TC 824 C2. flZ, ^ LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS '^H- STATE OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES DIVISION OF RESOURCES PLANNING ' C/IUFORNM fcBY IS Y 2 BULLETIN NO. 81 INTRUSION OF SALT WATER INTO GROUND WATER BASINS OF -^- r^ U SOUTHERN ALAMEDA COUNTY •.O;o.:O:-.0-.- 0-; o/d-o^-^:^ ••..0 • 0.0 o- o. 4o:o.:^;..-o:0-^.-.o,;<^;c p.. 0..0 '■:0. ■ .0.-.-°.-Q.O"-^- o ■ _ . - ^_- - -: t^jl EDMUND G. BROWN Governor December 1960 HARVEY O. BANKS Director of Water Resources ArK 25 1961 I I SrtARY STATE OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES DIVISION OF RESOURCES PLANNING BULLETIN NO. 81 INTRUSION OF SALT WATER INTO GROUND WATER BASINS OF SOUTHERN ALAMEDA COUNTY EDMUND G. BROWN Governor December 1960 HARVEY O. BANKS Director of Water Resources LlBKAKi UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PA VIS Well-testing equipment including United States Geological Survey well-logging equip- ment. Department of Water Resources mobile pump unit, and well-drilling contractor's coble tool drill rig TABLE OF CONTENTS Page FRONTISPIECE LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Iv ORGANIZATION, DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES v ORGANIZATION, CALIFORNIA WATER COMMISSION vl ACKNOWLEDGMENT Vli CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 Authorization 1 Related Investigations and Reports 2 Area of Investigation 3 Objective and Scope of the Study 3 Definitions 5 Location Designation System 6 CHAPTER II. GROUND-WATER GEOLOGY, OCCURRENCE, AND QUALITY 8 Ground-water Geology 8 Physiography 8 Water-bearing Formations 9 Barriers Affecting Lateral Movement of Ground Water 10 Ground-water Subareas 11 San Leandro (l) and San Lorenzo (ll) Cones. . 11 Nlles Cone (ill and IV) 12 Stivers Alluvial Area (V) l4 Mission Upland Area (VI) 15 Warm Springs Alluvial Plain (VTI) 15 Ground-water Occurrence 15 Wells 16 i Page Water Levels 17 Historic Water Levels 17 Recent Water Levels l8 Ground-water Quality 19 CHAPTER III. SALT-WATER INTRUSION 22 History 22 Entry and Movement of Saline Waters 25 Intrusion of Sea Water into the Newark Aquifer . . 26 Intrusion of Salt Water into Lower Aquifers. ... 28 Spill Over Inland Edge of Confining Clay Layer 28 Aquiclude Leakage 30 Leakage Through Wells 32 Prevention of Salt-water Intrusion 33 CHAPTER IV. PROBLEM WELL TESTING 3^ Testing Procedures 35 Supplemental Tests 38 Test Results 40 CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. ... 42 Conclusions 42 Recommendations 44 Number FIGURES Page 1 Degradation of Shallow (Newark Aquifer) and Deep (Centerville Aquifer) Ground Waters 24 2 Possible Means for Entry of Salt Water into Ground Waters 27 11 PLATES (Plates are bound at end of bulletin) Plate No. 1 Area of Study 2 Location of Wells 3 Area Geology 4 Geologic Cross-sections 5 Lines of Equal Elevation of Ground Water 6 Lines of Equal Chloride Concentration 7 Relation of Possible Problems to Degradation in Centerville Aquifer Number APPENDIXES Page A Bibliography A-1 B Summary of Results of Testing Possible Problem Wells B-1 iii I EDMUND G. BROWN i/EY O.BANKS Oov.nNOR ADDRE»« BKPLY TO OinlCTOR '- o. BOX MS Bacramknto 2 iitoNamirr hickont ••4711 STATE OF CALIFORNIA E^partttt^nt at Mato IS^tBtmtnB SACRAMENTO December 1, 196O Honorable Edmund G. Brown, Governor and Members of the Legislature of the State of California San Francisco Bay Regional Water Pollution Control Board (No. 2) Gentlemen: I have the honor to transmit herewith Bulletin No. 8I of the Department of Water Resources, entitled "Intrusion of Salt Water Into Ground Water Basins of Southern Alameda County" . This Investigation was conducted and report prepared with f\inds appropriated by the 1957 Session of the California Legislature. Basic authority is provided under Section 23I of the Water Code. This report presents a sximmary of the findings of a two-year study of salinity problems in ground waters of southern Alameda County. During the course of this study, particular attention was given to appraising the effects of Improperly con- structed, defective, or abandoned wells on salt-water intrusion conditions and subsequent degradation of the underlying ground waters. During the course of the investigation, 100 wells thought to be contributing to the problem of water-quality degradation were subjected to detailed tests. Twenty of these wells were found to be contributing to the water-quality problem by allowing interchange of water between various gravel strata. Sixteen of these defective wells were sealed or repaired by the owners under our supervision; information concerning the remaining four wells has been referred to the San Francisco Bay Regional Water Pollution Control Board (No. 2). Very truly yours, HARVEY' 0. BANKS Director iv ORGANIZATION DEPARTMENT OP WATER RESOURCES Harvey 0. Banks Director of Water Resources Ralph M. Brody Deputy Director of Water Resources James P. Wright Deputy Director of Water Resources Wllll£im L. Berry Chief Engineer, Division of Resources Planning Irvln M. Ingerson .... Chief, Engineering Services Branch The activity under which this report was prepared Is directed by Meyer Kramsky Principal Hydraulic Engineer The investigation was conducted and report prepared by James M. Morris, Jr Senior Hydraulic Engineer Robert E. Thronson Associate Engineering Geologist Robert R. Nicklen Assistant Hydraulic Engineer Assisted by Richard D. Lallatln Assistant Civil Engineer Victor B. Mclntyre Assistant Hydraulic Engineer Royal 1 K. Brown Junior Civil Engineer Charles E. Labat Junior Civil Engineer William Jones Junior Engineering Geologist Charles Taylor, Jr Junior Engineering Geologist Harold W. Latshaw Engineering Aid II Harlan J. Proctor, Jr Engineering Aid II Geologic studies were supervised by Robert T. Bean Supervising Engineering Geologist Philip J. Lorens Senior Engineering Geologist Porter A. Towner Chief Counsel Paul L. Barnes Chief, Division of Administration Isabel C. Nessler Coordinator of Reports ORGANIZATION CALIFORNIA WATER COMMISSION JAMES K. CARR, Chairman, Sacramento WILLIAM H. JENNINGS, Vice Chairman, La Mesa JOHN W. BRYANT, Riverside JOHN P. BUNKER, Gustlne IRA J. CHRISMAN, Vlsalla GEORGE C. PLEHARTY, Redding JOHN J. KING, Petalxima KENNETH Q. VOLK, Los Angeles MARION R. WALKER, Ventura WILLIAM M. CARAH Executive Secretary GEORGE B. GLEASON Chief Engineer vl ACKNOWLEDGMENT Considerable assistance was received from both the Alameda County Water District and the Alameda County Flood Control and Water Conservation District during the investiga- tion. These agencies were instrumental in obtaining access to well sites for testing activities; and also provided facilities, equipment, and personnel to assist the department. Valuable technical assistance, along with the use of a portable Widco Electric Logger for testing wells, was provided by the United States Department of the Interior, Geological Survey. In addition, the cooperation of the following public and private agencies is gratefully acknowledged: United States Army Engineer District, San Francisco, Corps of Engineers San Francisco Bay Regional Water Pollution Control Board City of Fremont City of Hayward City of Newark East Bay Municipal Utility District Eden Township County Water District Oro Loma Sanitary District Union Sanitary District F. E. Booth Cannery Food Machinery and Chemical Corporation, Westvaco Chemical Division Leslie Salt Company Silva Brothers Well Drilling, Fremont Cyril Williams, Jr., Consulting Civil Engineer, Berkeley Grateful acknowledgment is made to the many well owners who granted department personnel access to their property for data collection and well testing. vii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION Water levels in many of the coastal ground-water basins of California have been below sea level for many years. Under appropriate geologic conditions, this will induce a flow of saline ocean water into the fresh water-bearing aquifers. As a consequence, these fresh-water reservoirs are continually threatened with intrusion of saline waters. The southern portion of Alameda County, lying immedi- ately to the east of San Francisco Bay, includes areas where local ground-water supplies have become increasingly degraded over a period of some 40 years. At first, this effect was restricted to shallow wells. As the shallow wells were abandoned, deeper wells were placed in service and provided good quality water for about a quarter century. During the past decade, however, salt water has intruded the deeper gravels and has reached some of these wells. Authorization Concern regarding progressive deterioration of ground- water supplies in southern Alameda County prompted local agencies to seek guidance on remedial measures from the San Francisco Bay Regional Water Pollution Control Board (No. 2) in the early 1950's. This resulted in a preliminary study of the salt-water intrusion problem by the Department of Water Resources, which was reported to the San Francisco Bay Regional Water Pollution -1- Control Board by memorandum entitled "Preliminary Study of the Salt-Water Intrusion Problems in Southern Alameda County", dated February 1957. This study indicated that while leaking wells were probably a major factor in salt-water intrusion, a comprehensive survey of the problem was required. Accordingly, the California Legislature included funds in the 1957 Budget Act (Item 263 j. Chapter 6OO, Statutes of 1957) for a detailed study of salt-water intrusion conditions in this area. Basic authorization for the Department of Water Resources to conduct investigations of this nature stems from Section 23I of the Water Code. Related Investigations and Reports References used in connection with this study are listed in Appendix A. Direct reference to a particular publica- tion or report is indicated by means of a nvimber in paren- thesis, for example, (l). Several reports regarding the water supply of southern Alameda County were of particular assistance to accomplishment of this study. These include: California State Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning. "Preliminary Study of the Salt-Water Intrusion Problems in Southern Alameda County". Memorandum Report to San Francisco Bay Regional Water Pollution Control Board (No. 2). Project No. 57-2-12. Mimeographed. February 1957. (19). "Recommended Water Well Construction and Sealing Standards, State of California". Bulletin No. 7^. (In preparation). (20). -2- "Recommended Water Well Construction and Sealing Standards, Alameda County". Bulletin No. 84. (in preparation) . ( 21 ) . California State Water Resources Board. "Alameda County- Investigation". Bulletin No. I3. Preliminary Edition. July 1955. (27). West, C. H. "Ground-Water Resources of the Niles Cone and Probable Salt-Water Intrusion into Ground-Water Supplies of Land Adjacent to Tidal Areas". Federal Land Bank of Berkeley. November 1, 1937. (83). Area of Investigation The area of investigation Includes all of the coastal plain of southern Alameda County. It is a flat, bayward- sloping, alluvial plain bounded on the north by San Leandro Creek, on the east by foothills of the Diablo Range, on the south by the Alameda-Santa Clara County line, and on the west by the southern arm of San Francisco Bay (Plate l). This area, termed the "bay plain area", covers about 128 square miles. A substantial part of the western portion of the bay plain area is covered with evaporation ponds which have been utilized for a century by the salt industry for obtaining salt and other minerals from bay waters. In 1953, approximately 15jOOO acres of marshlands along the western bayshore of Alameda County were utilized for this purpose (Plate l). Objective and Scope of the Study The basic objective of this study, conducted between July 1957 and June 1959, was to determine the extent and causes of salt-water Intrusion into the ground waters of southern -3- Alameda County. Emphasis was placed upon the degree to which faulty or abandoned wells were contributing to the problem. The first step of the investigation was the compila- tion of readily available data bearing on the occurrence and nature of ground water in the problem area. This Included in- formation on the location of wells, drillers' logs, and historic water-level and water-quality records. It quickly became evident that more detailed Information was needed regarding individual wells and ground-water conditions in the study area. To obtain this Information, an extensive well canvass was made and field tests were conducted. The field tests included a surface resistivity survey and a test-hole drilling program to determine the areal extent of clay layers separating certain water-producing strata; well pumping tests to determine aquifer continuity; and extensive sampling and water-level measurement program to determine areal water quality and direction of ground- water movement; a transmlsslbillty test to evaluate the proba- bility of water migrating vertically through clay strata separating water-bearing gravels; and detailed well tests to determine if wells were providing a means for Interchange of water between various water-producing strata. Well locations are shown on Plate 2. Detailed des- criptions and locations of wells, a cross-reference of well numbers, wells recommended to be used for water-quality and water-level monitoring, selected drillers' logs, water-level -4- records, mineral analyses of water from walls, results of well tests and disposition of wells tested, and related information were compiled. Due to the voluminous nature of this compila- tion, the data are not included with this report; however, copies have been supplied to the San Francisco Bay Regional Water Pollution Control Board, the Alameda County Farm Advisor, the Alameda County Flood Control and Water Conservation District, and the Alameda County Water District. Copies of the data compilations can be Inspected at the offices of these agencies or at the Sacramento office of the Department of Water Resources. Definitions In this bulletin, certain terminology relating to geology, hydrology, and water quality are utilized with specific connotations. To facilitate understanding, and to avoid ambi- guities and misconceptions regarding interpretation of these terms, the following definitions are presented: Alluvium - -A general term for stream-deposited, sedimentary materials, usually of recent geologic age. Aquifer --A bed or stratum of earth, gravel, or porous stone sufficiently permeable to yield water to wells or springs. Aquiclude — An impermeable bed or stratum of clay or con- solidated rock Which prohibits or substantially re- /Stricts the movement of ground water. Confined Ground Water --A body of ground water overlain by material sufficiently impervious to sever free hydraulic connection with overlying water. Confined water moves like water in a pipeline under the in- fluence of differences in head. -5- Unconflned Ground Water --Ground water in the zone of saturation that is not confined beneath an im- permeable formation. Forebay — An area of unconflned ground water which serves as the source of replenishment or recharge to one or a series of confined aquifers. Perched Ground Water — Ground water occurring in a sat- urated upper zone separated from the main body of ground water by impervious material. Ground Water Level --The elevation at which ground water stands in a well. Degradation - -Impairment in quality of water due to causes other than disposal of sewage and industrial waste, such as sea-water intrusion, adverse salt balance, or other means. Location Designation System The location designation system employed in this report for location of wells and other points is based upon the township, range, and section subdivisions of the Federal Land Survey. This designation system conforms to that used by the United States Geological Survey. Under the system, each section (square mile) is divided into 40-acre tracts which are lettered as follows: D C B A E F G H M L K J N P Q R -6- The letters I and have not been utilized In the system because of possible confusion with numerals. Wells within each of these 40-acre tracts are numbered according to the order in which they are located. For example, a well designated as 4S/1W-30K3, is the number of a well located in Section 30 of Township 4 South, Range 1 West. The K3 indicates that this is the third well to be numbered in the northwest quarter of the southeast quarter of that section. Since the land subdivision system referenced to the Mount Diablo Base and Meridian encompasses the entire study area, reference to the base and meridian has not been Included in the well number. In order to Identify holes which have been drilled or bored specifically for test purposes, the letter "T" has been added to the well niimber following the quarter-quarter section letter, for example, 4S/1W-19JT1. -7- CHAPTER II. GROUND-WATER GEOLOGY, OCCURRENCE, AND QUALITY Throughout the bay plain area of southern Alameda County, ground water occurs in permeable sand and gravel layers, sandwiched between clay layers. Substantial amounts of groxind water underlying this area have been degraded in quality by saline water. Before attempting to make a detailed evaluation of the salinity problem, it was necessary to develop a basic understanding of local geologic and hydrologic conditions; this is summarized in the following paragraphs. Ground-water Geology To evaluate subsurface conditions which influence the occurrence and movement of grovmd water, a geologic investi- gation was made. This investigation was directed primarily toward determination of the depth, thickness, hydraulic con- tinuity, and physical characteristics of various water-bearing strata and of clay layers separating them. Physiography The configuration of surface features (physiography) often is indicative of subsurface conditions and thus is helpful in appraising ground-water hydrology. The bay plain area is comprised of four principal physiographic elements: (l) the Mission upland area, a relatively small, elevated, stream- dissected area extending southeastward from Irvington and -8- Mission San Jose Into Santa Clara County; (2) a marshland area, adjacent to the southern arm of San Francisco Bay; (3) Coyote Hills, an elongated range of low hills near Newark; and (4) an alluvial area lying between the Diablo Range on the east and the marshlands on the west (Plate 3). The alluvial area comprises a major portion of the land surface In southern Alameda County and Is of particular Importance to this study as It Is the principal area Influenced by salt-water Intrusion. The alluvial area Is comprised prin- cipally of portions of three large alluvial cones and one small alluvial plain. The three cones are, from north to south, San Leandro, San Lorenzo, and Nlles cones. These large cones have smaller alluvial cones, such as Dry Creek cone near Decoto, superimposed upon them. The small alluvial plain Is known as Warm Springs alluvial plain. It consists of several small alluvial cones formed by minor streams draining upland areas to the east and extends from Irvlngton southeastward to the Santa Clara County line. Water-bearing Formations Water-bearing formations In the bay plain area of southern Alameda County Include the Santa Clara formation of Pllo-Plelstocene age and late Pleistocene and Recent sediments. The latter have been grouped In this report as late Quaternary alluvlvun. Nonwater-bearlng units underlie the water-bearing formations and are exposed at the surface In the Diablo Range to the east and In the Coyote Hills near Newark (Plate 3). -9- The Santa Clara formation is exposed at the surface from Irvlngton southeastward to the Alameda-Santa Clara County boxindary. The Santa Clara formation lies on nonwater-bearing rocks and probably extends beneath late Quaternary alluvium in the bay plain area. The late Quaternary alluviiun and the linderlying Santa Clara formation are so similar in lithology that it generally is not possible to differentiate between them in the logs of wells. For this investigation, it was not necessary to separate these units. The fine-grained, tidal marshland deposits (shown on Plate 3) are of particular importance with respect to the occurrence and movement of ground water in the bay plain area. During the geologic past, the contact between marshland deposits and stream-laid alluvium has fluctuated to the east and west of the present line, resulting in interlayering of relatively impervious marshland clays and permeable alluvial sands and gravels (Plate 4). These interlayered deposits form a series of confined aquifers beneath the greater part of each alluvial cone. Barriers Affecting Lateral Movement of Ground Water Principal barriers to the lateral movement of ground water in the bay plain area are the Hayward fault and the Coyote Hills (Plate 3). -10- The Hayward fault Is a pronounced structural feature which lies along the base of the hills from north of San Leandro to Niles and extends across the Niles cone to Irvington. It is a well-recognized ground-water barrier and has many sur- face expressions. Other faults in the area have no significant effect upon ground-water movement. The Coyote Hills are the surface expression of nonwater-bearingj consolidated rocks which form a barrier, at depth, to the movement of ground water. Ground-water Subareas To facilitate discussion, the study area was divided into seven ground-water subareas (Plate 3), based upon the presence of faults or other geologic conditions that restrict the lateral movement of ground water. The three most important of these subareas with respect to salt-water intrusion, are the confined ground-water areas of the San Leandro, San Lorenzo, and Niles cones (l, II, and III, respectively, on Plate 3). The remaining subareas, and the corresponding designation on Plate 3, are: the forebay area for the Newark aquifer of the Niles cone (IV); Stivers alluvial area (V); Warm Springs alluvial plain (Vl); and Mission upland area (VIl). San Leandro (l) and San Lorenzo (ll) Cones . Water- bearing deposits extend to a maximum depth of about 1,000 feet in the San Leandro and San Lorenzo cones and ground water gener- ally occurs under confined conditions. Aquifers, or water- bearing sand and gravel layers, in these two northern cones -11- were not studied In the same detail as those In the Niles cone to the south since no evidence of salt-water Intrusion was found. Although aquifers within these two cones were delineated to some extent, they were not named. These aquifers are thinner and less extensive than those in the adjoining Niles cone. Water wells in the San Leandro and San Lorenzo cones are drilled to considerably greater depths than in the Niles cone and generally are perforated in more than one aquifer or are constructed with gravel envelopes to obtain comparable production. There appears to be an upper confined aquifer occur- ring between the land surface and a depth of about 150 feet in each of the two northern cones, another between 15O and 250 feet in depth, and a third at a depth of about 3OO feet (Cross- sections E-E' and F-F', Plate 4). For identification, these aquifers are considered to be "equivalent to" the Newark, Centervllle, and Fremont aquifers of the Niles cone. There is a minor perched aquifer in the Valle Vista area, between the communities of Mt. Eden and Decoto. This aquifer overlies the clay layer that confines the Newark (upper) aquifer and contains unconfined ground water. Only a few domestic wells, generally less than 50 feet in depth, tap this aquifer. Water-bearing materials are principally sand and yield relatively small quantities of water to wells. Niles Cone (ill and IV ). For convenience in dis- cussion, the Niles cone area was divided Into two subareas: -12- (l) the confined ground-water area (ill); and (2) the forebay (recharge) area for the Newark (upper) aquifer (IV). Water- bearing deposits have been found at depths as great as 750 feet In the confined ground-water area and to 400 or 500 feet In the forebay area. As the confined ground-water area of the Niles cone (III on Plate 3) has been affected critically by salt-water intrusion, subsurface geologic conditions within this subarea were studied In detail. The aquifers were delineated and named to facilitate discussion in this report (Cross-sections A-A' to D-D', Plate 4). From the surface of the confined ground-water area of the Niles cone to a depth of approximately 400 feet, a number of aquifers occur as distinct hydraulic units. The Newark aquifer extends to a maximum depth of about 175 feet, the Centerville aquifer occurs between 190 and 240 feet, and the Fremont aquifer is found between approximate depths of 250 and 300 feet. These aquifers are relatively thick and exten- sive, and are separated from one another and confined by blue clay layers. The gravel layers become thinner and contain more fine-grained materials with Increases in distance from the point where Alameda Creek debouches from Niles Canyon onto the bay plain. All of these aquifers are confined and their con- fining clay layers extend westward beneath the floor of San Francisco Bay (Bay Cross-section on Plate 4). Aquifers below a depth of 400 feet are believed to be relatively continuous -13- across the San Leandro, San Lorenzo, and Nlles cones (Cross- section F-F'j Plate 4). Below this depth, there are three or more aquifers In the Nlles cone, each of which appears to be a separate hydraulic unit. The extent of the area considered to be the forebay or replenishment area for the Newark aquifer of the Nlles cone (IV, Plate 3) is based on data obtained from well logs and from logs of test holes. Wells within this area are generally less than 150 feet deep and penetrate coarse gravels and sands inter- spersed with thin, discontinuous lenses of yellow clay. Two minor perched or semiperched aquifers overlie the clay layer confining the Newark (upper) aquifer of the Nlles and San Lorenzo confined ground-water areas. One of these minor aquifers is located in the Valle Vista area and the other near Newark. The area containing perched water near Valle Vista overlaps the boundary between the Nlles and San Lorenzo cones, and was described in foregoing paragraphs regarding the San Leandro and San Lorenzo subareas. The aquifer near Newark over- lies the clay layer confining the Newark aquifer to an unknown extent and yields limited quantities of water to wells. Stivers Alluvial Area (V) . Ground water is found in the Stivers alluvial area at elevations above sea level, and is separated hydraulically from areas to the west by the barrier effect of the Hayward fault. Accordingly, movement of saline water across the barrier is improbable and little attention was given to the area during this investigation. -14- Thicknesses of water-bearing deposits In the Stivers alluvial area are unknown. Ground water probably occurs under unconflned conditions. Mission Upland Area (Vl) . The Mission upland area Is located east of the Hayward fault and Is separated hydraull- cally from ground-water areas to the west. As Intrusion of saline water Is Improbable, this subarea also received only limited attention during this study. Ground water In the Mission upland area probably Is confined. Warm Springs Alluvial Plain (VIl) . The Warm Springs alluvial plain Is underlain by flner-gralned sediments than the alluvial cones to the north (Cross-section B-B' on Plate 4). Water wells penetrate thick sections of brown and yellow clay, and sandy clay which contain thin layers of water-bearing sand and fine gravel. Ground water Is confined. Wells 200 or more feet In depth generally are perforated continuously from a depth of about 50 feet to the bottom. Since there were no In- dications of salt-water Intrusion, only limited studies were made In this subarea. Ground-water Occurrence The locations and depths of wells were determined by an extensive well canvass of the area. Water levels In these wells further characterize the occurrence of ground waters and Indicate the direction of movement of these waters. -15- Wells In the San Leandro and San Lorenzo cone subareas (l and II, Plate 3), there are an estimated 4,400 wells. It was found that a shallow well had been constructed at almost every residence In the San Leandro-San Lorenzo area to provide water for lawns and gardens. An accurate accounting of shallow wells in these subareas was beyond the purview of this study; however, several different analytical methods In- dicate that there are about 4,000 wells less than 50 feet deep in these subareas. As deeper wells are more significant to the salt- water Intrusion problem, more concerted efforts were made to obtain comprehensive data on wells more than 50 feet deep. A total of 315 wells were found which produced water from the depth interval between 50 and 200 feet; 100 wells produced from depths in excess of 200 feet. In the forebay and confined ground-water portions of the Niles cone area (ill and IV, Plate 3), it is believed that the locations of most of the deeper wells were established during this investigation, although many of the older, shallow wells could not be found. Well records Indicate that there are approximately 360 active wells and 50 abandoned wells penetrating the Centerville and Fremont aquifers in the Niles cone. There are approximately 740 operating wells and 210 abandoned shallow wells (Plate 2). -16- In the Stivers alluvial area (V, Plate 3), l82 active and 35 abandoned wells were found. In the Mission upland area (VI, Plate 3), 35 operating and 12 abandoned wells were located. In the Warm Springs alluvial plain area (VII, Plate 3), 85 active and 20 abandoned wells were found. Water Levels The slope of the water surface in wells is indicative of the direction of ground-water movement. Accordingly, con- certed efforts were made to obtain records of water-level measurements made in the past, as well as to develop compre- hensive information regarding recent fluctuations in water levels. To provide a uniform basis for comparison, all water- level observations made during this study were converted to the mean sea level datum recently established by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey for the San Francisco Bay Area. Historic Water Levels . Records of ground-water level measurements in southern Alameda County begin as early as the 1890 's. Water Supply Paper 345H of the United States Geological Survey (66), and records of the East Bay Municipal Utility District and the Alameda County Water District provide the most complete data. Originally, groiind- water surfaces sloped toward San Francisco Bay. Ground water probably moved into the bay from water-bearing zones in the bay plain area. However, water -17- levels in portions of the Niles cone have been below sea level since about 1913. In general, water levels throughout the area have been progressively lowered by continued overdraft. Recent Water Levels . During this investigation, measurements of depths to water were made for the entire study area during the fall of 1957, spring and fall of 1958, and the spring of 1959. Lines of equal elevation of ground water (ground water contours) for the Newark and Centerville aquifers of the Niles cone during the fall of 1958 are shown on Plate 5. During the fall of 1958, water levels in upper aquifers of the San Lorenzo and San Leandro cones sloped from elevations of about 45 feet above sea level at the foothills south of Hayward, to 5 feet above sea level near the bay ( see Plate 5). At the same time, water levels in deeper aquifers were about 90 feet below sea level near Tennyson Road in Palma Ceia Village, and several miles to the northwest, near the mouth of San Lorenzo Creek in San Lorenzo, pressure levels in deeper wells were about 100 feet below sea level. At these localities, water levels in the deeper aquifers appeared to be the lowest of any in the San Leandro and San Lorenzo cone subareas. Water levels in substantial portions of the Niles cone have been below sea level for many years. During the fall of 1958, it was determined that in the Newark aquifer the water surface sloped landward toward a trough in the vicinity of Centerville (Plate 5). Water levels in the Centerville aquifer -18- were below those In the Newark aquifer and sloped bayward from the apex of the Nlles cone (Plate 5). In the Centerville area, the differential head between the Newark and Centerville aquifers typically varied from about 10 feet in March to about 40 feet at the height of the pumping season in late summer. Aquifers lying below the Centerville aquifer indicated pressure levels almost identical with those of the Centerville aquifer, although hydraulic connection probably exists only in the fore- bay area. Water levels throughout the remainder of the bay plain area were above sea level during the study period. Ground-water Quality During the conduct of this study, antecedent water quality data were compiled and evaluated. In addition, water samples were collected routinely as a part of the well canvass. In areas where salt-water intrusion was detected, n\imerous supplementary water samples were collected and analyzed for chloride content. Ground waters of the bay plain area can be segregated into two distinct categories: (l) those occurring generally throughout the major part of the area, except for the Nlles cone; and (2) those produced from the Nlles cone where extensive areas have been affected by salt-water Intrusion. Grovmd waters outside the Nlles cone area generally are a calcium bicarbonate to calcium- sodium bicarbonate-type of fairly good quality. Chloride concentrations generally are -19- less than 150 parts per million (ppm), and the waters are suitable for most uses (Plate 6). Exceptions to this include waters from very shallow strata tapped by wells, generally less than 50 feet deep, in the San Leandro, San Lorenzo, and Newark areas. These waters usually are higher in salt content than waters found at greater depths, but still are suitable for some uses. Shallow, perched waters that occur in the Valle Vista area are rather high in salt content, probably as a result of concentration by evaporation or transpiration of water from the high-water table (Plate 5). These waters generally are of poor quality and unsuitable for most uses. Along the Mission fault in the Stivers alluvial area (V, Plate 3), ground waters contain high mineral concentrations although they are used for irrigation. Ground waters from the Newark aquifer of the Niles cone are extremely variable in quality. In general, ground waters found in a strip about two miles wide along the base of the foothills are calcium bicarbonate in character and contain less than 1,000 ppm of total dissolved solids. They would be considered as good quality for irrigation use, but very hard for household use. A few wells in the vicinity of geologic faults near Niles produce water with higher mineral concentra- tions, particularly boron. West of old Highway 17 (Fremont Boulevard), which is about five miles easterly from the bay and roughly parallel to the shoreline, water from the Newark aquifer of the Niles cone is generally of poor quality. How- ever, there is a tongue of relatively good-quality water about -20- one mile wide which extends northeasterly from Coyote Hills. Throughout the remainder of the Niles cone area, chloride con- centrations in the Newark aquifer range from about 300 to 1,000 ppm along Fremont Boulevard to as high as 20,000 ppm along the bayshore near Dumbarton Bridge. Waters from the Centerville aquifer of the Niles cone generally are calcium bicarbonate in character with chloride concentrations of less than 100 ppm. These waters are of good quality for irrigation although very hard for household uses. There are four isolated small areas north and west of Centerville and another directly east where chlorides exceed 350 ppm. In addition, there are two large areas, each embracing about two square miles, southwest and south of Centerville where chlorides exceed 350 ppm; chloride concentrations as high as 3,000 ppm are found within one of these areas. Another area, near the Dumbarton Bridge approach, produces water with chloride concen- trations of 18,000 ppm, roughly the same as bay water. With the exception of an area of about one square mile southwesterly from the sugar plant between Decoto and Alvarado where chloride concentrations exceed 350 ppm, waters from the Fremont aquifer of the Niles cone are of the same general quality as those from the Centerville aquifer. -21- CHAPTER III. SALT-WATER INTRUSION There is an expanding literature on the degradation of ground waters by salt-v;ater intrusion. The sources, mechanics, and effects of the intrusions vary widely from place to place. Information on various aspects of the problem may be obtained from readily available publications (17j 18;. 33? 51 j 61, Jl, 72, and 80). It is considered sufficient for the pur- poses of this report to discuss only those particulars which lead to an evaluation of natural and man-made means for entry of salt water into the deeper ground waters of the Niles cone area. It should be noted that as any water travels along an underground route, it will in time change its mineral character to a degree which is dependent upon the chemical composition of the materials forming the strata. Particularly, the composition of sea water may be expected to be altered by contact with clay minerals or by bacterial action on sulfates. However, the chloride concentration remains relatively \jn- changed (72), and is used herein as an indicator of salt-water intrusion. In consonance with previous studies, a chloride content of 350 ppm, or more, is utilized in this Investigation as a criterion for waters that have been affected by salt-water intrusion (19, 27). History Intrusion of ground waters by saline bay water became evident in the Nlles cone area in 1924, although some shallow -22- wells near the tovm of Alvarado showed quality degradation as early as 1920 (83). Commencing in 1924, the situation became increasingly alarming. By 1928, the Newark aquifer in a large portion of the area bayward from Fremont Boulevard (old Highway 17) contained water that was unsuitable for irrigation use. About this time, ranchers began drilling wells about 200 feet in depth into the Centervllle aquifer. This aquifer is protected from the Newark aquifer by a thick layer of clay. Because of this new source of water supply, the seriousness of incipient salt-water Intrusion was not fully recognized. During the six-year period from 1936 to 19^2, there was a moderate Improvement in the quality of water from shallow wells, probably due to effects of above normal rainfall. In 1950, and again in 1957^ however, it was found that bay water had intruded further inland in the Niles cone area. The pro- gressive degradation of waters in the Newark aquifer is illus- trated on Figure 1 . Prior to 1950, there was no significant degradation in the Centervllle aquifer of the Niles cone, although it had been reported that saline water was evident In deep wells close to the bay In the Alvarado-Newark area (28). Little attention was given to these reports, as the more productive wells in the area continued to produce good-quality water. In late 1950, two deep wells penetrating the Centervllle aquifer in the Centervllle district, over five miles Inland from the bay, produced degraded water. About the same time, other -23- 00 o 11 to" ' « \J \ liJ^ ' ..^^ X _/ 1.2 — 1 ^ nf^^ r * ° ?^ ^ ja ^^fr^ lA .^ # ^^ ^ y^'\ S^ •S^ ^ w'^"^ J/^V^ It — '^1 ii ^ ] ^ v^f r yl^ 15f Wr o II ■tn'^LJ— « \r JT 2^ .^>^ "^ f_j 1.2 \ >^^ « ^^^/•^ >\ Oc -, L o xC ^ ° ^V»=^ o y\\ X /W ^ J^\^ ^/ '-^ ^^} \ ^^ L / ^ I ^ ''^^ l« 'V S]x^^^^ ^^^H '^f (2 / ^^3<^#^ Si ^m o ■> o k UJ H < 3 O cr o o < X (/5 11 rn*^ ■' « A>- «! £'1^ J^ "^4 ^ A. >^^ s N^^y^^ \ o /m* VVV ^ ^ 4^^^A iR /^ --> Oy^J'^l ^^^k. II / ^ ■v.. '^^ l^r^ ^ '^'Tp^r^'^r''' # ' (M P i flT35 FIGURE I UJ 3 O a: o UJ u. =3 O < UJ o > a: iij Ul o 1- LiJ z UJ 2 CJ (T O UJ < h- cr Q. < z o. Ul ^ u UJ O ■" m Q Q '-^ =! Z UJ Q 3 - s- Z O O UJ _J -J < Q^ 5 3'- O '•^ I rr Q. t rv. Ul UJ u. UJ CE O-l -) Q V- o ? < (/> UJ i<: < (T 5 < z $ I o _l _l < X < < a: o UJ o 24- I deep wells in the vicinity of Newark and Alvarado were reported to be yielding salt water. By the end of 1950, about 100 acres of the Centerville aquifer produced water with chloride concen- trations in excess of 350 ppm; this area of degraded water in- creased to about 230 acres early in 1951. Information collected by the Department of Water Resources during a county-wide water resources investigation indicated that 660 acres of the Centerville aquifer were degraded by salt-water intrusion during the winter of 1953-54 (27). A few years later, in 1956, a reconnaissance survey indicated an alarming increase in the area affected (19). By late 1958, about 2,630 acres of the Centerville aquifer were affected (Plate 6). Samples collected during 1959 show that about 3^000 acres were degraded by salt water. The foregoing observations, summarized on Figure 1, clearly show a progressive increase in the area of degraded water in the Centerville aquifer. Plate 6 shows an isolated area in the vicinity of Alvarado and Newark where water of the Fremont aquifer was found to be degraded in 1959 • It is important to note that degradation of this aquifer has begun. Entry and Movement of Saline V/aters As indicated earlier, the objective of this study was the evaluation of natural and man-made factors involved in the degradation of ground waters . A general appraisal of these factors is reviewed below. The significance of the factors will be discussed in subsequent portions of this report. -25- I Possible means for entry of salt water Into ground waters are delineated on Figure 2. It is seen that there are three natural routes for subsurface movement of salt water into ground-water reservoirs. The one man-made route permits leak- ing or cascading of saline surface or ground water through wells. The shallow ground-water reservoir corresponds to the Newark aquifer and the deeper reservoirs correspond to the Centerville and Fremont aquifers. Intrusion of Sea V/ater into the Newark Aquifer The most probable point of entry of saline bay water into the Newark aquifer is beneath the deepest part of the tidal channel through Dumbarton Straits. Typically, bay muds and blue clay with a total thickness of about 50 feet overlie the Newark aquifer. Meandering tidal currents have eroded this material to a thickness of about 5 feet forming a "window" which extends over a width of about 2,500 feet for an undeter- mined distance. It is almost certain that, during maximum tidal currents, the bottom scour extends through the mud and exposes the gravels of the aquifer. Some salt water may have entered the Newark aquifer through breaches in the clay layer underlying the tidal flats. At one time, springs existed along the western edge of Coyote Hills. Those channels through which spring water formerly flowed upward may now carry salt water downv;ard. Pier and piling holes and abandoned water wells may also form breaches. The quantities of flow involved are relatively minor. -26- FIGURE 2 San Francisco Boy ■;,|»«.««>^ 1 >-Hrl V.S«j «»! ' ^ / ' !*i '' - ^' -^^ Clay LEGEND — f % • Of Clai «iTh lAMEGULAR LENSES Of SAHD AND GRAVEL GROUND-WATER SUBAHEAS I SAH LEANDRO CONE CONFINED GROUND - WATER AREA n SAN LDRENID CONE CONFINED GROUNO-WAtER AREA m NILES CONE CONFINED CROUND->ATER AREA n NILES CONE F0RE8AT AREA, NEWARK AQUIFEfl Z STIVERS ALLUVIATEO AREA BI WARM SPBIHGS ALLUVIAL PLAIN ZH MISSION UPLAND STATE OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES DIVISION OF RE50LJRCES PLANNING INTRUSION OF SALT WATER INTO GROUND WATER BASINS OF SOUTHERN ALAMEDA COUNTY AREAL GEOLOGY SCALE OF FEET 2000 ZOpO 4000 tooo ^ ( ) W°r. PLATE 4 WARM SPRINGS ALLUVIAL PLAIN (Thin fin>-groln>d agulfart) B' —■100 itZS-S'-^-^ -300 —1 100 w jED ROCK -100 -200 — -300 -400 END 3N OF PERMEABLE DEPOSITS CONTAINING GROUND WATER WITH CHLORIDE lEATER THAN 350 PARTS PER MILLION DURING 1958. ID SILT EVELS OCTOBER 1958 Jections ss Section STATE. OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES DIVISION OF RESOURCES PLANNING INTRUSION OF SALT WATER INTO GROUND WATER BASINS OF SOUTHERN ALAMEDA COUNTY GEOLOGIC CROSS SECTIONS SCALE OF MILES SECTION A-A'* SCALE OF MILES E SECTION B-B' Z -500 L i - '■ - ..UJ-^^^-f^ -400 -200 -300 -500 SCALE OF MILES SECTION C-C SCALE OF MILES SECTION D-D' F' SCALE Of MILES SECTION E-E' NILES ALLUVIAL CONE WHARF AT RAVENSWOOD — -100 lOO -400 -200 500 -300 DEPARTMENT OF WATEfi RESOURCES i960 SCALE OF MILES SECTION F-F' SCALE OF MILES BAY CROSS SECTION* I I RELATIVELY IMPERVIOUS CLAT AND SILT PIEZOMETRIC LEVELS OCTOBER 1958 NEWARK AQUIFER •t + — CENTERVILLE AOU'FEB VllXllK FREMONT AQUIFER LOWER AQUIFERS NOTE • S 1 37. 38. 39. 40. Isherwood, J. D. and Plllsbury, A. P. "Shallow Ground Water and Tile Drainage In the Oxnard Plain" . Transactions, American Geophysical Union. Vol. 39^ No. 6. December 1958. Johnston Pump Company. Edition. 19 5^. "The Vertical Pump". First 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. Legette, R. M. and Taylor, G. H. "The Transmission of Pressure in Artesian Aquifers". Transactions, American Geophysical Union. June 1934. Los Angeles Flood Control District. "Report on Tests for the Creation of Fresh Water Barriers to Prevent Salinity Intrusion Performed in West Coastal Basin, Los Angeles County, California". Unpublished. March 10, 1951- Love, S. K. "Cation Exchange in Ground Water Contaminated With Sea Water Near Miami, Florida". Transactions, American Geophysical Union. Part 6. 1944. Maryland Department of Geology, Mines, and Water Resources. "The Water Resources of Carroll and Frederick Counties" By Gerald Meyer and C. M. Beall. Bulletin No. 22. 1951. Maryland State Planning Commission. "Ground Water in Baltimore Industrial Area". By John C. Geyer. May 1945. "Baltimore's Salty Ground Water Blamed on Faulty Well Structure". Engineering News Record. Vol. 137- September 5, 1946. New Jersey State Water Policy Commission. "Supplementary Report on the Ground Water Supplies of the Atlantic City Region". Special Report No. 6. 1936. New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Research Development Division. "Preliminary Quantitative Study of the Roswell Ground Water Reservoir, New Mexico". By M. S. Hantush. 1957. New Zealand Geological Survey, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. "Self-Potential Logs of Two Canterbury Water Wells". The New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology. October 1950. A-5 48. Pierce, J. W. "Salt Water Infiltration Into the Alameda County Water District, California". Thesis for Degree of Engineering. Stanford University. 19^9. 49. Piper, A. M. "A Graphic Procedure in the Geochemlcal Inter- pretation of Water Analyses". Transactions, American Geophysical Union. Part 6. 1944. 50. Poland, J. F. "An Electrical Resistivity Apparatus for Testing Water Wells". Transactions, American Geophysical Union. 1940. 51. Poland, J. F. and Morrison, R. B. "Ground Water in California". Transactions, American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. Vol. I87. 1950. 52. "Radioactivity and Geochemlcal Well Logging". Petroleum Engineer. December 1942. 53. Revell, R. "Criteria for Recognition of Sea Water in Ground Waters". Transactions, American Geophysical Union. Part III. 1941. 54. Russell, Richard J. "Offsets Along the Hayward Fault". California Journal of Mines and Geology. Vol. 3^- 1926. 55. San Francisco Bay Regional Water Pollution Control Board (No. 2), "Disposal of Surface Drainage by Means of Wells, Centerville Area, Alameda County". File No. 282.21. July 1955. 56. San Francisco County Board of Supervisors. "Hetch Hetchy Water Supply for San Francisco". By John R. Freeman. Alameda Creek Land and Water Rights. July I5, 1912. 57. Schlumberger Well Surveying Corporation. "Introduction to Schlumberger Well Logging". Document No. 8. 1958. 58. Spring Valley Water Company. "The Future Supply of San Francisco From the Conservation and Use of Its Present Resources". 1912. 59. Taylor, Samuel G., Jr. "Gravity Investigations of the Southern San Francisco Bay Area, California". Thesis for Doctor of Philosophy in Geophysics. Stanford University. December 1956. 60. Tolman, C. F. "Ground Water". McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1937. A-6 I I 4 i I. \ 61. Tolman, C. F. and Poland, J. P. "Ground Water, Salt Water Infiltration and Ground- Surface Recession in Santa Clara Valley, Santa Clara County, California" . Transactions, American Geophysical Union. Part I. July 19^0. 62. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils. "Reconnaissance Soil Survey of the San Francisco Bay Region, California". By Holms, L. C. and Nelson, J. W. 1917. 63. United States Department of Agriculture. "Putting Down and Developing Wells for Irrigation". By Carl Rhomer. Circular 546. February 19^0. 64. United States Department of the Interior, Geological Survey. "Problems of Water Contamination". By Isaiah Bowman. Water Supply Paper 16O. 1906. 65. . "Well Drilling Methods". By Isaiah Bowman. Water Supply Paper 257. 1911. 66. . "Ground Water Resources of the Niles Cone and Adjacent Areas, California". By W. 0. Clark. Water Supply Paper 345H. 1915. 67. . "Ground Water in Santa Clara Valley, California". By W. 0. Clark. Water Supply Paper 519. 1924. 68. . "A Study of Coastal Ground Water With Special Reference to Connecticut". By John S. Brown. Water Supply Paper 537. 1925. 69. . "Methods of Exploring and Repairing Leaky Artesian Wells". By John McCombs and Albert G. Fiedler. Water Supply Paper 596A. 1928. 70. . "Methods of Locating Salt Water Leaks in Water Wells" By Penn Livingston and Walter Lynch. Water Supply Paper 796A. 1937- 71. . "Native and Contaminated Ground Waters in the Long Beach-Santa Ana Area, California". By A. M. Piper, et al. Water Supply Paper II36. 1959. 72. . "Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Character- istics of Natural Water". By John D. Hem. Water Supply Paper 1473. 1959. 73. . "Geologic Atlas 193. San Francisco Folio". 1914. A-7 74. . "Ground-Water Hydraulics". A Stunmary of Lectures Presented by J. G. Ferris at Short Courses Conducted by the Ground-Water Branch in Austin, Texas. June 1952. 75. . "Geology of the Hayward Quadrangle, California". By G. D. Robinson, 1956. 76. University of California, Agricultural Experiment Station, College of Agriculture. "Irrigation Well and Well Drilling". By C. N. Johnston. Circular No. 4o4. May 1951. 77. University of California, Institute of Engineering Research, Berkeley, California. "An Abstract of Literature Pertaining to Sea Water Intrusion and Its Control". July 1, 1952. 78. University of California, Sanitary Engineering Research Project. "Investigation of Travel of Pollution". Annual Report. July 1952. 79. . "Annual Report on Laboratory and Field Investiga- tions of the Travel of Pollution From Direct Water Recharge into Underground Formations". Standard Service Agreement No. 12C-4. July 1, 1953- 80. . "Report on Laboratory and Model Studies of Sea Water Intrusion". Technical Bulletin No. 11. Institute of Engineering Research. Series 37. May 1955. 81. United States War Department. "Well Drilling". Technical Manual 5-297. November 1943- 82. Watts, W. L. "Alameda County". Eleventh Report to State Mineralogist. Sacramento. l893. 83. West, C. H. "Ground-Water Resources of the Niles Cone and Probable Salt-Water Intrusion Into Ground-Water Supplies of Land Adjacent to Tidal Areas". Federal Land Banks of Berkeley. November 1, 1937. 84. Williams, C, Jr. "Report on Water Supply of Alameda Creek Watershed With Particular Reference to Liverraore Valley Underground Supply". Unpublished. 1912. 85. . "Report on Water Supply of San Lorenzo Creek Alluvial Cone and Some Territory Adjacent Thereto in Alameda County, California". September 17, 1941. 86. Wilson, C. "Geochemical Alterations in Ground Waters of Los Angeles Coastal Plain". Journal, American Water Works Association. Vol. 39, No. 5- May 1947- A-8 1 APPENDIX B SUMMARY OP RESULTS OF TESTING POSSIBLE PROBLEM WELLS B-1 I — I P. Pt ■a S.S -1 +j aJ 5 §1' i oj ; £ *5 a -p o o -^ u o X - ^ p ^ Q Q. 4» 3 o SSI t> O (D ■0 -rt I 0) W) "tf 4h 4J 41 s] ^ a) -H ■H r-) a OJ Of H 3 H er o V ^ p :> u a SS a » ^ 5< o> Ov l&^ fj K. P 5^ i a) £ c > u J3 f^ 3 £■3 ft) ^ CO-rH *J x: a) x; ^ 4t 3 ^ CO 0**J 5 g ""S o £ a x: (h U Ol u P< 1^ 01 ■it 01 0) o a ° °-i V tti •-* > r-l O ■ej o >, -d V -r^ -fJ 0) a *> T^ a o d a o 'dp'-" -o m O o 3 e on Unity water tent. p. H 01 Fh 00 0) OJ c -d o --i -n >, g§ 3 ^ c o §g a a > u ^ o 3 d o 0. i ^ rH 0) -d C L. U £ -H > ■ d r-( ^ CO Oj O -d d Ti ♦J >J -H >. 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California, Dept, of water resources. .6 li torlr<~^2>\ PHYSICAI SCIENCES UBRARY Call Number: Tce2U C2 A2 LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNU DAVIS 240509 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS ^H