclination makes with that of the horizon. This is represented by fig. 23. Fig. 23. If the angle made by the meeting of the &/z^s*^ lines / the strata ' b b, and the horizon- tal line a, be equal to 45 towards the east, then the strata are said to dip 45 in that direction. Outcrop. When strata protrude above the surface, or are uncovered, as on the side of a hill, so as to be seen, they are said to crop out. The uncovered ends of the stra- ta commonly rise above each other, like stairs, or as Mr. Bakewell has it, like a number of slices of bread and but- ter, laid inclined on a plate. In fig. 23, the outcrop of strata is represented at b b. Outcrop is a matter of much importance to geologists and practical miners, since the upper, as well as the under strata may be observed at these points; and thus without excavations or borings, not only the dip can be ascertained, but also the different kinds of rock with which a country is underlaid. STRATA AND STRATIFICATION. 167 Outlier. Strata are said to form outliers, when they constitute a portion of country detached from the main Fig. 24. mass of the same bed of which they evidently once formed a part. Thus the bed 6, fig. 24, on the top of the hill, is an outlier of the main stratum a, the in- tervening valley being scooped out, either by the general deluge, or some other means. The kind, and thickness, as well as the range of the intercepted strata, are sufficient to prove that they were once continuous. Escarpment. Strata are said to terminate in an escarp- ment, when they end abruptly, as at a b, fig. 24. Mural precipice. Mural signifies wall-like, and rocks are said to form such precipices, when they present naked, and nearly perpendicular faces. Conformable position. Fi*. 25. Strata are said to be conforma- ble, when their general planes are parallel, whatever their dip may be. Fig. 25, a a, repre- sents conformable stra- ta, as shown by their parallel planes. Unconformable Strata. When a series of upper strata, rest on a lower formation, without any conformity to the position of the latter, the upper series is called unconform- able, as represented at b b, fig. 25. Fault. This is such a dislocation of the strata, that not only their continuity is destroyed, but the series of beds on one or both sides of the fractures, are forced out of their original positions, so that it often happens in mining for coal, the workmen suddenly come to the apparent termina tion of the vein by a wall of rock. Dyke. This is a wall of rock interposed between the two sides, or ends of a dislocation, and in consequence of which, the continuity of the beds or strata are interrupted. 168 DYKES. If we suppose that the dyke was once fused matter, forced up from beneath, and that on one of its sides the strata were elevated, or on the other depressed by a subterra- nean convulsion, it would account for the phenomena both of the fault and the dyke. Fig. 26. Fig. 26 will make this un- derstood, a a, represents the fault, and b the dyke. The coal strata &, terminates at the dyke on both sides; but on the one side it is raised, and on the other sunk down. When there- fore the workmen search on the opposite side of the dyke, for the coal vein, they find instead of coal, perhaps sandstone or clay, and thus for a time, the work of the mine is entirely suspended, the coal being lost. In at- tempting to regain the vein, the first question to be de- termined is, whether it has been thrown up, or cast down on the .other side of the dyke; and this in general, is readily decided by the position of the dyke, or its inclina- tion with respect to the fault. For experience has shown, that if the dyke makes an acute angle with the upper sur- face of the coal vein, the strata are elevated on that side, while if the angle is obtuse, they are thrown down, as represented by fig' 26. In some coal fields, the strata are raised or depressed on one side of the dyke, to the extent of four or five hun- dred feet. Dykes which intercept coal strata are most frequently composed of basalt, but sometimes of indurated clay. They are, in thickness, from a few inches to fifty or sixty feet, and in a few instances are three hundred feet thick. Dykes are seldom noticed except in mining districts, where they excite much interest in consequence of the disturbances they occasion to coal veins. Their extent therefore is generally quite uncertain, though in some in- stances they are known to traverse large sections of country. Dykes being generally impervious to water, they ob- struct its passage along the porous strata, and occasion it to rise towards the surface; hence it frequently happens that numerous springs make their appearance along the' course of a dyke, which is entirely under ground, and by which alone its existence is indicated. SLATY STRUCTURE. 169 Slaty Structure. Professor Sedgwick has made some curious and important observations on the difference be- tween the planes of stratification and those of cleavage, as applicable particularly to the roofing-slate of Wales. In mica-slate, the cleavage is in the direction of the strata of deposition, whether the layers are curved or hot, and the same is the case with common clay-slate, and in depositions of clay which are separable in layers. In beds of roof-slate the case is quite different, the cleavage being not in the direction of the strata, but in general, obliquely across them. The strata are seldom or never either horizontal, or straight, but contorted, bent, or waved, and are often far from being parallel with each other. Fig. 27. Professor Sedgwick gives the diagram fig. 27 in illus- tration of this subject, and remarks " that the contortions of slate rocks are phenomena quite different from clea- vage, and the curves presented by such formations are the true lines of disturbed strata." The contorted lines run- ning lengthwise the diagram are the true strata, while those crossing these in nearly a vertical direction, and preserving almost a geometrical parallelism are the lines of cleavage. A region of more than thirty miles in length, and eight or ten in breadth, exhibits this structure on a magnificent scale. Many of the contorted strata are of a coarse mechanical structure; but subordinate to them are fine crystalline, chloritic slates. But the coarser beds and the finer, the twisted and the straight, have all been sub- . jected to one change. Crystalline forces have re-arranged whole mountain masses of them, producing a beautiful crystalline cleavage, passing alike through all the strata; and through all this region whatever may be the contor- tions, the planes of cleavage pass on, generally without deviation, running in parallel lines from one end to the other. " Without considering the crystalline flakes along the planes of cleavage, which prove that crystalline action 15 170 FORM OF COAL BEDS. has modified the whole mass, we may affirm that no re- treat of parts, no contraction in dimensions in passing to a solid slate can explain such phenomena as these. They appear to me only resolvable on the supposition, that crystalline, or polar forces acted on the whole mass sim- ultaneously in given directions, and with adequate pow- er." COAL. There is no subject, within the range of geology, of more importance than the natural history of coal, since the inhabitants of some countries are almost entirely de- pendant on its existence and quantity, for the comforts they enjoy during the cold season. We have already described this mineral, and given some account of its manner of existence, when treating of rocks and formations generally. It remains here to give a more general and extended account of this important article, and to point out its indications, origin, associa- tions, &c. Form of Coal Beds. Nearly all coal formations are basin-shaped, or in that form, as before stated, which would arise from a deposition of strata in lakes, or ponds of various depths. Mr. Bakewell compares the shape to that of a muscle shell. " The position of coal strata." says he, " in many coal fields may be represented by a series of fresh water muscle shells, decreasing in size, laid within each other, but separated by a thin paste of clay. If one side of the shell be raised, it will represent the general rise of the strata in that direction, and if the whole series be dislocated by partial cracks, raising one part a little, and depressing the other, to represent faults in the coal, it will give a better idea of the coal field than any description can convey." " We are here to suppose that each shell represents a stratum of coal, and the partitions of clay, the earthy stra- ta by which they are separated. The outer, or lower shell, represents the lowest bed of coal which may be many miles in extent. Now if a much larger shell be fill- ed with sand, and the lower shell pressed into it, we may SEARCHING FOR COAL. 171 consider the large shell to represent limestone, and the sand, grit stone; we shall have a model of the coal strata in many parts of England, and their siftiation over the metaliferous lime, with the beds of sandstone by which they are separated from it." Geology, p. 117. Searching for Coal. In most instances the inclination, or bending of coal strata, is such that the veins rise nearly to the surface, and would be visible, were they not cover- ed by the soil or gravel. When this is the case, the re- moval of the soil by rivulets, or the accidental slide of a side hill, will uncover the strata, so that their dip and thickness can be determined. This is considered a very fortunate circumstance, because the boring for coal with- out some such indications that it exists in greater- or less quantities, even in coal districts, is a very uncertain means of its discovery. Sometimes borings to great depths have been made in the immediate vicinity of large coal fields, without producing any greater conviction of the existence of the mineral, than the surface before indicat- ed. Fig. 28. The cause of this will be seen by fig. 28, where, suppose 1 is the coal vein, and 2 a stratum of sandstone, below which is lime- stone, and that the basin is filled to the surface with slate, clay, &c. Now on boring at 2, it is evident that nothing but sandstone and limestone would be found, though it might be within a few feet of the coal vein, while had the examination happened to have been made at 1, coal would have been found within a few feet of the surface. Where a coal stratum comes to the surface, it is gener- ally in a decomposed state, and so mixed with the earth, as to present no other appearance of coal than a darker color, when compared with the surrounding soil. Hence the real quality of the coal cannot be determined until it is taken from below the influence of the weather, and in general, its quality improves as it sinks deeper into the earth. In examinations for coal, the dip and direction of the strata in the vicinity, when known, should be carefully observed; for if the dip is towards the estate on which the 172 INDICATIONS OF COAL. trial is to be made, it is probable that the coal may ex- tend under it; but if the dip is in the contrary direction, the search ougftt not to be undertaken, since experience has shown that it would be useless. Fig. 29. The reason will be understood by fig. 29, where 123 4, are a series of coal strata dipping towards b. The un- conformable strata c c, are sandstone, lying over the coal. Now suppose the coal vein 4, makes an outcrop at that point, on the estate of A., adjoining the estate of B, which lies towards 6, then it is apparent that A would find only a point of the vein 4, on his estate, and that it would be useless to search in the direction of d, for coal, since the dip of 4 is sufficient to prove that none exists there, un- less indeed another coalfield should be found. Whereas, on the estate of B, though there might not exist an out- crop, still the dip of that on the estate of A, would make it highly probable, that B would find coal on his estate. though it might be too deep for working. We have observed in another place, that coal has sel- dom, or never been found in hot climates. According to Mr. Bakewell, this mineral has rarely been discovered be- yond the latitudes of 35 and 65. It however exists in the province of Canton, in about the 30th degree of lati- tude. In this country, the great coal ranges appear to lie between the latitudes of 40 and 45. Indications of Coal. Although it is not certain that coal exists at any given place until it is actually found, still there are*indications which might perhaps warrant the expense of a search, by boring in districts where coal has never been discovered. These indications are vari- ous, and to point them out requires much knowledge and experience on this subject. In England, Mr. Farey states, that the coal districts in- cline to clay, and are generally of an inferior quality. When laid down to pastures small daisies and insignificant weeds, are more disposed to prevail than grass. STRATA WHICH INDICATE COAL. 173 In these districts, water is generally procured at incon- siderable depths, and when the faults are numerous, springs are common, and range in a line with the fault, for the reason already explained. See Fault. The face of the country where coal exists, is generally undulating, the hills being rounded and not mural or pre- cipitous, and the valleys gently sloping and not deep as they are in granite formations. Sometimes, however, coal is found in hills more than a thousand feet above the gen- eral level of the country. Strata which indicate Coal. In England and Wales,, coal generally reposes on a series of beds called mill' stone-grit and shale. The mill-stone-grit is merely a coarse grained sandstone, consisting ofquartzose particles of various sizes, agglutinated by an argillaceous cement. This differs from the sandstone that is found above and between the coal strata, chiefly in its greater induration. The shale is a dark colored slaty rock, which differs lit- tle from the slate-clay beds found among coal. In England, secondary limestone is often associated with coal. This is called carboniferous limestone, be- cause it is generally found in coal or carboniferous dis- tricts. Red marl is also a common attendant on coal for- mations, and indeed, is so common, that few coal shafts are sunk witout piercing through it. This is a kind of sand- stone cemented with clay and colored with iron. Mr. Bakevvell supposes that it has been formed by the decom- position or disintegration of trap, greenstone and granu- lar quartz. Coal is also accompanied with thin strata of what the English call iron-stone. This is a dark brown or grey stone, of an earthy appearance, but of great spe- cific gravity, being about three times the weight of an equal bulk of water. This stone is smelted for iron, and yields about thirty per cent. Another attendant on coal is that kind of limestone, in England, called lias. This name is said to be a corruption of the word, layers, pro- bably because the strata of this rock are generally very regular and flat. The finer kinds of lias answer for litho- graphic stones. This rock alternates with lias clay, the whole formation sometimes being several hundred feet in thickness. This clay is highly impregnated with bitu- men, and contains much sulphuret of iron, so that when 15* 174 STRATA WHICH INDICATE COAL. once ignited it will continue to burn until the sulphur and bitumen are consumed. Several other minerals are found in coal beds, in greater or less quantities, in the English mines, but those enumerated are the most common. The annexed diagram, fig. 30, showing the different strata as they occur in a coal field near Mamsbury, will il- lustrate the manner in which most of these minerals are placed with respect to each other. Fig. 30. The lowest stratum, or that on which the others are placed, as within a dish, and which also rises the highest, marked 1, is Old red sandstone. 2, Carboniferous lime- stone. 3, Millstone- grit. 4 4, Coal seams. 5, Coarse sandstone. 6 6, Red marl, or new red sandstone. 7, Lias. 8, Oolite. In this country, although several of the strata occurring with European coal are wanting, still it is found to be as- sociated with minerals of the same general characters. In Virginia, the strata which cover the coal are sandstone and clay-slate, the latter often exhibiting vegetable impres- sions. The coal mines of Ohio, are situated among stra- ta of limestone, sandstone and clay-slate. The following section and description is from Dr. Hil- dreth's valuable communication on the coal deposites of the valley of the Ohio, contained in Silliman's Journal for Nov. 1835. Dr. Hildreth's paper not only relates to the Geology, but also to the Topography, and Geography of the Ohio Valley. It is illustrated with a map, several views, and many wood cuts delineating organic remains, and is among the most valuable and interesting communications on these subjects ever made to the American public. BITUMINOUS SHALE, 175 Section of the Coal strata at the Salines on Kenawha River, Ohio. The strata, beginning at the deepest, are as follow: 1. Sandsione. Sixty feet thick. 2. Coal. Six feet thick. It is bituminous and is ex- tensively worked for several hundred feet under the hills. 3. Bituminous Shale, and slaty shale, forty feet thick. This, both slate and shale, is filled with extinct species of plants. Every layer not more than the fourth, or the eighth of an inch thick, when separated, displays fresh im 176 SILICIOUS SANDSTONE. pressions of a variety of species, delineated on the face of the slate with the most exquisite beauty and perfection. Four or five species of the Palm tree, as many of Calam- ites, and several Equisetae, are among the number. 4. A thin bed of coal, twenty inches in thickness, resting on the shale and clay-slate. This is not worked. 5. Argillaceous sandstone rock, the upper stratified in thin beds, the lower in beds of fifteen or twenty feet in thickness. This bed is about 200 feet thick, and splits easily into building stones, for which it is much employed, it is a vast magazine of fossil plants. 6. Bituminous Coal. This bed is four feet thick, and is extensively worked. 7. Silicious Sandstone. The grains are coarse, and sharp, and the bed reposes on the coal without any inter- vening slate, or shale. 150 feet thick. 8. Bituminous Coal. The structure of this bed is slaty, and in burning it melts, and runs together, obstructing the current of air necessary to combustion, a fact noticed as being common to all the upper beds of coal deposites. This bed is four feet thick, and the slate or shale on which it rests contains many impressions of plants, chiefly of the arundinaceous and culmiferous tribes. 9. Silicious Slate, or lydian stone; color nearly black, and in strata from two to eight inches in thickness. The bed is six feet thick, and is so hard as not to be impressed with the best tempered steel instruments. The Abori- gines manufactured this kind of stone into arrow heads and knives. This deposite has been traced more than forty miles. 10. Argillaceous iron ore, in nodules from three to six inches in diameter, imbedded in argillaceous, yellowish marl. Eight inches thick. 11. Silicious sandstone; color, yellowish, grain coarse, with feeble cohesion. At this place this bed is eighty feet thick, but in other places it has a thickness of 150 feet. It ORIGIN OF COAL. 17? contains a vast number of fossil trees. The wood has been replaced with silicious matter tinged with iron. Some- times whole trees with their roots arid branches have been found. Very few fossil shells, or animal remains of any kind, have been found in the Kenawha Valley. It is intended that our descriptions and remarks thus far, should apply entirely to the several kinds of coal cal- led bituminous, and which burn with more or less blaze. These kinds, known under the names Cannel coal, Slaty- coal, Coarse coal, fyc. are found only among secondary rocks, and it would be a useless expenditure of time and money, to search for them in any other situations. Dr. Macculloch thinks that bituminous coal does not exist be- low the old red sandstone formations. Anthracite. This name, which is derived from the Greek, signifies merely, carbon or coal. It is called, in England, stone coal, and in Scotland, Hind coal. In this country, where there are many extensive localities, it is distinguished by the names of the places whence it comes, as, Lehigh coal, Lackawana coal, Peach Orchard coal, <^*c. Anthracite has been found in small quantities only, in any part of Europe but in this country it appears to exist in great abundance, and within the last ten years has come into such general use as an article of fuel, as in a good degree to supersede the use of wood for the warming of dwellings, in most of the sea-coast towns of the North- ern States. These supplies come chiefly from Pennsyl- vania and New York, though this coal exists also in Massa- chusetts and Rhode-Island. Anthracite is found among primitive and transition rocks, as mica-slate, clay-slate, and grey wacke. This mineral is distinguished from bituminous coal by its greater lustre and weight; by its hardness and conchoi- dal fracture, and by its burning without smoke, or blaze, or bituminous odor. ORIGIN OF COAL. It is now generally believed, by naturalists, that coal has originated from vegetables, though there are many 178 ORIGIN OF COAL. different opinions with-respect to the modes in which the vast quantities of woody matter, required for this purpose, came together; arid also with respect to the chemical chan- ges which it underwent during its conversion into coal, asjwell as the nature of the agent by which this was effected. That coal originated from wood, appears to be proved by the fact that at the present day, parts of trees are found in a state of partial conversion into that substance. This is called wood coal, or lignite, and in some countries, is not an uncommon substance. Near Cologne, in Italy, exists a great depository of this fossil, which extends many leagues, and is fifty feet thick. Its covering is a bed of gravel about twenty feet thick. Here trunks of trees partially converted into coal are common, and many of them are deprived of their bran- ches, which would seem to indicate that they had been transported from a distance. Nuts, which are indige- nous in Hindoostan and China, are found among this lig- nite. "In wood coal" says Mr. Bakewell, " we may almost seize nature in the fact of making coal before the process is complete. These formations are of a far more recent date than that of common coal, though their origin must be referred to a former condition of the globe, when the vegetable productions of tropical climates flourished in northern latitudes. The vegetable origin of common mineral coa!, appears to be established by its associations with strata, abounding in vegetable impressions by its close similarity to wood coal, and lastly, by the decisive fact, that some mineral coal, in the Dudley coal field, is entirely composed of mineralized plants." But though the vegetable origin of coal may be satis- factorily established, there is considerable difficulty in conceiving, by what process, so many beds and seams of coal have been regularly aranged over each other, in the same place, and separated by strata of sandstone, shale and indurated clay. It will perhaps tend to simplify this inquiry, if we examine a coal field of very limited extent, such as those which occur in small coal basins, called swilleys, and which are not more than one mile in length and breadth. It seems evident that these basins have once been small lakes or marshes, and that the strata have been deposited on the bottoms and sides, taking the concave form, which such depositions, under such circum- ORIGIN OF COAL, 179 stances, must assume; and it is deserving of notice, that the stratum of coal, which in one of these basins, is a yard thick in the lowest part, gradually diminishes as it approaches the edges, and then entirely vanishes. This fact proves that the present basin-shaped position of the strata was their original one; and that the basin, at the period when the coal was deposited, was a detached lake or marsh, and not a part of the bed of the sea. Geology, p. 123. It would seem from the above, as well as from other facts stated by geologists, that coal strata were formed in accumulations of water; but whether this was salt or fresh, it is difficult to determine. The shells found in some coal beds, according to the opinion of Mr. Cony- beare, are those of salt water; but, on the other hand, the vegetable remains found in the same strata, are clearly those of the land and not of the sea. But the difficulty of distinguishing salt from fresh water shells, where the species are extinct, is well known. And it is also true, that some shell-fish belonging to the ocean, may gradu- ally be inured to brackish water, and finally to that which is entirely fresh, and this too without any material change in the form or thickness of their shells. Hence any de- cision of this kind, founded on the appearance of a few shells merely, must always be extremely doubtful. It would appear from the account of Dr. Hildreth of Marietta, Ohio, that beds of coal on the Muskingum river, in that state, have either been formed in the ocean, or that since their formation they have been submerged by salt water. " The lime rocks here," says he, ** abound in fos- sil marine shells of the genera Productus, TerebratulaB and Spirifira, with Ammonites, and chambered shells, in- dicating that some of the coal deposites have been deeply submerged under the salt water since their formation; or that the vegetable materials, composing the coal had once floated in an ocean, and were precipitated by an accumu- lation of calcareous, argillaceous, and sedimentary ma- terials collected on and about them, while floating." " Marine fossils," continues the author, " are found both above and below the coal, and sometimes deposites con- taining fresh water shells are intermixed, although they are not so common as they are nearer the Ohio river. Some of these fresh water fossils bear a striking resemblance to living species now found in our rivers. ISO ORIGIN OF COAL. "Through nearly all the coal region, we find many proofs of the predominance both of fresh and salt water. Westjof the coal deposites in Ohio, the fossil shells are al- together marine, at least so far as I have seen them, and many of them belong to the supercretaceous, or tertiary genera, and many are similar to those found in the same formations in the southern States." Stiliman's Jour. Nov. 1835, p. 29. The only analogy which the present state of things offers to the manner in which coal was formed, is the filling up of lakes and estuaries with vegetable matter. In these situations we sometimes find series of strata, composed of peat and submerged wood, alternating with those of sand, clay, and gravel; and, therefore, presenting the model of a coal field. Of the quantity of vegetable matter required to form a stratum of coal, we know no- thing, but there is reason to believe that the thickness of these strata, bear but a very small proportion to those of the plants of which they were formed. It is not difficult to conceive, however, that the earth might have produced a quantity of vegetation, even with- in the circuit of a few miles, sufficient to form a thick bed of coal, though the thickness of this might bear only a fractional proportion to that of the wood. Those who have seen the pine forests of our western country, can, perhaps, have some conception of the vast pile which a single square mile of these trees would form, if thrown together. Now, if hundreds of square miles of such tim- ber were accumulated, we might suppose that there would be a quantity sufficient to form a single bed of a large coal formation. The quantity of drift wood which descends the Mis- sissippi, in the course of a few years, might be supposed to furnish ample matter for such a coal bed. According to the estimate of Mr. Bringier, the quantity of timber which drifted into the Achafalaya, an arm of the Missis- sippi, during an overflow in 1812, amounted to 8,000 cubic feet per minute. The same writer states that the raft thus collected at the mouth of the Red River, is sixty miles long, and, in some parts, fifteen miles wide. On this in some places, cedars are collected by themselves, and in others, pines. Silliman's Journal, vol. iii. p. 18. Now, in case the bed of this stream should, at some future time be changed, so as to leave this immense raft ORIGIN OF COAL. 181 covered with the earth, generations to come, might here discover one of the most extensive coal fields yet known. Captain Basil Hall states, that on a tongue of land, nearly opposite to the mouth of the Mississippi, and which has extended many leagues since the building of New Orleans, large rafts of drift wood are deposited every year. These rafts are matted together into a net work, many yards in thickness, and cover several hundred square leagues of surface. Travels, vol. iii. p. 338. These rafts afterwards become covered with mud from the river, and sink down to the bottom; and on this, the next year is deposited another layer of trees, thus forming alternate strata of wood and soil. What analogy exists between the facts here stated, and the circumstances which took place at the formation of coal beds, it is impossible to determine. But with respect to the manner in which vast quantities of woody matter may be accumulated by the operation of natural causes, there is certainly little difficulty; and perhaps it is as easy to believe that these accumulations took place in lakes, or ponds, as at the mouths of rivers; nor is it improbable that coal might have been formed in both situations. There is no doubt but all regular coal formations were deposited before the general deluge, or at that period when the temperature of the earth was much higher than at present; and therefore, when all plants, not only attained a greater size, but grew much more rapidly than they do now in temperate climates. Hence, if we suppose that wintry torrents, or occasional inundations, denuded the earth of her vegetation to a great extent, and swept it in- to lakes or estuaries, there would be little difficulty in imagining, that under such a climate, the earth would soon be again prepared with her vegetation for a similar sweep, and thus one stratum of coal after another would be formed. During the intervals of these inundations, the operation of ordinary causes as the flowing of rivers into these lakes, would bring down from the mountains the materials which have formed the clay and sandstone, now interposed between the beds of coal, in a manner similar to what is now taking place at the mouth of the Mississip- pi. Withrespect to the inundations which caused the an- cient forests to descend from the hills to the yalleys, and to accumulate in lakes and estuaries, there is little difficul- 16 182 ORIGIN OF COAL. ty, since the same happens more or less at the present day; and especially since geologists agree, that judging from appearances, natural causes were infinitely more powerful in their effects on the primeval earth, than they have been since. Perhaps this circumstance may be considered a sign of that over-ruling Beneficence, which has ever been dis- played towards man; for then, if he existed at all, it must have been only on a small portion of the globe. That natural causes anciently operated with much greater power than at present, is shown by the changes which earthquakes produced on the globe, before the his- torical era. The dislocations of strata, and the elevation of mountains which were effected by this cause in ancient times, have analogies only in miniature, at the present day. Nor is it unreasonable to suppose, that correspond- ing effects were produced by water, during similar epochs. It is, therefore, to such ancient torrents that we must attribute these effects, and which, with awful devastation, undermined the sides of hills, and floated the vegetation into lakes and ponds; or deposited it at the mouths of riv- ers, there to undergo, in the lapse of time, those chemical changes, by which wood is converted into coal; and thus to supply present and future ages with one of the absolute necessities of life. That both earthquakes which elevated and dislocated strata, and inundations of great power, continued in operation after coal was formed, is evident by their ef- fects, which still exist. For, in many instances the strata of coal fields are not only broken into faults, in the man- ner already described, but they also, near the surface, show the violent effects of water, a part of some beds be- ing entirely removed. These circumstances are ascertained by the exact cor- respondence of the strata, on both sides of valleys; show- ing that they were once continuous, and that the hills have been formed by the removal of the strata between them. Sometimes strata are so separated, that the direction in which they ranged, when entire, are completely changed; the appearance being such as would be produced by a violent upheaving, and consequent fracture of the whole formation. AMERICAN COAL FIELDS. 183 Pig. 32. Fig. 32, represents and instance which occurs at the Ashtou coal mine, in England, and where, af- ter the dislocation in consequence of a subterranean force, a large portion of the strata was removed by a torrent of water. The strata on each side of the valley, exactly correspond in kind and thickness, though widely separated, a a, coal veins; b b, millstone grit; c c, limestone. Thus is it proved, that these changes took place after the formation of coal fields. American Coal Fields. With respect to the coal fields in our own country, and especially of those beyond the Alleghany mountains, the following information is taken from a report made by J. L. Packer, Esq. before the Sen- ate of Pennsylvania, in 1834. The great secondary deposite, extending as is generally believed, from the Hudson to the Mississippi, and to the Rocky mountains, is in Pennsylvania, limited by the Al- leghany mountains, which appear to form the barrier, or dividing line between the anthracite and bituminous coal beds, or between the transition and secondary formations. The bituminous coal field is therefore confined to the west side of the Alleghany, and is supposed to extend to the centre of the mountain. These coal beds vary from one foot to twelve feet in thickness, but rarely exceed six feet. They lie in nearly horizontal strata, there being merely sufficient dip to free the mines from water. Some mines contain three or four beds with alternate layers of earth and slate between them. Faults are seldom met with, and in this they differ from the anthracite, and go far to confirm the opinion, that all this vast extent of secondary rocks, was once the bottom of a vast lake or sea, the surface of which suffered little change from the discharge of its waters, which therefore must have run off gradually. This great secondary region has been drained by the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, the Susquehannah and the Hudson. It is a curious and interesting geographical fact, that near the northern termination of this coal field, viz. in Pot- ter county, Pennsylvania, and within an area of about five miles, take their rise the head waters of the Alleghany, the 184 AMERICAN COAL FIELDS. Susquehannah, the Genesee, the Chesapeake and the St. Lawrence rivers. With the exception of the Susquehan- nah and its tributaries, discharging into the Potomac, all the streams arising in the coal field west of the Alleghanies flow into lakes, or into the Ohio river, consequently the elevation of the ground is gradually depressed in that di- rection, and, as is supposed, it becomes too low to contain coal. The northern boundary of the coal region appears to be from the head waters of Towanda creek, in Bradford county, across the counties of Potter, McKean, Warren, and Venango, to the Ohio line. A report on this region has lately been made by R. C. Taylor, Esq., a practical engineer and geologist, for the Blossburgh rail-road company, in which it is shown that the coal runs out, as the streams decline towards the north. The dip of the coal strata towards the west, is such as to require towards the east an elevation of upwards of five thousand feet, in order to include the coal measures at the state line between New York and Pennsylvania, whereas the hills there are probably less than six hundred feet in altitude. This calculation, says Mr. Taylor, is made for the pur- pose of showing the futility of the expectation of tracing these coal fields in a northerly direction, beyond the limits at which they are discoverable. This coal field being bounded on the south by the Al- leghany mountain, extends into Virginia, and underlies more or less all the western counties of Pennsylvania, with the exception of Erie, in which it has not been dis- covered. The counties of Bradford, Lycoming, Tioga, Potter, McKean, Warren, Crawford, Bedford, and Centre, lie partly in, and partly out of the coal field. The coun- ties of Alleghany, Armstrong, Beaver, Butler, Cambria, Clearfield, Fayette, Green, Indiana, Jefferson, Mercer, Somerset, Venango, Washington and Westmoreland, are wholly within its range, and embrace together an area of twenty-one thousand square miles, or thirteen million, four hundred and forty thousand acres. Coal is mined to a greater or less extent, in all the above counties, at the expense of one or two cents the bushel, and is thus brought to every man's door. That the abundance and cheapness of coal has given birth to the vast, and widely extended manufacturing es- \ PEAT. 185 tablishments of the west, there can be no doubt. Pitts- burg, and its environs contain ninety steam engines for the various manufactures of iron, steel, glass, cotton, salt, brass, w/iite lead, flour, oil, leather, &c. These engines consume annually 2,065,306 bushels of coal. The city of Pittsburg and its suburbs, Alleghany town, Birming- ham, &c. contain a population of 30,000 souls. The coal consumed for every purpose in and about Pittsburg, is estimated at 7,665,000 bushels, or 255,500 tons; which at four cents a bushel, the price now paid there, amounts to the sum of 306,512 dollars. Besides the coal used in the various manufactures of Pittsburg, vast quantities are consumed in the western counties of the State, in the manufacture of common salt. In these counties there are already about ninety establish- ments for this purpose, and which produce yearly about 1,000,000 bushels of salt, and consume 5,000,000 bushels of coal. It is found that the bituminous coal of Pennsylvania produces coke equal to that of Great Britain, and is em- ployed to a considerable extent by the manufacturers of iron. See Silliman's Journal, No. 59. This number is oc- cupied by an account of the geology and mineral resour- ces of the valley of the Ohio, which ought to be read by every American. PEAT. Although peat is a substance entirely distinct from coal, yet there exists considerable analogy between them. They are both of vegetable origin; both are formed by natural processes; their colors are similar; and when perfectly formed, they neither of them present the least traces of their origin; and lastly, they are both dug out of the earth and employed for fuel. There is reason to believe that peat moors will ulti- mately become coal beds. In all instances, peat appears to have been formed since the present order of things on the earth, or since the deluge; while it seems to be equally true, that coal was formed before that epoch. Dr. Macculloch has shown that there is a connected 16* 186 PEAT. gradation from forest peat, that is, submerged wood, through lignite, to perfect coal. " Lignite," says he, ** presents no difficulties, being derived from submerged wood, or forest peat. I have shown that the deposites of this substance [lignite] are of a far higher antiquity than any peat, and thus the degrees of bituminization may be accounted for, though there may be many other causes also still unknown to us." " If the contrast between peat and coal, is far greater, [than between peat and lignite,] the resemblances are too striking to leave a doubt of the origin of the latter, from beds of that substance. I have shown that all the geologi- cal circumstances are similar, or identical in both; the al- luvial beds of one, corresponding to the rocky strata of the other, as do the deposites of organic substances; while the insulated condition of each class, is also a striking point of resemblance. The mechanical structures of peat and coal, often present sufficient analogies; the resemblance of forest peat to the latter, being often absolute in all but the mineral character; as in both do similar organic remains occur, and in a similar manner, while in both, also they are sometimes wanting." Geology, vol. ii, p. 357. The same writer has shewn that wood may be convert- ed into a substance having all the chemical properties of peat; then of lignite; and lastly of coal. The process consists in subjecting the wood to heat and moisture in a close vessel so that none of the gasses may escape. He does not, however, suppose that coal has been subjected to a high temperature during the progress of its forma- tion, but if we understand him, (for of all late writers he is the most obscure,) he believes that the pressure of the incumbent strata, together with fermentation, and above all, time, has converted wood into coal. It has been supposed that peat had the property of preserving animal matter from decay, and the following account written by Dr. Balguy, and published in the Lon. Phil. Trans, for 1734, seems to verify such an opinion. " On the 14th Jan. 1675, as a farmer, and his maid ser- vant were crossing the peat moors, near Castleton, in Der- byshire, they were overtaken by a great fall of snow, and both perished: their bodies were not found until the 3d of May, in the same year, and were then in such a state, that the coroner ordered them to be buried on the spot, in the peat. Here they lay twenty-eight years and nine months PEAT. 187 when the curiosity of some countrymen, (probably having heard that peat would preserve dead bodies,) induced them to open these graves. The bodies appeared quite fresh, the skin was fair, though somewhat darker than natural, and the flesh as soft as that of persons newly dead. These bodies were afterwards frequently exposed as curiosities, until the year 1716, forty-one years after their deaths, when they were buried by order of the far- mer's descendants. At that time, Dr. Bourne, of Chester- field, who examined these bodies, says that the man was perfect; his beard was strong, his hair short, and his skin hard and of a tanned leather color, like the liquor in which he had lain. The body of the woman was inju- red, having been more frequently exposed, but the hair was like that of a living person. In the beginning of the last century the perfect body of a man dressed in the ancient Saxon costume, was discov- ered in a peat bed at Hatfield chase, in Yorkshire, but it soon perished on exposure to the air. BakeweWs Geol. In 1747, the body of a woman was found six feet deep, in a peat moor in Lincolnshire. The antique sandals on her feet afforded evidence of her having been buried there for many ages, and yet her hair, nails, and skin are descri- bed as having shown hardly any marks of decay. On the estate of the earl of Moira, in Ireland, a human body was found a foot deep in gravel, covered with elev- en feet of moss. The body was completely clothed in garments of hair. The great length of time it had been interred, may be inferred from this circumstance, for it is known, that before the use of wool, the inhabitants of Britain made their clothing of hair, and yet this body waa fresh and unimpaired. At the battle of Solway, in the time of Henry VIII. (1542,) when the Scotch army was routed, an unfortunate troop of horse were driven into the Solway morass, and sinking down, the surface closed upon them. A tradition of this catastrophe had always been kept alive by the peo- ple of the neighborhood, and the place where it was sup- posed to have happened, designated. This tradition has now been authenticated, for a man and horse, in com- plete armor, such as was worn in Henry's time, has been found by the peat diggers, in the place where it was be- lieved the accident occurred. The skeleton of both man and horse was well preserved, and the different parts of the armor readily distinguished. 188 ORIGIN AND PHENOMENA OF TRAP ROCKS. These cases are from various authorities, but are well authenticated. Cause of the antisceptic property of Peat. This proper- ty has been attributed to the carbonic and gallic acids which are set free by the decaying of wood, and also to the gums and resins which various plants contain. Oth- ers have attributed this effect to the tannin which the peat contains. It is most probable, however, that this proper- ty is owing to the formation of pyroligenous acid, during the decomposition of the vegetables. It is true that no known process, except that of the destructive distillation of the wood, can form this acid by art, still it may be con- jectured, that the natural destruction of the same organic substances may produce the same effect. f ^ ORIGIN AND PHENOMENA OF TRAP ROCKS. It has already been stated, that the term trap includes a family of rocks of igneous origin, and that these are ba- salt, porphyry, green-stone, and their associates. Under what conditions the trap rocks were formed, it is impossible to determine, there being no examples of such formations at the present day. We know that fused mat- ter, as it is thrown out of volcanoes, differs in most re- spects from any of the varieties of trap; nor do the ancient lavas vary materially from those of the present day, a proof that age does not convert lava into trap. The form under which trap rocks exist, also seems to show, that they could not have been produced under similar circum- stances with the volcanic products of the present day. Some geologists have supposed that trap was thrown up under the feea, and that the pressure of the water has been instrumental in causing the difference between it and lava. But were this the case, it might be expected that marine remains, as shells, would be common among the fissures of these rocks. If it is supposed that these have been converted into quicklime and washed away, still such remains ought to exist on the strata over which these rocks are found. It is true that such cases do exist, but they are far from being universal, or even common. ORIGIN AND PHENOMENA OF TRAP ROCKS. 189 If these rocks were thrown up into the open air in the form of lava, and after the elevation of the land from the sea, then we might inquire how the difference between products having the same origin is to be accounted for, and why trap has taken the form of precipitous mountains, instead of being spread in comparatively thin sheets on the surface, as lava is at the present day. It appears there- fore, that these rocks were formed under circumstances which it is difficult, or impossible satisfactorily to explain, and on which this is not the place to speculate. These rocks appear to be of all ages, between that of granite, and those of secondary stratified formations, con- taining organic remains. This is proved from the circum- stance, that trap is found above all the others, and when it occurs below them, the phenomena prove that the trap- pean matter has been forced between their strata from be- neath. (See Fig. 33.) The igneous origin of trap, especially of basalt and greenstone; is most directly proved by the fact, often ob- served, that where they come into contact with the origin- al strata in their passage from beneath, the effects of heat are always apparent on these strata. When a dyke of basalt intersects a stratum of coal, the coal, to the distance of several feet, or, sometimes even yards, is deprived of its bitumen, or converted into coke. Dr. Macculloch observed that the proximity of trap to shale, (a kind of slate,) has the effect to convert it into a substance resembling basalt. But it is unnecessary to cite further examples, since it may be stated in general terms, that the effect of a basaltic dyke on the contiguous strata, is precisely that which would have been produced, had the matter of the dyke been at a red, or even at a white heat, at the time of its protrusion. But there are other circumstances which show that ba- saltic dykes were formed in a fluid state, for when these penetrate stratified formations, the matter of which they are composed, sometimes insinuates itself between the strata from beneath, in a manner which would be impos- sible, had it not been in that state. Dr. Macculloch, in his account of the Western Isles, gives a figure, in illus- tration of such an instance, which is subjoined. 190 ORIGIN AND PHENOMENA OF TRAP ROCKS. Fig. 33. The vertical lines 0, fig. 33, represent the basalt partly incumbent in the unconformable position, on the horizon- tal strata c c. At b b, the basalt has forced up the sand- stone, and passed between its strata, two of which it has entirely separated from their fellows, forming between them sheets of its own matter. Dykes of basalt form angles with the horizon of every quantity. Sometimes they are nearly or quite perpendi- cular to the horizontal strata through which they pass. In some instances a large vein is pierced by a smaller one, which passing through its middle, divides it into two parts. The adjoining cut from Dr. Ure, represents such an instance. Fig. 34. Fig, 34, a a, represents the great basaltic dyke, passing through calcareous sandstone, and b, a small vein of the same matter, by which it is pierced through the line of its The latter is singularly undulated, somewhat like axis. ORIGIN AND PHENOMENA OF TRAP ROCKS. 191 the zig-zag line of an electric shock passing through the atmosphere. Although, in most instances, the trap veins pass from below, towards the surface, still there are instances where they descend from the surface into fissures beneath. This is among the more rare and remarkable phenomena which this interesting rock exhibits. This example occurs in the island of Sky, and is de- scribed by Dr. Macculloch. The basaltic veins traverse strata of sandstone, in a vertical direction, and parallel to each other. Fig. 35. Fig. 35. They appear to descend from the mass on the surface, and are so numerous, in some places, as nearly to equal, taken collectively, the mass of rock through which they pass. Sometimes six or eight veins occur within the space of 150 feet, and their aggregate magnitude is apparently sixty or seventy feet. Their average breadth is about ten feet, though they vary from five to twenty feet. It is certainly very difficult to account for the manner in which nature performed this work. Were these veins only an inch or two thick, we might suppose that the melted trap ascended by the large middle vein, seen in the drawing, and having fissured the sandstone by its great heat, descended again by the apertures thus pro- duced; but the fissures are much too large for such a sup- position. It is supposed that every basaltic dyke terminates in a mass of basalt below the surface, and, therefore, that ba- 192 COLUMNAR BASALT. saltic rocks, resting on the surface, are connected by the dyke or fissure through which they were thrown up, with that part of the mass which still remains beneath the earth. So that these dykes are necks passing through the crust of the earth and connecting the two masses. Where dykes do not reach the surface, of course they are only connec- ted with the lower masses. Columnar Basalt.^ All the members of the trap family occasionally assume the form of columns, more or less perfect, but in this respect, basalt excels the others. These columns are formed by a natural division of the whole mass of basalt in a vertical direction. They vary in the number of their angles, from three , to eleven or twelve, the medium polygons having from five to seven faces. These are often perfectly regular, the angles being sharp and well defined, and the faces plane and smooth, as represented by the annexed cut, fig. 36. Fig. 36 In most cases, when standing in their original positions, their sides are in con- tact, or so little separated as barely to admit the infiltration of carbonate of lime; a striking difference, as observed by. Dr. Macculloch, between them and the irregular prisms which result from the cracking of dried clay, and showing that the nature of the process by which these divisions are made, (whether crystalline or not,) are entirely different from each other. The columns are sometimes continuous, at others joint- ed, either obliquely or at right angles; occasionally, also, they are fissured without the appearance of regular joints. The appearance of a six-sided basaltic column, regu- larly jointed, that is, consisting of short prisms laid on each other, is represented by fig. 37. It is not common, however, that the prisms are as regular, with respect to length, as here represented, the joints being more com- monly repeated at intervals, varying from a few inches to several feet. COLUMNAR BASALT. 193 Fig. 37. Fig. 38. In their lengths, these columns also dif- fer exceedingly. In the island of Sky are some which are 400 feet long, while others are only an inch in length. In diameter some are several feet, while others are less than an inch. In exposed situations the prismatic blocks represented by fig. 37, lose their angles by the action of the weather, and become glob- ular, but still retain their columnar position as shown by fig. 38. It must not be understood that basaltic col- umns preserve their vertical positions, as usually represented by the drawings of StafFa and the Giant's Causeway, these being rare instances, both with respect to position and height. These columns are placed in every manner, from the horizon- tal to the vertical angle, though attracting most attention in these latter cases, from their resemblance to the efforts of architec- ture. Trap rocks often form mountains of con- siderable height and sometimes spread over large districts of country. The island of Sky, on the western coast of Ireland, is one continuous mass of erupted rock, fifty miles long and twenty broad. With respect to the elevation of trap mountains, the follow- ing are examples. Tinto in the district of ~ ~ " Clyde, is 2036 feet high. Benmore in the island of Mull, 3097. Salisbury Craig, 550, and Arthur's Seat, 800 feet; the two last near Edinburgh. On this side of the Atlantic, Mount Holyoke in Massa- chusetts is 830 feet above the Connecticut, and 900 feet above the level of the sea. Mount Tom, on the opposite side of the river is still more elevated, being nearly 1000 feet high. In the valley of the Connecticut, the mural side of the greenstone formations, is generally, and perhaps always towards the west, in which direction the precipices are often nearly perpendicular; while towards the east, the as- cent is commonly quite gradual. Whether this fact has 17 194 PROTRUSION OF GREENSTONE. been observed of tbe greenstone of other countries, we do not know. Who can conceive of the mighty power which forced these enormous masses from the bowels of the earth; or the awful scenery which was exhibited, when they were poured forth in the form of red hot lava? for there is no doubt but this was the manner of their production. Fig. 39. In most instances, basaltic and greenstone mountains present the form of rounded outlines, with occasional pre- cipices on one or more of their sides. The configuration of the basaltic columns of Staffa, rep- resented by fig. 39, is peculiarly striking on this account. A part of the mountain has fallen down, in the form of pillars of various dimensions, leaving the others standing in fair view, and preserving a high mural face of great el- evation, composed entirely of columnar pieces, touching each other. The rounded form of the massive cap, which surmounts these pillars, presents the outline common to basaltic hills. Protrusion of Greenstone. Although greenstone strictly belongs to the trap family; and passes by insensible de- grees into basalt, still there have been detected but few in- stances, where it has protruc^d through superincumbent rocks so as to exhibit the fact to the eye of the geologist. The diagram fig. 40, from Prof. Hitchcock's Geology t)f Massachusetts, shows such a case. MINERAL VEINS. 195 Fig. 40. " The protrusion" says Prof. H. " of the unstrati- fied rocks through the stratified ones by internal igneous agency, now admitted by most geologists, has led obser- vers to examine carefully for evidences of mechanical dis- turbance, near the line of contact. They have I believe, found less proof of such disturbance by the intrusion of greenstone, than in the case of the older rocks, as sienite and granite. Every such case therefore deserves to be noticed. If I mistake not, the following sketch of a vein of greenstone in argillaceous slate, is an example of this sort. The dyke is about ten feet thick, and the general dip of the layers of slate in the quary, is about 30 south- east. But as shown in the figure, near the greenstone it is considerably curved upwards in the contrary direction. The quarry, where this example occurs, is about half a mile north of the powder house in Charlestown." MINERAL VEINS. Metallic veins appear originally to have been fissures, often passing through different beds of rock, and which ^rere subsequently filled with metallic ores. These veins must therefore be considered as subsequent formations to the rocks through which they pass. When, however, a vein is found in only one bed of rock, the vein may have been formed and filled at the time when the rock was con- solidated. When mineral veins occur in considerable numbers in any tract of country, they maintain a general parallelism, as if all the fissures to which they owe their origin, had been formed at the same time, by some common cause. The absolute antiquity of veins cannot be conjectured 196 MINERAL VEINS. but where one rein intersects another as is often the case, the dislocation of the strata, through which the oldest vein passes, by the contact of the new one, is sufficient to show a difference in their ages. Veins exist in primitive, transition, and secondary rocks, but are most common in the former. The substances most commonly found in them, are the metals, quartz, cal- careous spar, barytes, and Derbyshire spar. It hardly need be remarked, that the chief object in pursuing veins, is the metals which they contain. With respect to the depth of metallic veins, nothing but conjecture can be offered. The miners believe that they reach quite through the earth, but this opinion has no other foundation than that they never find their termina- tion. Indeed, it is believed, that no instance has been re- corded, where the end of a metallic vein has been found. They however, often grow too poor to pay the expense of working; and the difficulty of clearing deep mines of the water, is a frequent reason why they are relinquished when they would pay a good profit, were they near the surface. Veins are seldom rich near the surface; but in- crease in value at a medium depth, and grow poor again at a greater. Metallic veins often change their metals at different depths. In France, there are veins which contain iron above, then silver, and below the silver, copper; and one of the Cornwall mines contains zinc, in the upper part of the veins, which becomes rich in copper at a greater depth. Veins often change their dimensions also, being narrow in some parts, and wide in others. Thus the Dalcoath mine of Cornwall, varies from forty feet, to six inches in width. It is a curious circumstance, that where a vein is inter- sected by a dyke, that the former often divides into two branches, which unite again before reaching the latter, and after having passed it, separates into several ramifi- cations. Thus, fig. 41, b b, is the dyke, and a a, the metallic vein, divided at a, but united again before reaching the dyke, after passing which, it again separates into several parts. The dyke has occasioned a fault, by which the two ends of the vein are widely separated. The lower branches are not supposed to terminate as represented in the cut, but to unite again and proceed downwards, c c, MINERAL VEINS. 197 shows how veins sometimes change their dimensions, be- ing narrow in some parts and wide in others. Fig. 41. Sometimes veins containing different metals cross each other, and as above stated, pass from one kind of rock into another. Examples of both, are contained in the tin Croft mine in Cornwall. In this mine are five copper veins, three of tin and one mixed, all within about a furlong of space, from north to south. Two of the tin veins proceed in a straight line, the other alters its course repeatedly, in a gradual ap- proach to the perpendicular, and is intersected by two of the copper veins. The rocks through which these veins pass, are slate and granite. Fig. 42. The annexed cut, fig. 42, from Mr. Phillip's paper, on this mine, will make the direction of these veins under- stood, a #, copper veins; b, tin veins; c, copper and tin intermixed. The dark shade is slate, and the white parts granite. The vein number 3, passes between slate and granite, one of these rocks being found on the north side, and the other on the south. Detached masses of granite and slate are found in this vein, and also in number 2. la 17* 198 THEORY OF VEINS. this mine it was frequently the case, that where the rein was passing through slate, it contained fragments of gran- ite, and when passing through granite, it contained piecea of slate. THEORY OF VEINS. No subject belonging to geology, has been contested more warmly, than the theory of metallic veins. These may be considered analagous to dykes, which are veins of stone, penetrating strata differing from themselves in kind, and it is hardly disputed at present, that dykes have not owed their origin to melted matter injected from be- low. In like manner many of the earlier geologists, and among them Dr. Hutton, supposed that the metals were forced into their veins in a fused state, the expansive force of the heat, producing the fissures. This is called the igneous theory of mineral veins. Opposed to this doctrine, is that of Werner, and his followers, who believed that the fissures of dykes and veins were produced by the shrinking of the rocks in which they are contained, and that the metallic veins were afterwards filled with the metals in a state of solu- tion, poured in from the surface of the earth. This is called the aqueous theory. From the facts we have stated concerning veins, and what will be stated directly, the reader will see, that this latter theory contradicts at once, the principal phenomena by which they are attended. For even were it shown that the metals were soluble in water, which, however, cannot be true, still the supposition that the fissures were filled from above, could not be maintained, for the fol- lowing reasons. First. The ores of most veins are un- mixed; but where a vein contains several metals, bne kind is above, or below the other. Were the metals poured in from the surface, no reason can be assigned why the several solutions should not have fallen in to- gether; or why one should have filled the lower part of the vein, and the other the upper. Second. When a vein passes through a different kind of rock, as from sandstone through limestone, the quality of the ore is changed, and it becomes richer or poorer. This is a general feet well THEORY OF VEINS. known to miners. Now it is plain, that were these veins filled by solutions poured in, the kind of rock could not possibly influence the qualtity of the metal. Third. When a fault changes the strata through which a vein passes, by lifting that on the one side, or throwing down that on the other, so as for instance, to place sandstone on one side of the vein, and limestone on the other side, the vein is never so rich in ore, as it is when both sides are of the same kind of rock. This fact is also plainly incompatible with the aqueous theory. Fourth. Were the metals poured in from above, we should expect that all the narrow parts of the veins would soon be filled with earth mixed with the solutions, and therefore that they would reach only to a short distance below the sur- face, whereas the termination of a vein, as already stated, has never been discovered. Many other objections might be stated; but these are sufficient to show, that the aque- ous theory is incompatible with the known phenomena which metallic veins present. If now we advert to the igneous theory, we shall find fewer absurdities, because much must here be left to con- jecture; but the difficulties are little less than those of the aqueous. The objections already made, may be applied, without modification, to this theory; for if the metals are injected in a state effusion from below, as we must now suppose, how would any change in the kind or position of the stra- ta, change their quantities? and how can we account for the fact, that veins in the same vicinity, contain different kinds of metal, perfectly distinct, as tin and copper, in the Cornwall mine? Besides these objections, the heat of the fused metal would have produced obvious effects on the walls of the veins, as is the case with basaltic dykes. The adoption of either of these theories, is therefore only a choice -of dilemmas, as they both fail entirely to account for the phenomena observed. But the difficulty concerning metallic veins, does not end here; for were it shown in the most satisfactory man- ner, how the metals might have been soluble in water, and in what way they might have been introduced from the surface, into the fissures; or, on the contrary, could it be made to appear that all the phenomena which veins pre- sent, were compatible with the igneous theory, still the great difficulty would remain unanswered, viz. whence did 200 THEORY OF VEINS. the metals come, before they were melted by the heat below, or dissolved by the fluid above? This, after all the arguments that have been employed on both sides, is the principal question; and the reason- able answer is obvious. The metals were created by Him who made the other parts of the earth; but whether they were formed at the same time, and in the veins as we see them, or whether the veins were fissures, afterwards filled with the metals; and if so, whether they came from be- low, being dissolved by heat, or from above, in solution with some fluid, are questions which man, with all his cu- riosity, seems destined never to answer. *f " Fig. 43. The adjoining cut represents the most common varieties of metallic veins. It is from Sir W. T. Brande's " Out- lines of Geology," and is placed here to gratify the curiosi- ty of the reader, on this mysterious subject. With respect to the direction of different metallic veins, we have already observed, that in the same neighborhood, they commonly run parallel with each other, and are of- ten nearly, or quite vertical, or perpendicular to the line of the horizon. But the inclination of different series of veins is found at every angle, from the perpendicular to the horizontal; and the manner in which they run among the strata, is. also exceedingly various. In most instances, the line of the vein is across that of the strata, but some- times they run parallel with each other, and the veins spread out between the strata, as represented at No. 4. Sometimes, also, a vein, whose general direction is across the strata, will take a short turn between them, and then proceed on as before, as represented at 7. The branches MINES AND MINERS. of the veins do not terminate as they seem to do in the figure, but commonly join themselves together again, as seen at 2. It must not be understood that metallic veins consist of metals, or their ores alone; on the contrary, they are mix- ed with greater or less proportions of stony matter. Some- times the ore is diffused through the vein, in some man- ner as it would be, had the stone been porous, and dipped into a solution of the metal. In other instances, the metal lies in concretions, or crystals, entirely surrounded by the stone. An instance of this is common in the sulphuret of iron, the crystals of which appear as though they had been perfectly formed, and then dropped into the stone when in a soft state. Indeed, so mysterious are the phenomena which metallic veins exhibit, as in the present state of knowledge, to defy all hypothesis. MINES AND MINERS. The means of arriving at a vein, or working a mine, are varied according to the nature of the rock or country which it traverses, and are dependent upon a great variety of adventitious circumstances, frequently connected with those under which the vein was discovered; which disco- very is often accidental, as during the making of roads, cutting of ditches, or draining land; or sometimes it is ar- rived at, by the discovery of fragments, or pebbles of ore in the bed of rivers, or in alluvial soils through which streams formerly appear to have passed. Thus the an- cient mode of shading, or searching for tin, consisted in tracing certain stones containing that metal, to the vein whence they came. Sometimes the course of a vein may be learned by the nature of the fragments and stones upon the surface, and, more especially, when it is of iron, by their ocherous tints. A knowledge too, of the substances which, in different countries, usually accompany the ore of a metal, forming what is called the ganue, or matrix, is often of much importance in these inquiries. Sometimes the springs in the vicinity of metallic veins are so tainted, as to lead to their discovery. Of this, a singular instance occurred some years ago at Dolgetty, where the peat in the neighborhood of the vein, was so 202 MINES AND MINERS. impregnated by sulphate of copper, as to leave some of the metal in its ashes when burned. When this was as- certained, the injured vegetation guided to the vein. By the retention, therefore, of these contaminated waters, in the soil near the vein, it may become unfit for vegeta- tion, and thus the sterillity of certain patches of ground, may indicate the existence of metallic substances in the district. (Mr. Brande, who writes the above account, has not stated what species of copper was discovered. It was, however, undoubtedly a sulphuret, and from the decom- position of which, the sulphuric acid was produced, which uniting with the oxide of the metal, formed sul- phate of copper. In the Anglesea copper-mine, consider- able quantities of the metal are obtained from the natural solution of the sulphate in water. This is done by throw- ing in pieces of waste iron, on which the copper is precip- itated.) "There are no class of persons," continues Mr. Brande, " more curiously superstitious than miners; and hence a variety of omens, connected with the interference of agents from the spiritual world, are among the items of their creed. Sometimes while under ground, they fancy they hear another pick at work, announcing the presence of a little man, or pixey-knocker, in some neighboring cavern, and the consequent vicinity of a good course of ore. Sometimes the divining rod is resorted to, as a means of finding the ore; and sometimes it is said that flames of light, dancing about a mining district, have suddenly perched upon the looked for vein; a circumstance not im- probable, and perhaps referable to the power of the vein to conduct electricity." "The habits, however, of the miner, are those of indus- try and perseverance, which sometimes tempt him to ex- ploits that excite astonishment at his venturous hardihood. The very idea of a descent beneath. the surface of the earth, has something in it of the terrible," says Mr. Phil- lips, " and at which those shudder who are unacquainted with practical mining; but such is the force of habit, that any other employment rarely tempts him to forsake his own. The occasional perils of his occupation are scarce- ly noticed, or if nbticed, are soon forgotten. He walks, often in the middle of the night, and in all weathers, two, or three, or more miles, to the mine, undresses, and puts MINES AND MINERS. 203 on his underground clothes, and, with his tools, slung over his shoulder, descends to a depth of 1000 or 1200 feet, assisted by the light of a small candle, and works in the bottom of the mine six or eight hours, amidst the noise of the working of the pumps, with as much alacrity and with as little sense of danger, as he would feel amidst his ordinary occupations above ground. We should be inclined to feel pity for the wretch, who, as an atonement for his crimes, should be compelled to undergo what the Cornish miner voluntarily undertakes for a small pittance, and that even of an uncertain amount." W. Phillip's Geol. Trans. One of the mines in the parish of St. Just, is wrought nearly 500 feet under the sea, beyond low-water mark; and the sea, in some places, is only about eighteen feet over the back of his workings; insomuch that the miners underneath hear the break, flux, ebb, and re-flux of every wave; which, upon the beach overhead, may be said to have the run of the Atlantic ocean for many hundred leagues, and consequently are amazingly powerful and boisterous. They also hear the rumbling noise of every nodule, and fragment of a rock, which are continually rolling upon the submarine stratum; which altogether make a kind of thundering roar, which would surprise and terrify the stranger. Add to this, that several parts of the land which were richer than others, have been indiscretely hulked, and worked within four feet of the sea, whereby, in violent stormy weather, the noise overhead has been so tremendous, that the workmen have many times deserted their labor, under the grea- test fear, lest the sea should break in upon them. Pryce's Mineralogia Cornubiensis. In former times, when a vein of metal was discovered, it was worked to a certain depth, and then often aban- doned, in consequence of the insufficiency of the pumps to carry off the water, or the expense incurred in their erec- tion and working. In certain situations, however, it was found that this water run off at lower levels, and that in most instances it might be carried away by an under- ground tunnel, commencing at the foot of the hill, pene- trating to the vein, and thus forming a communication with the working of the mine, and a neighboring valley. These tunnels are now called adits, and when it is resolv- ed to try a vein, one of these uuderground passages, 204 PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. about six feet high, and two and a half wide, is begun at the bottom of the neighboring valley, and driven up to the vein for the purpose of carrying off the water; or if a mine has an engine to raise the water from a greater depth than that of the entrance of the adit, the engine then, instead of having to lift the water to the surface, throws, it off with diminished labor at the adit. In gener- al, adits are nearly horizontal, for although a declivity would acclerate the drainage, it would enter the mine at a less depth. The importance of draining mines by adits has led to some gigantic undertakings of this kind. The great Cornish adit, commences in a valley above Carnon, near the sea, and branches off in its course in several di- rections to about fifty mines. Most of the mines are far below the level of the adit, the water being raised into it by means of steam engines. The entire length of this adit, with its various branches, is about thirty miles. But the greatest length of any one branch from, its mouth to the mine, is that of Cardrew Mine, which is about five and a half miles. The greatest depth of any part of this adit is at Wheel Hope, where it is about 400 feet deep. It empties itself into Falmouth Harbor. Several great works of the same kind exist in different parts of Great Britain. The adit belonging to the Duke of Bridgewater's Coal mines, is nearly thirty miles long, and navigable for small boats. Where an adit is of any considerable length, it is obr vious that the air would becdme stagnant in it, so that the workmen would be unable to proceed. To prevent this, and also to enable them to remove the produce of the excavation without transporting it to great distances, per- pendicular openings called shafts, are made at various in- tervals. From these shafts, levels or galleries are driven in different directions, either for exploring for new veins, or for removing the contents of those already known. See Brande's Geology. PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. The origin of common springs is easily understood. The water which falls on the surface of the earth, pene- trates its substance, until meeting with a stratum of clay, PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 205 or the surface of a continuous rock, which hinders its de- scent, it accumulates, and taking the direction given by these impediments, continues its course, until meeting with an aperture, gushes out in the form of a spring. Fig. 44. Suppose a, fig. 44, to be a gravel hill, and 6, strata of clay or rock, impervious to water. The fluid percola- ting through the gravel would reach the impervious stra- ta, along which it would run until it found an outlet at c, at the foot of the hill, where a spring would be formed. As water in the earth observes the law of gravity, springs are most commonly found lower than their sources. When however the fluid is intercepted by a dyke, which rises as high as its source, the hydrostatic law of tending to a level, will carry it as high as its source; though this in fact is probably not a common circumstance, since the pressure of the water generally will find an outlet before it rises to such a height. The people of Artois in France, for a long time, have been in the practice of boring into the earth, until they find a sheet or vein of water which rises to the surface. These are called Artesian wells, because the method was first invented, or employed in Artois. This method has for many years been practised in other parts of Europe, and more recently in this country. The size of the boring is usually three or four inches in diameter, and to prevent its sides from falling in when it passes through a stratum of sand, there is introduced a jointed tube, which in Artois, is made of wood, but in other countries of copper, or other metal. It often hap- pens that after passing through hundreds of feet, without success, a vein of water is pierced, which immediately ascends to the surface, and flows over the end of the tube. The first rush of the water is somtimes so violent as to throw it many feet above the surface, where for a time it plays like an artificial fountain, and then continues to run in a steady stream, or perhaps sinks away below the surface to the great disappointment of the operator. 18 206 PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. This violent gush of the water appears to be owing to the pressure of air or gas on its surface, before it was pierced by the auger. Dr. Hildreth states that in boring for salt in Ohio, the gas rushed out with such force as to throw the auger and poles into the top of a tree. In some instances large quantities of water have been discharged from great depths in this manner. In 1824, a well was dug at Fulham, near the English Thames, to the depth of 317 feet, the deepest part of which passed through sixty-seven feet of chalk. On piercing through the chalk the water immediately rose to the surface, and discharged itself at the rate of fifty gallons per minute. Sometimes borings for Artesian wells are entirely with- out success. Thus, at Toulouse, in France, the excava- tion was carried to the immense depth of 1200 feet, and abandoned without finding water. In most places, in- deed, there is no doubt but success must depend on chance, since neither skill nor experience in ordinary circum- stances, can ascertain beforehand the direction of a water vein. It appears however that in certain situations, water bearing strata underlay considerable extents of country, as will appear by the following account. In the country about Modena, in Italy, to find water, they dig through several kinds of soil, until they come to a stratum of hard calcareous clay, which resembles chalk. Here they begin their mason work, and build the wall at their leisure, carrying it up to the surface, without the least sign of water. But experience has taught the work- men not to expect it until they pierce this stratum, when it never fails to reward their labors. When the well is finished they bore through this hard stratum with a long auger, but take care to leave the well before they draw it out again; which when they have done, the water springs up into the well, and in a short time rises to the brim, or in some instances overflows into the neighboring valley. The source of these wells is supposed to be in the Ap- penine mountains, which lie not a great distance from Modena, and to which, the impervious stratum does not reach. The water from the mountains, therefore sinks below this stratum, at a distance from these wells, and is thus prevented from rising to the surface until this is pierced. PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 207 Fig. 45. Fig. 46. Suppose fl, fig. 45, to represent the Appenines, sloping down, towards Modena, and passing under the secondary strata at b. Suppose that the impervious strata c, does not reach the side of the mountain, and that the strata both above and below it, admit the water through them; then the fluid would not rise in any quantity above this stratum, except about its edges; but the pressure being constant on its lower side, because the source is elevated, the moment this is pierced the water flows above it, as at w, which represents a well. In many instances, wells overflow their brims, and con- tinue to discharge water, in the manner of springs. These may be springs deeply situated, which happen to be struck by the well, or they may be dishes of water, confined by dykes, or by impervious strata, inclining towards each other. The annexed cut, fig. 46, represents inclined strata cov- ered with alluvial deposites. The water descending along the strata, would be lost in the adjoining valley, was it not intercepted by the dyke, d, which serves as an im- pervious dam. The water, therefore, rises and forms springs along the inside of the dyke. Now if a well be sunk at w, the water will rise to the surface of the ground, and if the inclined rocks be considerably higher than the well, it will overflow. If the strata form a dish, one side of which is considerably higher than the other, the same effect will be produced. London and its vicinity stand over a formation, of rath- er a peculiar kind, called London clay. Its direction is nearly horizontal, and its thickness from 100 to 500 feet It is covered with alluvial deposites of various thickness; so that although the surface of the clay may be horizon- 208 PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. tal, still the depth of the wells are various, according to the thickness of the alluvium. Until within a few years, most of the wells in and about London, were sunk no deeper than the surface of this clay, and its impervious nature is of vast importance to that great city, since the water is thus retained, and a plentiful supply is always furnished by means of shallow wells. But this water, though limpid, is hard and impure. That, however, which is drawn from below the clay, is perfectly soft and transparent; and hence all the pumps about London, which furnish such water, are of great depth, piercing the sand below the clay. This water, says Mr. Conybeare, frequently rises so in- stantaneously, on passing through the clay, as not to suf- fer the well digger to escape, without rising above his head. It appears to rise in different places, to different heights. Thus at Liptrap's distillery, near the Thames, it rises no higher than the level of that river; but at Tot- tenham, four miles north of London, it rises sixty feet above that level; while at Epping, fifteen miles north of London, the water rises to within twenty-six feet of the summit of the well, which is 340 feet above the level of the Thames, and therefore 3 14 feet above that level. This well is 420 feet deep, of which 200 feet were sunk through by digging, and 220 bored with an auger four inches in diameter. After boring to this depth, no water being found, the project was relinquished, and the well was covered over; but at the end of five months it was found that the water had risen to within twenty-six feet of the surface, and has so continued ever since. The sinking of this well was therefore 340 feet above the level of the Thames, and eighty feet below it. Another well, two miles from this, at Hunter's Hall, is 350 feet deep, but its summit is seventy higher than that at Epping, and 410 feet above the level of the Thames. The water in this well, stands 130 feet above its bottom, which is sixty feet above the level of the Thames; the ac- tual elevation of this water, therefore, is not so great as that at Epping, by fifty-four feet. These facts will be better understood by fig. 47, where H marks Hunter's Hall; E Epping; T Tottenham; L Lip- trap's well, at Mile End. a b, is the level of the sea, as indicated by that of the Thames. It will be observed that all the wells reach below the level of the Thames, except PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 209 Fig. 47. that at Hunters' Hall, The numbers will be chiefly un- derstood by the explanations already given. Thus the water in the well at Hunters* Hall, stands 130 feet from its bottom, the well is 350 feet, and its mouth 410 above the level of the Thames. That at Epping, is 420 feet deep, its summit is 340 feet above the Thames, and its bot- tom, 80 feet below it; the water is 314 feet deep, and it ri- ses to within 26 feet of the top. The well at Tottenham is 130 feet deep; its top is 70 feet above the Thames, and its bottom 60 feet below it, and the water rises 60 feet above the sea. All these wells being sunk below the London clay, and deriving their water from the same source, it might be expected that agreeably to the general law of hydrostatics that their surfaces would have a common level. The Lon- don clay, as we have stated, is nearly on a horizontal lev- el; the depth of the well at Hunters' Hall, however shows a slight rising of the strata there, but still the water in that well does not rise so high by 54 feet, as that in the well at Epping. Now did the water which supplies these wells, exist in a great reservoir, so that a full and instantaneous commu- nication could take place between the different points pierced by the wells, then the water in them all would stand at the same hydrostatic level; whereas in fact, no such case exists. The strata on the contrary, which bear the water, though more or less porous, are still too close to allow the fluid to pass with rapidity; hence such strata may be considered as acting on the water in the same man- ner as a series of imperfect dams. Now although the wa- ter in the present case has the same general source, being that which falls on the highlands, beyond the confines of the London clay formation, and percolating so as to rise under it, yet from the want of free communication, it will 18* 210 PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. not every where rise to the same height when the clay is pierced, but the well will only drain that which presses with the greatest force in its immediate vicinity, without affecting that which is at a distance. If there is a free and extensive drain in any part of such a formation, then it is obvious that the water in that vicinity will rise no higher than the level of the drain. Thus the water in the well marked L on the cut, rises no higher than the Thames, be- cause that river cuts through the London clay, and serves as a drain to the same water bearing stratum which sup- plies the other wells. Wells situated in level countries, and in alluvial forma- tions, generally require to be sunk only thirty or forty feet, and sometimes no more than twenty before water is found. These are not commonly supplied by springs, but merely by the draining of the water which exists within the circuit of a few yards, into a cavity. During severe droughts, many such wells fail, which shows that they are supplied only by the rain which percolates from the sur- face, and not by deeply seated springs. But there are some extraordinary phenomena connected with springs which require a different explanation, if in- deed they can be explained at all. There is little difficulty with respect to those springs which rise in salt marshes, or which gush from the fis- sures of rocks under the sea. The sources of these are in the distant hills; or in the strata of the vicinity, situated higher than their outlets; and the presence of the sea or marsh it is plain, could not affect them, since the water from these do not penetrate their sources. This principle will also account for such springs as rise on small islands at little distances from the sea shore, where they could not have been collected from the rain falling there. There are however springs which arise near the tops of hills, and which are so situated as to make it apparent that their sources could not exist in the same hills, nor in those in the immediate vicinity. The water with which such are supplied, must therefore, come from the higher hills or mountains, at a distance, and passing the inter- vening valley, rise by hydrostatic force to these outlets. Many rocks are so full of fissures, as to present no diffi- culty in supposing that considerable rivulets might run among them, at great depths below the surface. Rocks also frequently contain large cavities, so that some rivers PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS AND WELLS. 211 sink down into them and disappear for miles, when they again issue from their hiding places, and continue their courses. In limestone districts it is well known that large cavities are of common occurrence. Perhaps, therefore, the manner in which water is conveyed to the springs, situated as above described, may be as follows. Water from hills at a distance, and more elevated than the springs, descend through fissures, to a cavity in the valley, which cavity communicates with another fissure running to the spring. In this manner the hydrostatic pressure from the highest hill would overcome that from the lower one, and the water would be perpetually transferred from one to the other. Pig. 48. The annexed cut, fig. 48, will make this obvious. The rills a, are supposed to unite and fall into the cavity be- low b\ from which, the greater pressure from a, forces the water up the hill, through a fissure, to c, where the spring issues. That water runs in considerable streams under the earth and among the fissures of rocks, is proved by its issuing in springs, sometimes in large quantities. Dr. Macculloch states, that a spring in Staffordshire is compu- ted to discharge more water annually, than all the falls in the surrouding country; and the same, even to a greater degree, is true of that of the Sorgne, in France. A writer in Featherstonhaugh's Journal, for August 1831, p. 65, refers to a great body of water which issues from the ground, ten miles from Harrisburg, Virginia, and which is known under the name of " Big Spring." He says, " it should rather be called a river, so large is the body of water which rises suddenly from the foot of a limestone hill, and continues in a stream some yards in breadth and half a foot deep, with force sufficient to turn two large mills immediately below." There is a spring at Kingston, R. I., which arises from primitive rocks, and discharges such a quantity of water, CHANGE OF CLIMATE. that a grist mill has been driven by it for a great number of years; and more recently, a large cotton factory has been erected below the corn-mill, which depended en- tirely on the water of this spring to turn its whole ma- chinery* From these, and such like facts, there can be but little doubt, that small streams are constantly running under ground among the crevices of the rocks, and that such springs are formed by a union of many of these tributa- ries, in a similar manner to which larger streams are form- ed on the surface of the earth, by the union of several smaller ones* CHANGE OF CLIMATE. . It will be the object of this section to show, that the temperature of the earth's surface, at some period anterior to the era of history, suffered a material, and probably a sudden change, and that in consequence, the climates of different countries have become colder than they were at some remote period. This is a subject of great interest in geology, and al- though the idea of a universal change of climate was once strongly controverted, most writers, at the present day, consider that there is sufficient evidence, that the tem- perature of the earth's surface is much lower than for- merly, " That the climate of the northern hemisphere has un- dergone an important change," says Mr. Lyell, " and that its mean annual temperature must once have resembled that now experienced within the tropics, was the opinion of some of the naturalists who first investigated the con- tents of ancient strata. Their conjecture became more probable, when the shells and corals of the secondary rocks were more carefully examined, for these organic re- mains were found to be intimately connected, by generic af- finity, with species no w living in warmer latitudes. At a later period, many reptiles, such as turtles, tortoises, and large saurian (lizard-like) animals were discovered in the Euro- pean strata, in great abundance, and they supplied new and powerful arguments from analogy, in support of the doc- trine, that the heat of the climate had been great when CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 213 our secondary formations were deposited. Lastly, when the botanist turned his attention to the specific determina- tion of fossil plants, the evidence acquired the fullest con- firmation; for the flora of a country is peculiarly influenced by its temperature; and the ancient vegetation of the earth might more readily than the forms of animals, have afforded conflicting proofs, had the popular theory been without foundation. " It is not merely reasoning from analogy, that we are led to infer a diminution of temperature, in the climate of Europe; there are direct proofs in confirmation of the same doctrine, in the only countries hitherto investigated by expert geologists, where we could expect to meet with direct proofs. It is not in England, or Northern France, but around the borders of the Mediterranean, from the South of Spain to Calabria, and in the islands of the Me- diterranean, that we must look for conclusive evidence on this question; for it is not in strata, where the organic re- mains belong to extinct species, but where living species abound in a fossil state, that a theory of climate can be subjected to the experimentum crucis. In Sicily, Ischia, and Calabria, where the fossil testacea of the more recent strata, belong almost entirely to species now known to inhabit the Mediterranean, the conchologist remarks, that individuals in the inland deposites, exceed" in their average size the living analogues." LyelVs Geology, vol. i. p. 92. The shells thus existing in strata, and in the fossil state, differ in no respects from those now found in the adjoin- ing sea, except in size; the ancient ones being much larger than those now living. Hence the conclusion, that because these animals do not attain the size the same spe- cies did anciently, the climate has deteriorated. It has also been ascertained that some species of shells found in the fossil state, in Italy, are now living in the In- dian Ocean, and that these correspond in size; whereas the same species existing at present in the Mediterranean, are comparatively dwarfs in size, having been stinted in their growth, for want of the heat which now exists in the In- dian Ocean. These circumstances go far to show, that the climate of Italy is not so hot as formerly, for it is well known, that these shells attain a size in some proportion to the heat of the climate in which they are found. 214 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. Another and perhaps stronger proof, is drawn from the vegetable remains, which are found in various strata es- pecially in those of coal. M. Adolphe Brogniart, in his " Treatise on the classification and distribution of fossil plants," has come to the following, among other conclu- sions on this subject. First, "That in the strata of coal and anthracite, the vegetables preserved are nearly all cryptogamous, or monocotyledonous* plants, as ferns,t equisetums,J and lycopodiums, &c." and that some of these tribes which no longer exist, except as fossils, grew to an immense size inEurope." (Some of the Equisetums were ten or twenty feet high, and from six to twelve inches in diameter. These tribes in our climate at the present day, grow from one to three feet in height, and are ordinarily about the size of a pipe- stem. A specimen of this tribe from the borders of Ca- nada, now before us, is more than two inches in diameter, a proof that the climate of North America, as well as that of Europe has changed. Plants of the fern kind, in some parts of Europe, attained the height of forty or fifty feet; and the arborescent club-mosses were sixty or seventy feet high. No plants of these tribes, at the present day, ever attain one fourth of these sizes.) Second, " That in the higher strata, a great variety of fossil vegetables exist, which, for the most part, appear to belong to similar tribes of plants, if not in species, at least in genera, to vegetables which still inhabit the hottest regions of the earth; nor is it probable that they have been transported to the places where they are found in Europe, from such climates, since their most delicate parts are uninjured." It is therefore, reasonable to sup- pose, that since the growth of these vegetables, the cli- mate of Europe has suffered a great change. The Count Sternberg, author of a splendid work, the " Botanical arid Geological Flora," of the Ancient world, * Plants with one Cotyledon, as wheat, Indian corn, and the grasses. t Polypodies and Brakes. t Horsetails. The scouring rush is a species. v Ground pine, or Club-mosses. The ground-pine, employed in dres- sing churches for Christmas, is an example. CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 215 ** concludes, that the vegetation of which bituminous coal," has been formed, consisted of several species of large trees, of which he has in his collection, trunks eighteen inches in diameter. These trees seem all to have be- longed to the monocotyledonous or polycotyledonous* families. They were palms, bamboos, &c., plants which at the present day are found only in hot climates. " If," says Dr. Ure, " we examine the fossilized fruits found in the upper [coal] strata, we shall see that several of them evidently belonged to the same family of palms; but one of the most extraordinary facts, connected with this subject is, that none of these fruits appear to have grown on the palms with fan-shaped leaves; but on the contrary, that all the fruits that have been delineated by authors, seem referable to the genera with pinnate, (feather-formed) leaves." There is no doubt, however, that palms, with fan-shap- ed leaves, (fan-palms) once covered Europe with their lofty vegetation, since petrified specimens of these plants exists in great abundance. The opinion formerly entertained, that these trees had been transported to Eu- rope from warmer climates, appears in the present state of knowledge, to be without the least foundation, since not only, trees with entire branches have been found, but also roots in the places where they grew. In some coal mines, have been discovered .the trunks of large trees standing in their original vertical positions, around which, several strata of rock and coal have been deposited, which fact is clearly incompatible with the hypothesis of trans- portation. The existence of the bones of animals of enormous dimensions, though of extinct species, afford by analogy, an indication of the tropical heat of Europe, at some re- mote period. The great megalosaurus, (great lizard,) and the still more gigantic iguanadon, (iguana-toothed,) says Mr. Mantell, to which the groves of palms and arborescent ferns, would be mere beds of reeds, must have been of such prodigious magnitude, that the existing animal crea- tion, presents us with no fit objects of comparison. * Seeds consisting of more than two seed lobes, Very few plants of this character are known at the present day. 216 CHANGE OP CLIMATE, Imagine an animal of the lizard tribe, three or four times! as large as the largest crocodile, having jaws equal in size to those of the rhinoceros, and a head crested with horns. Such must have been the iguanadon. This huge animal is supposed, from the dimensions of some of his bones, to have been about seventy feet in length, with a body as thick as that of an elephant. Its skeleton was found in Sussex, England, The bones of the megalosaurus, also found in England, indicate an animal of the lizard kind, about forty feet long, and when standing, eight feet high. It is true that these animals no longer exist, and there- fore, only indicate a change of climate, by the analogy, that animals of similar tribes, and of great size, are found exclusively in tropical climates at the present day. But there is not wanting other evidence of such a change, and perhaps as direct as the nature of such a case will allow, in the fact clearly proved by Dr. Buckland, that animals once inhabited Europe, the genera of which are known to live only in tropical climates. The following are the cir- cumstances: A cave was discovered by some workmen at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire, in 1821. Its mouth was at first nearly cov- ered by rubbish, but on removing this, and exploring the interior, there was found a cavern 240 feet in length, four* teen feet high, and from three to seven feet wide. The rock being of limestone, its roof was covered with hang- ing stalactites, 1 * and its floor in many places incrusted with stalagmite.f The floor was covered with a coat of soft mud, or loam, about a foot thick, and in this were found the bones of various animals. These were in a high state of preservation, they were broken, but none appear- ed as though they had been worn by the action of water, * Stalactites are formed by the percolation of water through limestone rocks, by which calcareous particles are dissolved, and subsequently left by the evaporation of the water, on the roof of the cavern. They hang like icicles, and gradually increase by the deposition of stony particles, in concentric circles. t Stalagmite is formed by the water which falls from the stalactites to the floor of the cavern, where by evaporation, it deposites its calcareous matter. Sometimes the stalactite and the stalagmite meet each other, and joining, form pillars, extending from the floor to the roof of th cavern, CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 217 or sand, which most probably would have been the case, had they drifted there in the naked state. The genera of animals to which the Kirkdale bones be- long, amounted to twenty-three in number; viz. Hyena, Tiger, Bear, Wolf, Fox, Weasel, Ox, Elephant, Rhinoce- ros, Hippopotamus, Horse, Deer three species, Hare, Rabbit, Water-rat, Mouse, Raven, Pigeon, Lark, Duck, and Partridge. A great proportion of these animals belonged to spe- cies now supposed to be extinct, though the genera of them all are still living. On examination of all the circumstances, Professor Buckland concludes that this cave was the den of hyenas, and that the multitude of bones thus discovered, were carried into this place by these animals, and therefore that the hyena, an animal now inhabiting the hottest climates, once lived in England. These bones were, without exception, broken or gnaw- ed, so that among the vast numbers the cave contained, there could hardly be found all the pieces for a single limb, much less for an entire skeleton. The great num- ber of hyenas which had died in this cave, or whose skulls had been carried there, was proved by the number of the canine teeth of this animal, which it contained. Professor Buckland states, that one collector obtained more than 300 of these teeth, and as each individual has only four of this kind, these must have belonged to at least seventy-five of these animals. But from the num- ber of such teeth found, besides the 303, and other cir- cumstances, it was judged that not less than from 200 to 300 hyenas had perished in this cave. Hence it is con- cluded, that the cave had been for a long series of years a den of hyenas, and that these bones were carried there as their food. This supposition is supported by the well known hab- its, and appetites of these animals at the present day; their habitations being the deep recesses of the rocks, and their food the carcasses and bones of animals already dead, and decayed. The immense power of the jaw, which these animals possess, enables them to break and masticate bones, in a manner which no other animal can do. When they at- tack a dog, it is said they begin by biting off his leg at a " single snap;" and Prof. Buckland, after a part of his 19 218 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. work was written, had the satisfaction of seeing a Cape Hyena, in confinement, crush the thigh bone of an ox, in a manner which convinced him, that the bones in the cave had undergone a similar operation. The animal bit off all the upper part of the bone, which he swallowed in the shape of fragments, licking out the marrow from the cavity. The lower part, being exceedingly hard, he did not eat; and with this Prof. Buckland compared the frag- ments of similar bones found in the cave. His words are, " I preserved all the fragments and gnawed parts of this bone, for the sake of comparison, by the side of those I have from the ante-diluvian den in Yorkshire: there is absolutely no difference betweeen them, except in point of age." This experiment was followed by presenting the fero- cious animal with other bones. " I gave him, successive- ly," says he, '* three shin bones of a sheep; he snapped them asunder in a moment, dividing each into two parts, all of which he swallowed entire, and without the small- est mastication. On the keeper putting a spar of wood, two inches in diameter, into his den, he crushed it in pieces, as if it had been touch-wood, and in a minute the whole was reduced to a mass of splinters. The power of his jaws far exceeded any animal force of the kind, I ever saw exerted, and reminded me of nothing so much as a miner's crushing mill, or the scissors with which they cut off bars of iron and copper, in the metal found- ries." Reliquitz Diluviance, p. 37. It is not to be supposed that the carcasses of the Ele- phant, Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus, were carried into this cave in an entire state; for neither the strength of the Hyena, nor the size of the aperture would favor such an opinion. The state of the bones, on the contrary, would seem to indicate that they were dragged in, one at a time, from the carcasses of such animals as were found dead in the neighborhood, as food for these ferocious beasts. On the hypothesis that these animals had entered the Kirkdale cavern, when living, and of their own accord, it may at once be objected, that unless the size of the aper- ture was much larger formerly than when discovered, this would have been impossible; besides, the elephant, horse, hippopotamus, and most of the other animals whose bones .the cave contained, never voluntarily go into such places. CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 219 The idea has also been suggested, that these animals might have taken shelter in this place in order to avoid some catastrophe, perhaps the deluge. But this opinion is fully as improbable as the other; for in addition to the fact, that most of these animals have never been known to enter caves, on any occasion no circumstances can be imagined, which would have forced the deer and the tiger, the horse and the wolf, the fox and the rabbit, together with the hyena and elephant, to take shelter in the same place, at the same time. But what makes all this improb- able, and indeed impossible, is, that not a single entire skeleton was found in the cave; clearly proving that the bones, only, of these animals were carried there. All these facts and circumstances prove, in as satisfac- tory a manner as can be desired, that England was once inhabited by elephants, hyenas, tigers, and other animals belonging only to hot climates; for that these bones could have been drifted from a foreign climate into this cave, is more improbable than any hypothesis we have mentioned; for the bones alone would have sunk in the water; and had they been covered with flesh, the larger animals not only could not have entered, but if so, their entire skeletons would have still remained. It is therefore reasonable to conclude, that these ani- mals lived and-died in the country where their bones are found; nor is there any one circumstance which can be em- ployed as an argument against such a belief, except the coldness of the climate at the present day. The only climates in which the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus and hyena are now found, are among the hottest on the earth; and it is said, the only country which all these four animals inhabit together, is Southern Africa. In the neighborhood of the Cape of Good Hope, these four animals live and die together, as they formerly did in England. "To the question," says Prof. Buckland, " which here so naturally presents itself, as to what might have been the climate of the northern hemisphere when peopled with genera of animals, which are now confined to the warmer regions of the earth, it is not essential to the point before" me to find a solution; my object is to establish the fact, that these animals lived and died in the regions where their re- mains are found, and were not drifted thither by the dilu- vial waters from other latitudes. The state of the climate 220 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. in which these extinct species may have lived, antecedent- ly to the great inundation by which they were extirpated, is a distinct matter of inquiry, and on which the highest authorities are not agreed." Cuvier is of the opinion, that many of the extinct fossil animals were of a different species from those now in ex- istence, and therefore the inference may be drawn, that some species of the same genera might have been fitted for a cold, while others could live only in a warm climate. Thus the fox is found, both in the coldest, and the hot- test regions; and the Newfoundland dog is so protected by his coat, as to endure the cold of an arctic winter, while the naked African species would perish in a moderate cli- mate. v On the other hand, it may be contended that the re- mains of many animals are found in strata in cold regions, which are not liable to any such variations, and which from their nature, or structure, are known to live only in hot climates; such are the crocodiles and some species of the tortoise. But the want of vegetation in cold climates, is an insu- perable objection to the hypothesis, that such animals as the elephant, rhinoceros and hippopotamus, could have been maintained during the winter season in Great Brit- ain, let their natural clothing be supposed ever so warm. And besides, the bones of these animals, and especially those of the elephant, are no where found in such abun- dance, as in Siberia, one of the most inhospitable climates on the earth, and in which country, at the present day, there is hardly sufficient vegetation to mantain a few ele- phants, even during the few months of summer; and where that most hardy of all quadrupeds, the rein-deer, can with difficulty maintain itself through the rigors of an eight months winter. At present, the elephant and rhinoceros, except through the tyranny of man, are never found out of a country perpetually verdant. With respect to the supposition which has been offered, that these animals might have migrated with the seasons, and thus enjoyed the luxury of a constant vegetation, it is plain that the present geographical situation of England, would invalidate any such hypothesis, unless it can be shown that these animals found a warmer country by cros- sing the straits of Dover, a distance of more than twenty miles, by water. This, so far as regards the rhi- CH'ANGE OF CLIMATE. 22 noceros, tiger and hyena, is clearly impossible, and it is well known that the hippopotamus not only lives exclu- sively in fresh water, but that its unweildly bulk prevents it from taking long and rapid journeys. Thus the facts which geology has brought to light, with respect to certain portions of the animal, as well as the vegetable kingdom, appear very clearly to concur in pro- ving, that the climate of Europe was once, at least as ar- dent as the hottest parts of Africa are at this day; and that there was a time, when Siberia was clothed with a suffi- ciency of vegetation to support herds of elephants during the whole year. Causes which have produced a change of climate. With respect to the cause, or causes which have effected so great a change in the temperature of the earth's surface, there are a variety of opinions. Burnet, as stated in the abstract we have given of his the- ory, accounted for this change by supposing that the earth's axis took a new and different position at the time of Noah's flood; but astronomy has shown the improbabil- ity of any such change of position. Most writers who admit a deterioration of climate, sup- pose with Burnet, that the change was sudden, and that it took place about the period of the deluge. Some, how- ever, and among them Mr. Lyell, believe it to have been; gradual, occupying thousands of years, and to have been caused by the changes which have taken place in the rel- ative positions of the sea and land. But in the first place, 110 such changes as this author supposes are proved to have happened with respect to the sea and land; nor se- cond, had such changes been proved, is it at all probable, such local causes could have been adequate to effect a change so material and universal? Other theorists, who maintain the deterioration to have been gradual, think that the most reasonable mode of ac- counting for it, is to suppose that the earth was created in the state of a fused mass, and that it has been cooling ever since. Sir John F. W. Herschel has recently made some cal- culations and inquiries, with the view of ascertaining whether there existed any astronomical causes, which might account for the difference h^etween the present and ancient heat of the earth's surface. " Geometers," he says,. 19* 222 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. "have demonstrated the absolute invariability of the mean distance of the earth from the sun; whence it would at first seem to follow, that the mean annual supply of light and heat derived from that luminary would be alike inva- riable; but a closer consideration of the subject will show, that this would not be a legitimate conclusion; but that on the contrary, the mean amount of solar radiation is depen- dent on the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, and therefore liable to variations." " Now the eccentricity of the earth's orbit," he continues, "is actually diminishing, and has been so for ages beyond the records of history. In consequence, the ellipsis is in a state of approach to a circle, and the annual average of solar heat radiated to the earth is actually on the de- crease. But whether this diminution of radiated heat is sufficient to account for the refrigeration of climate, which geological facts appear t'o prove, is a question which has not been decided." Allowing that the earth's orbit should become a perfect circle, we are at a loss to see how the mean annual radia- tion should thereby be diminished. It is the opinion of M. Arago, that the mean amount of solar radiation can never be materially affected by the irregularities of the earth's annual motion. It would appear, therefore, that we cannot look to as- tronomy with much confidence, for a solution of the prob- lem in question. A recent and highly repectable author, Dr. Ure, of Glasgow, believes that the original heat of the earth was dissipated inconsequence of the evaporation of the waters of the deluge. The cooling influence of evaporation, under certain cir- cumstances, is undoubtedly very great, and most probably in many instances, produces effects which are attributed to other causes. In India, ice is produced by the evapora- tion of water in the open air. It is said that under cer- tain circumstances, by the spontaneous evaporation of one part of water from the surface of thirty two parts, at the temperature of 62 D , the remaining thirty one parts will be rendered nearly ice cold; and by the evaporation of four parts more, the remaining twenty seven will be- come ice. The effects of evaporation, together with the absence of a large heating surface, is strikingly illustrated in the tern- CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 223 perate climate of St. Helena. This island, though less than eighteen degrees from the equator, and on a parallel with the burning plains of continental Africa, enjoys one of the most comfortable and salubrious climates on the earth. At Jamestown, the thermometer in the warmest season, seldom rises above 80. In the country, the cli- mate is still more mild, the thermometer in some seasons, never rising higher than 72. At Jamestown, the ave- rage temperature during the year, is from 66 to 78, the heat at this place being concentrated by the high rocks which rise above the town. At Plantation house, the av- erage heat is only from 61 to 73, and at Longwood, the last residence of Napoleon, from 56 to 68. The island of Sumatra, though directly under the equi- nox, presents a similar exemption from the excessive heats with which the interior of continents, situated on the same parallel, are oppressed. The heat at this isl- and, seldom rises higher than 85, at any season; while at Bengal, which is situated in 22 north latitude, it is often above 100. It is at a distance from the sea, and where the surface is dry, that the greatest accumulation of heat takes place. Mungo Park relates that in some districts in Africa, the ground became so hot by the action of the sun, that even the negroes, though accustomed to that ardent climate, could not bear to touch it with their naked feet; and that he could not hold forth his hand against a current of air which entered the crevice of his hut, without feeling acute pain from its scorching effects. Dr. Ure supposes that a portion of the ante-diluvian land is now covered by the ocean, and that the heating surface, or dry land on the earth, was twice as extensive before the deluge as it is now, and consequently, as a whole, that its heating effects were doubled. We cannot follow Dr. Ure through the detail of facts and arguments which he has brought forward on this subject; but after many additional statements to those we have given, he concludes, ''that the facts and observations just detailed, seem adequate to prove that the events of the deluge involved such a change in the terraqueous con- stitution, as rendered the surface of the globe much cold- er and moister than it had previously been." Geology, p. 491. 224 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. The great and sudden fall of temperature, which the earth suffered at a former time, and which is supposed to have taken place about the period of the deluge, is indi- cated by the situation and number of fossil bones, be- longing to species known to inhabit hot climates, 'found in northern latitudes. "The almost incredible number of bones of fossil ele- phants" says Dr. Ure, " found in northern Siberia, which betray no marks of having been rolled or transported from a distance, attest the existence on its plains of huge herbiverous animals at that distant epoch. These demon- strate that a vigorous vegetation clothed countries, now covered with frost a great part of the year, where, even in summer, sterilizing cold and humidity perpetually reign, and where at present, the reindeer can hardly pick up from beneath the snow its scanty mouthful of moss." Not only the bones of elephants, but those of the rhino- ceros, the mastadon and hippopotamus are found in Si- beria. All these animals living on vegetables, and from their sizes requiring large quantities for their sustenance, it would seem impossible, as we have before stated, that in the present state of that climate, there should have grown a sufficient quantity of nourishment for the support of these animals. That these animals died where they had lived, and where their remains are now found, is proved by the cir- cumstances, that their skeletons are entire, and that their bones show no scratches, or other marks of transporta- tion, or friction. That these bones have not lain for a long period in a hot climate, is proved by their state of preservation; many of the elephant's tusks being perfectly sound and making the best of ivory, for which purpose, vast numbers have been dug up and sold. The change of climate must, therefore have taken place at the deaths of these animals, or soon after. That these animals died suddenly, and remained in a cold climate after death, at least some of them, is proved by the circumstance, that the body of an elephant was found on the bank of the river Lena, in 1803. It was frozen in the ice, a large proportion of the flesh being still preserved and serving as food for the white bears and dogs. Now since there is no reason to believe that this animal could have lived in a cold climate, and as there is CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 225 every reason to suppose that he died where his remains were found, perhaps the nature of such a case could not admit of stronger evidence, that there happned a great and sudden change from heat to cold in that country, and that this took place at the time when this animal perished, or soon after. If it is certain, that this animal could not have lived in a cold climate, and equally so that his body could not have been preserved more than a few days in a hot one, the con- clusion is inevitable, that the climate must have changed at the time of Jiis death, or immediately afterwards. The opinion of Baron Cuvier, entirely coincides with what here seems to be proved. " Every hypothesis," says he, *' of a gradual cooling of the earth, or a slow varia- tion, in either the inclination or position of the axis of the globe, is inadmissible." There are many reasons for believing that the animals whose remains are thus found, were destroyed at the time of the general deluge, and also that their bodies were not transported to any considerable distance by that catastro- phe. Their bones are found on plains and the sides of valleys, where we should suppose their bodies would have been left by the retiring waters, and in many instances they have been found covered by sand or gravel, such as are considered diluvial deposites, and under such circumstan- ces, as to make it improbable that any ordinary flood would have produced similar effects. On reviewing the facts, and circumstances above stated, it is thought that we may fairly come to the following conclusions: First, That the climate of Siberia was once similar to that of the tropics of the present day. Second, That at the epoch of the deluge, the climate of Siberia suffered a sudden and material change in its tem- perature, and that it then became similar to what it is now. Third, That the deluge was the most probable cause of the destruction of several ancient races of quadrupeds, which inhabited that country, anterior to the flood, and among which, were the elephant, and rhinoceros, the bones of which still exist there. And, Fourth, That the most probable cause of the sudden change of climate in Siberia, and of the decrease of the 226 CHANGE OF CLIMATE. superficial temperature of the earth generally, was the cold produced by the evaporation of the waters of the deluge. Farther remarks on Change of Climate. Since the for- mer edition of this work, considerable light has been thrown on the subject of organic remains as connected with " change of climate," by various writers; and from which it appears that some species of animals belonging to genera, usually considered tropical, have been found capable of sustaining much higher latitudes than was be- fore supposed. It will be remembered that in nearly every instance, the fossil bones of animals belonging to genera now liv- ing, were of species unknown to naturalists of the present day. It may therefore be inferred, that if it can be shown that there are elephants and tigers now living in cold latitudes, the fossil bones of these animals, found in Si- beria and other northern regions, might have belonged to such species, and thus that the situation of these bones may be accounted for, without so great a change of cli- mate as has heretofore been supposed. It has recently been proved beyond all doubt, that a species of tiger identical with that of Bengal, is common in the vicinity of lake Aral in Independent Tartary, in latitude 45 north, and also, that this animal is often seen in Siberia as high as latitude 52. Humboldt, who states these facts, remarks that the part of Asia now inhabited by this species of tiger, is separated from the Himmaleh, by two great chains of mountains, each covered by per- petual snow. These mountains are the Kuenlun in latitude 35, and the Mouztagh in latitude 42. So that it is impossible that these animals should merely have made excursions from India, and penetrated during the summer to 48 and 53 of latitude where they are found. In 1828, a tiger was killed on the bank of the Lena in Asiatic Russia, in latitude about 52, and in a climate colder than that of Petersburg, or Stockholm. We are not informed whether this tiger was covered with fur and long hair, or not, but it is stated in the Ehrenberg Journal of Natural Sciences, as quoted by Mr. Lyell, that a new species of panther, (Felis irbis,) has been discovered with long hair, in Siberia, evidently inhabiting, like the tiger, a region north of the Celestial Mountains, which are in latitude CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 227 In 1772, Professor Pallas obtained from the banks of the Wiljui, a tributary of the Lena, the remains of a rhi- noceros, (R. tickorinus,} taken from the sand, where it must have remained frozen for ages. This carcass re- sembled a mummy, but emitted a smell like that of decay- ing, or putrefying flesh. The skin was covered with thick hair, which was of great length about the feet. The elephant found preserved in ice in latitude 70, an account of which will be found among that of other fossil quadrupeds in this work, was also covered with a warm coat, consisting of fur and hair. This animal, indeed, seems to have been as well protected from the cold, as is the Musk Ox, of the present day. Bishop Heber, in his " Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India," informs us that in the range of the lower Himmaleh mountains, in latitude be- tween 29 and 30, he saw an Indian elephant of small size, covered with shaggy hair. Mr. Everest says, (Journal of Asiatic Society,) that the wild elephant is found in the mountains north of Bengal, at the elevation of 4000 feet above the level of the sea, and in 31 north latitude. He also states that he had heard of a solitary instance of an elephant covered with shaggy hair at Delhi, but that he had never himself seen such a phenomenon. It would therefore seem that the individual seen by Bishop Heber must have been of an exceedingly rare species, or variety; since Mr. Everest being a resident in India, and a writer on the subject, would otherwise have obtained further information con- cerning it. Whatever the climate of Russia and Siberia might once have been, it is certain from the accounts of writers, that it was once inhabited by such vast herds of elephants, as to leave no parallel of the existence of such numbers any where at the present day. Tilesius states, that in northern Russia fossil tusks are so numerous, as in all probability to excel in that country alone, all the living elephants now on the earth. These tusks are many of them entirely sound, and are at the present day, collected and sold by thousands for ivory. Now admitting that these animals were covered with hair, so as to protect them from the consequences of an arctic climate, still, as formerly stated, we are met with the difficulty of accounting for the subsistence of such herds of enormous animals. On this point, Dr. Fleming 228 ORGANIC REMAINS. remarks, " that the kind of food which the existing spe- cies of elephant prefers, will not enable us to determine, or even to offer a probable conjecture concerning that of the extinct species. No one acquainted with gramineous character of the food of our fallow-deer, stag, or roe, would have assigned a lichen to the reindeer." But as all agree that the whole genera of elephants lived on vegetable food, the difficulty scarcely subsides by supposing the ancient species to have eaten a different kind from those still existing, since all the vegetation of whatever kind now growing in Siberia, would not pro- bably, have supported one in a hundred of the animals whose bones are found there. With respect to the remains of animals found in very high northern latitudes, as that of the elephant on the Lena in latitude 70, it is most probable that at least some, and perhaps all of them were conveyed there by the curren^js of overflowing rivers. It must be remembered that the rivers of Northern Russia and Siberia run towards the north, and that there- fore the snow in the regions of their head waters and upper courses, being melted by the warmth of spring, while hundreds of miles from their mouths, remain locked in ice, these rivers are every season subject to mighty floods, not only because their channels are thus nearly obliterated, but because the narrow valleys are blocked up by the descending ice. The Lena and Yenisei, both Siberian rivers, after run- ning at least 2000 miles discharge themselves into the Frozen Ocean, and therefore might transport the frozen carcass of an animal this distance, without its being even softened by the warmth of spring. On reviewing the facts and circumstances above stated, although it may not be considered necessary to suppose so great a change in the climate of Siberia, as was for- merly believed, in order to account for the organic phe- nomena existing in that country, still there remain facts in abundance, which we think cannot be reconciled with any theory, but that of a great change of climate. ORGANIC REMAINS. Organic Remains, include, generally, all such organ- r DIVISION OF FOSSILS. 229 ked substances as are found buried in the earth, as those of plants, fish, shells, and the bones of quadrupeds. The term Fossil is often used synonomously with organic, and although the former word strictly signifies any thing dug out of the earth, it is often applied to the petrified remains of plants, and other organized bodies found in strata. " Of all the appearances which the earth presents," says Dr. Macculloch, " nothing has excited more atten- tion than the existence of animal bodies in strata; while the air of mystery which attended them stimulated curi- osity, and may be said to have laid the foundation of geo- logical science. If the presence of animals once sub- marine, in rocks, and on lofty mountains, was a cause* of wonder, and a source of theories, so did the discovery of the bones of large animals, lead to the belief of pre- existing races of giants, while in both cases, philosophy, with history, sacred and profane, were perverted to find explanations." " The increase of knowledge has given a very different complexion to this subject, and a more rational direction to the pursuit. Yet, the geologist seems in danger of forgetting that it is but one part of his science. Its de- tails belong to zoology and botany; and he loses sight of his main object, when he pursues these minutiae to the neglect of their more interesting connections with the history of the globe. Still more deeply does he err, when he supposes that a theory of the earth can be found- ed on what involves so small a portion of its structure and history. It is, doubtless, essential to know these objects; as to arrange and name them, is the grammar of this department. But it is unfortunately true, that wheth- er the contemplation of minutiae disables the mind for wider views, or that only a minute mind can be engrossed by such things, the power of profiting by collections and their study, diminishes in proportion to their extent and the activity of collectors, whether it be in natural history or in books." Vol i. 406. DIVISION OF FOSSILS. Fossils may be divided into marine and terrestrial; the first including all such as belong to the sea, and the se- 20 230 INDICATIONS OF VIOLENT CHANGES. cond, such as inhabit the earth. The terrestrial, may be again divided into aquatic and terrene, since not the earth only, but its waters are inhabited by various tribes, fa- miliarly known under the titles of fresh water fish, shells, &c. As organic bodies, fossil remains are also divided in animals and vegetables. The former including all such as had animal life, as quadrupeds, fish and shells; the latter, plants of every kind found in the fossil state. Indications of Violent Changes. That the earth on which we live has suffered violent and extensive changes, is almost every where indicated by its external appear- ance; and when we come to examine the interior of its crust, this idea is confirmed, in the most positive man- ner, by the obvious fact that its rocks have been fractured, and its strata dislocated. At what period or periods, these mighty changes took place, we have no means of knowing; but that its surface has been materially altered since the formation of the more recent rocks, and subse- quently to the creation of organized beings, is clearly proved by their remains now preserved in its strata. In some instances, very extraordinary collections of bones, remains of fish, vegetables and other organic bo- dies, have been found in situations, and under circum- stances, which, though indicative of violent revolutions, place all suppositions with respect to their origin at de- fiance. Thus, in the valley of the Thames, in England, at a certain locality, in Essex, there is an alluvial deposite, resting on chalk. " This," says Mr. Brande, " contains such a remarkable assemblage of organic remains, some of vegetable, and others of animal origin, as almost to baffle all conjecture as to whence they came, and under what circumstances they were brought together. The remains of sea animals are blended with those of the land, quadrupeds with fish, and fresh water fish with those peculiar to the ocean. Animals of the land, the air, and the water, are assembled together in most unaccountable incongruity; fruits and leaves, hazel nuts and pine cones, are mixed with shark's teeth, crab's claws, and oyster shells." In the island of Sheppy, there exists a similar assem- blage of various species of shells, mixed with fossil fruits. Of the latter, 500 varieties have been found. At Brent- FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 231 ford, phenomena of the same kind, and not less extraor- dinary, have been discovered. Here exists a collection of sea shells, shark's teeth, bones of the elephant, hippo- potamus, ox and deer, together with fresh water shells; " the whole," says Mr. Brande, " calculated to impress us with the idea of the destruction of a vast menagerie, in which animals of all denominations, and from all quarters of the world had been associated." FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. In their descriptions of fossil remains, authors have more generally commenced with those belonging to the lowest strata, or those, which in the order of time, as shown by the strata, were first called into existence, such as extinct species of plants, shells, &c. But as these are not easily understood, and as there is no advantage to the learner in such an arrangement, we have thought proper to commence with the more perfect animals. The number of quadrupeds, the classes and orders of \vhich, have been determined by Cuvier, solely by an examination of their bones, amount to 150. Of these, ninety species were before entirely unknown to natural- ists, and are, therefore, supposed not to inhabit the earth at the present time, their entire races having perished at the period when their bones, found in the most recent strata, were there buried. Ten or twelve of the others so nearly resemble known species, that no doubt remains of their identity. Many of those which remain, present kindred features with known species, but the comparisons have not been made with sufficient care to remove all doubt, and, therefore, it is still uncertain whether their species exist or not. Of the ninety unknown species, about thirty belong to genera still living, and the remaining sixty to genera en- tirely new. With respect to the classes and orders to which these animals belonged, about one fourth of the 150 species were oviparous (egg laying) quadrupeds, as the alligator, lizard, and tortoise. The remaining were mammiferous, or milk-giving animals, as the elephant and mastodon. Of the latter, more than one half were non-ruminant, hoofed quadrupeds, as the horse and tapir. 232 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. From these facts thus developed, concerning the ani- mals of the primitive, or ante-diluvian world, it might perhaps be supposed that some theory could be formed with respect to the proportions of the different genera, which then inhabited the earth, and by a comparison of these, with the genera now existing, we should be enabled to see the difference. But it would be premature to form any hypothesis on this subject at present, since we know not but there are hundreds of extinct species still undis- covered. Cuvier has proved, as we shall see directly, that the extinct species of quadrupeds, are not varieties of those now in existence, but that there exist distinct specific differences between them. _ "A species," says he, " com- prises all the individuals which descend from one another or from common parents, and those which resemble each other, as much as they resemble themselves." Hence the varieties of a species, are the result merely of such changes as take place in the color, size, and fineness of the fur of animals, and which may be caused by a differ- ence of climate, of food, or the domestication of the spe- cies; these varieties may therefore produce the exact like- nesses of their parents. For example, the dog is a ge- nus; the pointer is one species, and the greyhound is an- other. Now every one who is conversant with dogs, knows that pointers may differ from each other in color, size, and shape, and even from the same parents it is sel- dom that two precisely similar can be found. These are varieties of the pointer, but the species are not changed, for their instincts, habits and general appearance, are the same with those of their parents. The same variations may be observed in the greyhound, and indeed all other species of dogs. But if the races are kept distinct, there are no circumstances of climate, or keeping, that will change the greyhound into the pointer, or the pointer in- to the greyhound. The species are therefore entirely dis- tinct and unchangeable. "The fox and the wolf," says Cuvier, " inhabit every country from the icy to the torrid zone; they experience in this immense interval every change of climate, and condition, and yet the species have suffered no other change than a slight variation in the beauty of their fur. The same accurate observer compared the skulls of foxes from the north of Europe and from Egypt, with those of FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 233 France, but found no appreciable* differences. Hence we learn that the species of animals are not changed by- time and circumstances, as some have thought to be the case." Means of distinguishing Fossil Bones. Before pro- ceeding to individual fossil species, it is necessary to de- scribe the method by which naturalists have been enabled, by examining their petrified bones, to distinguish these unknown animals from each other, and from those now living. This art, or science, originated with the acute and laborious Baron Cuvier, and by him was brought to a degree of perfection, to which little has been added by others. The principle on which this discrimination is founded, is the peculiar, and perfect organization of each species, so that one part is invariably, and exactly adapted to another, and is indicated by it. Each animal constitutes a whole, one systematic cycle, whose parts are in mutual correspondence, and concur to the same definite action, by a reciprocal re-action. None of these parts can change without a symmetrical change in the others; and hence each taken by itself, indicates and gives form to all the rest. Thus if the organs of an animal are so constituted as to digest only raw flesh, its jaws must be constructed for de- vouring its prey; its claws for seizing and tearing it; its teeth for cutting and dividing it; the entire system of its organs of motion for pursuing and overtaking it; its or- gans of sense for descrying it at a distance; and even its brain must be qualified for exercising the instinct of self concealment, and the art to ensnare its victim. Such is the general condition of the carnivorous temperament; ev- ery animal endowed with which, must combine them all, for otherwise its race could not subsist. For the jaw to seize its prey there must be a certain kind of articulation, which gives prominence to the cheeks, and fits the bones to receive the insertion of strong mus- cles, for without these any such articulation would be use- less. To enable the animal to carry off its prey, there must be a certain degree of strength in the muscles of the neck, and hence results a determinate form in the verte- brae, and the hind part of the head, to which these cles are attached. 20* 234 FOSSIL Whoever will compare the bones of a cat with those of a rabbit, will see how these parts differ, and if he will study the subject, he will soon convince himself, why the bones of the rabbit, independently of the teeth, could not have been fitted for the purposes of a rapacious an- imal. That the claws may seize the prey, there must be a cer- tain mobility in the talons, and a certain degree of strength in the toe joints, and thence there must result a corres- ponding distribution of muscles, and tendons, so that lightness and power may be combined. The shoulder bones in such animals must have great firmness, other- wise the legs will not be fitted for the uses of the claws, and this firmness of bone is thus prepared to receive the insertion of strong muscles, by which the required power is given. It is unnecessary to show how the other parts of a prowling animal are adapted to each other, so that the whole machinery of bones, muscles, joints and tendons, all combine to the accomplishment of the same end. The parts of any animal, are indeed a " collection of wonders," and he who does not behold in them the traces of Infinite Wisdom and design, must want either understanding or sight. "In a word," says Cuvier, "the formation of the tooth indicates the structure of the jaw, and its kind of articu- lation; the structure of the shoulder bone, shows the form of the feet, just as the equation of a curve, involves all its properties; and as by assuming each property separately as the base of a particular equation, we should re-pro- duce both the ordinary equation, and all its properties; so the nails and shoulder blade indicate the articulation of the jaw; the thigh bone, and the other bones, taken sepa- rately, give the form of the tooth, or are given by it in their turn. Since the mechanism of every animal involves certain fixed and invariable principles and proportions which be- long to the whole race, by ascertaining what these are, we can readily distinguish one tribe, or species from ano- ther, though the differences may be ever so slight. To the most common observer, the entire skeleton of a horse Would be distinguished from that of an ox, by the size and proportions of the whole; and by comparing the thigh bones of the two animals, he would readily distinguish FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 235 these, and thus take one step in comparative anatomy, for now he would be able to distinguish a horse from an ox, merely by inspecting a single bone. It is plain, from this example, that by the constant ex- amination of the bones of different classes, genera, and species of animals, the observer might attain to great per- fection in this art, so that even without comparison, he would be able to decide in an instant, whether a given bone belonged to any living genera of animals, or not, and by a closer care and comparison, to point out those differ- ences which distinguish the osteology of one species from that of another. Are the species supposed to be extinct, varieties of living species? This question has already been noticed, but we would be more particular on a point of so much impor- tance in geology. Of the 150 fossil species, about ninety are said to be extinct; that is, they are not known to exist in the living state, at the present time. Among these is the mastodon, or mammoth, the bones of which have been found in many places in this country. This is an exam- ple of an extinct species. It is not found alive in any part of the world, nor does it belong to any species of animals known to exist. If such an animal was still living, even among the most barbarous tribes, there can be little doubt, but some information concerning it, would have been given, at least to one among those individuals, who, within the last few years, have explored most of the be- fore unknown regions, in nearly every part of the world. That the whole race of mastodons are extinct, therefore, there can be no doubt. Nor can there be any question that this animal was a distinct species from the elephant, which it most resembled. This is proved by the size and form of its bones, and especially by its tusks and grinders, many of which have been compared with those of the elephant now living, and the specific differences pointed out. It has been supposed by some naturalists, that more or less of the unknown fossil species might still exist in parts of the globe which have not yet been explored; but al- though it may be possible that some of the smaller of these animals may still be living, there is little probability that any of the larger quadrupeds, or perhaps amphibious animals, will any where be found. 236 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. " If," says Baron Cuvier, " we examine what species of quadrupeds have recently been found, and in what circum- stances they have been discovered, we shall see that there is but little hope of ever finding those that we have only seen as fossils. Islands of moderate extent, situated at a distance from extensive continents, have very few quad- rupeds, and these always of small size. When they have large ones, it is because they have been brought from else- where. Bouganville, and Cook found only dogs and hogs on the South Sea Islands, and the largest species of the West Indies, was the Agouti, (a species of the Hare.) In fact, only large territories, such as Asia, Africa, the two Americas, and New Holland, have large quadrupeds, and generally species peculiar to themselves." If there remained any extensive countries to discover, we might hope to find new species, among which some might be be found, more or less resembling those of which the bowels of the earth have preserved us relics; but it is sufficient to cast a glance over the map of the world, and see the numerous directions in which navigators have ploughed the ocean, to judge that there cannot be any un- discovered large tract of country, still remaining. The ancients were acquainted with nearly all the ani- mals now known, except such as have been discovered in America and New Holland. The Greeks were acquaint- ed with the elephant, and the double and single horned rhinoceros, and both these animals were common at Rome. Heliogabalus exhibited the hippopotamus, and the giraffe or cameleopard; and the two species of camel were known to the Romans in the time of Julius Caesar. The buffalo, the wild ox, the ox without horns, and the little ox, no larger than a goat, the sheep with the great tail, and the great sheep of India, were all known to the ancients, for they have Jeft descriptions of them. The Romans exhibited lions, panthers, and tigers, by the hundred; they also showed hyenas, and even the cro- codile of the Nile. Even the zebra also, which is found only in Southern Africa, graced their shows, and they were well acquainted with the most remarkable species of the ape tribe. These facts show, that the ancients were acquainted with all the animals of any size or consequence, in the old world, and that naturalists, in later times, although they have reduced zoology to a science, and have describ- FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 237 ed many smaller animals, which were probably unknown to the Greeks and Romans, have still failed to discover any quadrupeds of considerable size, with the exception of those of America and New Holland. It is quite improbable, therefore, that any of the larger quadrupeds or amphibious animals, now considered ex- tinct, are still any where in existence; and since it has been shown that they are chiefly distinct species, and not varieties of those now known, there is no doubt but these entire races have been destroyed by some violent catas- trophe. When, and by what means did these races perish? At what period of the world these extinct species perished, and whose bones are found in many parts of the earth, and by what means a destruction so universal was occasioned, are important questions in geology. From the comparative ages of the formations in which their bones are found, it would appear that a great pro- portion of the large quadrupeds were destroyed at the same time, their remains being found contiguous to each other, and in strata, or diluvial deposites apparently of the same age. The most probable cause of this general destruction was that universal deluge, the marks of which we have seen, still remain in all parts of the earth. It is true, that no certain proof of this can be adduced, but such a hypothesis will account for most of the phenomena ob- served with respect to these remains, and which are un- accountable by any other supposition. See Deluge. It is proper, however, to state here, that there exists one example of the extinction of a species in modern times, and this in a gradual manner, or without the inter- vention of any general catastrophe. This is the Dodo, a large bird, figured and described by many former natur- alists. It appears that during the early voyages of Euro- pean navigators to the East Indies, the Dodo existed in various places, and especially on the island of Mauritius. LinnaBus described it under the genus Didus. Brooks (Nat. Hist. London, 1783,) describes it as a large bird, with short legs, great black eyes, large head covered with a membrane resembling a hood, or cowl; bill bluish white, of great length, sharp and hooked at the end; body cov- ered with feathers much like those of the ostrich; legs yellow, with four strong toes. It is a simple bird, swal- r 238 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. lows stones, and is easily taken. Its flesh is good and wholesome, and three or four are enough to dine one hun- dred sailors. Vol. ii. p. 66. jCuvier (Animal Kingdom,) says that the species Didus ineptus, a description of which was first drawn up by the Dutch navigators, has completely disappeared, nothing remaining of it at the present day, but a foot in the British Museum, and a head in the Asmolean Museum at Oxford. This, it is believed, is the only instance in which any spe- cies known to naturalists has disappeared. PARTICULAR FOSSILS. It is incompatible with the design of this work, to give a classification as those animals whose remains have been discovered and described by different authors. A mere enumeration of their species and varieties, including the shells, would indeed fill a volume much larger than this. We shall, therefore, select such as are most interesting and instructive only, without reference to scientific ar^ rangement. QUADRUPEDS, Order Pachydermata, or thick skinned. This is the first order of fossil quadrupeds, examined by Cuvier. It contains thirteen genera of non-ruminant, hoofed animals, viz. Elephant, Mastodon, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Ta- pir, Hog, Horse, Daman, Pecaris, Phacocheres, Anoplo- therium, Palaeotherium, and Elasmotherium. Genus Elephant. Of this genus there are three dis- tinct species, two of which, the Indian and the African, still exist, the third having been found only in the fossil state. 1. The Indian elephant is found on both sides of the Ganges, and in Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and other Indian islands. This species has an oblong skull, concave front, small ears, with grinding teeth, marked by ribands, or plate lines, which are waved. 2. The African species is found at the Cape of Good FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 239 Hope, Senegal, and Guinea, It has a rounded skull, large ears, and grinders, with lozenge-shaped lines on their crowns. 3. Fossil or primeval elephant (Elephas primigenius.) This is the mammoth of the Russians. It has an oblong skull, concave front, very long bony sockets for its tusks; lower jaw bone obtuse, grinders parallel, and marked with nearly parallel, and little waved ribands on the crown. The bones of the last species are found in the fossil state only, the species being extinct. The fossil elephant more nearly resembled the Indian than the African species, but differed from both in the form of its grinders, the great size of its tusks, and espe- cially in the projection of its tusk sockets, (see fig. 50.) The peculiarity last mentioned, must have very much mo- dified the figure and organization of the proboscis, and given to this elephant a physiognomy, differing much more from the other species than might be inferred from the re- semblance of the other bones. Its size was about that of the Indian elephant, viz. from ten to thirteen, or even sixteen feet in height. In all animals of the same species, and ages, the teeth are precisely alike, in form and number, and therefore whenever we find merely a similarity, and not an identity in this respect, we may know that the species are differ- ent, though the genera may be the same. The form of the jaw also differs with those of the teeth. Fig. 49. The annexed cuts show the difference between the grinders of the living, and the fossil elephant. That on the left hand, fig. 49, represents the under jaw of the liv- 240 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. ing Indian species; that on the right, the corresponding part of the fossil elephant. The sides of that of the living species, converge nearly together at the lower part, and it has a projecting point at A, furrowed with a long, narrow canal. The teeth also converge, and the inequalities, or ribands on the crowns, are waving lines, running oblique- ly crosswise. The teeth in the fossil jaw stand parallel to each other, and the canal in front is much shorter and wider and without the projecting point. The ribands also in these are not oblique, as in the living, but run trans- versely across the crowns. In the two living species, the tusk sockets (alveoli,) do not extend further down than the end of the lower jaw, so that the chin has room to protrude between the tusks in a pointed projection. But in the fossil heads, on account of the great length of the tusk sockets, the lower jaw has the appearance of having been truncated, or blunted at its lower end, so as to admit of its being closed on the upper one by means of which the lips come together in the act of mastication, contrary from what takes place in the liv- ing species. These with other differences, in the osteology of the fossil and living elephants, which need not here be de- tailed, make it certain that the fossil species belonged to a race of animals not now in existence. They resembled the mastodons, in many respects, but were more nearly allied to the elephants, especially in the form of the grinders. The grinders of the fossil elephant are often ten or twelve inches long, and have twenty-four ribands, or rais- ed plates of enamel, crossing their crowns. Fossil elephant bones have been found in a great num- ber of places, and in many different countries. In nearly every part of Siberia, as high as latitude 65, wherever a river happens to undermine its banks, the bones of these animals are dislodged. In some places, they have been found in such abundance, that large quantities have been transported to other countries, as a valuable article of commerce. Indeed, it is said, that a considerable propor- tion of the ivory employed in the arts, is of the fossil kind. Lieut. Kotzebue, in his late voyage of discovery, found the bones and teeth of elephants, preserved in an iceberg, near Beering straits. FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 241 In the valley of the Arno, near Florence, so great was the accumulation of these fossil bones, that it is said the inhabitants formerly used them for making fences between their fields. These bones are also found in many parts of France, in Germany, in almost every part of Italy, the Netherlands, Holland, Russia, Bohemia, in many parts of England, and in the northern regions of North America. A remarkable locality of them was discovered at Thiede, near Wolfenbuttel, where eleven tusks and thirty grinders were disinterred within a short distance of each other. One of the tusks was fourteen feet, eight inches long, and bent into a perfect semi-circle. In nearly every gravel pit, around London, the bones of this species are found. They have also been discovered in Brentford, Kew, Wal- lingford, Dorchester, Abingdon, Oxford, and many other places in England. This species must therefore have been exceedingly nu- merous, and widely spread over different parts of the globe. Elephant preserved in ice. In several instance^, the bones of the fossil elephant have been found embedded in ice; that of Lieut. Kotzebue has just been mentioned. In one instance, the entire body of one of these animals pre- served in this manner, has been discovered. It occurred near the mouth of the river Lena, in Siberia. The flesh had undergone no decomposition, the whole animal hav- ing been entirely surrounded by the frozen mass. This discovery was originally made by a Tungusian fisherman, in 1798, who saw a large mass, projecting from the ice, but so far above his reach that he was unable to ascertain its nature. The next year, going to the same place, the mass was found partly disengaged from its bed, but still the man was uncertain what it might be, as it was more than a hundred feet above him, and inaccessible to his approach. The next year, it was again seen, by the same man, but it was not until the summer of J803, five years after the first discovery, that it fell down on a sand beach of the Arctic ocean so as to be examined. The fisherman now obtained a prize, for having detach- ed the two tusks, he removed and sold them for fifty roubles. In 1806, Professor Adams, of St. Petersburg, went to examine this animal, which still remained on the sand . 21 242 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. beach where it had fallen, but the body was^then consid- erably mutilated, the people in the neighborhood having taken away large quantities of the flesh to feed their dogs; and the white bears had not failed to regale themselves on this ante-diluvian delicacy. The skeleton, however, re- mained quite entire, except that one of the fore-legs, and the tusks were gone. The head remained covered, by the dried skin, and the pupils of the eyes were still distin- guishable. The brain, on opening the skull, was found not quite filling its cavity, being somewhat dried. One of the ears was in excellent preservation, still retaining its form, and a tuft of strong bristly hair. This animal was a male, and had a mane of considerable length, still on his neck. The skin, when detached, was so thick and heavy, that it was with difficulty ten men could remove it. More than thirty pounds of the hair and bristles of this animal were gathered from the beach, where it had been left, and trampled upon by the white bears, when tearing and de- vouring the carcase. This hair was of three kinds, viz. stiff black bristles, a foot long; coarse hair, of a reddish brown color, and a woolly covering next the skin, of the same color. The skeleton of this animal was transported to St. Pe- tersburg, and the tusks having been procured, the whole was set up in the museum of that city, where it still re- mains. Fig. 50. The annexed wood cut, fig. 50, represents the head and tusks of this animal, as drawn by Mr. Stokes, who also gave a description of the whole, in the Ed. Quart. Jour- nal, First Series, p. 95. FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 243 It will be observed that these tusks are of enormous length, and that they form nearly a circle, differing great- ly, both in shape and size, from those of the elephant of the present day. The projection of the tusk sockets, marked #, may also be observed in this cut, and which, as already noticed, are peculiar to this species. The skeleton is about nine and a half feet high, and sixteen and a half feet long; and when it is considered how much the cartilages, flesh and skin, added to his height and dimensions, it is obvious that this must have been an animal of enormous magnitude. The hair with which this animal was covered, would seem to indicate that it was fitted for a cold climate; and in addition to this instance, Professor Pallas mentions the discovery of an entire rhinoceros, with its skin and hair, well preserved, and which occurred on the banks of a riv- er, not far from the Lena, where the elephant was found. The rhinoceros is described as being covered with thick hair, which was particularly long about the feet. From these facts, it has been urged by some naturalists, that the bones of the great quadrupeds found in cold cli- mates, and of genera which now only inhabit hot ones, were of species so different from these tribjes, that they were fitted for the cold situations where their remains are found; and hence that it is unnecessary to suppose that they were either transported from warmer climates, or that the climates where their bones are now found, have suffer- ed any change. But as already observed, there remains a difficulty fully as great, as is presented by the theories of transportation or change of climate; for if Siberia was never warmer than at present, it is impossible to believe that it should have ever produced a quantity of vegeta- tion, sufficient to have supported such herds of enormous animals, even during the summer, and much less during the long winters of that climate. See " Change of Cli- mate." Genus Mastodon. This term comes from two words, which signify a " a little hill" and a " tooth," in allusion to the prominences, or tubercles, which the crowns of these grinders present. This form of the crown, is simi- lar to that of carniverous animals; and hence when little was known of fossil bones, it was supposed that the mas- todon had been a flesh eater, an error fully refuted by Cuvier. 44 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS, Fig. 51. *The form of a mastodon's grinder, is represented by fig. 51; the hilly points being a little worn by use. It is here represented one fourth of the natural size, and is from a specimen in the Kings' cabinet, at Paris. The differ- ence between this and the elephant's grinder, will imme- diately be seen. The number of such teeth in the jaws of the adult mastodon, was four in each. The whole of the genus mastodon, are extinct; but from their bones, Cuvier has determined six distinct species. These bones have been found in various parts of the world, the species being so different, as in some instances, not even to inhabit the same countries. The species of this animal are as follows: 1. The Great Mastodon. 2. The Mastodon with narrow teeth. 3. The Mastodon of the Cordilleras. 4. The Mastodon of Hum- boldt. 5. The Small Mastodon. 6. The Tapiroid Mas- todon. To these, Mr. Clift has added two others, making in all, eight species. The remains of the great mastodon have heretofore been found only in North America. That with narrow teeth, formerly inhabited South America; and at Lima, many of their grinders are preserved in the public cabinet, and shown for the teeth of giants. The bones of the oth- er species occur in various parts of Europe, especially in Italy and Germany. Dr. Ure states that the first account of the Mastodon, is in a letter from Dr. Mather, in America, to Dr. Wood- ward, in London, dated 1712, and intimating that bones and teeth of monstrous magnitude, had been discovered m FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 345 i 1705, in Albany, in New England; at present in the state of New York on the Hudson river. He imagined them to be the bones of giants. No interest was excited, however, until Mr. Croghan, an English geographer, in 1767, sent several chests of osseous remains to Lord Shelburne, and other persons in London. Dr. William Hunter examined these bones, and published an accurate description of the lower jaw, in the Phil. Transactions for 1768. He de- monstrated that the animal in question, while it differed from the elephant, had nothing in common with the hippo- potamus. He justly Concluded that the tusks and bones belonged to the same animal. In 1802, Mr. Peale of Philadelphia, having procured numerous bones of the same animal from the neighbor- hood of Newburgh, on the Hudson river, formed two skeletons out of them, copying in wood those parts which happened to be wanting. One of these still remains in Mr. Peale's Museum, and is popularly known as the skeleton of a Mammoth. At the salt springs in Ohio, called licks, and especially at the Big-Bone lick, vast quantities of these bones have been found. Mr. Croghan, more than seventy years ago, thought he saw there the remains of thirty individuals; but a much greater number from that vicinity have since been found. These bones, also occur in Ohio and Ken- tucky, and it is probable that they exist in all the tempe- rate parts of North America. In size, the great mastodon was about that of the ele- phant, though it does not appear, in general, to have been more than twelve feet in height, the Indian elephant some- times beintr fifteen. Its tusks, trunk, and feet, and the bones of the whole skeleton were very similar to those of the elephant; the difference being chiefly in the dental sys- tem, which, with respect to the grinders, has been above described and illustrated. The number of grinders in the adult mastodon, as al- ready stated, is four in each jaw. Of these, the two front ones, in the upper jaw, have six points, and the other two in the same jaw have eight. In the lower jaw, the two anterior ones have also six points, and the two posterior ones, ten. But, it appears that the great mastodon had, successively, at least, four grinders on each side of its two jaws; but as in the elephant, these teeth never appeared all at the same time. Their succession took place, in both an- 21* 246 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. imals, from behind, forwards. When the posterior one began to cut the gum, the anterior one was greatly worn f and ready to drop out. In this way, they replaced one another. There does not seem to have been ever more than two on each side, at the same time, in full exercise, and in old age, only one. Thus, the effective number of grinders, in youth, was eight, and, in extreme old age, only four. The largest grinders of the mastodon weigh ten or twelve pounds. Genus Hippopotamus. There is only one species of this animal living; but Cuvier has determined two or three others, existing in the fossil state. They are all much smaller than the existing species, one of them being only about the size of a wild boar, while the living one, is about twelve feet long, and five or six feet high, and exceedingly thick set. There is a peculiarity in the grinders of this animal, which will immediately distinguish them from those of other animals. Fig. 52. The lineaments of the crown are three lobed, or trefoil- like, as represented by fig. 52, which shows the form of the second grinder of the left side. This singularity will make the teeth of this genus easily recognized. The roots are concealed by a part of the jaw, the tooth being seven-ninths of the natural size. The remains of this genus are not nearly so common as those of the elephant, though, in Tuscany, considera- ble numbers have been found. They have also been dis- covered in several parts of England, especially in the FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. 247 Kirkdale cave. Possibly, the paucity of these bones may be accounted for by the circumstance of the amphibious habits of this genus, and their inability to wander to any considerable distances from the water, so that their re- mains might have been more exposed than those of the elephant, to have been swept into the sea. Genus Rhinoceros. There are three existing species of this animal. 1. That of India, with a single horn on the nose, and a rugous, plaited coat; the cutting teeth be- ing separated by a space from the grinders. 2. That of the Cape of Good Hope, with two horns, the skin smooth, and without folds, and no cutting teeth. 3. That of Su- matra, with two horns, the skin but slightly rugous, thus resembling that of the Cape, but having cutting teeth like that of India. On comparing the teeth of the living species with those found in the fossil state, Cuvier determined that they were so different as to constitute another species of this animal, and whose remains are now found only in the strata of the earth. The remains of the extinct rhinoceros were first dis- covered in digging a well, near Canterbury, in England, seventeen feet below the surface. This was in 1668. Afterwards Professor Pallas found, among a collection of bones at St. Petersburg, four skulls, and five horns be- longing to this animal. Since that time, the bones of this animal have been discovered in various parts of England, Germany and Russia. Megatherium. This name merely signifies "a huge wild beast." It is the most rare among all the great fos- sil animals. The first skeleton of this singular beast was sent from Buenos Ayres, in South America, to Madrid, in 1789, with a notice that it was found in the ground about three leagues from that city. This animal was set up in the Royal Cabinet of Madrid, in the manner which has since been followed by Mr. Peale of Philadelphia, with respect to the American mas- todon, and Mr. Adams of Petersburg, with respect to the Siberian elephant. A minute description of the Megatherium, was publish- ed soon after it was mounted, illustrated by five copper- 248 FOSSIL QUADRUPEDS. plate engravings. Afterwards a Livoninan anatomist, and a German draughtsman conjointly published an exact representation, and a good description of this skeleton. Fig. 53. The adjoining cut, fig. 53, from Dr. Ure's Geology, is said, by the author to present an exact form of this skele- ton. It is thirteen feet long, and nine feet high, its size being somewhat less than that of the mastodon. With respect to the habits of this animal, " the teeth," says Dr. Ure, " prove that it lived on vegetables, and its robust fore-feet, armed with sharp claws, testify that it was chiefly their roots that it sought after. Its magnitude and its talons, supplied it with abundant means of defence. It was not swift in running, but this was unnecessary, as it had no occasion either to pursue or fly. It would therefore be difficult to find in its organization alone, the causes of the final destruction of this genus; and yet if it still exists, where can it be? How can it have escaped all the researches of hunters and naturalists? Its analogies approximate it to different genera of the edentel, or tooth- less family of animals. It has the head and shoulder of a sloth a creature possessing both tusks and grinders; while its limbs and its feet exhibit a singular mixture of characters belonging to the ant-eaters, and the armadil- los. It has no analogy, whatever, to the felis or tiger tribe." Geology, p. 549. This animal had neither tusks nor proboscis, like the mastodon and elephant; this is proved by the great FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. 249 tength of its neck, which it is apparent, could not have supported such apparatus. As its fore parts are exceed- ingly strong, and its teeth not formed for tearing flesh, its claws were probably employed io digging for the roots of trees, as food, and if so, there is a probability that it burrowed in earth. What a phenomenon in the imagina- tion! An animal, of the size of an elephant running about under ground, like a mole, leaving a path after him large enough for a horse and wagon to follow; and perhaps at the same time, throwing up a ridge on the sur- face, that would stop the career of a stage coach. If he only burrowed, like a rabbit, what a mountain of earth he must have thrown out. Megolonyx. This term signifies " great clawed" the animal being so named from the great size of his claws. This is another of the lost animals of the former world. It belongs to the same genus with the last described, but Cuvier on comparing their bones found that it was of a different species. It is not so large by one third, as the megatherium, but of the same form, in all respects. The bones of this animal were found in a cavern, in the county of Green Briar, Virginia, much decayed, and only in sufficient number to form a small part of a skeleton. Besides these skeletons of great quadrupeds, there have been discovered a great variety of others in the fossil state, several of them of large size, as the Elk, Tapir, and some others, but most of them are of less interest than those we have described, and for the descriptions of which, we must refer the reader to more extended works on this subject. FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. , ',. Of the antediluvian amphibia, the crocodile, and lizard tribes, form the most interesting groups, especially the latter. Crocodile. Fossil bones of this animal have been found in various countries, and in many localities. In England, Germany, France, and Italy, their occurrence in strata, are not uncommon. They appear all to belong to the 250 FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. sub-genus of Cuvier, which he called gavials, or long muzzled. A collection of these bones, made at Honfleur, and Havre, in France, are preserved in the museum of Natural History, in Paris. But the most perfect specimen of this fossil is said to have been found near Monheim, in Ger- many. It is enclosed between two plates of schistose marly limestone, of a yellowish grey color, mingled with fragments of quartz. It was accompanied with the cast of the tail of a small fish, and the remains of an insect. The bones of the crocodile are browner than the stone itself. The slab containing this animal is three feet long, and fifteen inches broad, and the form of the head, trunk, and tail, from end to end, is plainly to be seen impressed in the rock, and very little deranged in respect to shape. The upper jaw is armed with twenty-five or twenty-six teeth on each side. The number of vertebrae, or pieces composing the back bone, are sixty-nine; and these are not deranged, except towards the tail. The remains of the fossil crocodile are found in strata, lying far below those containing any species of quadru- peds, and hence are supposed to be of more ancient date. Some remains of this animal in the Jura mountains, are in limestone so solid as to be susceptible of a high polish. With respect to these bones, Cuvier remarks, that " the presence of an animal, such as the crocodile, apparently belonging to fresh water, in such beds, is a very remark- able circumstance. It is the more deserving of notice, as it is accompanied with the remains of tortoises, all equally inhabitants of fresh water. This fact, joined to several others, proves that there existed dry lands irrigat- ed by rivers, at an exceedingly remote period, and long before the successions of those tertiary mineral forma- tions, which exist in the neighborhood of Paris. Megalosaurus. This is one of the saurian, or lizard tribe; the term signifies " great lizard." It appears to be allied to the lizards and crocodiles, but differs from them both. This was an ante-diluvian monster, far exceeding in size, any of the crocodiles of the present day. A fos- sil thigh bone of one of these animals, which Cuvier mea- sured, was thirty-two inches long; and supposing that the animal was proportioned like others of the lizard tribe, he must have had a total length of forty-eight feet; and from FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. 251 p- the incisor form of its cutting teeth, this must have been an exceedingly fierce and voracious animal. The bones of this specimen, were found at Stonesfield, in England, among innumerable marine fossils, such as the teeth of sharks, the remains of crabs, sea shells, &c., and therefore there is little doubt but this was a monster of the ocean, though amphibious. Mr. Mantell, of Lewes, in Sussex, has discovered mega- losaurus' bones, of still greater dimensions, one of the thigh bones being twenty-two inches in circumference, whence he concludes that its length must have been fifty- four inches. This, according to the estimated propor- tions of the animal, gives him a total length of more than seventy-five feet, a size in the animal kingdom, rarely exceeded, even by the whales of the present day; and yet this monster, in all probability, was capable of crawling, or walking, both on the bottom of the sea, and on the dry land, like the crocodiles of our own times. Its height was probably fourteen or fifteen feet, being equal to that of the largest elephant. What sort of engines the ante- diluvians possessed, which could have withstood or destroyed a fierce reptile, capable of devouring an ele- phant or a rhinoceros at a meal, we know not. At present, with the ex- ception of our artillery, we possess no weapons capable of preventing the devastations of such a monster. The teeth of this animal were lodg- ed in distinct sockets. They were curved backwards, undoubtedly for the purpose of the better securing their prey. They were compressed, or flattened laterally, with the edge toothed, or serrated, through the whole length of the posterior, or cut- ting side, and at the point of the an- terior side, or edge. Fig. 54, repre- sents the tooth of a megalosaurus of the natural size. It is thin on the concave, or cutting edge, but thicker on the convex side, so as to give it strength, its shape being similar to 252 FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. that of a pruning knife. An animal seventy-five feet in length, with a mouth containing perhaps more than sixty such teeth, with a disposition like that of the crocodile, must have presented a spectacle, of which we post-diluvians can have but a faint conception. The formation of Stonesfield, where these remains oc- cur, consists of a sandy slate, about six feet thick, lying below several strata of limestone, of different kinds, and about forty feet from the surface. ".' * *' " %*; ,' -v ' -' Iguanodon. This animal approached in structure, more nearly to the Iguana, a large species of lizard, found in the West Indies, than to any other species. Its length was between sixty and seventy feet. Cuvier pronounces this reptile to have been the most singular and extraordinary, of all the ante-diluvian won- ders yet discovered. Its great peculiarity consists in the form of its teeth, which shows, that notwithstanding its saurian form, it was a herbivorous animal, in which it dif- fered from all the lizard tribes. Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus. These are two gen- era of singularly formed sea lizards. Ichthyosaurus, is derived from two Greek words, and signifies marine liz- ard. Plesiosaurus, means lizard-like. These, among all the fossil animals that have been dis- covered, are most calculated to surprise the naturalist by their least resemblance to any individuals now living, and by their singular combinations of structure. In the Ichthyosaurus we see the muzzle of a dolphin; the teeth of a crocodile; the head and breast of a lizard; the paddles of a turtle, and the backbone of a fish. In the Plesiosaurus, we have the same turtle-like pad- dles; a lizard's head, and a long neck, like the body of a serpent. Fig. 55. Ichthyosaurus. This fossil skeleton is represented by fig. 55. No entire skeleton of this animal has yet been FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. 253 found; but fragments having been collected in the lime- stone formations in various parts of England, and the whole having been joined, and the absent parts supplied with carved wood, a skeleton, such as is here represented, is composed. It appears that England was the principal sepulchre of this animal, few of its remains having been discovered otherwhere. In length, this animal was about twenty feet, and there- fore does not in this respect compare with several of the ante-diluvian reptiles. But its singular combinations of structure, together with the vast number of bones compo- sing its skeleton, have rendered it one of the most curious and interesting objects to naturalists which has been pre- sented. The vertebrae amount to about ninety in number, and the number of pieces of bone contained in each paddle, is 100. These are flat, and placed in contact with each oth- er, like mosaic work, or a tesselated pavement. It was an amphibious animal, but lived chiefly in the water, as is indicated by the form of its paddles, which hardly could have permitted it even to crawl upon the shore. It is probable, therefore, that although it was an air-breathing animal, if it had the misfortune to be cast upon the shore, it must have remained motionless, and died, as whales and dolphins do, under like circumstances. The teeth of this animal were about half an inch in length, sharp pointed, but not curved like those of the megalosaurus; their number was thirty in each jaw. But the most striking feature in the appearance of this strange animal, was the enormous size of his eyes, and which must have given him a most terrific physiognomy. Fig. 56. The sclerotic, or outer coat of the eye was beset by a circle of bony pieces, as seen in the adjoining representa- tion of the skeleton of the head, probably in order to give it strength and prominence. These pieces of bone, form 22 ros 254 FOSSIL AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. a character common to birds, tortoises, and lizards, to the exclusion of crocodiles and fishes; and hence, one of the marks by which it is proved that this animal belonged to the lizard tribe. The comparative size of the eye socket, when compared with the other parts of the head, will give us some idea of the frightful appearance of this ani- mal; as will the long rows of curved teeth with which his jaws are studded, of his power to seize, and hold his prey. From the dimensions of the head, we may suppose that these eyes were fully as broad as a tea saucer, being probably at least six inches in diameter. Plesiosaurus. " This genus," says Dr. Ure, " is en- tirely English, and solely due to the sagacity of Mr. Co- nybeare." Some vertebra?, mixed with those of the cro- codile and icthyosaurus, in the lias of the environs of Bristol, appeared to him to differ from those of both ani- mals. From this circumstance, he was led to make fur- ther examinations, and these were continued until a suf- ficient number of bones had been obtained to show the form and size of this strange ante-diluvian. Fig. 57. The most singular part of its construction, is the im- mense length of the neck, and the disproportion of this, to the other parts of the system. This is composed of a greater number of bones than the neck of any known animal; exceeding in this respect, even the swan, which has a greater number than any existing species. The most entire specimen of the plesiosaurus yet found, is that which came from Lyme Regis. This relic is con- tained in several blocks of stone, which were once con- tinuous, and which fit each other exactly. The bones have the posture which they would have taken, had the animal been crushed by a heavy weight from above. Its length is nine feet six inches. The number of vertebrae are ninety, of which forty belong to the neck. The plesiosaurus in the living state, must have present- BONE CAVERNS. 255 ed a neck resembling a large serpent, with the tail cut off, and the remaining half fastened to a trunk, the propor- tions of which, differed little from those of many other animals. The tail, especially, by its shortness, could scarcely remind one of a reptile, and hence this animal must have displayed a form so much the more singular, as its extremities, like those of the ichthyosaurus, were gen- uine fins, similar to those of the whale tribe. That this animal was aquatic in its habits, is evident from its fins, and that its element was the sea, may be equally inferred, from the marine remains, with which its bones are every where associated. Its motion on the land, like that of the ichthyosaurus; must have been awk- ward and difficult, and its long neck would impede its progress through the water. It was an air-breathing ani- mal, and Mr. Conybeare suggests whether it might not have swam along the surface, arching its neck, like the swan, and now and then darting down its head to catch the fish below. BONE CAVERNS. Professor Buckland, in consequence of the publication of his great work, " Reliquia Diluviana" has made the subject of osseous caverns highly interesting and instruc- tive. Before the appearance of that work, little was known on this subject, nor was it, indeed, considered by geologists as of much importance. The bones of some animals, found in caves, had occasionally attracted notice, but no one appears to have inquired how, or under what circumstances, they could have found their way into such places. Nor was it until after the celebrated cavern of Kirkdale was discovered and described, that the contents of other caverns became the subjects of geological inves- tigation. We have already given some account of the Kirkdale cave under the article " Change of Climate,' 1 for the pur- pose of showing that England was once the native coun- try of the elephant, rhinoceros and hyena. Since the description of that cave, notices of others, containing bones, have become so numerous, that we have not room even for a catalogue of their names and places; and there is little doubt, but these will ultimately be the 256 BONK CAVERNS. means of producing a body of geological evidence of much importance. It appears that all extensive limestone formations, con- tain more or less such caverns as that of Kirkdale, some of which are of great extent, and have long been admired for the brilliancy of their stalactites, and the pillar-like forms which they assume. The island of Crete contains a great cavern, which has long been the wonder of tra- vellers, and throughout the same island, Tournefort says, there is a ivorld of Caverns. In the limestone districts of England, these caves abound. In Derbyshire alone, Mr. Farey enumerates twenty-eight remarkable caves, and as many fissures lo- cally called '* snake holes," or " swallow holes," from their swallowing up the streams and brooks, which sometimes in that district disappear suddenly, without, so far as is known, ever rising again to the surface. Of the bone caverns of Germany, Cuvier says, " noth- ing is more truly curious, than the new theatre to which I am about to transport my readers. Numerous grottos, brilliantly decorated with crystalline stalactites of every form, succeeding each other to a great extent, through the body of the mountains, communicating together by open- ings, so narrow that a man can hardly proceed by crawl- ing on his hands, yet with their floors all bestrewed with enormous heaps of bones of animals of every size form undoubtedly, one of the most remarkable phenomena which the fossil kingdom can present to the meditations of the geologist, more especially, when we consider, that this scene of mortality is repeated in a great many places, and through far distant lands. No wonder then, that these vaults of death have become the objects of research among the ablest naturalists, and their bony relics have been often described and figured." Prior to these philosophical inquiries, however, these bones were famed among the populace, and were long dug up, and sold to apothecaries as the bones of the fossil uni- corn, and who again portioned them out to their patients as sovereign remedies in various diseases. There is do doubt but this strange traffic, contributed mainly to the investi- gation of old caves, and the discovery of new ones, long before geologists took the subject in hand. Having already given such an account of the Kirkdale cave as our limits will allow, and to which the reader is BONE CAVERNS. 257 referred, we will here notice several other osseous caverns in different parts of the world. In Germany, there are many caves, where bones have been found, but among these, that of Gaylenreuth has at- tracted most attention, on account of its great extent, and beauty, as well as the number of fossil bones it contains. This cave is situated in Franconia, and in the same neigh- borhood with several others, the whole of which have been described by Professor Goldfuss, of Bonn, in a treatise ex- pressly devoted to this subject The gateway, or entrance to the cavern of Gaylenreuth, is seven and a half feet high,, and faces to the east, and of this wonderful place, Professor Buckland gives the follow- ing description. The adjoining section is diminished from that drawn by Professor Buckland, in 1816. Fig. 58. The first grotto turns to the right, and is upwards of eighty feet long. It is divided into four parts, by the une- qual height of the vaulted roof; the first three are from fif- teen to twenty feet high, whereas, the fourth is only four or five. On the bottom of this part, and on a level with the floor, there is an orifice only two feet high, which leads into the second grotto. This runs first southward for sixty feet, being forty feet wide, and Eighteen high; it then turns to the west, through a space of seventy feet- 22* 258 BONE CAVERNf, becoming gradually lower till its altitude is only five fee*. The passage to the third grotto is very incommodious, winding through several corridors; it is thirty feet wide, and only five or six high. The loam on this floor, is stuffed full of teeth and jaw bones. Near the entrance to it, is a gulf of fifteen or twenty feet wide, into which visitors de- scend by a ladder. After going down, they arrive at a vault fifteen feet in. diameter, by thirty in height; and on the side on which they descend, is a grotto all bestrewed with bones. By going down a little further still, they fall in with a new arcade, which conducts to a grotto forty feet long, and a new gulf eighteen or twenty feet deep. Even after this descent, another cavern presents itself, forty feet high, quite covered with bones. A passage now, of five by seven feet, leads to a grotto, twenty-five feet long, and 12 wide; then an alley twenty feet long, conducts into another cave, twenty feet high, and finally, a grand grotto expands, eighty-three feet in width, and twenty-four in height, more copiously furnished with bones than any of the rest. The sixth, and last grotto, runs in a northerly direction, so that the whole series of caverns and corri- dors describes nearly a semicircle. A rift in the third grotto, disclosed in 1784, a new grot- to, fifteen feet long by four wide, where the greatest num- ber of hyenas' and lions' bones were found. The opening was much too narrow to have allowed these animals to have entered it. A peculiar tunnel which terminated in this grotto, afforded an incredible number of bones, and large skulls, quite entire. The excavation on the extreme right and lowest part of the figure, does not form a part of the original cavern, but has been sunk for the purpose of finding bones. Several cavities have been dug in different directions from this well, for the same purpose, in one of which there is, in the cut, the figure of a man holding a torch. "The cavern of Gaylenreuth, is one," says Dr. Ure, " whose bony relics are best known, in consequence* of the researches which have been so long carried on with regard to them by men of eminent science, such as Esper, Humboldt, Ebel of Bremen, Rosenmueller, Goldfuss, &c, as well as by the rich collections which these researches have furnished. These collections have been examined by that great fossilist, Baron Cuvier, who has ascertained that the bones BONE CAVERNS. 259 composing them, belong in the proportion of three fourths to bears, and that next to these in numbers, were the bones of hyenas, foxes, wolves, gluttons, and polecats. A few, only, of the remains of the feline tribe, have been found in this cave, and still more few, of those of the elephant tribe." Near this cavern are several others. One called Hole- berg, or holloiv mountain, has eight or ten grottos, forming a suit of apartments two hundred feet in length, with two outlets. Another called Wonder hohle, has a circuit of one hundred and sixty feet, and still another called Klaus- tein, is composed of four grottos, and is two hundred feet deep. In all these, more or less bones have been found. The rocks in which they are situated are of limestone, like that of Kirkdale, and indeed like those of all other caverns of a similar description. One of the most interesting facts developed, by the ex- amination of these caverns, and others which we have no room to describe, is, that they all, with an exception or two, contain the bones of the same species of bear, and in a similar proportion to 'the other bones. This has been found to be the case, even to the extent of more than five hundred miles, at which distance, some of these caves are situated from the others. The exceptions to this general fact exists in two or three caves, situated in England, which contain a preponderance of hyenas' bones. How are we to account for the existence of so many bones, and of all kinds of animals in these caverns? One of the most natural questions which would occur to the mind, after having read the above account, would be how the?e bones came into these caverns. The solution of this question is attended with doubts and difficulties. ** It is scarcely possible," says Cuvier, ' to imagine any other than the three following general causes, that can have placed these bones in such quantities in these cav- erns. First, they are either the remains of animals which dwelt and died peaceably in these chambers; or, Second, of animals which inundations and other violent causes car- ried in; or, Third, of the animals which had been envelo- ped in the stony strata, whose watery solution produced the caverns themselves, but the soft parts were dissolved away by the agent that scooped out the mineral substance of the caves." 260 BONE CAVERNS. The last hypothesis is refuted by the circumstance, that the strata themselves, in which the grottos are excavated, contain no bones; and the second, by the entire state of preservation of the smallest prominences of the bones, which precludes the idea of their having been rolled or transported from a distance. We are, therefore, says Cu- vier, obliged to return from these to the first cause what- ever difficulties may attend it. The vast number of bones which some of these caverns contain at the present time, together with the dust of those which have decayed, would pre-suppose that a vast period of time must have elapsed since these houses of death were first inhabited, if indeed, these remains belonged to such animals only, as " had lived and died peaceably in these chambers," as Cuvier supposes. Dr. Buckland supposes that the contents of these cav- erns are due to two causes, viz., to the deaths of the prow- ling animals which inhabited them, and to the bones of other animals which these brought home for food, and this, without doubt, is the true theory. The elephants and other large animals, the bones of which are found in these caves, do not inhabit caverns; and if they did, the en- trances are often too small to admit them while alive. Such bones most clearly must have been conveyed to such pla- ces after they had separated, by the decomposition of the soft parts, and there is perhaps, the best reasons for believing that these, and perhaps a great proportion of the other bones found in the caves, were carried there by the hyenas and other beasts of prey. We think that the facts and arguments adduced by Professor Buckland, are sufficient to convince any impartial reader, that this was the mode of their transportation into these houses of death. The immense quantities of organic relics, which have been deposited in some of these caverns, may be, in a de- gree, conceived of by the following facts. " In this cavern," (of Kullock,) says Professor Buck- land, "the size and proportions of which are nearly equal to those of the interior of a large church, there are hun- dreds of cart loads of black animal dust, entirely covering the whole floor. The quantity of animal matter accumu- lated, on this floor, is the most surprising, and the only thing of the kind I ever witnessed; and many hundred, I may say thousand, individuals must have contributed to OSSEOUS BRECCIAS. 261 make up this appalling mass of the dust of death." JRe- liq. Diluv. p. 138. Of the same cave, Cuvier says, " I have stated that the total quantity of animal matter that lies within this cavern, cannot be computed at less than 5000 cubic feet; now, al- lowing two cubic feet of dust and bones for each individual animal, we shall have, in this single vault, the remains of at least, 2500 bears." We should think that a single cubic foot of dust is more than ought to be allowed to each bear. We have already stated, at considerable length, under the article " Change of Climate," the reasons of Dr. Buckland, for believing that these caverns were the dens of hyenas, and that the multitude of bones found in them were carried there by these animals. To that article we must, therefore, refer the reader for the sequel of this subject. OSSEOUS BRECCIAS. Breccia, in Mineralogy, is a rock composed of angular fragments of other rocks, joined together by some kind of cement. In osseous breccia, bones take the place of the angular pieces of stone. Osseous or bone breccias are found in many places on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, as at Gibraltar, Cette, Antibes, Nice, Pisa, Corsica, &c. These are found filling up the fissures of calcareous rocks. It is a curious fact, that in all these places, as well as in Sicily, Dalmatia, and Cerigo, though so distant from each other, these conglom- erated fragments of bone are similar, and appear to have belonged to the same animals. They are the relics chiefly of ruminant animals, such as the deer, mixed with a few li- ons 1 teeth, panthers' teeth, and sometimes the bones of rats, and occasionally those of other animals. The pie- ces of bone are impasted in a red earthy concretion, re- sembling highly burned bricks, but spongy in texture, from innumerable porous cavities, of various sizes, arid which are occasionally interspersed with sparry incrustations. As the bones are not pressed together, it is reasonable to suppose, that the cement which contains them, must have been progressively deposited around them as they fell in- 262 OSSEOUS BRECCIAS. to the rifts of the rocks. The bones have, in general, been broken in pieces before receiving their crust of spar, or their cement. They are entirely separated from their organic arrangement but exhibit no signs of having been rolled or transported. The stony fragments which this breccia sometimes em- braces, are coarse grained limestone, of a dark grey color, containing now and then veins of white spar, and appear to have been rolled. In size, they vary from that of the fist, to small grains. These bones do not belong to any existing species of animals. In the bone rock of Gibraltar, Cuvier found one species of deer, and another of hare, both unknown species. It is unnecessary to be more particular in the descrip- tion of these breccias, as they occur at different places, having already observed, that they all bear a similar char- acter. The breccia of Dalmatia, is the most extensive of any which has been discovered; stretching along the whole coast of that country. Its structure and aspect is the same as that of Gibraltar. With respect to the origin of these bone rocks, Dr. Buckland supposes that the bones of the extinct species, are those of animals which fell into the crevices of the rocks before the flood, and perished there. The same au- thor has shown that the red cement of the osseous brec- cia is an earthy loam, differing merely in color from that which fills the caves and fissures of rocks in Germany, and constitutes the diluvial loam on their bottoms. It appears that something analogous to this breccia, is still forming in different places. At the extremity of Prince's Lines, high in the rock which looks towards Spain, is found a reddish calcareous earth, and the bones of small birds cemented thereby. The rock around this spot, is inhabited by a number of hawks, that in the breed- ing season nestle there and rear their young; and the bones in this concretion, are probably the remains of the food of these birds. At the base of the rock below King's Lines, the concretion consists of pebbles of the prevailing calcareous rock. In this concretion, at a considerable depth under the surface, was found part of a green glass bottle. Ed. Phil. Trans. It will be observed that these breccias are peculiar to FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. 263 limestone rocks. Now lime is known to be soluble in water, in small quantities, and hence the calcareous spar with which these bones are often surrounded and impreg- nated, is readily accounted for. The soil, or cement, which holds these bones together, is also hardened by the infiltration of the same substance. Osseous Breccia of Australia. This has been recently discovered. Prom a communication of Major Mitchel, to the London Geological Society, it appears that this breccia bears a great resemblance to that of Europe. The princi- pal cavity where it occurs, is an irregular kind of well, or natural fissure, accessible only by means of ladders and ropes, and the breccia is a mixture of limestone fragments of various sizes, and bones enveloped in an earthy red calcareous stone. But this differs from the breccias of the Mediterranean coast, in this important particular, that the bones of which it is chiefly formed, are those of the kangaroo, wombat, and other animals which are still liv- ing in that country. The bones of the elephant, and also of some species of other animals not known to exist, are occasionally found with the others, but the principal parts are composed of bones of living species. It was there- fore probably formed at a more recent period than the breccia of the Mediterranean. FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. Cuvier, and other geologists, have expressly declared, that no fossil human bones have ever yet been found, nor have any bones of the quadrumanous, or monkey tribe, ever been detected. " It is wonderful," says he, " that among all these mammifera, of which, at the present day, the greater part have a congenerate species, in warm cli- mates, there has not been found one quadrumanous ani- mal; not a single bone, or a single tooth of a monkey; not even a bone, or a tooth of an extinct species of this animal, has ever been detected." " Neither is there any remains of man. All the bones of the human race which have been collected, along with those which we have spoken of, have been the result of accident, and besides, their number is extremely small, $64 FOSSIL HUMAN BONES. which it certainly would not be, if men had been estab- lished in the countries inhabited by these animals. Where then was the human race? Did the last and most perfect work of the Creator^ exist no where? Did the animals which now accompany him on the earth, and of which there are no fossil remains to be found, surround him? Have the lands in which they lived together, been swal- lowed up, when those which they now inhabit, and of which, a great inundation might have destroyed the an- terior population, were again left dry?" " To these questions," says Cuvier, " the study of fossils gives us no information." One might be led to suppose, from the above language of the great fossilist, that every part of the earth had al- ready been explored, and the question concerning fossil human bones, that is, the existence of human ante-diluvian relics, had been finally settled. all thy work,, but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God; in it thou shalt do no work. .For, in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea and all that in them is and rested the seventh day. Wherefore, the Lord blessed the Sabbath day, and hallowed it." Exodus- xx, Thus it appears that this commandment was expressly founded on the fact, that the heavens and ; the earth were created in six days, and is designed to be in imitation and in DAYS OF CREATION. perpetual commemoration thereof. "Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work." " For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth." But the seventh day is the Sabbath, "in it thou shalt not do any work," for the Lord rested on the seventh day, and " therefore blessed the Sabbath day and hallowed it." Now the commandment to work six days, and rest on the seventh, being in commemoration of the work of crea- tion, and of the resting of the Creator, after it was finish- ed; we would inquire whether this command is not in ef- fect, an express declaration that the creative days were of the same length as those on which men were commanded to labor, and to rest. If therefore, it is discovered, that this is not the case, then we may humbly conceive that the command itself, though religiously observed through all generations to the present time, is no longer binding ?upon us; for if the days of creation were periods of 1000 years, then by the terms and connection of the command, men are required to labor 6000 years, and to rest 1000 years. The command, therefore, being an impossibility, we are not bound by its requirement. But the express declaration of the inspired writer, that " in six days the Lord made heaven and earth," cannot by any mode of exegesis be made to apply to other than or- dinary days, for this declaration refers to a period, when the commandments were given to Moses, that is, about 2500 years after the creation, and therefore long after the ordinary course of nature had been established. These days therefore could only have referred to such as be- longed to that period, Criticism of Prof . Stuart. We have already extended this subject much further than was originally intended, but still, the question whether the Hebrew word, transla- ted day, in the history of the Creation, admits of any other meaning, remains to be more particulaaly examined. In this examination we must depend entirely on the opinions of Hebrew philologists, and we are gratified that it is in our power to offer such authority, on this part of our subject, as that of Prof. Stuart, of Andover, first sta- ting, that the Hebrew word yom is that which is translated day, the plural of which is yamim. On this word, Prof* Stuart writes to the author as fol- lows. DAYS OF CREATION. 335> " The inquiries you make concerning the word yam, in Genesis i. I will briefly answer. It does not signify an indefinite period of time, but always some specific and definite one, when employed as it is in Gen. i. in the singu- lar number. It sometimes means a specific day of the week; sometimes to-day, that is this day; sometimes a spe- cific day, or season of calamity, joy, particular duty, action, suffering &c. It is only the plural yamim, which is employed for time in an indefinite way, as, in many days to come, days of my life, &c. But even here the plural in most cases is a limited one limited by some adjective, numeral, &c. and yamim signifies, therefore, a limited portion of time; often it stands for a year" "In general, the Hebrew word that means either day or days, corresponds quite well with our English word, by which we translate it. Thus, when we say, in the day of his calamity he will repent; in the day of his prosperity he will rejoice; in the day when God will judge; all the days of his life; his days will be short; in past days; at a future day; &c., we express ourselves in all respects as the Hebrew scriptures do. " But when the sacred writer in Gen. i. says, the first day, the second day, &c., there can be no possible doubt, none I mean for a philologist, let a geologist think as he may, that a definite day of the week is meant, which definite day is designated by the numbers^rsf, second, third, &c. What puts this beyond all question in philology, is that the writer says specifically, that the evening', and the morning were the first day, the second day, &c. Now is an evening and a morning a period of some thousands of years? Is it in any sense when so employed, an indefinite period? The answer is so plain and certain that I need not repeat it." " Plain as it is, however, I have never seen a geologist notice it. He has his reasons, no doubt, for this, and one reason also, may be, that he analyzes his rocks and his coal strata, somewhat better than he does Hebrew roots. What have a priori speculations, however, to do with such a matter? If Moses has given us an erroneous account of the creation, so be it. Let it come out, and let us have the whole. But do not let us turn aside his language to get rid of difficulties that we may have in our specula- 336 DAYS OF CREATION. " When the great Lord of the Sabbath ordained that the seventh day of the week should be kept as holy time, because * on the seventh day, God rested from all his work, and finished his work in six days,' how, in the name of common sense, did Moses expect, in communicating such a command, that the people of Israel would under- stand him as meaning a period of 6000 years, for each of the days in which God created? And, if they did so un- derstand him, what reason could this be for the Hebrews to keep holy every seventh day of the week? The whole thing bears on the face of it, the appearrnce of something monstrous and incredible. No philologist can ever be- lieve it." " Then as to the taste of such a conceit. The Creator, ' who spake and it was done; who commanded and it stood fast,' who said * let there be light, and light was;' this great and glorious Creator the Almighty God, 36,000 years in making a world!" Andover,5th Feb., 1833. Mr. Penn's Criticism. It is believed that few, at the present day, will venture to throw themselves into the scale of philology in opposition to Professor Stuart; and yet to show the coincidence of authority on this point, we will quote the opinion of another able critic who, at the same time, has spent many years in geological inves- tigations. In the sequel of twenty octavo pages, which Mr. Gran- ville Penn* has written on this subject, he comes to the following conclusions, and which the reader may observe, are precisely those- of Prof. Stuart. The Hebrew noun yam, which means day, is always definite in its import, and essentially excludes the wide, and extensive notion which we attach to the English word period. The peculiar signification of yamim, the plural Qtyom, is a point totally irrelative to the present question, which turns exclusively upon the singular yom; that sin- gular noun, which is the word used by Moses in his history of each day of the creation, and which alone we have to consider, never in any single instance denotes a year, but * Author of the " Comparative Estimate of the Mineral an>i< With respect to the tables themselves, Professor Play- fair says, " that on grounds which have now been explain- ed, the following general conclusions appear to be estab- lished. The observations on which the astronomy of In- dia is founded, were made more than 3000 years before the Christian era, (consequently 650 years before the del- uge, by the Hebrew chronology,) and, in particular, the places of the sun and moon, in the beginning of the Caly- youg, or age of misfortune, that is 3102 years before the Christian era, were determined by actual observation." " Two other elements of this astronomy," he continues, " the equation of the sun's centre, and the obliquity of the ecliptic, when compared with those of the present time, seem to point to a period of this astronomy 1000 or 1200 years earlier, (that is 4300 years before the Christian era,) and the time necessary to have brought the arts of calculating 360 INDIAN ASTRONOMICAL TABLES. and observing, to such perfection as they must have been, at the period spoken of, comes in support of the same con- clusion." Thus, on the authority of Professor Playfair, it was es- tablished that the Hindoo period called Caly-youg, being 3102 years before the Christian era, was the epoch at which these calculations were made; then other elements point to a period 1200 years before this, making in all 4300 before the Christian era, so that the astronomical calculations of these heathen philosophers, extended to a period nearly 300 years before the creation of the sun, and moon, and planets according to Moses.* All this was proved by one of the first mathematicians of the age, for Professor Playfair had made himself re- sponsible for the truth and accuracy of the Indian calcu- lations, as well as for the period at which they were made. These important conclusions, solemnly announced from the mathematical chair of Edinburgh, gave them a degree of consequence and authority in the estimation of the world, proportionate to the high source whence they came. Few persons could follow the Professor through the calculations from which these demonstrations had been deduced; and fewer still, thought of making public oppo- sition to such authority. Thus, infidels believing their cause now settled on a foundation that could not be moved, thought and spoke of Moses and his history, with the utmost contempt; while many Christians, believing that, at least, some truth had emanated from such a source, and being unable to bring any thing but the naked word of inspiration, against what were considered mathematical deductions, were happy when they could avoid all religious discussions with those who, at the onset, were ready to prove that the very foundation of their faith was wanting. * This estimate is founded as above stated, on the Hebrew chronology whiah gives 4004 years from the creation to the incarnation. It is how- ever, but fair for the reader to remember, that the Constantinopolitan chronology makes 5504 years between these events, and that Josephus makes the same period to consist of 5200 years. If we adopt either of these periods, the calculations of Play fair do not extend beyond the time of the creation. ';*>.*. INDIAN ASTRONOMICAL TABLES. 361 But whether the Mosaic record remained true or false, it is certain that the demonstrations of Professor Playfair did not destroy the verity of all scripture, since the truth of that declaration, " a kingdom divided against itself cannot stand," was confirmed and illustrated in his own case, as the event will prove. Laplace, the French as- tronomer, who was contemporaneous with Playfair, and on whose high attainments the Professor had pronounced a splendid panegyric, Laplace himself, the lover and pat- ron of infidelity, was destined to become the agent, by whom Moses and the prophets were delivered from ob- loquy and contempt; and by which it was demonstrated, that notwithstanding the existence of the Hindoo tables, and the opinion of the Edinburgh Professor, the Scrip- tures might still be a revelation from Heaven. " Every thing/' says Laplace, " leads us to conclude that they [the Hindoo tables,! are not of high antiquity. They have two principal epochs, which go back, one to the year 3102, and the other to 1491 years before the Christian era. These are linked together by the mean movements of the sun, moon, and planets, so that one of the epochs are necessarily fictitious " " In fact," he con- tinues, " if we assume for our point of departure, the epoch 1491, and go back, by means of the Indian tables, to the year 3102, before the Christian era, we obtain a general conjunction of the sun, moon, and planets, as these tables suppose; but this conjunction differs too much from the result of our best tables to have taken place, demonstrating that the epoch to which it refers is not grounded on observation. 44 The tables altogether, and particularly the impos- sibility of the conjunction which they suppose at the same epoch, prove, on the contrary, that they have been constructed, or, at least, rectified in modern times.* <4 It is well known," says Baron Cuvier, " that M. Bailly, thinking that the epoch which is used as a period of de- parture, in some of the Indian astronomical tables, had been really observed, has attempted thence to deduce a proof of the remote antiquity of this science among that people, or at least in that nation which bequeathed its knowledge to them. But the whole of this system so * Book T. hap. i. *] 362 INDIAN ASTRONOMICAL TABLES. laboriously conceived, falls to the ground of itself, now that it is proved that this epoch was subsequently adopted on calculations made backwards, and the result of which was incorrect."* M. Bently has discovered that the tables Tivalour, on which, particularly, the assertion of Bailly was founded, must have been calculated about 1281 after Christ, (540 years since;) and that the Surya-Siddhanta, which the Brahmins regard as their most ancient and scientific trea- tise on astronomy, and which they pretend was revealed, more than twenty millions of years ago, could not have been composed until about 760 years since. These authorities might be considered sufficient to settle forever the famous question of the Indian Tables, which, for a time it is known, was the strong hold of in- fidelity; and yet the opinion of Playfair has been so widely disseminated, and is contained in so many books still in existence, and still read, that we add one other authority, lest in the minds of some, these should not re- move every doubt. Delambre, in his History of Astronomy, writes on this subject as follows: " The extensive treatise on Indian Astronomy, by Bailly, has been labored with more care than any of his works. We regret only to remark too frequently in it, that spirit of system which predominates in all his pro- ductions. Instead of giving an exposition of the facts, which may enable us afterwards to consider them in every point of view, he espouses an opinion to which he makes every thing conform. He renders it available with much address, and by approximations which are often specious. Sometimes, and especially in his Indian Treatise, he in- trenches himself behind imposing masses of calculations, carefully dissembling whatever may prove prejudical to his cause as well as the objections that might be advanc- ed, and which he himself could not fail to perceive." "If we be allowed to hazard a conjecture, we would say, that Bailly never writes but to prop a system framed beforehand; that he glances slightly over the writings of the ancients, reading them in bad translations, and that he runs over all the calculations, in order to pick out ol> * Cuvier's Disc. p. 145. INDIAN ASTRONOMICAL TABLES. 363 scure passages which may lend some countenance to his ideas." " When we inquire why the Indians chose the remote and fictitious epoch of Caly-youg, or misfortune, we per- ceive, in the first place, that it was from national vanity; and in the next, that they might make all the planets start from one point, a conjunction which their method of calcu- lation required. If we further ask, why. they adopted a complicated method which employs divisions and multi- plications of enormous numbers, with so many additions, subtractions, reductions and different precepts, the answer is, that they did not wish for written tables; they wanted numbers which could be put into technical verses, even into songs, so that the calculations might be performed without writing a book. These facts, now well known, through the labors of the Asiatic Society, are alone suffi- cient to subvert the whole system of Bailly." " Mr. Playfair, in the 4th volume of the Edin. Phil. Trans, has spoken of the Indian table of sines, believing it to be very ancient. Consequently, he is not surprised at finding no tangents in it, which were unknown in Europe till the 16th century. But as the idea of them is very clearly expounded in the work of Albategni, and as, in the 13th century, we find tables of tangents calculated by the Arabs, we need not wonder if they should be found in the Surya-Siddhanta, whose date is now known to be more ancient. The Professor is astonished at seeing versed sines among the Indians; but his memory has be- trayed him, when he asserts that the Arabs did not know them. He acknowledges that the Indians have not ac- tually demonstrated either of the processes which they point out for these calculations. I would be tempted to believe that they were ignorant of these demonstrations; if they had known the principle, their table would have been probably a little better. Mr. Playfair has not calcu- lated it anew, he has not even had the discernment to perceive the error of the division, 225 substituted, proba- bly by an error of the copy, for the true divisor 235. 5." Thus at the touch of truth, vanished the most specious, and apparently the most solid foundation for infidelity that modern times have afforded, and thus did Moses and his history triumph over the vain pretensions of the Hindoos, combined with the demonstrations of one of the first mathematicians of Europe. And, it is not a little 364 EGYPTIAN ZODIACS. gratifying to the friends of the Bible, that the "pure and unbroken light which is free from the false coloring of vanity and superstition" was thus freed from contempt and derision, not by the guardians of religion, but by those who were searching for truth solely in honor of the sci- ences, and who would, (at least some of them,) have rather the error had fallen against Moses, than against the In- dian Astronomy. EGYPTIAN ZODIACS. " No sooner," says the Rev. Mr, Conybeare, " has any new discovery, whatever might have been its subject, oc- curred, (whether it was a fragment of Indian Chronology, or an Egyptian Zodiac, or the mechanism of the Universe, or that of living bodies, or lastly some new fact relating to the structure of the earth,) than the first aspect under which some minds have seemed anxious to view it, has been, whether it would not furnish some new weapon against Revelation."* Recent history, especially that department which re- lates to the sciences, constantly affirms the truth of the above observation. In no age have the advocates for un- belief sought after new resources, with so much eagerness, as during the present. The mighty movements of the Christian world, have not only shown a determination to spread the truths of the gospel, where they are still un- known, but also to remove from herself as far as possible, every taint of irreligion. The light of science, and a more general knowledge of the Bible, have long since thrown all the ancient systems of infidelity into oblivion. Even those which were in fashion thirty years ago are now obsolete; so that the errors and the authors against which Dr. Dwight warned his Baccalaureate in about 1800, are such as young men are in little danger from, at the present day. The world is too far advanced in know- ledge, to be caught by common-place arguments against religion. All this is well known to the infidel ranks in every part of Christendom, and hence they see the ne- cessity of looking among the higher branches of know- ledge for new weapons. * Conybeare and Phillips' Geo. Int. p. 50. EGYPTIAN ZODIACS. 365 The progress of the sciences has lately afforded these men their chief hopes, and already several high attempts hare been issued from this quarter. Among these the Systeme des Animaux sans Vertebres, and the " Hydro- geologie" from one hand, and the Expose du Sysleme du Monde, from another, stands conspicuous. Meantime, Egypt, that country of wonders and of an- tiquities, of which no one could tell the origin or date, has been for a long period looked upon as a most proba- ble source, whence some strong proof against revelation would come; and from time to time it has been asserted, that monuments had been there discovered, which, could their antiquities be known, would undoubtedly, as counter truths, go far to destroy the influence of the Bible. But the language of the Egyptians being unknown, was the excuse for not proving to the world the antiquity of these monuments, and thus doing away at once, all ground of religious prejudice and superstition among men. It was not however, until Egypt was occupied by the army of Napoleon, that monuments which appeared to offer any great available promise for such a purpose, were discovered, and these were the famous Egyptian Zodiacs, which for a time occupied the almost entire attention of all the antiquaries, and many of the learned men of Europe. There were two of these Zodiacs, one of which occupi- ed the place of a ceiling in a temple at Dendera, in Upper Egypt, and the other a corresponding situation in a temple at Esne, the ancient Latopolis. At the latter place indeed there were two, in different temples, one of which, how- ever, was of a small size, and of which it is unnecessary to take further notice. These works were supposed by many learned men, to afford the most conclusive evidence, (on what ground will be seen directly,) that no history yet known, had recorded the true epoch of the creation of man; and not a few writers exulted in the belief, that at last, reason and sci- ence had triumphed, and that now the minds of men were no longer to be held in religious bondage. The Egyptian Zodiacs present the same figures that are employed to represent the several constellations at the present day, but are arranged in a right manner, and are engraved in wood and painted. That of Dendera 5s the most perfect. This temple faces the north. 31* 366 EGYPTIAN ZODIACS. Here the sign of the Lion heads the band; he is direct- ing his course towards the north, and has his feet towards the eastern wall. The Virgin, the Balance, the Scorpion, the Archer, and the Capricorn, follow in the same line. But it is needless to describe what cannot be understood without drawings. The force of the argument for the antiquity of this monument, consisted in the supposition, that the peculiar distribution of these figures represented the exact state, or relative positions of the constellations, with respect to each other at the time when it was constructed, and that by astronomical calculations made backward, from the present state of the constellations, it could be ascertained at what period they were actually in the position repre- sented by this Zodiac, and thus the period of its construc- tion would be known. Figures of the Zodiacs were first published by the ac- complished Denon, in his work on Egypt, and it appears that the subject excited the most intense" interest among learned men of Europe, and particularly of France. " The Zodiacs," says M. Greppo,* " were immediately published, and commented upon with more or less good faith and decorum. Science struck out into systems very bold; and the spirit of infidelity, seizing upon the discove- ry, flattered itself with the hope of drawing from it new support." ** It was said that the Zodiacs exhibited the state of the heavens at the most remote periods, and that it was possi- ble from present data, to show when that period was. Accordingly, calculations of great prolixity and abstruse- ness were instituted to prove, what before had been as- sumed, namely, that these monuments were constructed long before the period of scripture chronology. These calculations, founded on the sure basis of mathe- matics, were said to be conclusive beyond all controversy. But a difficulty arose, which in the opinion of truth and sobriety, threw a doubt over all such demonstrations. This was, that the philosophers did not agree among themselves, as to the actual time when the Zodiacs were constructed, though several coincided so far as to deny in * " Essay on the Hieroglyphic System," by M. Greppo. Translated by J. Stuart, 1830. EGYPTIAN ZODIACS. 367 the most positive manner, the veracity of Mjoses. Thus M. Burkard demonstrated that the temple of Esne had stood 7000 years, while M. Nouet, making his calcula- tions from other data, afforded by the same figures, proved that this temple was built 4600 years before the Chris- tian era, that is, about 600 years before the creation, accor- ding to the Mosaic Chronology. M. Dupuis, taking a still different view of the subject, and making his demonstra- tions from some peculiar data which his learning and saga- city had discovered, shows by calculations through which few could follow him, that these temples must have stood at least 15,000 years. " Although the sensation which the Zodaical system of infidelity produced, was at first chiefly confined to men devoted to study, there were many others, who when they understood its bearings, were ready to applaud its pre- tended triumphs, so that intelligent, as well as pious men, were grieved to find the common belief of all Christian societies, not unfrequently attacked in their very founda- tion."* In the midst of this apparent triumph of infidelity, a circumstance happened, which gave a new excitement to the subject of the Zodiacs. This was no less than the arrival of the planisphere of Dendera at Paris. M. Leloraine an enterprising young traveller, in spite of many obstacles was the means of detaching this celebra- ted monument from the ceiling of the temple, and of transporting it to the sea, whence it was shipped, and final- ly reached Paris in 1821. M. Greppo describes the intense interest it there excited. 44 A.n object of interest," says he, ' 4 to educated men, and of vanity to those who thought themselves such, it could not remain unnoticed by the multitude; and classes of society who knew not even the signification of the term Zodiac, rushed in crowds to behold it. In the journals, in the saloons, the Zodiac was the only topic of discussion. Have you seen the Zodiac? What do you think of the Zodiac? were questions, to which every one was seeming- ly compelled to give a well informed answer, or to be degraded from a place in polished society. Greppo. 368 EGYPTIAN ZODIACS. The learned could now examiue the original instead of its representations, and thus a new impulse was given to the discussions concerning the Zodiac, and new opinions, and new publications arose in consequence. These discussions fermented an unbelieving spirit, even among those classes, which had never before arrayed themselves against the truths of revelation. Rash and unfounded opinions were hazarded; the infidelity of Du- puis, who had made the world 15,000 years old, was spread abroad in Paris, by means of small tracts, and thus the minds of multitudes partook of the poison. At this moment, as though an antidote to the virus of infidelity had descended from Heaven, there arrived in Paris, that celebrated antiquary, Champollion, the young- er, from a visit to Egypt. This young man had just be- fore solved the great secret of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and having examined the Zodiac before its removal from Dendera, he had there deciphered, not only the inscrip- tions which it contained, but also several others, inscribed on several parts of the temple itself. Armed with this great discovery, he was enabled to reveal the truth concerning these wonderful monuments, and thus to dispel the dark cloud of scepticism, which seemed destined to spread from the French capital to all parts of the world. The title on the Zodiac consisted of the following let- ters, viz: AOTKPTP. These, with certain letters, interspersed according to the rule discovered by Cham- pollion, form the Greek word for Emperor. Besides this, he discovered, in the temple of Dendera, the names, titles, and surnames of the Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, and Domitian, and upon the portico of Esne, whose Zodiac had been judged many centuries older than that of Dendera, he read the names of Claudius and Antoninus Pius* Here then the entire substratum of the Zodiacal system of infidelity was crumbled into dust, and the fabric, which had been erected upon it, with so much zeal and confi- dence, fell at once upon its builders, and covered them with shame and confusion. And, here again, it may be remarked, (as was the case Stuart's Greppo, p. 184. BEDS OF LAVA AT ETNA. 36$ with the Hindoo tables,) that the facts were not brought to light, by those whose especial duty and interest it is to defend the truths of revelation; but by one who had gone forward of his species in the science of philology; a cir- cumstance of great interest and consequence, in both cases, since iniidelity can never claim, that, in these in- stances, its cause has been crushed by the undue influence of " prejudice or superstition," upon the world. It is only necessary to state, in concluding this subject, that the Egyptian Zodiacs have no greater antiquity than the Roman domination of Egypt, which commenced one or two centuries after the Christian era; and that these signs do not, in any respect, relate to astronomy, but are connected with the idle phantasies of judicial astrology. The figures, therefore, which were so lately and confi- dently expected to revolutionize the Christian world, and reduce it to heathenism, are nothing more than what adepts in the pretended science of astronomy, call themes of nativity. And now what reader does not see especial marks of Divine Superintendence, in the circumstance, that the so- lution of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, (which had been a principal object among antiquaries and learned men for centuries,) should have been discovered, just at a moment to destroy one of the most specious systems of infidelity ever offered to the world? BEDS OF LAVA AT ETNA. " I have," says Dr. Ure, " met with persons of consi- derable pretensions to candor and sagacity, who having devoured with greedy eyes, the story told by Brydone, in his Sicilian Tour, about the canon Recupero, conceive that it justifies them in reviling the chronology and cha- racter of Moses."* This popular book has been very extensively read in this country, and it is believed that even at this day, the beds of lava at Etna, are often brought forward to prove that there is no truth in the Mosaic Chronology. It is for * Cteol, Int. p. 14. 370 BEDS OF LAVA AT ETNA. this reason that we here state the circumstances as they are said to have occurred. With respect to the beds of lava, Brydone pretends to publish the opinions of the canon Recupero, who lived in the neighborhood, and who it is stated was a competent judge in such matters. This man, of undoubted piety, of great simplicity of life, and well known for his hospitality, is made to say, that in his opinion, a bed of lava requires 2000 years ex- posure to the weather, in order to undergo sufficient de- composition to form a soil of a certain thickness. On examination, it was found, that Etna afforded seven beds of lava, with a thickness of soil between each, equal to that which the canon had said could only have been formed in 2000 years. By this mode of calculation, it was therefore proved that the first eruption, in this series, must have been 14,000 years ago, and there would, of course, be reason to suppose that the mountain itself might be much older than the first bed of lava. The manner in which this attempt to raise doubts, with respect to the veracity of Moses was received, shows with what avidity certain characters catch hold of any thing, which looks like a weapon against religion; and, also, how willing many people are to be deceived, when a lie suits them better than the truth. This simple story, which no man of common sense would have taken as testimony in the smallest matter of science or business, was immediately brought forward and published to the world, as presenting the most posi- tive facts, in evidence, that the Bible was not true; and although it has long since been proved, that there never existed the least foundation for such an inference, it is still employed to the ignorant as an argument against the Bible, and by some is considered as good evidence even to this day. The truth appears to be, that what Brydone believed, or pretended to believe, was decomposed lava, was pro- bably what geologists call volcanic tufa, or volcanic ashes, either of which might have covered the surface of the lava current, a foot or two in depth, in a few hours, instead of its requiring 2000 years, as he makes the canon to suppose. That no estimate of time can be made from any such circumstance, is proved by observations on other beds of lava. BEDS OF LAVA AT ETNA. 371 " Some of the lavas of Auvergne," says Daubuisson, " have maintained an entire surface, all over blistered, and bristling with asperities, whose edges and angles are still sharp, and well preserved. We might even imagine these lava streams to have just flowed from the bowels of the earth, and that they had hardly had time to cool. It is, however, probable, that these lavas have lain on the soil of Auvergne for 3000 years, exposed to the action of the elements." On the contrary, Sir William Hamilton has shown that over the matter which buried Herculaneum, there are six streams of lava with veins of good soil between them. Now, Herculaneum was destroyed about 1800 years ago, which shows that veins of good soil have there been formed in 300 years, instead of 2000, as estimated by Brydone. Here we see, that in one case, no soil was formed in 3000 years, while in another, veins of some thickness were formed in one-tenth of that time; which proves most clearly, that no inference can be drawn with respect to the age of the lava, from the state of its surface. Mr. Daubeny, an experienced observer, has recently visited the famous pit at Aci Reale, on which the Scottish traveller made the canon to speculate, and of which he speaks as follows. " At all events, Brydone has been grossly deceived, in imagining that the seven beds of lava seen lying one above the other, near the spot, have been sufficiently de- composed into vegetable mould; the substance which really intervenes between the beds, being nothing more than a sort of ferruginous tuff, just similar to what would be produced by a shower of volcanic ashes, such as naturally precedes, or follows an eruption of lava, mixed up with mud or consolidated by rain."* On the same subject, Dolomieu, a distinguished min- eralogist, says, " The canon Recupero deserves neither the praises which have been bestowed on his science, nor the doubts which have been raised concerning his ortho- doxy. He died without any other affliction, than that which was caused to him by the work of Brydone. He could not conceive, for what purpose this stranger, to whom he had rendered services, endeavored to excite SUB- * Edinburgh Phil. Jour. vol. xiii. p. 266. 372 BEDS OF LAVA AT ETNA. picions concerning the orthodoxy of his faith. This sim- ple man, very religious, and attached to the failh of his fore-fathers, was far from admitting, as an evidence against the book of Genesis, pretended facts which are false, but from which, even if they had been true, nothing could have been concluded. Vegetable earths between the beds of lava do not exist; and the argillaceous earths, which are sometimes found between them, may have been disposed there, by causes, totally independent of the antiquity of Etna." We are not a little surprised to find that Mr..Faber, au- thor of that learned work, the " Three Dispensations," has so magnified the story of the lava beds at Etna, as to make out of it, one of his arguments for extending the days of Genesis to periods of 6UOO years. (See an Epitome of his Theory, p. 319. " The extension," says he, '* of the six demiurgic days into six very long periods, most effectually nullifies the in- fidel objection, drawn from the ancient eruptions of Mount Etna." After describing the lava beds and strata of earth be- tween them, Mr. Faber allows the infidel the full benefit of this argument, and even more. He may if he pleases, date an eruption 30,000 years before the creation of man. *' What then," says the author, '* does such a concession at all tend to disprove the scriptural chronology of man's formation. Most assuredly not: for, if the six demiurgic days each exceed a term of six thousand years, we shall have quite time enough for the eruption, even prior to the formation of man without there being any need to impugn the scriptural authority of that event." Vol. i. p. 159. London, 1823. We cannot but hope Mr. Faber has since discovered, that the ground of this argument no longer exists, and also, that there may be danger in disseminating the account, since it is possible some of his readers may believe the facts concerning the beds, without recognizing the coun- teracting force of his arguments. 7 DAY USE TEL: 642-2997 P u ^ion is due on the LAST DATE and HOUR stamped below. 17-50m-7,'65 (F5759slO)4188 .General Library University of California Berkeley