ABOUT- MUSIC -AND 
 WHAT- IT- IS -MADE -OF 
 
 OLI\lRlAPRisCOTT 
 
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 in 2008 with funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/aboutmusicwhatitOOpresrich 
 
ABOUT MUSIC, AND WHAT IT IS 
 MADE OF 
 
ABOUT MUSIC, AND 
 WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 A BOOK FOR AMATEURS 
 
 BY 
 
 OLIVERIA PRESCOTT, A.R.A.M. 
 
 AUTHOR OF " FORM OR DESIGN IN VOCAL 
 AND INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC" 
 
 METHUEN & CO. 
 
 36 ESSEX STREET W.C. 
 
 LONDON 
 
 1904 
 

 to the memory of 
 
 My Master 
 
 GEORGE ALEXANDER MACFARREN 
 
 BORN 1813; DIED 1887 
 " / was eyes to the blind." — Job xxix. 15. 
 
 ^'ij<iq>'\0'\ 
 
PREFACE 
 
 There was an old pianoforte teacher, who said 
 one day to his pupil, " You have brought me 
 the notes of your piece to-day ; next time you 
 must bring me the music of it." 
 
 Children may learn the A, B, C — the notes of 
 it. Girls and boys may learn the harmony and 
 the tunes — or the grammar. It is for the grown 
 musician, the real lover or a^nateilr of music, to 
 know the whole beauty — the beauty of the whole, 
 in fact, the music. 
 
 The best amateur should love that which is 
 best in the thing that he loves, and the best is the 
 highest. Not the artifice, not the science, but 
 something much greater — the art of it. And the 
 art of anything is the completion, or true balance 
 of all the parts which make the whole. 
 
 That is the music of it. 
 
 Oliveria Prescott 
 
 irn'X*:>^''::^v%(\ 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 Home Music in England . . . . i 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 From Madrigal to Modern Style . . 49 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 The Rise of Opera . . . . .101 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 The Course of Oratorio . . . .155 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 The Making of Symphonies . . .192 
 
 Index ....... 261 
 
ABOUT MUSIC AND WHAT IT 
 IS MADE OF 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 
 
 / saw her daunce so co?nlily^ 
 Carole and singe so swetly, 
 Laughe and p ley e so womanly, 
 And loke so debonairly. 
 
 — Chaucer, Book of the Duchess. 
 
 THERE was an old proverb of the fourteenth 
 and fifteenth centuries which gave the palm 
 for joyousness to the English, in its estimate of 
 the music of different nations. It said : " The 
 French pipe, the Germans howl, the joyous 
 
 Spaniards wail, the Italians caper, the character. 
 English carol." Now, without dwelling unduly 
 upon the severity of the judgment on some foreign 
 nations, we may think of that upon ourselves with 
 great comfort, in our natural love for our own 
 country. For carol was one of the words used for 
 singing in connection with dancing ; and it speaks 
 of a joyousness or clear sweetness which is pleasant 
 to think of. It is a characteristic which it will 
 A 
 
2 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 not be hard to trace in English music as we come 
 down the scale of time. Even the restricted 
 meaning of carol nowadays as a Christmas song 
 is full of joy of the sweetest kind. 
 In Chaucef^s When the narrator in the Romaunt 
 time. Qj^ fjig^ jiQ^g went " down by a litel 
 
 path, of mintes full and fennell greene " he found 
 Sir Mirth^ and around him were some folk **so 
 faire and fresh that they were like to angels 
 feathered bright." These folk " upon a karole 
 wenten tho." A lady " karoled " to them. She 
 was Dame Gladnesse^ " blissful and light, that 
 singeth so well with glad courage " — a lady whose 
 grey and glad eyes had made a covenant of 
 laughter with her mouth. "Well could she sing 
 and lustely, none halfe so well and seemely, and 
 couthe make in songe such refraining, it sate her 
 wonder well to sing." Her voice " full clere 
 was and full swete." She "was not rude ne 
 unmete, but couthe enough for such doing, as 
 longeth unto karolling." ** For she was wont in 
 every place, to singen first, folke to solace. For 
 singing most she gave her to, no craft had she so 
 lefe to do." Then again " mightest thou karolles 
 seene and folke daunce and merry beene." Pre- 
 sently another person came forward, named 
 Courtesie, saying to the narrator, " Come, and if 
 it like you to dancen, daunceth with us now." 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 3 
 
 ** And I, without tarrying, went into the karol- 
 ling" "amid the karol for to daunce." 
 
 So carol was singing, and carol was dancing, and 
 carol was singing and dancing together ; for Dame 
 Gladnesse carolled with her voice, and the faire 
 folke carolled with their motions. Joy and sweet- 
 ness, mirth, gladness and courtesy mingled with 
 it all. 
 
 This is a pretty picture of gentlefolks' music in 
 the fourteenth century ; but a prettier still is to be 
 found in The Flower and the Leaf, which some say 
 was written by Chaucer, and some that it was the 
 work of a lady in the fifteenth century. 
 
 A lady is the narrator in this poem. She has 
 wandered in early morning into an arbour, and 
 sees through the leafage a rich field covered with 
 corn and grass. Around her is the eglantine 
 (sweetbriar) with its " sweet air," and the " fairest 
 medle tree, as full of blossoms as it might be " — 
 and we know how every blossom of the medlar is 
 a bouquet in itself with its wreath of green leaves. 
 Therein " a goldfinch leaping prettile from bough 
 to bough" and singing "so passing sweetly." The 
 nightingale, " with so merry a note, answered him 
 that all the wood rong " from '' where she sat in a 
 fresh grene laurer tree that gave so passing a 
 delicious smell." Presently the lady heard voices 
 suddenly, "the most sweetest and most delicious 
 
4 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 that ever any wight, I trow truly, heard in their 
 life, for the armony and sweet accord was in so 
 good musicke that the voice to angels most was 
 like," and, "out of a grove even by . . . there 
 came singing lustily a world of ladies." Then the 
 poet tells of their great beauty and of their array. 
 " Surcotes white of velvet well sitting " — the 
 " semes garnished with emeralds one by one " 
 and many a rich stone set in the "purfles," 
 " sieves," and " traines round about " — great 
 pearls round and orient, diamonds fine and 
 rubies red. These ladies had chaplets of green 
 on their heads ; some of laurel, some " full 
 pleasantly " of woodbine, and " sadly some " of 
 " agnus castus." And thus they came " dauncing 
 and singing into the midst of the mede." The 
 queen of the party, whose " heavenly figured face 
 so pleasaunt was, and her wele shape person, that 
 of beauty she past them every one, began a 
 roundell lustily, that sus le foyle^ de vert moy men 
 call, . . . and the company answered all, with 
 voice sweet entuned and so small, that me thought 
 it the swetest melody that ever I heard in my 
 life soothly." Later in the poem " by a tuft that 
 was ouerspread with flowers " there began '^ a lady 
 for to sing right womanly, a bargaret in praising 
 the daisie. For as me thought among her notes 
 swete she said si doucet et la margarete. Than 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 5 
 
 they answered her in fere (together) so passingly 
 well and so pleasauntly that it was a blissful noise 
 to hear." 
 
 In these two poems the models have evidently 
 been taken from nature ; while the lines at the 
 head of our chapter are part of an actual descrip- 
 tion of the Duchess Blanche of Lancaster. The 
 artist's skill may rightly have been exercised in 
 selecting the best models for these descriptions 
 and in clothing them with perfection, but there is 
 quite enough to show what was the ideal of home 
 music of that time. The gorgeous and "well- 
 sitting " array of the singers, as well as the titles 
 given to some of them, shows that they were typical 
 of the rich and high born ; and into the midst of 
 all the charm of blossom and bird, sweet scents 
 and greenery, they bring music which blends with 
 nature's beauty by its "swete accord" and its 
 " armony." It was a " blissful noise to hear." As 
 we should nowadays express it, they had good, 
 sweet and clear voices, and knew how to use them ; 
 how to sing in tune and in time, to sing piano as 
 well as forie^ to sing so that the words could be 
 understood and the expression felt by the by- 
 standers — that the songs they sang were melodious, 
 in good harmony, and with rhythm clear enough 
 to help the motions of the dancers. Truly this is 
 a high ideal, and one that would serve for present 
 
6 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 use for many a choral society. Dame Gladnesse^ 
 too, was skilled in the art of solo-singing, for she 
 could do all that belonged to it. She loved it, and 
 loved, too, to make others glad with it — would 
 liefer sing to solace folk than do anything else. 
 Can we want a nobler ideal than this for an 
 amateur singer ? We must not run away with the 
 idea that as Chaucer lived in dark ages long ago 
 he might have described bad singing as good 
 because he knew no better. For he could be 
 terribly severe sometimes, as when in the Canter- 
 bury Pilgrims he talks about the elderly nun who 
 sang through her nose, and the fat sompnour, who 
 sang a drone bass or burden to the Pardoner's little 
 tenor pipe, " was never trompe of halfe so grete a 
 soun." Though the theories of students and 
 scholars in those days were different to ours, and, 
 as we think, much more crude, their musical ears 
 were just as good as ours, and perhaps better 
 cultivated. 
 
 hi Shake- To take a leap onwards in time, we 
 speare's days, cannot read Shakespeare without find- 
 ing how much the home life of his day was 
 imbued with music ; it is almost as if the characters 
 were living in an atmosphere of music. Most of 
 it too is joyous. Read As you Like it. The 
 banished duke must have a song from one of his 
 courtiers while dinner is going on, even though 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 7 
 
 they be in the wilds of the Forest of Arden. Again, 
 when Celia is telling Rosalind about the unhappy- 
 youth who lay under the oak like a dropped acorn, 
 Rosalind breaks in with her exclamations and 
 questions, till Celia cries, " I would sing my song 
 without a burden, thou bringest me out of tune." 
 Then Jaques is so exceptionally melancholy that, 
 when his friends think him growing merry with 
 listening to a song, he excuses himself that can 
 even " suck melancholy out of a song, as a weasel 
 sucks eggs." 
 
 Read the Merchant of Venice. Portia, the rich 
 lady, has her established band of musicians which 
 greets her on her return home. 
 
 Then in Much Ado about Nothing, when Hero is 
 sad over her wedding preparations and Beatrice 
 is no better, the waiting-woman, Margaret, tries to 
 cheer them with singing. " Clap us into Light 
 Love ; that goes without burden. Do you sing it 
 and I'll dance it." Just the very same thing that 
 Dame Gladnesse and her party were doing when 
 they carolled. 
 
 Look at the Taming of the Shrew. Bianca the 
 rich man's daughter is to be amused while she is 
 shut away from society, to let her elder and dis- 
 agreeable sister have an opportunity of marrying. 
 One tutor is to teach her Greek, Latin and all the 
 languages of the world. Another is to teach her 
 
8 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 music and mathematics — subjects that have gone 
 together, in the scholar's estimation, since the days 
 of Euclid. Moreover, this musician is only an 
 ordinary gentleman in disguise ; yet he knows 
 enough music to teach that difficult thing, the 
 gamut. There is a good deal of music sown broad- 
 cast in the lesson scene. First, there is the wrang- 
 ling between the rival teachers (and rival lovers). 
 " Fiddler, forbear," says the master of languages — 
 the reply of the music teacher is that his pupil is 
 the patroness of heavenly harmony, and therefore 
 he should have first lesson. Then comes the philo- 
 sopher's retort that music was ordained to refresh 
 the mind of man after his studies, and therefore 
 the musician must be content with second turn. 
 The musician being banished to a corner to tune 
 his instrument while the preferred lover teaches 
 his peculiar Latin, endless excuses send him away 
 whenever he returns with his lute in tune. " Let's 
 hear, o fye, the treble jars." Back again, " Madam, 
 'tis now in tune," " All but the base " ; and now the 
 musician begins to see through the philosopher a 
 little clearer, and mutters, " the base is right, 'tis 
 the base knave that jars." Presently he is allowed 
 his turn, and bids the philosopher " You may go 
 walk, — my lessons make not music in three-parts," 
 a dignified and musical version of the old saying 
 about two being company and three trumpery. 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 9 
 
 Now he is most correct in his teaching. " Madam, 
 before you touch the instrument, to learn the order 
 of my fingering-, I must begin with rudiments of 
 art." He will teach gamut in a shorter and more 
 pleasant way than usual ('tis always so with a 
 new teacher). But Bianca is indignant. "Why, 
 I am past my gamut long ago ! " So she knows the 
 difficult thing too. Still she reads from Hortensio's 
 paper — 
 
 " Gamut ^ I am, the ground of all accord, 
 A re^ to plead Hortensio's passion, 
 B mi^ Bianca, take him for thy lord, 
 C/^, ut^ that loves with all affection, 
 D sol^ re^ one cliff, two notes have I, 
 E la, 7ni, show pity, or I die." 
 Read this downwards and we find Gamma, or 
 G, A, B, C, D, E, which are the series of notes on 
 a keyboard. Then the next row downwards is 
 the six notes of the scale or key of G (scholars 
 did not reckon the seventh or leading note in the 
 key), ui^ re^ mi, fa, sol, la — ut taking the place of the 
 modern do or tonic. Farther down, we begin a 
 third key from C, ut re, mi, etc. But, stay, this is 
 not a technical manual, and readers must look in 
 the introductory chapter of Macfarren's " Counter- 
 point " if they wish to understand the whole three 
 
 ^ Gamma ut was the lowest note of all, from which the rest 
 were counted. 
 
lo MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 octaves of which Hortensio's gamut was only the 
 beginning. And yet he was only an amateur. 
 
 It is pretty to see the rough-and-ready soldier 
 Henry V. in his love-making in the play of that 
 name. It is blunt, certainly, but he is very much of 
 a gentleman, and he shows both his good manners 
 and his knowledge of music by the comparison of 
 the French lady's bad English to some of the music 
 of the time. Her English is rather worse than his 
 own French. He calls it brokeft music \ for, as he 
 says, her voice is music to him to hear, while her 
 English is broken. Now broken music seems to 
 have been music played upon an incomplete band. 
 Bands were usually in sets of five or six of the same 
 kind of instrument in different sizes, from bass to 
 treble. A band of a smaller number than five or 
 six, or of a mixed kind with wind and string, or 
 instruments and voices, was considered incomplete, 
 therefore broken. The French princess's English 
 was incomplete and mingled with French words 
 and phrases, therefore broken, a meaning which we 
 still use in broken English. 
 
 In Twelfth Night there are the two disreputable 
 old knights, the great lady's uncle and his boon 
 companion, who are willing and apt to sing catches 
 the moment the musical clown has finished his 
 song, which they enjoy thoroughly. These three 
 roll out their punning on the catchwords and 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND ii 
 
 song titles with a fluency which shows they have 
 a considerable acquaintance with the ballad 
 literature of the day. Here we have come down 
 the social scale a little — the music is the " cobbler's 
 catch " and the " tinker's round " ; for the whole 
 of society was impregnated with music. 
 
 See next in Winter's Tale. The peasant de- 
 scribes the sheep-shearers of his father, twenty- 
 four in all ; they are " three man song-men, all of 
 them, and very good ones too." Twenty-four good 
 chorus-singers among the farm-servants ! Even 
 though there was the usual modern deficiency of 
 tenors ; for, as the peasant goes on, " they are 
 most of them means (the man's alto voice) and 
 bases." There is another little touch of the music 
 of the time in the same sentence, "there is but 
 one Puritan amongst them, and he sings psalms to 
 hornpipes." This is in allusion to the well-meant 
 efforts of some people to counteract the nastiness 
 of the ballad words. Autolycus, in the same play, 
 trolls out his "Jog on, jog on," a song that is to 
 be found in the old books, music and words both, 
 as a well-known one of the time. When he appears 
 as a pedlar, too, he hawks ballads, which are 
 bought up and listened to with almost more atten- 
 tion than is given to the ribands and gloves. 
 " Come on, lay it by ; and let's first see more 
 ballads ; we'll buy the other things anon," says the 
 
12 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 clown. One ballad is turned out of Autolycus' 
 pack which " there's scarce a maid westwards but 
 she sings it." The two girls can sing it ; " We had 
 the tune on't a month ago ; if thou'lt bear a part, 
 thou shalt hear it ; 'tis in three parts." And 
 Autolycus joins them in the three -part song. 
 Only a month ago, and yet they can sing it with 
 the correct parts ! 
 
 Much of the pathos of Ophelia's madness comes 
 from her singing of ballads — music which in her 
 brighter days she used to sing mirthfully, but now 
 her craze has turned all the joy awry, as thunder 
 will curdle the sweetest milk. She begins Bonny 
 Sweet Robin} How should I your True Love know ? 
 Saint Valentine, all tunes that we know now ; but 
 her memory breaks off before they are completed. 
 Like the violets she speaks of, *' they withered all, 
 when my father died." 
 
 Though most of the old English music is cheer- 
 ful, there is some that is not so. " My mother 
 had a maid called Barbara, whose lover went mad ; 
 and she died singing * O willow, willow shall be my 
 garland.'" And so Desdemona in her sadness 
 and deep misgiving will sing this tune to pour 
 out some of her own grief in sympathy. 
 
 It is evident that Shakespeare, like Chaucer, took 
 his models from the life that was going on around 
 
 ^ See next chapter. 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 13 
 
 him, in things as well as in characters. When a 
 Venetian argosy is to be wrecked just outside the 
 port, it is on the "sands called the Goodwin." When 
 the mad Hamlet is to be sent away from his 
 country, it is to England, because men are all 
 so mad there that he will go among the crowd. 
 We cannot, therefore, be wide of the mark when we 
 judge that when Shakespeare made his ladies and 
 gentlemen sing, dance and have a good knowledge 
 of music, his knights and tinkers sing rounds and 
 catches, his servant-maids and shearing-men sing 
 ballads in three-parts, it was because they all 
 did so in the life and country in which Shake- 
 speare himself lived. 
 
 It is a natural step from the Eliza- Morley, the 
 bethan dramatist to the music-teacher teacher. 
 
 of the same period. Morley wrote, in 1597, a 
 Plaine and easie introduction to Practicall Music. 
 His apology for the book is a little fable of a 
 gentleman who was at a supper party. Now 
 people used to sing part-music as they sat round 
 the table after supper, and many books were 
 printed with the different voice parts separate 
 and facing in four ways ; by this means the 
 book could lie flat on the table and be read 
 from by different singers, well and at first sight 
 too. This supposed gentleman says : " The music- 
 books being brought, according to custom, to the 
 
14 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 table after supper, the mistress of the house pre- 
 sented me with a part, earnestly requesting me to 
 sing. But when, after many excuses, I protested 
 unfeignedly that I could not, every one began to 
 wonder; yea, and some whispered to others, de- 
 manding how I was brought up." This is plain 
 English as to the way in which gentlefolks were 
 accustomed to look upon the unmusical. It is 
 curious that Bede, writing nine hundred years 
 before, tells an anecdote similar in point, with this 
 difference, that it is a harp that is passed round 
 from one guest to another, to be played upon and 
 sung to. 
 
 What was ^^ could best begin our poetical ex- 
 the music ? amples with Chaucer, as plain readable 
 English begins about his period. Readable music, 
 however, begins earlier ; and though there is not a 
 great quantity known as far back as that, there is 
 enough to give a clue as to what popular or home 
 music actually was. Of music written in later 
 years there is far more in existence still. 
 
 First as to the carolling, or karoling of 
 or dancing Chaucer's example. It is only of late 
 roun . years that this word has been taken to 
 
 mean Christmas carols ; indeed, the very addition 
 of the word Christmas shows that all carols were 
 not solely for this season. In Reformation times, 
 Latin hymns were abolished from the Church 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 15 
 
 services, so that the whole of the service might be 
 in the people's own language. Carols, or cheerful 
 " ditties," as dance tunes used to be called, were 
 sung instead, with sacred words put to them. 
 Then began the restriction of the use to Christmas 
 and other Church seasons. But in the times near 
 to Chaucer, the word "carol" had been used by- 
 some writers to describe swift movements in a 
 circular manner \ it is likely, therefore, that the 
 dance intended in Chaucer's example was a round 
 dance. There were many different ones in old 
 days. Many of us have heard of " dancing the 
 hey " (or hay), from our grandmothers. There were 
 several ways of dancing this, one being the figure 
 known as the " ladies' chain " in the modern 
 quadrille, and therefore a round dance. There 
 was another round adopted in the quadrille 
 (for the quadrille was but a French adaptation of 
 old English country dances) in which all held 
 hands in a circle, moving forwards and backwards, 
 then separating and moving about in pairs, and 
 joining again. The CusJiion Dance^ ox Joan Saun- 
 derson, which has been adapted into the modern 
 cotillon, was an old round, wherein the whole 
 party are included one by one into the ring. 
 Sellenger^s (St Leber's) Round was a round " for 
 as many as will," as the old book, T/ie Dancijig 
 Master, puts it. Many, therefore, were the rounds 
 
i6 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 known and written about, for many or few dancers. 
 We can understand now the expression just now 
 quoted from the Romaunt of the Rose, how he " went 
 into the carolling " ; literally, he joined the ring of 
 dancers who were dancing for their own pleasure. 
 
 „ - Next we come to the roundell of the 
 
 Round, 
 
 rondeau and ladies of The Flower and the Leaf, 
 roundell. ^^\^^^ ^^^^ writers the rondeau, rondel, 
 roundell, roundelay and round seem to be con- 
 fused together ; indeed, it is difficult to separate 
 them into classes. The poems called roundels to 
 be found in Chaucer's works and others of the 
 time are the same as the rondeau or rondel of the 
 old French poetry of his time. The French poem 
 was of a fixed number of lines, in which the 
 beginning lines were repeated in the middle, and 
 again at the end of the poem. They were evi- 
 dently to be sung and not said ; and though tunes 
 were made for them at times, at other times old 
 tunes were taken by which to "make" the poem. 
 For Chaucer introduces his roundel at the end of 
 the Parlement of Foules with these words : — 
 
 " The note (music), I trowe, maked was in Fraunce, 
 The wordes wer swich as ye may heer fynde 
 The next vers as I now have in mynde, 
 Qui bien aime a tard oublie." 
 
 We suppose that these French words were the 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 17 
 
 title of the rondeau, whose tune, " maked was in 
 Fraunce," and was taken by Chaucer for his poem. 
 Here is the roundel as Mr Skeat gives it in his 
 edition of Chaucer : — 
 
 " Now welcom Somer, with thy sonne softe. 
 That hast this wintres weders over-shake, 
 And driven awey the longe nightes blake ! 
 
 Seynt Valentyn, that art ful hy on-lofte. 
 Thus singen smale foules for thy sake — 
 
 Now welcom So7ner^ with thy sonne softe^ 
 That hast this wintres weders over-shake. 
 
 We han they cause for to gladen ofte, 
 
 Sith ech of hem recovered hath his make ; 
 Ful blisful may they singen whan they wake ; 
 
 Now welcom So7ner^ with thy sonne softe^ 
 That hast this wintres weders over-shake^ 
 A7id driven awey the longe nightes blake P 
 
 Poems were always sung in the days of which we 
 are thinking. When Chaucer wished to show the 
 extreme melancholy into which John of Gaunt is 
 cast by his wife's death, he told of this " knight all 
 in blakke " that, though in his happier days he used 
 to make songs to keep him from idleness and to 
 sing them too, now he is so sad that he " sayde a 
 lay, withoute note, withoute songe." Therefore 
 to say a lay was evidently unusual, and, as Chaucer 
 remarks, it was "a dedly, sorwful soune." Poets 
 nowadays talk about singing and claim to be 
 singers, but their poems are all to be said, like the 
 mourning lay of the knights in blakke," withoute 
 E 
 
Ig MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 note, withoute songe. The poems reverse the song- 
 
 without-words of the pianoforte player, and become 
 
 words without song ; nay, they are without even 
 
 the music that should be in the tone and rhythm 
 
 of the words, for they are ofttimes garrulous as 
 
 an old wife's tongue, or cut short like a telegraphic 
 
 message. 
 
 , Then there were the rounds or rounde- 
 Round^ catch 
 ormerry lays, always merry. None but a 
 
 roundelay, j^odern poet would have begun a 
 melancholy song, " O listen to my roundelay." 
 According to Christopher Sympson, who wrote 
 during Commonwealth times of the music that 
 had been used for many years, " the contrivance 
 of them is not intricate " ; (this sounds almost 
 sarcastic) "for if you compose a short strain in 
 three or four parts, setting them all within the 
 ordinary compass of the voice, and then place 
 them one part at the end of another in what order 
 you please, so that they may aptly make one con- 
 tinued tune, you have finished a catch." For, as 
 he says also, a catch, round and canon (in unison) 
 consisting of periods, is the same thing in music. 
 The words of catches were generally humorous, or 
 catchy, as the word goes, and thus they were 
 " more natural " to the " admirable fooling " of Sir 
 Toby and Sir Andrew with the clown (in Twelfth 
 Night). As one of them says, " I am dog at a 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND i9 
 
 catch," and is answered, *' Some dogs will catch 
 well." Then, " Let our catch be Hold thy peace, 
 thou knave ; begin, fool, it begins, Hold thy peace.'* 
 Then comes the apt answer of the clown, " I shall 
 never begin if I hold my peace." He was to begin 
 the first phrase, Hold thy peace , knave \ then, while 
 he continued with the second phrase. Sir Toby 
 might sing. Hold thy peace ^ knave. Next Sir Toby 
 was to go on with the second phrase, while the 
 clown sang the third and Sir Andrew sang the 
 first Hold thy peace. So they would go round and 
 round after one another with the music, like the 
 fox and the hounds round a Toby beer-jug. 
 Surely, when one of them said, "Shall we make 
 the welkin dance with a catch ? " he was thinking 
 of the whirligig of our brain while we listen to the 
 entanglement of melodies, words and voices, and 
 vainly endeavour to follow the course of each of the 
 three at once. 
 
 Let us go back again. Though Sympson's 
 book was written in Commonwealth times, the 
 thing described was done in Chaucer's time, ay, 
 and before it, as we shall see. About half a 
 century after Chaucer there was a song made and 
 written down which still exists. It is called a 
 roundell ; but is of the same simple form described 
 by Sympson. It was " made by the watermen of 
 London " upon a certain Lord Mayor who pleased 
 
20 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 them by having his procession to Westminster on 
 the river instead of by road. Row the bote, 
 Norman^ is the name. The music is the same 
 and sung the same way as the little round which 
 is in every school round-book in the country, Turn 
 again, Whittington. 
 
 Round with There is yet another kind of round 
 a burde7i. ^q ]-,£ described — an older and more 
 elaborate kind than Row the bote. The old round or 
 six-men's song, Sunier is i-cumen in, is in so many 
 works on Old English music or poetry, that it 
 would seem hardly necessary to print it here, save 
 for the sake of clearness. The song is a proof of 
 the kind of music sung for a long time both before 
 and after Chaucer, for the copy is known to be as 
 old as 1250, and is probably much older; while 
 the character is similar to much that is known in 
 later years. 
 
 In this composition four equal voices are told 
 off to sing the melody in round fashion, that is, 
 one beginning the melody and the others follow- 
 ing one by one, each a phrase behind the other. 
 Beginning with the first voice, and going on for 
 the whole time of the song, is the foot or burden 
 or under-song, which is in two parts, and sung by 
 two basses. This foot or burden is a short phrase 
 repeated over and over, with the words sing cuc-cu 
 nu^ sing cuc-cu nu. The tune of the song is a 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 
 
 21 
 
 long and beautiful strain, made of phrases of 
 unequal length but clear rhythm. The constant 
 reiteration of the short phrase of the undersong 
 keeps up the feeling of the same harmony 
 throughout, and brings a certain monotony with 
 it; but this perhaps only enhances the graceful 
 and pastoral character. It certainly holds the 
 music well together ; and therefore it helps us to 
 understand the term holdings, which was some- 
 times applied to the undersong. 
 
 1st Tenor sings tntlody throughout. 
 Rather quickly. 
 
 and Tenor enters here 
 
 J^ 
 
 Lhu de sing cue- 
 
 Su-mer is 
 
 cu-men in. 
 
 J- 
 
 -* — 54- 
 
 Sing cue - cu nu, sing 
 
 1st and and Basses sing this melody throughout. 
 
 Srd Tenor begins here and sings melody 
 and sings melody throughout. throughout. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Grow-eth sed, and blow-eth med, And 
 N J I J 
 
 nu. 
 
 Sing 
 
22 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 4th Tenor begins here and sin^s tnelody throughout. 
 
 
 spring'th the wd - e nu. 
 
 Sing cue 
 
 ^^E 
 
 k^ ^^^^ Ld 
 
 Sing 
 
 Sing cue 
 
 S 
 
 3^ 
 
 cu. 
 
 m 
 
 ^i 
 
 Aw - e ble - tethaf - terlamb,Lhouth 
 
 Sing cue 
 
 cu 
 
 nu. 
 
 m 
 
 3tzi: 
 
 zt 
 
 af • ter cal - ve cu, 
 
 J- . J . J- 
 
 Bui - luc stert-eth, 
 
 :^=t: 
 
 £ 
 
 S3*i^ 
 
 Sing 
 
 Sing 
 
 H^-, ^ 
 
 :^^iE^ 
 
 Buck-e vert - eth mu - rie sing cue - cu 
 
 — rj-^-"-i^: 
 
 cu 
 
 nu. 
 
 Sing cue 
 
 :t=: 
 
 t??=: 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 
 
 23 
 
 jL p -—•—.— 
 
 hp-. j-^t 
 
 ^^=T^=^ 
 
 cue - cu, 
 
 It — ^— * 
 
 cue - cu, 
 
 F^ --J -^ 
 
 wel sing-es thu 
 
 Sing cue - 
 
 CU nu. 
 
 _^ L 
 
 Sing cue 
 
 cue - cu, he 
 
 f 
 
 swik thu na - ver 
 
 nu. 
 
 ^rr — ^— ^■ 
 
 -\^— \ 
 
 
 cu 
 
 Sing 
 
 Now we can venture to imagine how the ladies 
 
 in white " surcotes " sang, when the beautiful lady 
 
 "began a roundel lustily, and the company answered 
 
 all with voices sweet entuned"; it was probably in 
 
 round-fashion. 
 
 There are several modern effects in ,, ^ 
 
 Modern 
 
 the music of this example that are not effects in 
 found in the scholars' music of the " ^^^^^^^^^-^ 
 time. For one, it is in the modern scale of F. 
 Now, one of the early Church modes or scales had 
 exactly the same series of notes as are in the 
 scale of F, but it was looked down upon as too 
 sweet and luscious for scholarly use. It was the 
 Lydian mode or scale, with Bb in it — B soft or 
 B moll^ as it was called. Another modern effect 
 
24 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 in the song is the way in which the leading note 
 (E) always rises, and in the cadence rises to the 
 key-note (F). This modern quality of the note 
 was not recognised in the scholars' music. The 
 rhythm of the song is also modern in character, 
 and seems to be a happy mean between the dance- 
 like regularity of the usual popular " ditties " and 
 the absence of rhythm of the Church music, or 
 plain-song, as it was called. 
 
 It was this constant habit of round -singing 
 which probably gave the English the pre-emi- 
 nence in counterpoint which was acknowledged by 
 foreign writers of old time. Even nowadays 
 foreign musicians have no name to distinguish 
 canons in which the imitations are those of 
 periods or phrases, as in our round, from canons 
 in which they follow at the distance of a bar or 
 half-bar. That the whole of Smner is i-cuvien 
 in is, as a modern teacher might say, bristling 
 with consecutive 8ths and Sths, proves nothing 
 save that it was written in the early days of 
 counterpoint, when even the most skilled of 
 scholarly writers had not yet discovered the 
 ugliness of such things. 
 
 ^, , We see, therefore, that the use of a 
 
 The three 
 
 ways of round or circle was applied in three 
 
 round. different ways. There was the round 
 
 of space, in the dancing round of the carol, later 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 25 
 
 termed a round — there was the round of time, of 
 
 the roundel or French rondeau, with its poetical 
 
 idea coming round and round — and there was the 
 
 round of time and tune of the merry roundelay, 
 
 with its voices following or chasing each other 
 
 round and round. 
 
 The burden, such as we found in u^^i,^,^^^^ 
 
 Sumer is i-cumeri in, or bourdon (drone) refraining, 
 ,, - . T-, descant. 
 
 as it was called m France, was a 
 
 common accompaniment to songs whether they 
 were rounds or not. It was this kind of accom- 
 paniment which was intended by Chaucer when 
 the sompnour bare a stiff burden to the Pardoner's 
 song, and by Shakespeare when Celia objects to 
 Rosalind's running commentary of question and 
 remark, and again when Margaret speaks of 
 Light d Love. In some cases the burden was 
 started before the tune, and thus gave the key- 
 note upon which the others were to take up their 
 song. 
 
 Sometimes the word undersong was given to an 
 accompaniment of this nature, even when it was 
 sung above instead of below the tune. Upper-song 
 would seem more exact in this case ; but, how- 
 ever, the name shows its kinship with the burden 
 as a vocal accompaniment. It was practised by 
 amateurs, as well as professional singers, both in 
 England and on the Continent for many hundred 
 
26 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF . 
 
 years; for we hear suggestions of it in Saxon 
 times, and up to Elizabethan and even Common- 
 wealth times. It was evidently practised with all 
 the elaboration that the art of each succeeding 
 age could provide. It was sometimes with one, 
 sometimes with several voices, each taking the 
 part belonging to their own compass. 
 
 Long before Chaucer's time, descanting upon a 
 popular song, or even upon the Church plain-song, 
 had come to such elaboration that complaints 
 were made of it. The singers imitated night- 
 ingales and parrots, it was said, "descending to 
 the bottom of the scale, or mounting to the 
 summit ; now softening, now enforcing the tones, 
 repeating passages, mixing, in such manner, the 
 grave (low) sounds with the more grave, and 
 the acute (high) with the more acute, that the 
 astonished and bewildered ear is unable to dis- 
 tinguish one voice from another." This last 
 phrase shows that there was a desire among the 
 more serious musicians of the time for quite the 
 ideal of modern part-singing — namely, that each 
 part or voice should be clearly distinguishable 
 among the whole. 
 
 In later years we find it quite as elaborate. The 
 Elizabethan teacher Morley, spoken of before, 
 gives a piquante account. His book supposes 
 two pupils with their master — one of them sings 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 27 
 
 an improvised descant to a given tune. The other 
 attempts to criticise. " You are much beholding to 
 Sellenger's Round for that beginning of yours." 
 But the master is dovi^n upon him at once, and in 
 so doing gives an account of the use of old tunes 
 as part of the descant upon the given subject. " I 
 myselfe, being a childe, have heard him highly 
 commended who could upon a plain-song sing 
 hard proportions, harsh allowances, and country 
 daunces ; and hee who could bring in the maniest 
 of them was counted the iolliest fellow." Then 
 the master goes on with, as one could imagine, a 
 smile on his face, " I would faine see you (who 
 have those argus eies in spying faults in others) 
 make a way of your own, for perchance there might 
 likewise be a HOLE (as they saie) found in your owne 
 cote ! " 
 
 When descant was written down it became 
 called counterpoint ; point being an old word for 
 melody, it meant that points or melodies were 
 placed counter or against other points or melodies. 
 Perhaps some of us nowadays who think counter- 
 point such dull stuff would have a great wonder 
 at Dame Gladnesse with her laughing eyes and 
 mouth when they realise that she could sing ex- 
 tempore counterpoint so well and with glad 
 courage — who could "make in song such refrain- 
 ing;" that is, as I believe, she would sing the 
 
28 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 refrain, or headline of a popular song with all 
 variety of high notes and low notes, loud and soft, 
 some quicker and some slower notes, out of her 
 own head, as we say now, while other folk were 
 singing the tune with the story part of the words. 
 And this was all done so easily that the practice 
 of it " sat " upon her wonderfully well, like a well- 
 made dress, and, in fact, pleased other people as 
 well as herself, as much, perhaps, as an obbligato 
 to a song of Bach's played by Mme. N6ruda. 
 Perhaps we may regain some of our own self- 
 respect when we think of the consecutive 5ths and 
 8ths which she did not scruple to use. 
 
 „ ^ Besides the rounds and the songs 
 
 Part-so7igs ° 
 
 and three- with burden accompaniment, there were 
 7nen songs, j^^j^y j.^^} part-songs, that is songs or 
 ballads in SQveral parts or voices. Though their con- 
 struction was a little different, they were generally 
 counted with the rounds as three-men songs ; for 
 they were songs for three men to sing together, as 
 did the sheep-shearers in Winter's Tale. John 
 Dory was one of peculiar make, in the earliest 
 form of it that we know, and it was something like 
 a roughly made madrigal. It had several divi- 
 sions of the tune, each of which was treated as a 
 sort of round before the next was touched. Other 
 three-men songs were for the accompanying voices 
 to sing note against note with the voice who took 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 29 
 
 the tune, after the fashion of a modern part-song 
 or hymn. Wee bee tJiree poor mariners was one 
 of these. These were the songs that Hortensio 
 thought of when he said his lesson made not 
 music in three parts, and bid the pseudo-philo- 
 sopher go walk. 
 
 It is curious that we had the word „ ,, r 
 
 Ballad^ 
 
 ballad in English many years before balade and 
 we gave it the real meaning of the ^ ^ ' 
 
 word from which it is derived — a dancing song — 
 from ballare^ to dance. Yet we had dancing 
 songs or ditties in plenty from early times, as we 
 have seen by Chaucer's carolling, and the scene 
 of the three ladies in Much Ado. The ballad, or 
 rather balade^ which came to us from Italy in or 
 before Chaucer's time, was a sentimental poem of 
 stanzas of seven or eight lines each, and not in the 
 least suggestive of dancing. It was in Elizabethan 
 times that a fresh importation of Italian works 
 came to us for the home part-singing round the 
 table. These were madrigals, villanellas, fallas ; 
 and with them came the balletts or dancing songs, 
 which gave to us the idea of calling all our dancing 
 songs balletts or ballads. As Mopsa said of 
 Autolycus the pedlar, " He sings ballads so well 
 you will never care to dance again to the tabor 
 and pipe." For she thought the ballad sung was 
 better style to dance to than the tune played by a 
 
30 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 pipe or a bagpipe, with the tabor thrumming as 
 bass. This was a clumsy, countrified sort of thing, 
 to her mind. 
 
 After this the name became so popular that 
 everything of the nature of a story told in 4-line 
 stanzas began to be called a ballett or ballad — even 
 to Autolycus' cock-and-bull story about the cruel 
 maid "who became a cold fish and appeared on 
 the coast forty thousand fathoms above water, on 
 Wednesday the fourteenth of April." It was just 
 as well to be exact while he was about it, for the 
 ballad was in print, and, as Mopsa said, she loved 
 a ballad in print, " for then we are sure they are 
 true." 
 
 By-and-by the dancing dropped out of the 
 ballad, and presently even the music and words 
 were sundered. Nowadays the word ballad in- 
 cludes every kind of story in 4-lined stanzas, from 
 the poems that the minstrels and bards sang to 
 their harps all over England and Northern Europe 
 in the days beginning before King Alfred, when 
 the only histories of the time were those stored up 
 in the memory of the singers, — through the far- 
 fetched romances of later times, down to the 
 weak effusions of modern days about Daddy and 
 Mammy, and angels toiling about in the rain. 
 
 Musically, too, the ballad includes the short tune 
 of old times which the minstrel sang over and over 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 31 
 
 for verse after verse of his historical ballad — the 
 more elaborate part-song ballett of Morley's time 
 — the sentimental ditty of modern times with an 
 occasional verse with a tune different to that which 
 is at the beginning and end — the lengthy piano- 
 forte ballade (without words) of Chopin, with the 
 repetitions of a strain divided by different strains — 
 the elaborate cantata by Mendelssohn and some 
 other German composers, wherein the verses are 
 set to various strains more or less rhythmic and 
 for various combinations of voices — the choral and 
 orchestral ballads of some late English composers 
 wherein words are set after the fashion of the 
 Chopin wordless ballads, though more rhythmical, 
 and finally, the purely orchestral work of the same 
 kind, such as Mackenzie's Belle Dame sans Merci. 
 
 One of the most beautiful of old English tunes 
 is said to be one of the minstrel tunes ; it is 
 called Near Woodstock Town^ or The Oxfordshire 
 Tragedy. It is printed in Chappell's Old English 
 Ditties with a simple accompaniment arranged by 
 a modern hand, and an abridgment of the long 
 poem. If we try to sing this simple tune for verse 
 and verse, in the way we are told it was sung by 
 the minstrels of the best days, in courts and halls 
 of the great people and in the camps of opposing 
 armies, — with all the expression and variety that 
 the singer could get by declamation, gesture and 
 
32 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 the modifications of his voice, we shall find it full 
 of beauty. 
 
 Slow. 
 
 13 K^ ^^ 
 
 ^m 
 
 ■^> 
 
 § 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Key of C. 
 
 Key of G with close 
 
 3=2ii?Ji=f=* 
 
 ^B 
 
 E 
 
 S 
 
 -*-V- 
 
 Key of C again with close 
 
 The rhythm of the phrases is regular, phrase 
 answering phrase of equal length. The key is the 
 simple diatonic key of C. There is a modulation 
 to the nearest related key, G, with a close half-way 
 through the tune. This close makes a regular 
 balance in the tune between the first half ending 
 with the dominant or note of second importance 
 in the key, and the second half ending with the 
 tonic or note of first importance in the key. Here- 
 in is a modernism of which we must say more by- 
 and-by. 
 
 Musical Nebuchadnezzar's orchestra is a good 
 tnstrtunents. general guide as to the instruments in 
 use up to Tudor times. The wise translators of 
 our English Bible judged according to the same 
 spirit which actuated the dramatists and painters 
 of old times. What avails it, they seemed to say, 
 to reproduce the words and symbols of a past age 
 in order to teach ignorant men and women who 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 33 
 
 know only the age in which they Hve? There- 
 fore, instead of repeating Hebrew and Chaldaic 
 names of musical instruments, which were unknown 
 to their readers, both in fact and in name, they 
 rendered the words by those of musical instruments 
 which were known, and would therefore give some 
 idea of the kind of thing intended by the Bible 
 words. They would speak to the nature of the 
 thing, if they did not describe the actual definite 
 fact. When we hear, therefore, of the "cornet, flute, 
 harp, sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of 
 music," we hear of a list of instruments which were 
 known at the time of the translation — not indeed 
 all that were known, for there were, besides, the 
 viols, pipe, trumpet, shawm and timbrel, which are 
 named elsewhere in the Bible translation. Besides 
 those that are named in the Bible translation, there 
 were in use in England the recorder, which was a 
 kind of hautboy, the lute, several instruments of 
 the guitar family, the virginals, which was one of 
 the forerunners of the pianoforte, and the organ. 
 
 Of all these, the harp had been the instrument 
 of the gentler classes from Saxon and Danish 
 times, ay, and British too, both among amateurs 
 and professional minstrels. The fiddle and the 
 crowde, both of them old forms of the viol and 
 violin, and played with a bow, were among the 
 people from very early times. The pipe and the 
 C 
 
34 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 bagpipe were the more rustic instruments, the 
 pipe generally being accompanied by the tabor, a 
 little drum. One old book remarks that a piper 
 was paid 3s. 4d. for five days' work in cheering up 
 the men who were making the roads or loading 
 hay, because they worked better while the music 
 was going on ; and '^ fiddler's money " was four- 
 pence for a " fytte " (the division of a long ballad). 
 Yet the fiddler's position on the village green was 
 not a very dignified one, for the " lasses and lads " 
 who "away to the May-pole hie" felt free to 
 blame him rather than themselves for anything 
 that went crooked in the dance. 
 
 " 'You're out,' says Dick, 'Not I,' says Nick, 
 "Twas the fiddler played it wrong.' 
 "Tis true,' says Hugh, and so says Sue, 
 And so says every one." 
 
 They did not pay him very much for a whole 
 day's hard work, for 
 
 " Now there did they stay the whole of the day, 
 And tired the fiddler quite, 
 And each a twopence, twopence, twopence. 
 Gave him and went away." 
 
 In Tudor times, we find ladies are playing on the 
 virginals and on the lute. When Hortensio falls 
 foul of the shrew, Katherine, while trying to teach 
 her music, he has to run to her father with a 
 pitiful tale: "I did but tell her she mistook her 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 35 
 
 frets. ' Frets, call you these/ quoth she, * I'll 
 fume with them ' ; and with that word she struck 
 me on the head, and through the instrument my 
 pate made way ; and there I stood amazed for 
 awhile as on a pillory, looking through the lute, 
 while she did call me — rascal fiddler, and — 
 twangling Jack." Now, a jack was that part of 
 the mechanism of the virginals which pulled or 
 twanged the wire, and so made the sound. 
 
 Besides their song-writing, words and music 
 both, gentlemen were playing on the recorder and 
 the flute, of which a special form was called the 
 English flute. Every waiting-room, whether a draw- 
 ing-room or a barber's shop, must have its vir- 
 ginals, cittern, and base-viol to amuse the visitors. 
 
 Many of the instruments were made in sets of 
 five or six different sizes, from treble to bass, and 
 played together, making music of five or six parts. 
 Thus there were sets or consorts of recorders, 
 flutes, cornets, and other instruments ** going with 
 wind," as well as of viols or violins. These sets 
 were kept in one case, so that we often read of a 
 " chest of viols " or a " case of recorders." Nowa- 
 days we are accustomed to a separate band 
 of bowed instruments, comprising violin, viola, 
 violoncello, and double-bass. This in old days 
 would have been called a "consort of violins." 
 We have also nowadays a band of brass instru- 
 
36 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 ments of different sizes, but we should be surprised 
 at the old band of flutes, some of them long 
 enough to give out a bass sound, and others to 
 take alto and tenor parts. These were the usual 
 bands of Tudor times, when rich folk like Portia 
 would have their band of musicians residing in 
 their house, ready to play whenever the great 
 people wanted rest and refreshment of mind. In 
 modern times we are more complicated, and our 
 orchestra is a combination of different sets work- 
 ing together or in alternation. 
 
 Very rarely, but earlier in England than abroad, 
 we hear of large bands of mixed instruments in 
 playhouses or at the Court. It is not so un- 
 common to hear of private meetings wherein the set 
 of viols was broken, like Princess Katharine's broken 
 English ; that is to say, it was an incomplete set, 
 or it was combined with organ, lute, virginals (and 
 later, harpsichord) or other instruments. 
 
 „,, , When p^entlemen met to play for their 
 
 What was ^ ^ ^ 
 
 played upon Own amusement, one would play (at 
 ^^^* sight, remember) a plain-song, while 
 
 others played the descant upon this written by 
 such men as Tye, Tallis, and Byrd, in what was 
 then the church style.^ Later, in Elizabethan times 
 they began to play Fancies, wherein " a musician 
 taketh a point (that is, a melody) at his pleasure, 
 
 ^ See next chapter. 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 37 
 
 and wresteth it and turneth it as he will." He 
 also, at his pleasure, made divisions or variations 
 on it. These were what they had to play on the 
 virginals too; and they were written also in the 
 church style by Byrd, later by Orlando Gibbons, 
 and later still by Jenkins. The latter wrote many 
 Fancies during his sojourn with country gentle- 
 men in the Civil War times. 
 
 Architects of to-day tell us that it was /;; Puritan 
 not Cromwell and the unruly icono- tunes. 
 
 clasts combined under him who did so much harm 
 to church architecture, though they did knock off 
 the heads of the statues and break the pipes of the 
 organs. It was the next age with its false taste, 
 which covered all that was beautiful with white- 
 wash and hoardings of lath and plaster, making 
 the good work underneath crumble and decay for 
 want of air and light. In the same way it was not 
 the Puritan opposition that did so much harm to 
 music in England. There were many abuses in 
 the musical world of that day, abuses which grew 
 up again in after years ; and the Puritans did but 
 try to do what we with all our modern conceit 
 have still a great tendency to do, namely, to reform 
 a thing by *' improving it off the face of the earth," 
 as our cousins on the other side of the Atlantic say. 
 The Puritans cleared away roughly and with little 
 discrimination. It was the later age of the Res- 
 
38 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 toration and the years after it which did more 
 harm to music as well as to architecture and many 
 beautiful things — the age which taught the Eng- 
 lish to despise their own natural artistic powers 
 and to cultivate those which were exotic — the 
 age which drove away the Courtesie which we 
 found in the old poem, and gave them an honour 
 resting at the point of a rapier while rudeness 
 dwelt at the hilt — which lost the English their 
 Dame Gladnesse, their dignified joyousness, and 
 gave them frivolity and tippling. 
 
 ^ ,r .- ^It is curious to note how much was 
 Collections of 
 
 Psalms and done for the preservation of music in 
 sacred songs. ^^^^ Puritan age. Much of it was 
 
 done in obedience to the motive which was the 
 forerunner of the Puritan division — a good deal 
 was done notwithstanding it, and some out of 
 simple opposition. 
 
 Long before Queen Elizabeth there were Myles 
 Coverdale's and Sternhold's versified Psalms, which 
 they hoped might be sung in private houses, in- 
 stead of the " ungodly songs and ballads " so much 
 used. After them came, in Elizabeth's reign, Day's 
 Psalter, which '' may be sung to all musicall instru- 
 ments." Este's a little later, and then Ravens- 
 croft's in James I.'s time were all compiled with 
 much the same object. From these books we get 
 our finest hymn-tunes now. Then there were 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 39 
 
 other books by Byrd, full of sacred songs, " fit for 
 
 all companies and voyces." 
 
 After this we must name the secular ^ „ . 
 
 Collect 1 072 s of 
 prmted collections which have pre- popular 
 
 served our beautiful old tunes in a way lujies. 
 
 which has not been the case in any other country. 
 Numbers of these tunes were already old at the 
 time of their collection. The first of these collec- 
 tions was in the early days of James I., Roundelays 
 and Catches. Then another called Kmg Henry 
 VIII.' s Mirth. These were three-men songs, and 
 more rounds and catches. Later a volume of 
 Musical Phansies fitting the Courts Cittie and 
 Countrie Humours. More notable still, as an 
 answer to the assertion as to Puritanism having 
 destroyed music, came the publications of the time 
 of the Commonwealth, when one might think the 
 Puritans were in the height of their power, or at 
 all events that the result of what they had done 
 in destruction would be most evident. Here are 
 the publisher Playford's collections of works by 
 various composers of then and before : Catches 
 dnd Rounds^ Music and Mirth; another with the 
 punning title Catch that Catch can^ and again 
 Banquet of Musick for the Lyra-viol^ with Ayres 
 and figgs for the Violin, and more rounds and 
 catches. Then again, in the same few years before 
 the Restoration, came Musical Ayres and Dialogues^ 
 
40 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 Mustek's Recreations on the Lyra-violl, Lessons for 
 the Cithern and Gittern (instruments of the nature 
 of the modern mandolin), An Introduction to the 
 skill of Musick, with the Art of Descant y and 
 another work of the same kind by Christopher 
 Sympson — some Court Ayres with Pavines, 
 Almains, Corantes and Sarabandes (courtly 
 dances which date back to Queen Elizabeth), 
 " which," as the preface to the book says, " found 
 so good acceptance both in this kingdom and 
 beyond seas " that the publisher issued another 
 edition. Last, but not least in its value, comes 
 the Dancing Master^ a collection of old country 
 dance tunes, with directions how to go through 
 the dances that belong to them, with the names of 
 the songs from which the dances were made. 
 These were published avowedly because, through 
 the opposition of Puritanism, " these tunes were in 
 danger of being forgot " ; and many new editions 
 of this book with added tunes followed in the 
 next few yeais. This long list of publications 
 and reprints shows that, whatever the power of 
 the Puritans to make laws against " all ballad- 
 singers and contemptible fiddlers," there were 
 many in the country to keep alive the love and 
 the practice of music. Even in Commonwealth 
 times gentlemen and ladies, ay, and cooks and 
 valet-boys too, played the lute and the harp, the 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 
 
 41 
 
 viol, violin, flute, cithern or the virginals at first 
 sight \ sang too, at first sight, and some of them 
 composed too. 
 
 Not only did they sing and play music but it was 
 good music. Only listen to this tune, Heartsease^ 
 and feel its exceeding beauty. It is in the Dancing 
 Master as a dance, and is spoken of in many 
 books as a well-known dump and a courtly dance 
 such as those of Queen Elizabeth's practice — sung 
 too, for there are words put to it in some books. 
 
 " Play me some merry dump " says one of 
 Shakespeare's characters. " In doleful dumps " 
 was another person in poetic fiction. 
 
 Moderate time. 
 
 ^^^^m 
 
 E 
 
 =f*3 
 
 MZW=M- 
 
 l— 1>^- L^^=t 
 
 
 
 =l=qv 
 
 {—^- 
 
 ^H^ 
 
 3^E 
 
 But after the Restoration there begins 
 a change. English musicians had wel- 
 comed the Italian recitative and singing, 
 which came into the country a few 
 years back. When, however, Charles II. brought 
 
 Decline of 
 
 home music 
 
 after the 
 
 Restoration. 
 
42 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 the French light and airy instrumental music, 
 they were in despair; for, they said, the English 
 music, with its dignified, scholarly style, is much 
 better. The two styles had a long struggle ; and 
 viols and concerted music remained in use for 
 many years in meetings and societies in London as 
 well as in the country, but gradually diminished. 
 Writers of the time said that the graver music 
 " was laid aside as being too dull and heavy for 
 the light heels and brains of this nimble and wanton 
 age." Music was too troublesome to learn, and 
 many gentlemen " for ease sake gave themselves 
 over to whistling on a flageolet and fiddling upon 
 the violin, when they were speedily rivalled by 
 their lacquies and barber's boys." So music was 
 first too much trouble to learn, and then too 
 trifling to take any trouble about. They went to 
 " mug houses " and " glee-clubs," and listened to 
 professional men and boys who did for them what 
 was not worth while for them to do for themselves. 
 Concerted music, along with the use of the viols, 
 retired into the country, where it remained for 
 many years among the yeoman class. There it 
 has been described in some of Hardy's novels. 
 There were a few players in certain parishes who 
 came together in private for their own love of the 
 thing, or to help according to their talents in the 
 church services. Here they have been jocularly 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 43 
 
 termed "Nebuchadnezzar's orchestra," though it 
 may be doubted whether their complete stifling by 
 the wheezing and feeble-sounding harmonium is 
 altogether a gain. Soon, however, may their best 
 qualities be revived by the efforts that are being 
 made all over the country in favour of orchestral 
 and other combinations of players. These we 
 hear of and rejoice at, for ladies and for gentle- 
 men, for all may be bettered and cheered by good 
 playing in concert, or as the old word had it, in 
 consort. 
 
 However, in the dark days we have been speak- 
 ing about, there were a few gentlemen who sang 
 an occasional ballad, and some played airs with 
 variations on the flute ; but this seems to have 
 been the utmost of the gentlemen's efforts in music 
 all through the eighteenth and for the first half of 
 the nineteenth century. 
 
 Yet ballads and country dances went on, old 
 ones were revived, and new ones written till thirty 
 years or more into the seventeen hundreds. Many 
 were written or revived in the ballad operas. Then, 
 too, many of the tunes, as well as the dances of 
 undoubted English origin, went to the sister 
 kingdoms, or abroad both to France and Italy, 
 presently to come back in the form of " New 
 Scottish Airs " or " Irish Jigs " by means of Burns, 
 Moore and countless others. French contredanses 
 
44 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 were another means of our old tunes becoming 
 fashionable. 
 
 Country dances had been fashionable for the 
 final dances of a ball from the time of James I., 
 or even Queen Elizabeth, when they were added 
 to cheer up the company after their more solemn 
 measures, pavanes, and galliards, like the chorus 
 after a song. This was because the courtly 
 dances employed but a few dancers, while the 
 rounds, the squares and the long dances employed 
 every one. This fashion of winding up a ball was 
 customary even after the waltz and the polka had 
 been introduced. 
 
 Ladies, however, played the spinet, virginals, 
 base-viol or viol da gamba and the guitar, even 
 after Charles II.'s time. By the time of George 
 XL, we hear of the harpsichord. " Miss Dawson's 
 hornpipe, with variations for the harpsichord " is 
 published, and then "a concerto for the harpsi- 
 chord " with a larghetto movement " made on 
 Young Jemmy!' Better musicians were playing 
 Handel's concertos and harpsichord lessons. Miss 
 Fanny Burney writes that "Mr Handel" came 
 and played on her harpsichord, and it surprised 
 her to hear what beautiful sounds came from her 
 poor instrument. 
 
 Towards the end of the eighteenth century the 
 pianoforte took the place of the harpsichord, and 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 45 
 
 the music of Clementi and Dussek came into 
 vogue, with perhaps a few compositions by 
 Haydn. Early in the nineteenth, however, the 
 level went down again. It was Cramer and 
 Kalkbrenner for composers, with Declining 
 Logier to teach a dozen ladies at once, again. 
 
 all playing the same piece of music on different 
 pianofortes in one room, thus educating their 
 fingers but not their musical sense. Much mis- 
 directed trouble was taken in those days, when 
 young ladies vied with each other who should 
 rise the earliest, to spend hours with the com- 
 panionship of a lace-making housemaid, in front 
 of a high Broadwood pianoforte, the red fluted 
 silk front with brass centre star illuminated by 
 one solitary tallow dip candle. 
 
 Logier tried to teach the simple Airs with 
 mystery of key-relationship, and Dr 'variations. 
 Crotch wrote theoretical works on composition, 
 but what could that avail when the usual music 
 rose no higher than airs with variations on We're a' 
 noddin' and Avison's Beautiful Air ^ or See the Con- 
 quering HerOy arranged for three performers on 
 one pianoforte (pity the middle one !), or the 
 weakly sentimental songs by Mrs Hemans* 
 sister } 
 
 Certainly airs with variations have been made 
 very interesting by Beethoven, Mendelssohn, 
 
46 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 Schumann or Hubert Parry, just as "divisions 
 on a ground" were made interesting by Byrd, 
 Christopher Sympson, Purcell and Handel. But 
 all suffer from the weakness of design caused by 
 the monotonous rhythm and the many repetitions 
 of the full close. 
 
 Improve- Samuel Wesley, son of Charles Wesley 
 ^^^*- the hymn-writer, introduced some of 
 
 Bach's works to England. Hummel's works were 
 also about, and Sir George Smart taught Handel's 
 songs with all the purity of tradition, and by-and- 
 by Cipriani Potter made Beethoven's works to 
 be known. Then came Mendelssohn and took 
 the English world by storm, opening the gates 
 with his oratorios and reaching the home-life by 
 his songs, with and without words. He had able 
 lieutenants in Moscheles, Bennett and Macfarren, 
 who by their music as well as by their teaching 
 and personal influence, brought up English taste 
 to the standard it now holds. HuUah, too, with 
 his efforts, revived the English taste for part- 
 music, and brought about a standard of achieve- 
 ment in choral singing which is not to be found in 
 other countries. 
 
 The true '^^^ English amateurs need fear no 
 
 English comparison with the outside world if 
 
 they will only use more of their own 
 
 taste and judgment in selecting what to like. 
 
HOME MUSIC IN ENGLAND 47 
 
 We have become so used to being led by the nose 
 by outsiders that we fear to trust ourselves alone 
 in matters of art. We must, perforce, be enthusi- 
 astic admirers of either German, French, Italian 
 or Scandinavian, to the obliteration of other than 
 the one chosen school. 
 
 Though music be cosmopolitan, taste is very 
 much a matter of nationality or race. There is in 
 our climate too much fog and murkiness to 
 struggle against, to let us wish for fog or murki- 
 ness in our life ; our true sentiment therefore, by 
 whatever medium it may be expressed, is manly 
 (or womanly) and withal joyous and frank, our 
 bearing is dignified and vigorous. Judging from 
 the music produced in England in past ages, the 
 national taste in music is, in its true development, 
 similar, it is a taste for clearness in melody, 
 design and rhythm — for vigour and for dignity. 
 Is there anything in such qualities to make us 
 ashamed .-* 
 
 In the days from which we quoted in the 
 beginning of this chapter our poets knew that the 
 nightingale sang by broad daylight, and " with so 
 merry a note that all the wood rang" with the 
 joyous expression. It is a type of our own true 
 musical nature. Poets of other countries found 
 out the midnight song of Philomel, and our later 
 poets copied them and talked about the bird 
 
48 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 leaning its breast against a thorn and singing out 
 its misery. Those poets were only thinking of 
 their own dismal characteristics which were, 
 perhaps, the result of writing by the light of a 
 candle, with the aid of the fragrant nicotine and 
 other enervating or dispiriting appliances. 
 
 Something of the same kind has happened in 
 our musical taste. We have filled our pitchers 
 at the fountain of a sham sorrow, and the English 
 characteristic of joy and frankness has been put 
 away. 
 
 The sooner we get back to our true nature, the 
 better for us and for our music. Our ignorant 
 enemies are quick enough to see that this " mid- 
 night song of Philomel " does not fit with our 
 nature, and therefore they deem us unmusical and 
 inartistic. Those who are great and generous 
 among our foreign friends see that what we really 
 have is far better, if only we are wise enough to 
 use it. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 FROM MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 
 
 For while the tired waves^ vainly breakings 
 
 See??t here no painful inch to gain; 
 Far back, through creeks and ittlets making. 
 
 Comes silent, flooding in, the main. 
 
 — A. H. Clough. 
 
 I DO not think that people realise how much of 
 the musical life of a nation depends on its 
 amateurs. I do not mean amateurs such as the 
 elderly tenor who warbles a great operatic solo 
 in a quavering, toneless voice, or the young 
 baritone who yells a vulgar music-hall song to 
 amuse his silly companions. I do not mean 
 the young lady who asks for full lessons at half- 
 price because her pocket-money is at a low ebb ; 
 nor do I mean the farmer's daughter who strums 
 a few " pieces " on a wretched pianoforte in the 
 best parlour, " making bad moosic instead of mind- 
 ing the chickens," as the old farmer said — witty 
 enough to see that the music was bad of its kind. 
 None of these are doing what is really fitting to 
 their character or place in their own world, there- 
 fore we cannot deem them the real amateurs (or 
 
 D 49 
 
so MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 lovers of music) who make the life of music ; 
 though indeed they may do much to mar it. But 
 the real lovers of the art — the gentleman and the 
 gentlewoman, the young man and the young girl, 
 be they rich or poor, who honestly try to do the 
 best they can with their talent, according to the 
 time they are able to give from their life-pursuit, 
 and the opportunities that lie in their path — these 
 are the amateurs according to the true interpreta- 
 tion of the word, who make, not "bad moosic," 
 but music as good as they can, and therefore make 
 the life of the nation's music. 
 
 Now, there is nothing to affront my artist 
 brothers and sisters in this, nothing to cause 
 undue self-esteem in the amateur as if I had 
 raised him to a place above that of the artist. 
 For the amateur, even the sincere one, is often a 
 bungler ; and no bungler is a first-rate workman. 
 The very first musician of the world was both an 
 amateur and a bungler. Jubal was an amateur in 
 the best sense ; and he must have been a bungler 
 if he thought he could, as Chaucer says, make 
 different sounds out of his brother Tubal's anvil 
 by striking it with hammers of different sizes — for 
 it is impossible. If he had said he could get 
 different sounds with the same hammer by strik- 
 ing anvils of different sizes, he would have been 
 right. This, however, is acoustics and not music. 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 51 
 
 The truth is that music has its beginning in 
 popular or home music, and its perfection in the 
 studied or professional work. The two lines run 
 side by side, the popular slightly in advance, from 
 earliest years to the present. The popular is 
 rightly a few steps in advance of the scholastic in 
 most matters, because the popular is specially 
 designed to interest the hearers, and therefore its 
 exponents will be more daring and inventive ; while 
 the scholastic branch has to guard that for which it 
 has cared for so many years, and to try well any 
 novelty before it comes into the protected circle. 
 
 There is no clearer example of this than the 
 rise of the modern scale, or key-system. Every- 
 body knows what the modern scales are, the 
 simple rows of notes which we call the major 
 scale, the two forms of minor, and the chromatic, 
 and how we can reckon them from any note of the 
 key-board, marking the proper intervals by means 
 of sharps or flats. Then there is relationship 
 between families of scales, among which modula- 
 tion is easy ; for every key has a kinship with 
 other keys whose principal chord is contained in 
 the first. There are some other links, too, which 
 form a connection between keys. It is this grouping 
 or family relationship of notes and of keys which is 
 called tonality by the learned among musicians. 
 
 People are apt to talk glibly about the old 
 
52 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 tonality and the new, and how musicians used to 
 write in one and now write in the other, as if the 
 old were a clearly defined and accurately known 
 system, and the new an arbitrary invention totally 
 distinct from the old. The fact seems really to be 
 that tonality, in the older days beginning soon 
 after the rise of European nations, was a confusion 
 of systems, all more or less differing in their form, 
 and more or less incomplete, which were in use in 
 different parts of the musical world for many 
 hundred years. Among these many scales very 
 few were considered to be connected, and, because 
 of this, modulation was very limited. 
 
 Out of these numerous scales the taste and 
 intuition of the popular musicians, as the pioneers 
 in their art, selected those which had the best 
 effect upon the ears of their hearers, and gradually 
 made some changes in them Those of the 
 popular choice were gradually adopted by scholars, 
 and have remained to be those of the modern 
 school. In still more modern use the chosen 
 scales have been connected and extended into 
 the chromatic scales; while principles have been 
 found to exist in them which account for the 
 intuitive preference for them over the discarded 
 scales which are without those principles. 
 
 This change from what we may call the dis- 
 ordered simplicity of the many old modes or 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 53 
 
 scales, to the ordered complexity of the one 
 modern scale, has taken many years to carry out. 
 
 In very early days in England we find Our scales 
 the Greek form of scale, which must A^'^ Greece. 
 have come to us with the early missionaries of 
 Greek connection, who settled in the north of 
 England, in Ireland, Scotland and Wales. If we 
 play the arbitrary minor scale of D coining dowriy 
 we are playing the Greek Dorian, — thus — D, C, 
 Bb, A, G, F, E, D. We use it now, almost only 
 in coming down the scale, while they used it 
 upwards, downwards, and in and out. It was 
 reckoned also from other notes, as tonics or key- 
 notes. One among the many old English tunes 
 in this scale is Bonny Sweet Robin. 
 
 Gracefully. 
 
 In this tune, as well as in most of the ^ , 
 old popular tunes, there is the first things creep 
 modern characteristic that can be found plptiiar 
 in music, and this is that the tonic or tunes. 
 
 key-note is the principal note of the scale, and is 
 
54 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 the note upon which the tune makes its final 
 rest. 
 
 Soon we come upon another modern character- 
 istic. The dump called Heartsease^ quoted in the 
 last chapter (p. 41), is in this same Greek scale, 
 but the leading note has slipped into it. Hearts- 
 ease was a tune popular long before Queen 
 Elizabeth's days, while the leading note was not 
 adopted by scholars as necessary ; for it was not 
 in the church scales which had any minor ten- 
 dency, neither was it in the gamut. If we look in 
 the gamut, — the gamut by which musicians learnt 
 their rudiments of music from the days of Guido 
 and Hucbald, through Shakespeare's days and his 
 Hortensio, down to the days of the chorister boys 
 of the beginning of the nineteenth century, we find 
 major scales, but without leading notes. There 
 are but six notes in each scale, and the seventh 
 is left unrecorded. It is Ut, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, 
 and no more, whether the Ut stands for the key- 
 note of C, of F or of G. Yet, whatever their 
 teaching might be, in their compositions the 
 scholarly musicians, even before Queen Elizabeth's 
 days, were feeling about for this leading note, 
 some avowing it was because of the good results 
 obtained by the popular musicians. 
 
 Eminent musicians say that our complete major 
 scale came through the Greek missionaries, whence 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 55 
 
 we have already traced our minor scale, and that 
 there is the source from which we must look for 
 such old tunes as the Sumer is i-ciimen in and 
 the Oxfordshire Tragedy^ quoted in the previous 
 chapter. 
 
 The writers who trace our modern Church 
 
 major and minor scales to the Greeks, scales. 
 
 and through them back to the Egyptians, also 
 assert that the church scales, which we know 
 now best through Gregorian tones, were artificially 
 produced from the organs of old church times. 
 The key-boards of these, having the white notes 
 and only one black note, Bb, among all their 
 white, did not admit of transposing the scale or 
 the tune exactly, as we can do now with our five 
 black notes mingled among the white. If they 
 would change the position of a melody so that it 
 should be sung in a higher or a lower part of the 
 voice, the quality or size of the distance between 
 the notes would be changed. We can try this if 
 we obliterate, in our mind's eye, all the black 
 notes from our pianoforte key-board, and then 
 play " God save the King," beginning on D. Try 
 it. D, D, E, C (not C|, mind you), D, E, F (not 
 F|), F, G, F, E, D, E, D, C, D. Does it not sound 
 like a Gregorian chant, even if we play it in the 
 proper time, which we cannot mark in the above 
 rude letter-notation ? Try it again, beginning from 
 
S6 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 other notes, E, G, or A, recollecting that the 
 solitary b on B was never used save in the scale 
 which began on F. 
 
 Now the players on stringed instruments — lyres, 
 harps, fiddles — had no such difficulty. They could 
 keep the same kind of interval in their tunes and 
 scales, to whatever height or lowness they chose 
 to tune their instruments. Popular musicians, 
 therefore, who were players upon stringed instru- 
 ments kept the use of the more natural forms of 
 scale which they had by tradition from the Greeks 
 (who were also string players) ; while the scholars 
 — the men who wrote music, and who wrote about 
 music, being joined to the only school of learning 
 then existing, the Church — wrote in the artificial 
 scales belonging to Roman Church use. Many 
 singers in the church, however, used accidentals, 
 and thus modified the harshness of the scales 
 according to fixed traditional rules which are not 
 well known to us now. 
 
 The time of Queen Elizabeth, which is 
 /r5 comes considered to be the golden age of the 
 znfo scholar's music of what is called the old style, is 
 fnusic. , , . , t , , 
 
 also the time when the popular style 
 
 begins to take more hold of the scholar's music. 
 It may therefore be considered the beginning of 
 the modern style in scholarship. We often call it 
 the madrigal age, because the greatest number and 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 57 
 
 the finest of madrigals were produced about that 
 time. Now madrigals were the secular music 
 written by scholars in the church style ; and, 
 though the name came to England first in Queen 
 Elizabeth's later years, the kind of music had been 
 written in England for a long time, and, in fact, 
 had been gradually developing in our country 
 during the whole time, and even before, it was 
 developing abroad — first in the Flemish school 
 and then in Italy. 
 
 An anthem by Tallis, who died Anthem by 
 three years before the Italian madrigals Talks. 
 
 first came to England, will be a just example of 
 the style in its more serious vein. In its scale, 
 the anthem, / Call and Cry to Thee, shows the in- 
 fluence of the popular music at once, for it is the 
 same that we described just now as the Greek 
 minor. Just as in Bonny Sweet Robin, quoted a 
 few pages back, there are all the notes of our de- 
 scending minor melodic scale : in this case it is 
 that of G. The thing that gives it the old-fashioned 
 sound is the way in which the seventh note of the 
 scale (Ftl) is used. There are ways of using it in 
 modern music, else we should not have it in our 
 scale, but this is an old-fashioned way and one that 
 belongs to the Greek scale. 
 
58 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 (i) I 
 
 Treble 2. 
 
 Counter- 
 tenors. 
 
 Tenor and 
 Bass. 
 
 ^fc=$: 
 
 :p: 
 
 = P~p 
 
 (a) I call and cry to Thee, O 
 
 ^rT~^ 
 
 §ffi$5; 
 
 :p: 
 
 call and cry 
 
 (*) I 
 to 
 
 call and 
 Thee 
 
 q=q: 
 
 m, 
 
 ■^ — <s>- 
 
 W^Tf^-r'W ? 
 
 Lord, 
 I 
 
 etc. 
 
 call and cry 
 
 a; 
 
 W^^^ 
 
 :p: 
 
 =g= 
 
 cry, 
 
 (a) I 
 
 call and cry to Thee. 
 
 Soon after this example we come to another 
 popular thing, the leading note, just as in Hearts- 
 ease. By-and-by we find that this leading note 
 (F|) is to be used when rising to the key-note, 
 while FS keeps in use when the music falls to a 
 lower note; both of these are modern rules. In 
 one place both Y% and Ftl are together in one bar, 
 with a very curious sound to our ears ; for that is 
 not a modern habit, though there are ways in 
 which the two can be combined with good effect. 
 After some time there is change of key ; we have 
 first the key of F and then Bk Both of them 
 are modern scales and evidently the transposed 
 versions of the popular major scales. Then the 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 59 
 
 former key, G minor, returns and remains till the 
 close of the anthem. In this slender modulation 
 there is a foretaste of the modern principle of key- 
 design, which is also found in many popular tunes 
 of old date. For, while the beginning and ending 
 are in the main key, G minor, the middle part is 
 in other keys related to the first, which make 
 variety while they refresh the return of the old 
 key for the completion of the anthem. The " tierce 
 de Picardie " or close upon the major chord at the 
 end of the piece is an old habit which suggests the 
 modern principle that the minor and major scales 
 of the same key-note are really the same key. 
 
 All the chords in this work of Tallis are what 
 modern harmony books call diatonic. That is to 
 say, they are common chords, first inversions of 
 triads, and discords which are prepared, while 
 passing notes are in the old, strict style. 
 
 That which makes most of the char- hnitative 
 acter of the madrigal age is the con- Character. 
 trapuntal and imitative way of carrying on the 
 musical ideas. The old round, Sumer is i-curnen 
 in, showed this style in a crude way, but at the 
 time of Tallis it had come to perfection. Instead 
 of taking a part in the singing of massive chords, 
 as is the case in much modern music, every voice 
 had a distinct share in the melodies. If we look 
 at the example of this anthem (p. 58), we find the 
 
6o MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 first counter tenor begins with a distinct fragment 
 of melody. Before he has finished the phrase the 
 tenor enters with a slightly different form of the 
 same phrase. The treble is a few beats later, 
 and presently the second counter-tenor comes in, 
 followed by the bass. All these voices or parts, as 
 was the old word for them, are carried on, as they 
 might themselves think, independently of one 
 another; but it is the art of the composer that 
 so modifies each part that the whole combine to 
 make a beautiful effect. In that art lies the 
 superiority of Tallis over the author of Sumer is 
 i-cumen in. The older writer made a beautiful 
 rhythmic melody and set all voices to sing it " I 
 after you," unaware that the combination made 
 certain uglinesses that we modern harmony students 
 have learnt to put our fingers upon. 
 
 Besides the independence of the voices there is 
 the imitation. The different parts at the begin- 
 ning of the anthem are nearly the same notes. 
 Like, in that the length of the notes is about the 
 same, while they go upwards and downwards at 
 the same place in the melody ; but unlike, in that 
 the voices marked {a) begin on G and go to D, 
 leaping up five notes, while those marked {U) begin 
 on D and go to G, leaping only four notes. Those 
 marked {U) are therefore imitations^ but not repeti- 
 tions of those marked (a). 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 6i 
 
 There is an element in the madrigal Expression 
 writing which shows that artists ^^x^in madrigals. 
 feeling about for that expression of poetical ideas 
 which we moderns are apt to consider our own 
 particular invention. Morley, the Elizabethan 
 writer we quoted before, says, " Dispose your 
 music according to the nature of the words which 
 you are therein to express. If you have a grave 
 matter, apply a grave kind of musicke to it ; if a 
 merrie subject, you must make your musicke also 
 merrie." Following this principle, not only is the 
 general course of Tallis' anthem grave, in agree- 
 ment with the gravity of the words, but each 
 sentence of the words has a separate musical 
 thought which is carried out in every voice before 
 the next sentence is touched. Thus the anthem 
 begins, " I call and cry to Thee, O Lord," with the 
 music that we quoted. After this has been carried 
 out as much as the composer wishes, to a close, 
 the next sentence comes, " Bow down Thine eyes 
 and mark my heavy plight " ; this is with a new 
 musical phrase, used in imitation by all voices and 
 so brought to a close. Again a sentence, " For I 
 have many ways offended," comes with new music 
 in the same manner, and yet another, " Forget my 
 wickedness," has a new musical phrase combined 
 with a new version of the last preceding. These 
 two are carried on together till the close of the 
 
62 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 fnovement, which is a manifold repetition of the 
 entreaty, " O Lord, I beseech Thee." 
 
 There is, therefore, nothing new in the idea that 
 some people have put forward of late years as if it 
 were new, namely, that music should be made to 
 express the thoughts of the words which are allied 
 to it. Here, indeed, is a point in which the scholars 
 of Tallis' and Morley's period were in advance of 
 the popular musicians, although in most points the 
 reverse was the case. For, in the singing of ballads 
 the popular musician had to rely chiefly on the 
 declamation and the variety of his singing for the 
 expression of the emotion belonging to the words. 
 The scholar, on the other hand, like Tallis and 
 Morley, had begun to feel that the music itself 
 could express some thought, — could intensify the 
 emotion that was suggested by the words. 
 
 It might be thought that Tallis' use of a more 
 popular scale was the result of the English Re- 
 formation — that the church scales, being specially 
 of Roman use, would naturally begin to lose 
 influence in England at this time. But music in 
 Italy shows signs of broadening out into modern 
 scale at the same period. The Missa Brevis by 
 A mass by Palestrina, the greatest Italian writer 
 Palestrma. Qf ^^^ ^ge, was written, as Mr Rockstro 
 describes it, " in the i ith mode transposed." Now 
 the nth mode was the then lately invented mode 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 63 
 
 which had been called // modo las civ by scholars 
 only a few years before, too light and frivolous 
 for the learned and yet patronised by them on 
 occasion because of the delight in it that the 
 unlearned felt. It was the same scale of C as 
 that of the old minstrel tune quoted in the former 
 chapter, Near Woodstock Town, and when it was 
 transposed for the Missa Brevis it became none 
 other than the scale of F which we know very 
 well nowadays, and the scale of our first quoted 
 tune, Sumer is i-cumen in. 
 
 This great work of Palestrina is in the same 
 style as that we have just described in Tallis' 
 anthem, with the difference that comes from the 
 individuality of the two men, and that which 
 comes from the one being in a minor, the other in 
 a major scale. There is the same counterpoint or 
 independent course of the voices, the same simple 
 harmonies, the same treatment of discords, the 
 same imitation of one part over another, and the 
 same irregularity of phrase-rhythm. There is also 
 the same slightness of modulation ; and in follow- 
 ing the course of so long a work, this makes an 
 effect quite different to that of a modern work. 
 Every one of the many movements is in the same 
 key, with but slight changes in the middle of the 
 movement. Although the principle of modern 
 key-form is therefore to be found, the effect of it 
 
64 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 compared with the modern use is pretty much that 
 of a beautiful bas-relief as compared with a com- 
 plete group of sculpture. For in the low relief the 
 figures are little more than suggested out of the 
 background, while in the sculptured group they 
 stand out independently and wholly defined. 
 
 About the time of Purcell there was 
 New things ... . . _ - - , , , 
 
 in PurceWs great illummation of the whole style of 
 
 time. music. Mouton and Monteverde had 
 
 many years before discovered and used the first 
 of the unprepared discords, which we now know 
 as the dominant seventh, but Purcell seems to have 
 been the first to use it freely. He used too the 
 many forms which may be derived from it as well 
 as many chromatic chords. These chords entered 
 gradually more and more into the music of com- 
 posers whose genius was strong enough to stand 
 on its own basis. Students, and those who de- 
 pended upon rule alone and admitted no rule but 
 the diatonic, contrapuntal rule, stood aghast at the 
 licenses as they called them. It was not till nearly 
 the middle of the nineteenth century that Macfarren 
 with the co-operation of his friend Day, discovered 
 a principle upon which these harmonies were 
 founded, which he therefore called fundamental 
 harmonies. With that principle he brought them 
 all into line so that students of less imperial genius 
 than Purcell and other great men who will be 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 65 
 
 named presently, could use them with confidence 
 that there was no artistic fault in them. 
 
 Recitative, also, had been invented in the Italian 
 school about Elizabethan times and travelled all 
 over Europe. It took deep root in England, and 
 many musicians practised it in the times of James I. 
 and Charles I. 
 
 These two new things, recitative and 
 
 chromatic harmonies, entered into and 
 
 scholars' music by the invention or chromatic 
 
 harmonies. 
 discovery of scholars. There was, 
 
 however, another item in the list of changes about 
 this tim.e which came, not from scholars but from 
 popular music. This was rhythm. All popular 
 music, in every country and every age, has been 
 rhythmic — having rhythm, that is, of balanced or 
 parallel phrases. But the music of the madrigal is 
 without the regularity that is produced by balanced 
 phrases ; there is rhythm of bars, but not of phrases. 
 For the scholarly musicians of the madrigal age 
 looked down upon it as common, vulgar and suited 
 to the popular taste only. At the same time they 
 felt the influence of it, and both English and Italian 
 writers of the madrigal age produced many short 
 pieces — ballets, villanellas, fallas — all, as Morley 
 says, " devised to be danced to voyces," and there- 
 fore rhythmical in correspondence with the dancing 
 which was to be helped by the music. 
 E 
 
66 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 When we come to Purcell, however, 
 comes^Tiow we find rhythm of phrases beginning 
 
 into scholar^ to enter into the music of the best 
 7nusic. 
 
 men, not simply " to be danced to 
 
 voyces," but as part of important compositions. 
 Perhaps Purcell was more daring in this point 
 than some of the serious writers abroad, for the 
 court under which he began his career loved a 
 tune. There was nothing, therefore, in his sur- 
 roundings to hinder him from letting loose the flood 
 of tuneful melody that he had inherited from many 
 generations of English song-writers. Popular 
 rhythm, too, affected his part-writing as well as his 
 single melodies and songs ; for in his anthems we 
 find whole strains of music set for the quartet of 
 voices or the quartet of violins in note against 
 note chords, as clear as a three-men's song of the 
 old time — the effect being as massive as possible 
 and perfectly different to the imitative, contra- 
 puntal style of the madrigals. 
 
 Violins to Purcell had the royal band, too, of 
 accompany. « f^^j. ^^^ twent}^ fiddlers " with their 
 violins of all sizes from treble to bass. More apt 
 were they for florid music than the viols of former 
 times which were beginning to go out of fashion. 
 These being used in the royal chapel, for which 
 Purcell wrote, their tuning gave him more 
 freedom, too, in the use of different keys and of 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 67 
 
 chromatic chords than the organ of ordinary 
 church use. 
 
 With the freer use of the band came a interludes 
 new development. In earlier days, up P^ band. 
 to Queen Elizabeth's time, the bands generally 
 played music that was written for voices. We in 
 England were a vocal people, and music was 
 written " for viols or voyces." People sang if they 
 could, and if not they played some instrument 
 (though sometimes they both played and sang) 
 and all took part together. But instrumental 
 music had so much developed by the time Purcell 
 came forward that he was enabled to put distinct 
 interludes for the band in his anthems, as Pepys 
 rather colloquially expresses it, " between each 
 verse." Some of these were fresh developments 
 of the vocal strain, while others were different music 
 altogether. There is too, occasionally, a special 
 part for one particular instrument in concert with 
 one voice as a modern obbligato — the two making 
 a duet, and each with music suitable for their own 
 qualities. 
 
 Another new practice about this time solos with 
 was the use of the verse, or quartet of chorus. 
 
 solo singers, who sang either alone or in a group 
 of two, three or four, in alternation with the full 
 choir or chorus. This, as well as the treatment of 
 the instruments, shows the feeling for the variety 
 
6S MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 of tone which is to be got by changing the 
 means by which the notes are sounded, whether 
 by different singers or by groups of singers, or by 
 different instruments. Nowadays we speak of 
 the effect as colour, and call it instrumentation or 
 orchestration, forgetful of the fact that voices are 
 as potent an influence in the effect as are 
 instruments. 
 
 Anthe?n by ^^^ these practices, differing from the 
 Purcell. rnadrigal, and developed after its 
 greatest days had been accomplished, are to be 
 found in Purcell's verse-anthem, My Beloved spake. 
 It begins with an overture, or symphony for the 
 band of bowed instruments alone ; it is a miniature 
 as compared with other overtures, but is complete 
 in its form. After the symphony the verse, or 
 quartet of solo voices, enters with phrases of the 
 nature of accompanied recitative going on to a 
 strain, " Rise, my love." The phrases in this strain 
 imitate one another slightly, but they are rhyth- 
 mic and fragmentary, thus differing from madrigal 
 imitation. A strain or ritornello for the band alone 
 follows this. From hence a strain of great beauty 
 comes for the quartet, " For lo ! the winter is past, 
 the rain is over and gone." The voices here are 
 almost note against note, while they are grouped 
 so as to contrast one with another, now two, now 
 three, or four at once. 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 69 
 
 For lo I 
 
 (a) Slow. 
 
 For lo ! 
 the win - ter 
 
 11. ^i I 
 
 -*- -*- . -•- -W- -*- 
 
 :etc 
 
 For lol 
 
 the win - ter 
 
 IS past 
 
 (^) 
 
 
 
 The rain is o • ver and gone, is o • ver and gone 
 
 Thus at {a) two voices begin ; a third enters in 
 the second bar, and a fourth over them in the 
 third bar. At {b) three voices begin the phrase, 
 and a fourth is added at the end. A ritornello 
 for the band is a reconstruction of the same 
 thought. 
 
 A fragment of accompanied recitative is followed 
 by a new strain for the quartet with the words 
 "the time of the singing of birds is come." This 
 is newly carried out by the chorus, and again as 
 a ritornello for the band. A good way on in the 
 anthem the words occur, "the fig tree putteth 
 forth her green figs," which are treated almost as 
 accompanied recitative, with the first violin as an 
 obbligato. The next phrase, also violin and voice, 
 is pure cantabile, and almost breathes of the sweet 
 delicacy of the vine shoots. 
 
70 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 J- . '^ ' *" ' 
 
 give a good smell. 
 
 The phrase is sung three times, each time in a 
 
 different key, so that much modulation is produced 
 
 for so short a passage. 
 
 From this is a return to the verse part of the 
 
 beginning, " Rise, my love," and the same ritornello. 
 
 A new phrase follows for the one, two, three and 
 
 four voices, with some modulation and a ritornello 
 
 with some most modern forms of chord. There is 
 
 more of the same kind of composition, and at the 
 
 end the full chorus has a passage in full harmony, 
 
 note against note, in regular rhythm, and with 
 
 some modulation. 
 
 Though Purcell uses a great deal of 
 
 modulation modulation in this work, yet he always 
 than of old. ^^^j^gg ^^^ ^^gj^ ^^^j^ ^^ ^ ^^1^ cadence 
 
 in the main key at the end of each musical idea. 
 To a modern ear, the effect of so many cadences 
 in the one key is monotonous, yet the use of many 
 keys is a decided advance towards the modern 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 71 
 
 style, even though it be only in the course of a 
 
 movement. 
 
 The treatment of the minor scale is decidedly 
 
 modern, if we compare the passage, " The rain is 
 
 over and gone " (p. 69, ^), with the Tallis anthem 
 
 and its treatment of the minor 7th of the scale. 
 
 Only a quarter of a century after Pur- „ , , . 
 * ' Handel m 
 
 cell, came Handel with his English English 
 
 oratorios, and for more than thirty nmsic, 
 
 years was the leader in English music. We have 
 made greater use of English music up to this time 
 in our tracery of musical style, because England 
 has been, and is now practically the mother- 
 country of vocal part-music. We may not claim 
 Handel as an Englishman, though he was natural- 
 ised, and himself anglicised the spelling of his 
 name. Born in Germany and studying in Italy, 
 it was, however, in England that he lived and 
 where he brought out the works in which he was 
 greatest ; these were, by their choral qualities, 
 more akin to England than to any other country. 
 
 Handel, like Purcell, used many chords be- 
 longing to the modern, chromatic style ; and he, 
 too, like Purcell, had the violin class of instruments 
 to use as accompaniments, and by their prompt 
 and ready " attack " (as it is called), to enable the 
 voices to accomplish the difficult unprepared 
 discords which he was then not afraid to use. 
 
72 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 These chords we find in slow passages in which 
 the voices sing in masses, so that the elaborately 
 formed chords have time to give out their full 
 effect. 
 
 More chro- There is a beautiful passage of this 
 matic chords, kj^d in the Dettingen Te Deum, in the 
 verse " We therefore pray Thee, help Thy servants." 
 It begins in G minor, with simple concords and 
 diatonic suspensions, the voices entering one after 
 the other almost after the fashion of the Tallis 
 anthem, and gradually increasing the volume of 
 sound till all five parts are singing. Then we 
 find, in massive chords, {a) a dominant minor 9th, 
 resolving on its root, which is a modern treatment 
 of the chord, {b) a neapolitan 6th, followed by 
 the very chromatic minor 9th of the supertonic {c\ 
 unprepared, and resolved on the dominant chord 
 (D in the key of G minor). 
 
 nf (a) 
 
 
 :p=c 
 
 T^m^ 
 
 ^^FFfE El 
 
 IS^ 
 
 This rich passage is beautifully relieved by the 
 next passage, which is for trebles alone, in two 
 parts, and still in the key of G minor. 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 73 
 
 In the single phrase which is a setting of the 
 words, " When Thou hadst overcome the sharpness 
 of death," there is a wonderfully beautiful com- 
 bination of the ancient and modern styles. There 
 is a prepared 7th of Bb which by the principles of 
 old style should be resolved on a chord traced 
 from E ; in the old-fashioned form this would be 
 ugly in the particular position of this chord. Here, 
 a magical infusion of the chromatic feeUng turns 
 this resolving chord into a modern form of it in 
 which the old principle can be adhered to, while 
 the ill effect vanishes into beauty. The poignancy 
 of the discords is in perfect poetry with the feeling 
 of the words. 
 
 Notwithstanding these modern 
 chords, the general character of Handel's diatonic 
 
 music is what musicians call diatonic. character 
 
 . . prevails. 
 
 It IS the same character that exists m 
 
 English anthem and service music up to the be- 
 ginning of the nineteenth century. For English 
 church music, which, to use the words of an 
 eminent writer, "has been carried on in unbroken 
 succession for three centuries," has been, all along 
 that time, of an essentially broad and clear char- 
 acter, with massive harmonies and smooth melodies. 
 Tallis began the freer use of the popular scales, 
 while Purcell lit upon modern harmonies and 
 many new characteristics in style ; after him the 
 
74 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 writings were less daring, but without the uncer- 
 tainty of scale which belonged to the madrigal 
 time. Even when Handel came and threw fresh 
 light upon the music of the time, our English 
 writers who were then working — Greene, Boyce, 
 Nares and others, gave no servile worship to the 
 great light which, so to speak, overshadowed 
 them by its excessive brilliancy, but held their 
 own in the massive style which suited the great 
 cathedrals for which they wrote and the organ 
 which was to be their sole accompaniment — the 
 style, in fact, which has been described in the text- 
 books of Goss and Macfarren, and named in the 
 latter "the ancient, diatonic or contrapuntal 
 style." 
 
 The Efio-lish The development of the glee seems to 
 glee. mark a new point in the course of 
 
 musical style. A few of the popular compositions 
 in Playford's collections were styled glees, but 
 they were trivial in comparison with the elaborate 
 works which began to be written shortly after 
 Handel's death by Webb, Cooke, Calcott and 
 others. Of these, many that were called glees 
 were only single movements more or less in the 
 style of a part-song or ballet, and were perhaps in 
 the form of a miniature sonata or a rondo. The 
 form that was peculiar to the glee was in some 
 sort an adaptation of two of the principles of the 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 7^ 
 
 Purcell anthem lately described. It was for solo 
 voices with all possible variety of combination, and 
 it was in a chain of distinct though connected 
 movements. There, however, the resemblance 
 ceased ; for the chorus, which was also in the 
 anthem, had no place in the glee. Neither was 
 there any instrumental accompaniment to the glee 
 of this classic time, although those early glees of 
 Playford had accompaniment and the glees of 
 Bishop in still later times had it also. The treat- 
 ment of the scale and the harmonies was of course 
 similar to that of other works of the date, and 
 therein lies one of the great distinctions between 
 the glee and the madrigal, with which it is often 
 confused. The elaborate imitative style of the 
 madrigal was also absent from the glee, and in the 
 place of it was a great effort at effect, by contrast 
 of movement and by opportunity for the solo 
 voices to show off their powers. For these were 
 to be sung by professional singers, who were to be 
 listened to and admired by distinguished audiences: 
 not as the madrigals, where the singers sang for 
 their own interest in and love for the music. The 
 old artistic love of the music and of work in its 
 service was reserved for the present day to revive. 
 We sing now, as they did in madrigal times, be- 
 cause we love to sing, and not only or always for 
 the pleasure of others. But let us not be cynical ; 
 
76 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 we can but do our best. Sometimes it may be our 
 little best, or, as the Americans say, our "level 
 best." What is our level : is it high or low ? to 
 speak English again. It surely rests with our- 
 selves to make the level a high one. 
 Connected There is one improvement in design 
 movements, and form to be found in the glee and 
 also in the anthem of the eighteenth century. The 
 movements do not, as in the Purcell anthem, always 
 begin and close in the main key. There are prin- 
 cipal sections which are complete and in the main 
 key, while movements lying between these are 
 either complete in another key, or beginning in a 
 new key are brought round to an imperfect end of 
 some kind which requires the next movement to 
 finish it. This makes variety as well as continuity 
 in the whole group. 
 
 Let us go back for an example of this grouping 
 to Handel's Dettingen Te Deum, which is an anthem, 
 though of larger dimensions than the ordinary 
 kind. By far the larger proportion of this work is 
 in the key of D ; but at once dividing and con- 
 necting the different movements in this key, are 
 movements in other keys. Thus, after a great 
 deal in the main key, the verse "To Thee all 
 angels cry aloud " begins in B minor ; it modulates 
 soon and comes to a close on the chord of A. 
 That chord is the dominant of D and therefore 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 77 
 
 connects the movement with the next one, which 
 is in D. Later in the poem the verse, " The 
 glorious company of the Apostles," and several 
 verses after it are set with the keys of G, B and A 
 following closely one after the other. The keys 
 of D, A, and D again, alternate in separate move- 
 ments, and next is a long course of related keys, 
 one complete movement in Bb and other move- 
 ments in which the key varies between Bb and G 
 minor. With the words " Day by day we magnify 
 Thee," the main key, D, returns for a long move- 
 ment ; and after this the verse, " Vouchsafe, O 
 Lord, to keep us this day without sin," comes in 
 the key of B minor. This is a beautiful song for 
 a bass voice which one cannot help feeling was in 
 Mendelssohn's dreams when he wrote the beautiful 
 bass solo in St Pauly " O Lord, have mercy." The 
 long closing chorus of the Te Deum^ " O Lord, in 
 Thee have I trusted," is in the main key D. 
 
 This chain of keys, with the prominence given 
 to one key both in beginning, in ending and in a 
 lesser degree during the course of the whole, shows 
 the modern principle of key - form very clearly. 
 The relationship of the less prominent keys, too, is 
 clear. The keys of B minor, G major, and A 
 major are of the old diatonic connection. But we 
 have a breath of the coming modern school when 
 we find the keys of Bb major, G minor, and B 
 
78 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 major, for their connection belongs to the chro- 
 matic style. 
 
 Painters have what they call compositio7i of light 
 and shade, and it is of the same nature as this 
 musical key-form. They mass their darks, their 
 lights, their half-tones (of light and shade), and 
 think of the proportions or relative values of 
 different colours — how some colours corne forward 
 in the picture and others retire back. We mass 
 our keys, — our principal, our nearly related, and 
 our distantly related, and think how some relations 
 make the music to go onwards, while others tend 
 to bring it to a close. Thus we make what we 
 call the form or design of the general musical 
 course within which the ideas of the music and the 
 sentiments of the words are enclosed. 
 
 Madrigals, motets and anthems were 
 music a?7d i^i England, in the Flemish and in the 
 
 the Church Italian schools : so also was the part- 
 cantata. 
 
 song or harmonised ballad tune. The 
 
 glee was peculiar to England. The early vocal 
 part-music of Germany, however, seems to have 
 been the chorale or harmonised hymn tune, and 
 its first development, the church cantata. The 
 great examples of these cantatas were the com- 
 positions of Bach. Their special feature was the 
 use of a chorale tune which was woven into the 
 composition of the cantata. Otherwise it was 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 79 
 
 formed, like the Dettingen Te Deum, just now de- 
 scribed, of separate movements, some complete 
 and some incomplete, yet connected by the rela- 
 tionship of the keys, and varied by difference of 
 manner and of arrangement of voices. Bach, like 
 his contemporary Handel, used many modern 
 discords with beautiful effect. He, too, like 
 Handel, used them in massive passages; while 
 passages in which different melodies were to be 
 combined with much elaboration (technically 
 known by the name of counterpoijit) were gener- 
 ally built upon diatonic harmonies. The advan- 
 tage of this kind of treatment is found in the 
 clearness with which the voice-parts of these two 
 composers can be followed and understood. A 
 distinction between the two writers lies in the fact 
 that while Bach used more of the elaborate com- 
 bination of melodies, Handel used more of the 
 massive effects ; he even carried his love of 
 breadth to the extent of building his florid, 
 passages upon a single long-continued chord 
 Possibly Handel caught this breadth from English 
 taste, and from his many opportunities of witness- 
 ing the effect it had upon an English theatrical 
 audience. Bach, on the other hand, wrote almost 
 entirely for the Church, and for the near neigh- 
 bourhood of his own home and study, in Germany. 
 Some composers are fortunate in being able to 
 
8o MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 write in faith of the power that they feel within 
 them, and in spite of having little opportunity of 
 hearing their own works. Happier still are those 
 who can verify their works by actual performance, 
 and can learn from their own success how to make 
 more success. 
 
 The coming Bach and Handel were but lately laid 
 of Mozart, j^ their graves when Mozart, scarcely 
 out of his cradle, was writing music that was 
 perfect in design. He was the most wonderful 
 example of artistic intuition that the world has 
 known, whether in music or in any other of the 
 arts, — who, from the baby symphonies of his 
 childhood to the Jupiter symphony and the 
 Requiem of his dying year, produced works that 
 reflected his every emotion and yet agreed with 
 the purest canons of his art. All, too, as Lord 
 Bacon says of his ideal Painter, "by a kind of 
 Felicity (as a musician that maketh an excellent 
 Air in musick), and not by Rule." The natural- 
 ness with which he followed the best principles of 
 his art is one of the greatest proofs of the truth of 
 those principles ; for true principles are found 
 out after the making of music, and not before it. 
 
 Mozart has been described as the first to " cast 
 off the trammels of the old diatonic school " ; an 
 expression which is hardly just, considering that 
 some of his finest work, even in his most mature 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 8i 
 
 years, is carried out with all the complexity of 
 that school, in strict accordance with their prin- 
 ciples, and in diatonic harmonies too. It would 
 be more true to say that Mozart was 
 the first to complete that happy union /^^ popular 
 
 between the popular and the scholastic ?'^\^ ^^^^ 
 
 , , , scholastic. 
 
 styles that Purcell, Handel and Gluck 
 
 did but feel after. Up to Mozart's time there was 
 
 still the broad distinction between the rhythmic 
 
 style of the natural artistry with its free, harmonic 
 
 scale, and the careful elaboration of unrhythmic 
 
 melodies with prepared discords which belonged 
 
 to the contrapuntal or madrigal school. It was 
 
 Mozart who felt and brought out to its full extent 
 
 the variety that can be produced by the blending 
 
 of the two styles in just balance. He worked this 
 
 out so fully, and worked upon it so much of 
 
 novelty, that it has been said " there is nothing 
 
 new since Mozart." In fact, to describe all that is 
 
 to be found in Mozart, is to describe the modern 
 
 style in music. After him, the individuality of 
 
 different composers and different nations is evident, 
 
 but the modern character is already completed. 
 
 On all points we find more variety in 
 TVT J • 1 . r More 
 
 Mozart s music than m former writers ; variety, more 
 
 more variety, yet it is in order, not in ^'^ ^^^^^' 
 
 chaos. For instance, we find more chromatic 
 
 chords than in his predecessors' music, more 
 
 F 
 
82 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 chromatic relationships in his modulations, and 
 more modulations or changes of key ; yet, coupled 
 with this greater variety, is a greater clearness in 
 the connection between the chords which make a 
 key (in the course of a strain)^ and between the 
 keys which make a movement. Perhaps as a 
 greater change than any, though it seems so little 
 a thing, he is the first to use the modern chro- 
 matic passing note. This perhaps is the only 
 point wherein the modern style definitely ousts 
 the old habit, for all other modernisms go on side 
 by side with the old, and are in addition to them. 
 It was also Mozart's intuition or keen sense of 
 the relation of different instruments, that set the 
 direction of the modern practice of orchestration. 
 Here, again, with greater variety he coupled 
 greater order, for it was he who first began to 
 contrast the groups of different qualities of instru- 
 ments in the same band. We may go back as far 
 as Lord Bacon to hear about the combination of 
 wind and string or string and voice, and how 
 some combinations sounded better than others ; 
 but everybody of the selected combination played 
 all through the composition. No one, till Mozart, 
 thought of employing complete groups of wind or 
 string or voice to answer one another in fragments 
 of the music, and with the contrast of their quality 
 of sound, to add variety to the course of one 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 83 
 
 continuous strain of music. He, too, first mingled 
 
 one or other instrument with those of other 
 
 quality for a time, and thus changed the tone of 
 
 that particular phrase, in this way making use of 
 
 Bacon's discovery that mingled tones were quite 
 
 different to those of either instrument when used 
 
 separately. 
 
 Most of these things can be pointed out in 
 
 Mozart's Requiem. Look in the Lacrymosa. Some 
 
 antiquarians say that he did not write more than 
 
 the first eight bars, and that the rest was finished by 
 
 his copyist. Happy copyist ! for he must have 
 
 been as great a man as Mozart to have written 
 
 even the ninth bar. 
 
 In the two bars for orchestra which ^, 
 
 Ckromahc 
 
 begin this movement {a in the next passing- 
 example) are some of the modern "^ ^^' 
 
 passing notes, which any technical book (not 
 earlier than Macfarren) will explain. It was one 
 of Mozart's discoveries that the Gf in the first 
 bar was more in keeping with the modern chords 
 than the Gi^ that Handel or Bach would have used 
 in a similar place. The Clj appoggiatura against 
 the C| leading note in the chord at the end of the 
 same bar is the only modern form of that which in 
 the Tallis anthem sounded old-fashioned and 
 rough, namely, the falling minor 7th of the old scale 
 against the rising major 7th of the modern scale. 
 
84 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 Larghetto^ rj ^ ^JT^ ^ (^ ^ 
 
 ,_ La ' cry 
 
 f- '-p- (^)r ' ' ^^ — -,*--^ ^ 
 
 Chro7natic After the first eight bars, which are in 
 modulations, j) minor, the first strain begins again 
 as in the next example with changes which are 
 slight but so masterly as to renew the whole effect 
 (remember this is where the copyist is said to have 
 taken up the work). Shortly the music is turned 
 off into the key of Eb. Handel many times used 
 the chord of this note, the minor 2nd of the key, 
 and an example is in the phrase quoted from the 
 Dettingen Te Deuni^ but Mozart used the key of it. 
 The following is an epitome of the voice parts, 
 wherein is the transient modulation to the key 
 ofEb. 
 
 
 D minor again. 
 
 Key El?. D minor again. 
 
 f 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE :^ 
 
 In the Hostias, a later movement in the Requiem^ 
 there are some rapid modulations. It is a quiet 
 movement, beginning in Eb and continuing in Bb, 
 a near relation. Then Bb minor follows and 
 quickly Db ; both of these are related to Eb minor 
 and therefore chromatic relations of the major 
 form of the key. Following these is F minor, a 
 near relation again. After this comes D minor, 
 which is scarcely related either to the main key, 
 Eb, or to the key we are just quitting ; but the 
 music has by this time been through so many keys 
 of nearer connection that it becomes good to go to 
 a distant one. It is like the extreme high light 
 which occurs once in a picture with good effect, and 
 once only. An abrupt return to the main Eb key 
 brightens still more the effect of the distant modu- 
 lation. 
 
 To go back to the Lacrymosa, there are 
 some beauties in it which, for want of 
 a better name, must be called effects, and are 
 characteristic of the modern style. The first 
 strain for the voices, which begins at b in the first 
 example, p. 84, has two short phrases followed by a 
 long, slow ascending scale up to a high note, and 
 gradually increasing in volume ; this has great 
 effect. Then afterwards while there are short 
 phrases in the upper voices (beginning with the 
 second example), the bass binds them together with 
 
S6 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 its long ascent of semitones and octaves. Again, 
 
 after a swaying to and fro upon a single chord, 
 
 there is a feeling of opening out into the fresh air 
 
 when we draw to a close upon a new and a major 
 
 key. Another scale, this time a descending one, has 
 
 great effect. The passage begins with a return to 
 
 the first idea and key after modulation, and 
 
 gradually drawing in new phrases in descending 
 
 scales, the voices are built one upon another by 
 
 degrees till they come to a close in the main key. 
 
 Another practice of Mozart's may be 
 
 new phrase noted here, which is an advance in the 
 
 decorating growth of the modern style out of the 
 the old. 
 
 old. Old writers of the contrapuntal 
 
 school were wont to take a fragment of one of their 
 
 principal subjects and weave together manifold 
 
 repetitions of it in divers positions and intervals. 
 
 Thus they would make a new passage of music 
 
 out of fragments that had been sounded before in 
 
 the composition. Another habit of the old writers 
 
 was to add new melodies to a given and repeated 
 
 subject, and thus complete what was unfinished. 
 
 Mozart, by an extra grace, gives a fragment of new 
 
 melody here and there, to be thrown over the 
 
 already completed music, by some otherwise silent 
 
 instrument. It lies like a little veil of mist, to 
 
 entrap us to look a little further: we need not hear it 
 
 unless we choose, but there it is. This is a growth 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 87 
 
 from the old love of counterpoint, and was perhaps 
 the result of Mozart's greater feeling for the differ- 
 ent qualities, or colours, so to speak, of the instru- 
 ments. For ofttimes this added fragment of 
 melody would scarcely be heard if it were not for 
 the new quality of the instrument which plays it, 
 and by this new quality reveals it from out of 
 the previous course of the orchestra. 
 
 In the matter of rhythm, we find more Variety in 
 variety in Mozart's way of carrying it rhythm. 
 out. If Handel or Bach begin a movement with a 
 bar of peculiar accent, that accent remains through 
 many succeeding bars. Such is the case in the 
 beautiful chorus, " Surely He hath borne our griefs," 
 in the Messiah, wherein the peculiar accent is only 
 broken for a few bars in the middle of the chorus. 
 Bach is even more persistent in his rhythm. But 
 in the " Rex Tremendae " in Mozart's Requiem a 
 different treatment is found. There is a peculiar 
 figure of dotted notes in the orchestral accompani- 
 ment, which ceases very soon in order to let the 
 voices bring out their complete phrase; the peculiar 
 figure begins anew when the voices are more 
 broken. By this manner the accompaniment is 
 made both a contrast and a support to the voices. 
 
 In phrase -rhythm, too, Mozart shows the 
 happy union of popular and contrapuntal. The 
 "Recordare" in the same Requiem mass is canonic. 
 
88 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 That is to say, the separate voices follow one 
 another in exact scholastic imitation. But the 
 natural artistic feeling of popular music is thrown 
 over this scholarship by the regular rhythm into 
 which the whole is guided, by the lapse into a har- 
 monised tune at some points in the movement, and 
 by the order into which the keys fall. In another 
 part of the same quartet the rhythm follows the 
 popular manner in another way ; for while the 
 voice parts are broken in themselves, the whole 
 group of voices form into regular rhythm by their 
 answering one another. The same thing happens 
 in the Benedictus, Another example of the 
 same is in the Dies Irae, and with it an effect 
 of orchestration or contrast of tone. 
 
 Sop., Alto, Tenor. 
 
 
 Basses. 
 
 Here it will be seen that the basses, voices and 
 
 instruments, have a fragment of a phrase in unison, 
 
 which is answered and completed by the three 
 
 upper voices in harmony. 
 
 ^ ^ , ^ This example shows also a modern 
 Contrast of ^ ^ 
 
 unison and effect in the contrast between a frag- 
 hamwny. ^^^^ j^^ unison and another in full 
 harmonies ; for though unison singing was common 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 89 
 
 enough in old music, as also was part-singing, yet 
 the use of the two in alternation in the same move- 
 ment to form variety, was rare. It is of great 
 beauty both in choral and in instrumental work ; 
 and it is difficult to say which gives more effect, — 
 the relief from full harmonies when the massive 
 unison comes in, or the richness of the chords when 
 they return after the coldness of unison. 
 
 It is after Mozart had completed the ,^ ,. 
 
 ^ Nations 
 
 modern style in music, that we find the and 
 
 individuality of different composers and i^'^^^^^''^^'' 
 of different nationalities becomes more developed. 
 One of the discords of the modern style is to be 
 found in three different forms, and it has been the 
 custom to name these three the German sixth, the 
 French sixth and the Italian sixth. It was a whim 
 with the present writer to impress these names on 
 her mind by thought of how the different charac- 
 ters of the three schools of the Continent resembled 
 the effect of the three chords. Here are the three 
 as they are to be found in the key of C. 
 
 l^n: 
 
 i^t- 
 
 ~^^^E^,\E^m^EE^ ^m 
 
 German 6th. French 6th. Italian 6th. 
 
 The German, such was the fancy, was more 
 abundant in its richness, but withal somewhat 
 
90 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 ponderous and difficult of treatment, as any student 
 will know who attempts the resolution of the dis- 
 cord of the German sixth. The French was more 
 piquante and bright, while the Italian was clearer 
 and less dissonant than the others. Such, we may 
 say, are the three schools of Continental music. 
 The German, with its abundant richness of har- 
 mony, its fulness of melodic combination, its 
 elaboration of design and careful accuracy in 
 details, is yet sometimes with an exaggeration of 
 sentiment and of attention to those details, a 
 tendency to lengthiness and a want of clearness in 
 the treatment of the accent. The French school, 
 bright and piquante, is at once delicate and showy, 
 piercing in its discords (technically speaking), 
 concise in design, clear in accent and neat in 
 workmanship. The Italian, depending most on 
 the richness in the course of the melodies and the 
 beautiful way in which they suit the voices which 
 are the chief means of showing those melodies, is 
 simpler in the chords, less complicated in the com- 
 bination of melodies and in the development of the 
 designs. May we add a chord as a type of our own 
 English school, which we have already attempted 
 to describe ? Is it not like the daylight grandeur 
 of a pure major common chord, such as we hear 
 resounding through the long aisles of a cathedral 
 after the last Amen has been sung? 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 91 
 
 Different composers show their individuality in 
 ways that defy analysis, — ways that certainly defy 
 pointing out by musical means. We may be sure 
 of one thing, namely, that the more their musical 
 character follows the general lines of their own 
 nation's character, the more clearly does their 
 particular bent show itself. If, on the other hand, 
 they tend by some artificial means to the character 
 of another country, their own individuality becomes 
 blurred. There is, however, a tendency to sub- 
 division in both the German and English schools, 
 and the characteristics of particular countries show 
 themselves in some composers. 
 
 It would take the genius of Mrs Barrett Brown- 
 ing to emulate her description of poets, yet a word 
 or two may be of some help to single out the 
 composers of different nations since Mozart. 
 
 First, after Mozart, in the German ^ , 
 
 Composers 
 school, must be named Haydn, as of 
 
 expressed in his later works, for, as an Gcnnany. 
 
 old man, he had energy to follow the younger 
 
 man's lead, as well as generosity to acknowledge 
 
 his greatness. After him there is the great 
 
 quartet, who were all working at the same 
 
 time, though beginning in different years, — first 
 
 Beethoven, then Spohr and Weber, and a little 
 
 later Schubert. The first was imperial in his 
 
 treatment of the art, yet full of tenderness and 
 
92 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 full of sympathy with every human emotion. It 
 must have been his special habit in composition 
 which saved him from the national defects, for he 
 would write down all his thoughts and afterwards 
 cut out all that he considered needless. Weber, 
 brilliant, melodious, strong in his harmonies and 
 wonderfully effective in his design was yet some- 
 times weak in his musical effects. Spohr, whose 
 music whether for instruments or for voices is full 
 of melody and good design, is sometimes tempted 
 to over-sweeten the course of harmony by his use 
 of modern discords. Schubert, in the words of 
 Professor Macfarren, " played at composition " ; he 
 poured out songs by the hundred, all beautiful, all 
 poetic, expressive, original in form as well as in 
 the course of the music, and never a note too long ; 
 yet his instrumental works, full of beauty as they 
 are, are fatiguing to the listener by reason of their 
 length and diffuseness. In the words of a musician 
 " Schubert never knows when to stop." Curious it 
 is to think that the composition which is entirely 
 without this lengthy character is one which is 
 familiarly known by the pathetic name of the 
 *' unfinished " symphony, — namely, the symphony 
 in B minor. Two movements only of this 
 symphony exist, each of them perfect in design 
 and, like all his songs, never a note too long. 
 Next are Mendelssohn and Schumann, — friends 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 93 
 
 and contrasts. Mendelssohn, the brightest example 
 of inborn genius after Mozart, the composer who 
 expresses happiness in music more than any other 
 ever did, while some critics affect to think his 
 music too beautiful ; and Schumann, whose deep 
 earnestness almost weighs him to morbidity, while 
 the grace and beauty of his music is sometimes 
 disguised by the vagueness of his rhythm and 
 accents. Gade, the Dane, follows, and has been 
 accused of being too like Mendelssohn, but the 
 touch of his own nationality shows itself and gives 
 him a character all his own, like a cool breeze 
 from the north on a warm day. In present times 
 this northern nationality comes out in Grieg, whose 
 beautiful music seems as if it were dominated by 
 elves and goblins, snow, ice and fir trees, and is 
 picturesque rather than expressive of emotion. 
 The natural successor of Mendelssohn and Schu- 
 mann is Brahms, whose music has all the deep 
 earnestness of the purely German school, with 
 little of its vagueness of rhythm. Close to him 
 comes Raff, more southern in his temperament, 
 with rich melodies and strong accents, but an 
 occasional touch that is common. Rubinstein's 
 Russian nationality distinguishes him but slightly, 
 far less so than Glinka, who came before him, 
 purely Russian, or Tchaikoffski, who came after 
 him. Dvorak comes later again, whose Bohemian 
 
94 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 vivacity and picturesque manner clothes the 
 German earnestness of his writings. 
 
 Two names may not be left out of the roll of 
 modern writers of the German school, though 
 they form a school of their own — Wagner and his 
 contemporary and imitator, Liszt. We spoke 
 elsewhere of the musical design which is drawn by 
 the relationship of keys and by the proportion 
 between different keys, and compared this to the 
 painter's treatment of colours and of lights and 
 shades. Handel was like Rembrandt in his pre- 
 ference for the lower tones of colours, and the 
 reserve with which he used his higher lights, for 
 Handel uses much of the main key of each com- 
 position and seldom modulated to distant keys. 
 Mozart was like, shall we say, Titian or Rubens, 
 using more modulation yet still keeping a due 
 balance between the keys — having a sufficiency of 
 the main key to give solidity, massing the new 
 keys and using the most remote relationships at 
 rare points. If Liszt were a painter, his work 
 would be characterised as " spotty." He has no 
 large dark shadows to hold together his lighter 
 colours, and his high lights are put on with the 
 palette-knife. It is said that Turner did such a 
 thing once in a picture, and only once ; Liszt does 
 it many times, and is, as one might say, always in 
 another key. 
 
I 
 
 MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 95 
 
 Wagner is, so to speak, two men. His earlier 
 style, which he gradually and intentionally gave 
 up, had richness of harmony, much grandeur of 
 effect and consistence of design in its key-treat- 
 ment. In later works, when he had set before 
 himself the principle that design or proportion in 
 the verbal ideas would be better illustrated by the 
 want of it in the music, the interest of his music, 
 apart from the poetic or verbal intention, is to be 
 traced moment by moment, without musical com- 
 parison with the past or coming moments. A 
 gorgeousness of instrumentation ofttimes repre- 
 sents the musical interest, while a continual use of 
 the appoggiatiira monotonises the expression. 
 
 Many names fill the French school in 
 .1 1 ir . r. T*/r ., .• Of Fruttce. 
 
 the half-century after Mozart s time, 
 
 and, though working in another country than his, 
 
 they built upon the foundation laid by him. 
 
 Gr^try, who outlived Mozart about a decade, 
 
 Mehul, Boieldieu, Halevy, Herold, Onslow, and 
 
 latest, Auber, all born in the eighteenth century, 
 
 lived on into the nineteenth. It is much to be 
 
 regretted that they are little more than names to 
 
 us in England, with the exception of Auber, some 
 
 of whose operas came over to us and have taught 
 
 us the bright neatness of the pure French style. 
 
 Paris has been said to have acted as a magnet 
 
 to the foreign artist, and many of the works for 
 
96 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 French use were the production of foreigners 
 wholly or partly resident in Paris. Though they 
 must not be confused with writers of the wholly 
 French idiom, they have been more or less touched 
 by its influence. Cherubini the Italian was one of 
 those resident and working in France; he pro- 
 duced many works in the first half of the nine- 
 teenth century. He was rather of the old Italian 
 contrapuntal school, but with a slight touch of 
 German richness and some of the French bright- 
 ness. A little later comes Chopin, the Pole, who 
 seems on the other hand to belong to a school 
 peculiarly his own. There is a delicacy about his 
 work that makes us feel the French handling, but 
 his waywardness has drawn from one of his critics 
 the title ** Master of ugliness," while his expression 
 is so deeply plaintive as almost to give pain. 
 Meyerbeer, the German, is a contrast to both the 
 foregoing ; his music is gorgeous almost to garish- 
 ness, yet full of passion. Stephen Heller follows, 
 with yet another nationality to be caught up by 
 the French style. A Hungarian, his music is 
 charming, with a roundness in the turn of his 
 phrases that brings out in a peculiar manner the 
 tone of the pianoforte, for which instrument most 
 of his music has been written. 
 
 To return to Frenchmen, Berlioz, born in the 
 year of Gretry's death (1803), and dying the same 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 97 
 
 year as the veteran Auber (1869), is of a greater 
 individuality than any writer since Mozart. His 
 music ranges from perfect simplicity to the greatest 
 complication of melody, harmony and instrumenta- 
 tion ; and may be said, without sarcasm, to range 
 also from the greatest beauty to the greatest 
 ugliness. Yet with all this he has not found it 
 necessary to abandon that balance and relationship 
 of keys which is the very backbone of classical 
 music. The luxurious music of Gounod is known all 
 over England ; Bizet too, the very essence of 
 piquancy, is well known among us. Less known 
 to us, Ambroise Thomas, Massenet and Saint- 
 Saens all show the French characteristics of style 
 — grace, delicacy, clearness of design and con- 
 ciseness. Lefebvre-Wely and Guilmant carry out 
 the French idiom in the organ works we so often 
 hear in our churches, while the theatre-loving 
 public were, till Sullivan elevated the taste, familiar 
 enough with the pretty trivialities of Offenbach, 
 the German settled in Paris, and Lecocq, his French 
 successor. 
 
 In Italy, after Mozart, the representa- 
 ^ tive name is Rossini. The solo singer 
 
 had been the master of the music in Italy for many 
 years, and even now he is the chief means of giving 
 forth the artist's ideas ; for music in Italy, whether 
 in the streets or under roofs, is the opera, and the 
 G 
 
98 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 opera must be sung. It was Rossini who asserted 
 the composer's right to be his own master of the 
 music, by writing florid songs that had no room 
 for the decorations which the singers habitually 
 put upon other folks' melodies. Besides this, there 
 is much interest in the construction of his music, 
 and his less florid melodies are full of expression. 
 After him come the two who have been termed 
 "the languishing Bellini and the spirited Doni- 
 zetti," and later again is Verdi, one of the 
 strongest writers of his age. Later than he are 
 Ponchielli, Boito and Mascagni, who more or less 
 look round towards the Wagnerian model, yet with 
 much regard to consistency of key, and to the 
 melodious traditions of their country. Sgambati's 
 instrumental works are earnest of purpose, yet fall 
 near to triviality occasionally. 
 
 It was Attwood, the pupil of Mozart, 
 / ng an . ^^^ .^ ^^.^ ^^ have first imbued Eng- 
 lish church music with the spirit of modern style, 
 a spirit caught up by his contemporary, Samuel 
 Wesley, and followed in the next generation by 
 Samuel Sebastian Wesley and Henry Smart Yet 
 it was still the English style, and this fact was 
 emphasised by Goss, who somewhat reverted to 
 the old diatonic harmonies, and thus gave strength 
 to the style. The lighter moods of English music 
 were given to the operatic writers— Bishop, John 
 
MADRIGAL TO MODERN STYLE 99 
 
 Barnett, Loder, Balfe and Wallace, the Irish 
 nationality of the latter two men giving a greater 
 sweetness to their strains. Sterndale Bennett 
 follows, excelling in every branch of music except 
 the dramatic, with a freshness, or rather frankness, 
 quite his own, although it has been mistaken for a 
 copy of Mendelssohn. 
 
 Perhaps the peculiarities of the English style 
 reached their highest in Macfarren and Sullivan. 
 They say that to be great, a man must excel in 
 all branches of his art. Certainly it would be 
 difficult to point out any kind of music in which 
 these two men have not excelled — oratorio, opera, 
 light and grand, or purely instrumental, or lyri- 
 cal. Macfarren's style, apart from the general 
 English character of it, was most contradictory, and 
 changed according to the mood of the moment. 
 Thus his music was at times rugged and forcible, 
 at others it was almost innocent in its simplicity 
 and grace. At times he looked back to the old 
 English anthems and popular ditties, at others he 
 looked forward beyond the writers of his time. 
 Thus he earned for himself, from minds of weaker 
 build, the opposite epithets of old-fashioned and 
 over-radical. Sullivan, by the deep hold his 
 beautiful music has taken of the country, has 
 done more than any to restore the English faith 
 in their own musical powers, and thus has made it 
 
loo MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 possible for a younger generation to work out their 
 own bent. 
 
 But it is hard to criticise our fathers and 
 brothers in an art, even though our criticism be 
 of the analytical and not of the fault-finding 
 kind. Therefore, let us be content with naming 
 the makers of our later style in music — Hubert 
 Parry, Cellier and Cowen, essentially English ; 
 Mackenzie, freshened with the air of the Scotch 
 moorlands ; Stanford, toned with German severity, 
 as Arthur Goring Thomas was with French 
 piquancy. 
 
 In a book written by a woman we may not 
 omit the part which women have of late played in 
 the orchestra of our musical world. Abroad, 
 Mdlle Holmes, Mdlle Chaminade and others, 
 and in England Virginia Gabriel, Alice Mary Smith, 
 Maude Valerie White, Rosalind Ellicott, E. F. 
 Smyth — and, may we add, the present writer? — 
 have, among others, done work which has its share 
 of influence in the making of what is now the 
 modern musical style. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE RISE OF OPERA 
 
 " Acting in Song, especially in Dialogues, hath an extream good 
 Grace." 
 
 Bacon, Essay Of Masks and Triumphs. 
 
 JUST three hundred years ago a few amateurs 
 of music invented opera. 
 
 When writing about musical style, it was noticed 
 that amateurs were often sad bunglers, though 
 they might be first-rate beginners. It was genuine 
 amateur work of the best kind that began opera, 
 since grown to such an important part in the 
 musical life of the world, and yet the workers did 
 not do what they had intended. 
 
 A very little imagination will put the 
 whole process before us. It was in Flor- 
 ence, in the last decade of the sixteenth century, 
 when madrigals in Italy, as well as in England, 
 were just attaining to the height of their beauty — 
 when Orlando di Lasso, Palestrina and Luca 
 Marenzio were but lately dead ; when men like 
 Byrd, Morley, Weelkes and Wilbye in England, 
 and the brothers Nanini, Anerio, G. Gabrielli and 
 
I02 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 Croce in Italy were pouring out melodies and 
 combined melodies that we look back to nowadays 
 as models of the greatest lyrical beauty. 
 
 We can picture to ourselves the little company 
 of friends coming together. One of them would 
 complain of the *' vapouring about " of the mad- 
 rigal singers and the anthem singers. Perhaps 
 another would cry that it was nonsense to sing a 
 long phrase of music to the words Fa^ la, la, la, la ; 
 or another, that the popular tunes which were 
 even invading scholarship were all very well for 
 country clowns to sing, or perhaps for the weaker 
 sex to amuse themselves with, but for strong, 
 learned men with artistic tastes something better 
 was wanted. Other arts, they would say, had been 
 reviving all round them — architecture, sculpture, 
 as well as literature, had been reinstated according 
 to the Greek model. Something surely must be done 
 for poor music, to restore it to the high standard 
 which doubtless it had attained to in the Greek 
 classical ages. Therefore, they cast about among 
 their learning to find out what Greek music was. 
 
 For, though it was a noble thought and had 
 noble results, there was just that amount of the 
 " amateur bungling " about it which was contained 
 in these two facts : that while they were tiring of 
 the beauties which they possessed, and spurning 
 them on account of the faults which had crept in, 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 103 
 
 they were trying to make use of a music which 
 they only knew by description. In other arts a 
 Greek statue or a temple is an example which can 
 be seen, and we can form from it our idea of the 
 principles which guided its construction ; thus we 
 can work again upon those principles and make 
 something similar, even if it be not so good. They 
 say that " one example is worth fifty precepts " ; 
 but with the art of Greek music the Florentine 
 amateurs had, as it were, the fifty precepts but not 
 the one example. Therefore, when they followed 
 the " fifty precepts " of the Greek writers, they did 
 not realise that, after all, they were making their 
 own music, not that of the Greeks. They grafted 
 Greek ideas upon the native stock of Italian music. 
 They did not reinstate Greek music, but invented, 
 or discovered, a new thing, thereby doing a greater 
 wonder than they had any idea of. 
 
 We are told that Greek drama grew Origin of 
 
 out of the Bacchante songs which Greek drama. 
 were performed by a chorus with their leader. At 
 first they sang the story of these songs, but after- 
 wards actors were employed to act the story, while 
 the chorus remained to explain it to the audience 
 and to make meditations upon it, which should be 
 what the audience might be supposed to think. 
 It was clear that these actors sang their words ; 
 enough was said in the Greek writings about 
 
i04 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 " resonant tones," " measured rhythmical cadence," 
 and such-like to show that. The accent of the 
 Greek poetry was known too, and also that 
 the actors regulated their voices in accordance 
 with the poetical accents, as well as with the 
 emotional course of the words ; they were " wail- 
 ing " or " hvely." But of the actual pitch, or the 
 intervals of the notes they sang, the Florentines 
 had no record. They knew not whether the 
 singers went up or down, whether they sang 
 C, E, G, or B, C, A. The Greeks said themselves 
 that the record of a sound is as fleeting as to write 
 in water. 
 
 This was all the knowledge that the Florentines 
 had to go upon in their reviving of Greek drama. 
 They knew about the action, rhythm and elocu- 
 tionary expression, but not of the musical sounds. 
 
 By using their own notes, intervals and scales 
 exactly in agreement with the accents of the words 
 they were to set, they formed music of the same 
 kind that we know now as recitative. If we look 
 at a good piece of recitative with its words in 
 the original language, we shall see that emphatic 
 syllables have notes belonging to the stronger 
 accented parts of the bar, while weaker syllables 
 have weaker accents ; and in every possible way, 
 by rising or falling, by long notes or shorter, by 
 high notes or low, the accentuation or grammatic 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 105 
 
 meaning of the words and the " passing expression 
 of the moment " is strengthened by the music. 
 This is the simple, original meaning of recitative. 
 It was to recite their poems or their words 
 with musical inflexions and musical accents, 
 but without any balanced, rhythmic phrases, or 
 tunes as we call them, however fragmentary. 
 They gave it the names of recitativo^ stilo rap- 
 presentativo, and inusica partante, or speaking 
 music. 
 
 Dafne was the first complete musical The first 
 
 drama of this kind, and it was the opera. 
 
 work of two singers, Caccini and Peri. 
 
 A slender accompaniment was all that these 
 singer-composers used ; but when Monteverde, a 
 composer of the first rank, wrote a few years later 
 he used a thickly harmonised accompaniment with 
 a large orchestra of the instruments of the time. 
 He also varied both the instruments and the figure 
 of the accompaniment so as to heighten the effect 
 of the situations and characters. In this, as well 
 as in the use of an occasional rhythmical chorus 
 or dance, Monteverde followed, as far as he could, 
 the principle that the drama with its words is the 
 foundation upon which the whole design of the 
 music should be built. He, like the singers Caccini 
 and Peri, and like the Florentine amateurs who sug- 
 gested their work, felt that the drama is the 
 
io6 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 skeleton which should give strength and beauty of 
 form to the living work. A few years later, strains 
 of melody of the nature of tunes were put into the 
 mouths of the characters to vary the dryness of 
 continual recitative. Some people said this was 
 incorrect, because they thought the Greeks used 
 not to do it. However, the more popular taste 
 approved, the innate love of melodious music 
 over-riding the artificial imitation of the Greek 
 custom. After all, they could not be quite sure 
 of what the Greeks really did in that matter. For 
 there is a Greek writer who says, "Such songs 
 which do not stand between the pauses or stops of 
 the action, but enter into the action itself (inas- 
 much as they determine the will of the actors) may 
 belong to the persons of the drama, or to the 
 chorus, or to both." So, whatever the Renais- 
 sance people thought, they might have been 
 wrong, and that something more definitely 
 melodious than simple recitative might have 
 been deemed good for the characters even in 
 Greek days. 
 
 Scarlatti's Nearly ninety years after the little 
 changes. band of amateurs had met, the elder 
 Scarlatti came forward with many developments 
 in the form of the operas. Still keeping to the 
 ideal of the drama as of paramount importance, 
 he made three distinct advances on the old 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 107 
 
 course. The overture in his hands became a 
 more important thing than in the earlier Italian 
 works; and to this day overtures are sometimes 
 written in the form which is known as the 
 Scarlatti or Italian form of overture or sififoriia. 
 We shall have to say more on this subject by- 
 and-by. 
 
 The greatest improvement which Scarlatti carried 
 out was in making more variety in the recitative. 
 There must have been a certain dulness about the 
 continual declamatory recitation in musical tones, 
 with its ceaseless accompaniment, even if it were 
 momentarily expressive of the situation. Scarlatti 
 made a distinction between the more and the less 
 lyrical parts of the drama — setting the less poetical, 
 or more conversational, parts to reciiativo secco, that 
 is, dry or speaking recitative. To this he gave a 
 lighter accompaniment than that of Monteverde 
 and his followers ; he thought little more was 
 necessary than a chord or two here and there to 
 rest and to push on the voice, and that only with 
 a couple of stringed instruments. Then the voices 
 could " patter " on as they thought best, free as to 
 time though the accents of bars were retained. 
 The more poetical parts of the dialogue he gave 
 to what became called accompanied recitative. 
 This kind depended also on the accent of the 
 words, but there were phrases in time for the 
 
io8 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 orchestra between the senza tempo phrases of the 
 voice part ; and these at once separated and 
 joined those vocal phrases, while they heightened 
 the effect of the expression. Occasionally, too, 
 there was a cantabile phrase for the voice, which, 
 being marked in tempo^ was to be sung in strict 
 time, and could therefore have the band playing 
 at the same moment. 
 
 The third improvement of Scarlatti is the aria. 
 It seems undeniable that all words are not equally 
 poetical, nor equally fit to be set to music ; and 
 that some among those fit may be suitable for 
 short musical phrases, while others may contain 
 ideas that a composer would wish to dwell on. 
 Looking at it from a dramatic point, there are 
 some words which a character may pore over, — 
 words which may deeply and lastingly affect him. 
 In every play life has to be lived very quickly ; 
 actions take place, and influences are brought to 
 bear in the space of an hour or two which would 
 take months to work out in actual life. This is 
 the necessary concentration of art. But however 
 quickly the life is rushed through, there must be 
 moments of repose. Travellers have told us that 
 the most beautiful parts of the brilliant starry 
 heavens in the southern hemisphere are the spaces 
 of sky without stars. Similarly the most beautiful 
 part of a life of action is sometimes the quiet time 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 109 
 
 when the activity is held in check for a moment, 
 waiting for the renewal of action. So also in the 
 drama, the perfection of contrast and variety- 
 requires that there should be periods now and 
 then when action is held in abeyance while 
 thought or meditation takes possession of the ear 
 of the audience. These moments of thought can 
 be taken hold of by the composer, and woven into 
 a complete song, — a song which, as we quoted just 
 now from the Greeks, " stands between the pauses 
 or stops of the action." These songs were the 
 invention of Scarlatti. 
 
 But however beautiful the idea may have been 
 in its origin, these songs became the beginning of 
 the decadence of opera. Not only did Scarlatti 
 allow his beautiful airs to run to wearisome length, 
 especially by the exact repetition of the first part, 
 which was the absolute course of his airs, but the 
 invention tempted other composers to go further 
 in the direction of formality. They forgot the old 
 principles of the Florentine amateurs, — they forgot 
 that the drama was first in importance as the 
 backbone of the whole opera, and they made the 
 singing of the airs the principal thing. In place 
 of the dulness of perpetual recitative, they went 
 to the opposite extreme ; they made a long chain 
 of airs, of fixed shapes and styles, connected 
 by a few phrases of recitative, and prompted 
 
no MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 by the wishes of the particular vocalists who were 
 bound to perform them. This school of opera 
 continued in Italy till the middle of the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 Italian opera The Italian opera of the Florentines 
 abroad. travelled over Europe, and met with 
 
 various treatment ; in France and England it found 
 the world ready prepared for it, while in Germany 
 it was many years before any kind of opera took 
 permanent hold. 
 
 French French historians say there were 
 
 opera. musical dramas in France from very 
 
 early times. There were sacred dramas performed 
 in the churches, of which parts were declaimed in 
 oratorical style, the music probably being of the 
 plain-song kind. Then the minstrels ^.n^ jongleurs 
 used a great deal of acting with their musical 
 songs, and some of the troubadours acted dramas 
 with little songs in them. Later there were many 
 ballets^ or grand spectacles with dances and music 
 intermingled. Fifty years after Caccini and Peri, 
 French operas were written in imitation of the 
 Italian works, Cambert producing the first, and 
 soon developed a character of their own. Lulli, 
 the Court musician of his day, — a good long day, 
 too, — put the Court ballets and gorgeous spectacles 
 into opera, where they have remained ever since ; 
 and he made the band parts fuller than they were 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA in 
 
 in the early imitations of the Florentine style. 
 All this was before Scarlatti had come up in 
 Italian opera, and his division of recitative into 
 speaking and accompanied was never adopted in 
 France. But in opera, as well as in the classical 
 spoken drama of France, there has always been a 
 traditional leaning towards the oratorical declama- 
 tion of the old sacred drama. This was developed 
 even in Lulli's hands to an interesting recitative 
 for the whole of the dialogue, which was varied by 
 cantabile and metrical phrases, and accompanied 
 throughout with the band. These characteristics 
 remain up to this day in the French grand opera. 
 
 Lulli, too, introduced the overture into French 
 opera; indeed, he was the inventor of the elaborate 
 triple form of it, which was afterwards adopted and 
 altered by Scarlatti for the Italian opera of his 
 time. 
 
 Some say that Rameau, the next great writer of 
 French opera, introduced airs into that school. 
 His first opera came out in France when Scarlatti 
 was lately dead, and Scarlatti's followers were in 
 the thick of their formal airs. Some breath of 
 this melodious influence may have come over to 
 the neighbouring country, but the excessive for- 
 malism never seems to have been adopted in 
 France. The Italian works themselves of that 
 kind were not brought into France until the 
 
112 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 middle of the eighteenth century, when Rameau 
 had nearly finished his course, and when a new 
 influence from another quarter was about to appear 
 in France. 
 
 In England, three years before Cam- 
 opfrain the t>ert produced in Paris his imitation of 
 Italian ^j^g Florentines, there was an opera 
 
 manner. , , . , . i , t 
 
 produced with music throughout. It 
 
 was a curious incident in many ways. To begin 
 with, it was the composition of five different men, 
 each taking different sections of the play. Next, 
 it was performed in a theatre licensed for that 
 purpose by the Protector, Oliver Cromwell ; and 
 further, one of the characters was taken by Mrs 
 Colman, who was thus the first woman who ever 
 performed on the English stage. These latter 
 facts are a strange commentary on the usual idea 
 that we have nowadays of the feelings in those 
 times. 
 
 This work was in imitation of the Florentine 
 works, but, although this was the first long work 
 of that kind, fragmentary work had been done 
 before in England. For some years there had 
 been music written "in the Italian manner" as 
 they called it, — that is, it was written in recitative, 
 with a slight accompaniment. For many years 
 also there had been music sung and played in the 
 dramas. Masques too were gorgeous spectacles 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 113 
 
 with music, dancing and singing. Bacon's account 
 of what a masque should be, quaintly expresses 
 the great prominence that should be given to 
 music, even showing that there was musical 
 speech after the fashion of recitative. For he 
 says, "Acting in song, especially in Dialogue, hath 
 an extreme good grace, . . . and the voices of 
 the Dialogue should be strong and manly, and the 
 ditty high and tragical, not nice and dainty. 
 Several quires, placed one over against another 
 and taking the voice (or part) by Catches, anthem- 
 wise, give great pleasure." So Bacon knew the 
 value of actors singing their speech, and about the 
 good effect of a chorus on the stage, although he 
 lived in the height of the madrigal age in England 
 and fifty years before the first opera was done in 
 England. 
 
 This Commonwealth opera in the Italian style 
 was followed, after the Restoration, by one in 
 the same style by Locke, and one by Parcel 1. 
 Purcell's opera has speaking recitative and 
 accompanied recitative, with solos, duets and 
 chorus. When we think that this work was con- 
 temporary with Scarlatti's first opera, and that 
 Purcell, in his imitation of the best principles of 
 Italian music, was able to put forth the originality 
 of his own English rhythmic ideas, we cannot help 
 feeling how greatly English opera might have 
 H 
 
114 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 developed if it had been allowed its course. But 
 the leading poet and dramatist of the day, Dryden, 
 put his foot on the new growth. The same stilted 
 feeling that, in poetry, saddened the joy of the 
 English nightingale, produced the dictum that 
 music is unnatural on the stage for the words of 
 any character but lunatics, spirits and witches. 
 Unnatural ? of course it is, to a certain extent ; but 
 not more so than acting on the boards in any 
 form. We might just as well refuse to allow act- 
 ing as an art because we cannot make the daisies 
 grow on the stage. Nevertheless, so it was decreed 
 in those days ; and all Purcell's after works for the 
 stage were but episodes in the dramas to which 
 they belonged, — beautiful and dramatic in effect 
 though they were, individually. 
 
 Queen Anne liked Purcell's music, but when the 
 Georges came, English music fell into the back- 
 ground everywhere, save in the churches and 
 cathedrals and in the glee-clubs. The Italian 
 opera-house flourished, with Italian singers and 
 with the compositions of Italians in the florid, 
 formal style that had come to be practised in Italy 
 from Scarlatti's time. When the giant Handel 
 came over to us, he gave strength to the character 
 even of such formalities. Arne, the Englishman, 
 wrote a few operas in this style and gave a grace 
 of his own to them. 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 115 
 
 To jjo back in time as^ain, the Flor- , ,. 
 
 ^ ^ * Italian 
 
 entine opera went experimentally to opera in 
 Germany soon after its institution, and (^ermany. 
 before it came to France and England ; but it was 
 the end of the seventeenth century before the real 
 German opera began, with Theile, Keiser and, 
 soon, Handel as a young man with his first opera. 
 These were of different kind to the Italian, and 
 more must be said of them presently. But with 
 the rise of this German school there came great 
 interchange between that country and Italy in the 
 matter of music. Germans went to study in Italy 
 and produced works in the Italian style, while 
 theatres for Italian operas were kept open in Ger- 
 many, where works by Italians as well as by 
 Germans were performed by Italian singers. 
 Handel was one of those who went to Italy, mak- 
 ing his mark there in the formal style, which he 
 carried with him to London. 
 
 Aboutthe time that Handel, almost ^, , 
 
 Gluck and 
 an old man, had written his last operatic for- 
 
 opera, and was turning towards the '"^^ ^^^*^' 
 
 new line of oratorio, another German, a young 
 
 man who had been working, like Handel, at Italian 
 
 opera at home as well as in Italy, was beginning 
 
 a new course. This was Gluck. He had begun 
 
 to realise the wearisome formalism of the operas 
 
 of that day, and after years of effort and writing 
 
ii6 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 in the style which he had learnt to hate, he found 
 opportunities to produce works written on better 
 principles. These were not done in Italy, but in 
 Vienna and afterwards in Paris. Whether or not 
 Gluck knew of the principles of the Florentine 
 amateurs of 150 years before, he gave expression 
 to the same, both by his words and by his works — 
 that the drama is of first importance, and should be 
 the foundation of all design in the music, and that 
 the music, allied to the drama, should, by every 
 possible means, add to the expression of the words. 
 The words that Gluck has written show that 
 the formalism he objected to, had reached a point 
 far beyond anything that we of these later genera- 
 tions can ever have experienced, notwithstanding 
 all that has been written of the faults of modern 
 opera. He shows that, by the extreme develop- 
 ment of the song-forms begun by Scarlatti, opera 
 had become the opportunity for the "airs and 
 graces " of the singers rather than for the gracious 
 airs of the music, and that poetic intention was far 
 from the hearts of the composers. 
 
 ^, , , By his principles Gluck e^ave a 
 
 Gluck and j r r & 
 
 poetical mean- new colour to the very first bars 
 ^^^' of the opera, for he gave a poetical 
 
 motive even to the overture. We know that 
 the highest effect of music upon us, higher than 
 the mere ear-tickling, and higher even than the 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 117 
 
 mere intellectual effect of a work of art, is that 
 it touches our emotional nature. It makes us feel 
 the particular emotion which belongs to the music. 
 We feel happy or sorry, with all the many degrees 
 or varieties of feeling that humanity is subject 
 to. Gluck applied this to the overture as well 
 as to the body of the opera. The aim of the 
 overture must be, he said, to put the audience 
 into the emotion which belongs to the play, 
 so that when the play is set before them 
 they may be ready prepared to sympathise with 
 the play itself, as it is carried on with its music. 
 
 In that announcement Gluck strikes the keynote 
 of the whole of poetical meaning in music. It is not, 
 as some have tried to prove, that music is to draw 
 a picture in our minds, or to suggest to us a ring 
 or a sword, a bad man or a good woman, or even 
 an army or a moonlight night ; though sometimes, 
 if the music has been associated with those ideas 
 in our memory, its repetition will bring the picture 
 before our mind's eye. Music will not tell us a 
 fact ; but music will produce a feeling in us. When 
 we see the action, or hear the words that have 
 roused an emotion in the composer's mind, and 
 his music along with it, we also feel the emotion 
 with it. The music plays upon our human sym- 
 pathy, and we feel the nobleness of the good deed, 
 or the horror of the bad deed, far more than we 
 
ii8 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 should without the music. Music intensifies and 
 points the feeling that may be hidden in the poetry. 
 All this is found in the great principles which the 
 Florentines only partially revived. Gluck carried 
 it out far more deeply, for he used resources 
 of music that were denied to the Florentines. 
 
 Orfeo was the first work that Gluck finished 
 according to these principles. Now, many of those 
 in England who heard this of late years noticed 
 some quality in it which, for want of a better name, 
 they called " old-world." This comes from no 
 want of poetry or dramatic power in the principles 
 of Gluck's art, but from deficiency in the material 
 out of which he had to make his work. One 
 thing that causes the old-world or old-fashioned 
 qualities is the smallness of the orchestra in com- 
 parison with what we are accustomed to nowa- 
 days. Another cause is that Gluck was, as many 
 wise men have said, "no contrapuntist." The 
 meaning of that expression is that he did not 
 use, or know how to use, the old-fashioned part- 
 writing of the madrigals in which the different 
 voices "fly" one after another in various imitative 
 ways. Neither did he know the modern way of 
 treating parts, which is a sort of combined counter- 
 point and harmony, for he lived before Mozart. 
 Therefore he was reduced to treating his chorus 
 in the only other way known at the time, namely, 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 119 
 
 like a hymn tune, with every part moving note 
 agaifist note of the other parts. Thus he could 
 not get the full advantage he otherwise might 
 from the choruses, grand though they are in many 
 ways. 
 
 Those who have heard Orfeo must have felt 
 how the music enhanced the poetic and dramatic 
 ideas ; how the short prelude to the Furies' scene 
 seemed, with its ever-changing keys, to give the 
 feeling that the Furies were expecting something 
 and watching against it, and how the music of 
 their chorus and dance gave a fierceness to the 
 weird figures which their motions could only show 
 in part. Then when Orpheus entered, how there 
 was a dignified pleading in the strains which he 
 sang, that added to the pleading of his words, and 
 how the flowing length of phrase in his part con- 
 trasted with the curtness of the repeated No ! of 
 the Furies. Another contrast, musical as well as 
 poetical and scenic, was the sudden change from 
 this scene to that of the Elysian Fields. The 
 minuet tune (a lineal descendant of Lulli's French 
 court ballets) in its serene beauty explains the sunny 
 peacefulness of the woodland. Sweeter still is the 
 even and long-drawn-out melody which enhances 
 the placid demeanour of Eurydice and her com- 
 panion spirits, and points the meaning of their 
 words : — 
 
120 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 Grazioso. «i»^«^ 
 
 E§=tS=^^§g=^|^^ 
 
 Far more human in its interest and more dramatic 
 (because more interesting) is Gluck's later work, 
 Iphigenia in Tauris. Therein is some of the 
 grandest of the recitative which he developed ; 
 it has, since his time, been considered a charac- 
 teristic of the French grand opera. It is distinct 
 in style from the Italian of Scarlatti's development, 
 but is full of action. 
 
 Towards the climax of the opera, after 
 Ghick and x i . • i 11 1 j 
 
 French Iphigenia has made her long and 
 
 declamatory ao-onised prayer to Diana that the god- 
 recitative. ^ ^ ^ , ^ ^ 
 
 dess will stifle her pity for the unknown 
 
 Greek, and put some ferocity in her, that she may 
 do her sacred duty as sacrificial priestess, the 
 attendant priestesses follow with a prayer to Diana, 
 that the blood they are going to shed may pro- 
 pitiate her. They are tearful, for they, like their 
 head priestess, are not sure of the justice of the 
 sacrifice. Theirs is a hymn-like strain, while 
 Iphigenia's impassioned appeal is a long move- 
 ment. Many musical phrases are in her song, but 
 all are bound together by the connection of the 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 121 
 
 keys, just as the verbal ideas are bound together 
 by one train of idea. 
 
 But after this comes action and much change of 
 thought, and it is therefore in recitative for a long 
 time. Iphigenia sinks exhausted with the violence 
 of her feelings. La force m abandonne I moment 
 douloureux I Now Orestes is brought forward to 
 be sacrificed. To him it is the happy end of all his 
 sufferings of remorse ; and when she hesitates to 
 strike, he urges her. Iphigenia blames his eager- 
 ness to die, while Orestes declares it is his duty to 
 die, and that she will be guilty of a crime if she 
 does not kill him. She wonders at this. All this 
 is not much more than conversation, and Gluck 
 has treated it in a declamatory style. If we speak 
 words, we find our voice rising and falling with the 
 value and accent of the words, and ceasing for a 
 longer or shorter time at the colons, full stops and 
 commas. The musical sounds that are allied to 
 this conversation do but increase the accents and 
 the risings and fallings of the voice, while the light 
 accompaniment pushes on and gives more accent. 
 With every change of phrase comes a change of 
 key, and with every full stop a musical cadence of 
 some sort. All this declamation, therefore, is 
 scarcely music ; it is one part only of music. But 
 when Orestes begins to say that Iphigenia's regrets 
 are a comfort to him, for no one ever sorrowed for 
 
122 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 him before, then a new treatment comes in. The 
 thought is one that is full of emotion, and the 
 emotion causes music to flow. The accents of the 
 words, though still to be regarded, are no longer of 
 the supreme importance. Another quality rises 
 up ; it is the emotion which is to be interpreted by 
 the music, and therefore Orestes' feeling pours out 
 in a stream of melody. There is an accent belong- 
 ing to the music now (as well as that of the words), 
 and the orchestra strengthens both the emotion 
 and the musical accent by its fulness. The strain 
 is not long, but the fact of its being chiefly in one 
 key strengthens the value of the idea. 
 
 Another cold, hymn-like strain from the priest- 
 esses brings back the thoughts of the audience to 
 the dread sacrifice, and Iphigenia cries out in her 
 horror. It is but a short phrase, with a chord or 
 two from the orchestra to support it. The 
 priestesses reply by urging her to the deed. Their 
 phrase is ifz tempo, for it is only in timed music 
 that a crowd of voices can sound without making 
 a confused noise. Now, a long, lingerir.g phrase 
 from the orchestra tells the feeling of her actions, 
 while Iphigenia hesitates in silence, but moving 
 slowly towards the altar, and at last takes up 
 the knife. Still hesitating, she cries that her 
 blood freezes in her, and that her arm trembles. 
 These words are with declamatory notes, the 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 123 
 
 orchestra shuddering beneath, while a few em- 
 phatic bass-notes urge on her accents. A word 
 comes from the chorus, in tempo, and while her 
 arm is uplifted, Orestes, calm and waiting for 
 relief at the hands of this priestess whom he knows 
 not, speaks of his sister Iphigenia, and how she 
 had died thus in Aulis. His few notes are quiet, 
 and the long-sustained notes of the orchestra con- 
 firm the calmness. His words open her eyes and 
 explain her strange unwillingness to do the duty 
 set before her. She knows now, as she did not 
 before, that it is her own brother whom she was 
 about to kill, and her fellow Greek women recog- 
 nise him to be their king, Orestes, the son of 
 Agamemnon. One needs to go back to Greek 
 feelings a little, in order to sympathise perfectly 
 with this situation. Common humanity and tender 
 womanliness would be enough to account for all 
 this emotion in our own days. But in those times 
 it needed the blood-relationship to account for the 
 sentiment of tenderness and the desire to save 
 life. 
 
 t 
 
 ;=1: 
 
 ^^==--=^f-%-=^%^'^ 
 
 Orestes. Ain-si tu pe ris en Au - li - cie 
 
 
124 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 Iphigenie. Mon fre - re 
 -N — P».- 
 
 --v^v- 
 
 ste 
 
 no-tre 
 
 Roi! 
 
 %% 
 
 f-f- 
 
 
 
 rt5 
 
 T-r 
 
 
 #^-^1- 
 ^^' 
 
 T 
 
 Thus it goes on throughout the opera. The most 
 emotional parts, wherein the characters dwell on 
 their feelings for some considerable time, are in 
 cantabile with every musical device and quality 
 that is possible, to point and increase the effect of 
 the emotion. Those parts, on the other hand, that 
 are less emotional or are only required to tell the 
 story, are declamatory and in recitative ; these have 
 more or less of accompaniment, and some distinct 
 phrases for the orchestra, especially at points where 
 there is action without words, and where there is 
 a fragment of emotion to be shown. These are the 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 125 
 
 main principles which have been kept up ever 
 since in French grand opera, though some varia- 
 tions, for better or for worse, have been made 
 by the differences of individual composers. 
 
 Gluck's improvements did not find 
 , . . T 1 • 1 • 1 r Improve- 
 
 their way mto Italy m his days, nor for jnents in 
 
 many years afterwards. But a ^reat Italian 
 
 '' '' ° operas. 
 
 deal of change was carried out in Italian 
 
 works by popular influence, and by the genius of 
 different composers. In Florentine times, as among 
 some modern imitators, it had been decreed that 
 opera must copy Greek models, and that therefore 
 it must have mythological subjects, and must be 
 tragic. Whether any of these three propositions 
 are true may be matter of doubt, nevertheless that 
 was the opinion in the early days of opera. But 
 historians have noticed that when opera began to 
 be popular, and was played in public theatres 
 instead of in the rich men's houses, the subjects 
 began to be a little more human, for Greek mytho- 
 logy was not interesting to the Italian populace. 
 Gradually homely stories were brought into opera, 
 
 first as short interludes between the 
 
 r y 11-1 , Comedy 
 
 acts of the mythological operas and co7nes into 
 
 afterwards as complete operas. In- opera. 
 
 stead of the troubles of Helen and Paris, or Orpheus 
 
 and Eurydice, the ordinary audience delighted in 
 
 stories of the everyday vexations and joys of their 
 
126 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 own time. To this feeling we owe the Italian 
 opera buff a. Pergolesi's La Sew a Padrona^ the 
 servant turned mistress, was one of the earliest of 
 these works ; it became popular all over Europe, 
 and was followed by many others. Among the 
 greatest were Mozart's Cosi Fan Tutti and Figaro ; 
 Cimarosa's // Matrimojtio Segreto ; Paisiello's 
 Barbiere ; and later, Rossini's setting of the same 
 play. All these had a great deal of recitativo secco 
 in them. Although this kind of recitative dated 
 from the Scarlatti time, its use in comic opera 
 must have made it lighter in style. The Naples 
 school of opera btffa used actual speech in the, so 
 to speak, prosaic parts of the dialogue, or for the 
 most comic situations. This habit must have 
 affected the comic opera in other Italian towns ; 
 for it used to be related by the English musician, 
 Charles Lucas, that, when he had to accompany 
 (on the pianoforte) the recitativo secco of Rossini's 
 Barbiere^ the Italian company, who were doing it 
 in London, sang never a note of the written 
 recitative. It seemed to be the custom that they 
 sang what they liked in this part of the recitative 
 provided only that they kept to the right accents ; 
 and the pianist had to play in the rests whatever 
 he could invent to correspond in harmony with 
 their impromptu notes. It was no more than 
 speech, or rather chattering, in musical sounds; 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 127 
 
 and it made no great difference whether they 
 sang their own or the composer's notes. 
 
 For the whole of the eighteenth century and 
 beginning of the nineteenth the action or dialogue 
 of Italian opera was chiefly in this speaking re- 
 citative, both in opera seria and buffa ; while 
 the more emotional parts of dialogue which 
 caused the meditations, or airs, were in ac- 
 companied recitative. The latter recitative was 
 very similar to that of the French grand 
 opera, such as that we have described from 
 Iphigeiiia. 
 
 Early in the eighteenth century, the 
 
 , , . 1 r 1 Airs with 
 
 airs began to be improved from the action, a^td 
 
 form in which Scarlatti left them. connected 
 
 together. 
 Jomelli cut the constant repetition of 
 
 the first part, and, in place of being entirely 
 
 meditative, they began gradually to enter into the 
 
 action. It was in the making oi finales that this 
 
 first came about. 
 
 Finales distinctly began in the opera buffa and 
 
 afterwards came into the opera seria. It took 
 
 nearly the whole of the century to develop the 
 
 form, from its beginning by Logroscino in Naples 
 
 through its development by Piccini in Paris, its 
 
 introduction into serious opera by Paisiello in 
 
 Italy, to its perfection by Mozart. Mozart was 
 
 one of those Germans who, like Handel and Gluck, 
 
128 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 studied with Italian works, and carried out their 
 own ideas for all countries. 
 
 The ordinary listener will go to an opera, will 
 hear and be interested in the play, or the music, 
 or both, while the art with which the work has 
 been constructed will be hidden from him. It is 
 in the o^trs. finale that the distinction between the 
 art that is in the drama with music and that of the 
 drama without, is most evident ; because it is in 
 the drama with music that is found the great 
 opportunity for gradual increase of effect by 
 gradually increasing the volume or importance of 
 sound. However much the writer of spoken 
 drama may increase the interest up to different 
 points in the play, and crowd his personages on 
 to the stage to help in the course of excitement 
 towards the end of an act, he cannot make more 
 than one person speak at the same time, for fear 
 of confusion — save only in a shout from a crowd. 
 But two people can combine in singing and cause 
 no confusion. Three, four, nay a whole crowd, can 
 equally well join in music, if only their separate 
 parts are so formed as to be capable of combining 
 in harmony. We can, therefore, realise the im- 
 mense power of accumulating up to a climax 
 that is in the hands of a musical composer, 
 if his story should be constructed so as to admit 
 of it. 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 129 
 
 About the middle of Mozart's Nozze ^. , . 
 
 rinaie in 
 
 di Figaro^ when the interest of the play Nozze di 
 has been increased by trios, duets, tigaro. 
 
 solos of various kinds and pages of recitativo secco 
 interspersed between them, at once linking them 
 and making variety, there begins one of these 
 chains of movements. There is both action and 
 feeling in the words throughout the chain. It 
 begins when the Count, as jealous as he is careless, 
 is giving vent to his anger and trying to break 
 open the door of his wife's room, where he believes 
 Cherubino to be hidden ; while the Countess, 
 conscious of her own innocence, yet fearing his 
 anger, is pleading with him. There has been 
 recitativo secco before, but these ideas bring in a 
 movement in form. The phrases are long and 
 rhythmic, though broken in one place by a frag- 
 ment of recitative. There is little change of key 
 in the opening movement. Twice a new key 
 enters, with a change of verbal idea, but with a 
 return of the Count's jealous thought the main key 
 returns. The door opens, Susanna appears 
 within, but alone. Her entry brings a new idea 
 and opportunity for a new movement in a related 
 key. She ridicules the Count's drawn sword : the 
 Countess is puzzled, the Count baffled at the 
 situation ; thus, being partly alike in their feelings, 
 the music which interprets them can be combined, 
 I 
 
130 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 and it is a short trio in rhythmic form. The 
 Count going into the room, and seeing that the 
 page boy is not there, has a sort of revulsion of 
 feehng, which wakens the latent affection he has 
 for his wife, and he entreats her pardon. This new 
 idea and the way it is received by the Countess 
 and Susanna is the poetical subject of another 
 movement. There are many sub-divisions in the 
 main verbal idea, which are partly action and 
 partly thought, and all bring out different little 
 musical ideas, while they are welded together by 
 the connection of key. Thus, while the Count is 
 looking about the room, there are declamatory 
 phrases from the two ladies; while the orchestra 
 carries on two busy phrases, {a) and {b) in the next 
 example. These phrases are constantly recurring, 
 with all manner of changes of their course and of 
 key, throughout the movement, and give a sense of 
 motion to the whole scene. 
 
 Allegro, 
 
 5 n,. ! I JJ zgWHzi - I I n 
 
 V- -j--\ — 1 — I — I — — I — 1 - fa- I m '»~d — ^-^^-♦-a 1 — f— 
 
 .etc.zz 
 
 («) 
 
 T''~-r 
 
 r — 
 T 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 131 
 
 When the Count comes back out of the room, 
 and has given vent to his astonishment at not find- 
 ing Cherubino, he breaks out with a pleading for 
 forgiveness. Here, then, is a new key, and a clear 
 musical phrase in the voice as well as in the band. 
 
 S£ 
 
 *5C 
 
 -w--^-ii 
 
 -^# 
 
 letc. 
 
 The bantering reply of the two ladies that he 
 deserves no pity is the rhythmic answer to his 
 musical phrase. The orchestra goes on with one 
 of its phrases, while question and answer are in the 
 voices. Then the Countess returns with the music 
 of the Count's entreaty, but her words are a re- 
 minder of the ugly epithets he had applied to her 
 a few minutes before. He entreats again with the 
 same phrase but in a new key, and is answered 
 with a new musical idea, in which voice and band 
 take part, and a new turn is given to the bantering 
 words. 
 
 
132 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 The Count entreats again with the same phrase 
 
 in a new key, and has the same answer returned to 
 
 him in his own key. But Susanna now joins his 
 
 entreaties, and their fragmentary words are linked 
 
 together by the undercurrent of the orchestra's 
 
 phrase (p. 130 <^). Now the Countess complains 
 
 how he has neglected her, and this emotion 
 
 comes forth in a long musical phrase, somewhat 
 
 like that of the Count, and, like his, accompanied 
 
 with the orchestral phrase (p. 130 d). It is in a 
 
 different key from that of the two who sang last, 
 
 and presently they two join with her in music which 
 
 grows out of her phrase and the orchestral phrase. 
 
 The close of this forms a kind of half-way rest for 
 
 the movement. Then a recurrence of the Count's 
 
 doubts makes a slight break in the constant flow 
 
 of the rhythm. He questions again on the subject 
 
 of the page-boy, and about that ever-recurring 
 
 source of stage woes, a letter which he has found, 
 
 and, as is usual on the stage, cannot quite decipher, 
 
 for they are such bad readers on the stage. The 
 
 ladies, according to a time-honoured practice in 
 
 comedies, prevaricate, and so lay the seeds of 
 
 future complications. " Figaro wrote the letter, of 
 
 course," and they return to their old expression, 
 
 " You merit no forgiveness if you will not forgive," 
 
 and so on. Very naturally, therefore, some of the 
 
 old musical phrases come again, though in a new 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 133 
 
 key. The Count, too, will be satisfied if only his 
 wife will love him again ; and one of her musical 
 phrases therefore comes also naturally into his 
 mouth. Still with the busy undercurrent of the 
 band and with the Countess's expression of plea- 
 sure at this turn, we get back to the main key of 
 the movement. When in this key, Susanna has 
 another mocking word, with one of her old phrases ; 
 the Count makes more ado, while the Countess 
 still feels suspicion of his truth ; but they are fain 
 to join in a sort of doubtful joy at the apparent 
 settlement of affairs. Here, then, is the full close 
 of the movement in its main key, with an ampler 
 use of the same music which brought in the half- 
 way rest. 
 
 Figaro's entry, with talk of his wedding, changes 
 the movement ; new ideas come in and with them 
 a new connected key. A change of manner, 
 though with the same tempo, is brought in with the 
 Count's resolve to question him. The production 
 of the letter is the beginning of the Count's 
 questioning and changes the movement again with 
 a new related key. It is a busy little movement, 
 Figaro refusing to own the inconvenient letter, 
 while the ladies try to torment him into doing so. 
 Immediately enters Antonio the gardener with a 
 fresh complication involving another change of 
 movement and key. Antonio has a damaged pot of 
 
134 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 flowers to show and a long story to tell, how he 
 saw a man jump out of the window and run off. 
 Here is plenty of animation ; the gardener prosing 
 on, interrupted with questions from the Count and 
 interjections from the others, — the two ladies 
 appealing to Figaro's ingenuity to make excuses, 
 which he does freely. With the changes of idea 
 there is much change of key, but the beginning 
 and ending are in the same. It is rapid declama- 
 tion with a good deal of pattering effect in the 
 accompaniment. There is a pretty phrase brought 
 in occasionally at the covert allusions to Cheru- 
 bino, and there is much interesting contrast of the 
 voices as they sometimes answer one another 
 singly, and sometimes join, two, three or more. 
 
 Yet another complication brings change of move- 
 ment and key. The gardener having gone away, 
 the Count acknowledges himself still puzzled, and 
 the others are vexed though not hopeless. All 
 this is more of a sentiment than the foregoing, 
 therefore it brings more flowing music. But 
 the entry of Marcellina, Basilio and Bartolo with 
 more evil tales and fault-finding, brings in another 
 movement and key, which with gradually increas- 
 ing time brings the act to its end. The contrast 
 between the two sets, Susanna, the Countess and 
 Figaro on the one hand, and the three new-comers 
 with the Count on the other, is kept up to the end. 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 135 
 
 The musical phrases of each set are different and 
 answer one another at closer and yet closer intervals 
 till they all sing together at the climax. Even 
 when going on at the same moment there is dis- 
 tinction between the phrases belonging to each 
 set. There is very little modulation in the whole 
 of this final movement of the chain ; and the long 
 lasting of the one key adds to the sensation that 
 it is a closing movement. Continually there are 
 fresh ideas brought in with the different aspects of 
 the complications. The rapid succession of these 
 fresh ideas, the many accessions of time, and the 
 ever-increasing apposition of the phrases make a 
 constant building-up of the excitement in the music 
 which fits with and adds to the ever-increasing 
 excitement in the verbal ideas up to the end of 
 the act, — the dramatic climax of the first half of 
 the story. This is the end of the first finale. 
 
 A comedy is not always comic, 
 111 11 Opera 
 
 though there are generally some comic comedy in 
 
 parts in it, and a happy ending. France. 
 
 Similarly, an opera buffa is not always comic ; it 
 is, in fact, a comedy, with all the characteristics 
 that a comedy should have, and all possible assist- 
 ance from music. 
 
 One characteristic of the Italian opera buffa, or 
 musical comedy, has similar developments in the 
 opera of other countries, namely, the light, speech- 
 
136 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 like dialogue. In other countries than Italy, it 
 is even lighter than recitativo secco^ for it is 
 actual speech. For instance, in the French opera 
 coinique, which began long before Gluck and 
 developed greatly after his time, the most prosaic 
 or conversational parts of the dialogue are spoken, 
 while more emotional parts, whether action or 
 meditation, are set in accompanied recitative with 
 airs and concerted pieces ; th.Q finale having music 
 throughout, which works up through conversa- 
 tion, story and utterances of feeling towards the 
 climax. 
 
 In England this kind had its initial 
 ' ^ ' beginning with Bishop, who improved 
 the usual ballad-opera of his time by setting some 
 of his dialogue as concerted pieces, thus giving 
 musical character to what had hitherto been 
 entirely spoken. The form was much developed 
 afterwards, and was carried to its perfection in the 
 fourth and fifth decades of the nineteenth century 
 by John Barnett, Wallace, Balfe and Macfarren. 
 Many of the operas of these composers had, like 
 those of the French opera comique^ some spoken 
 dialogue, while the most interesting parts were set 
 with music, in accompanied recitative, airs, con- 
 certed pieces d^nd finales. 
 
 And in ^^ Germany much beautiful work of 
 
 Germany. ^his kind has been done. Beginning 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 137 
 
 with the days of Theile, Keiser and Handel's 
 youth, a long line of German opera or Singspiel, as 
 they called it, gradually developed into the same 
 form as the French opera coniique. Spoken words 
 were in the least interesting parts ; and where 
 emotion was present, there came accompanied 
 recitative, cantabile airs, duets, trios, etc., and 
 choruses — singly or in chains like the Mozart 
 finale just now described. 
 
 It is hard to say whether Beethoven's Fidelio or 
 Weber's Der Freyschiitz be the finer example of 
 this kind. In England we have generally heard 
 these two works with a light recitative for those 
 parts which the German composers intended to be 
 spoken. This was from the Italian habit for the 
 same kind of passage, and was the result of their 
 being performed by an Italian company at an 
 Italian opera-house. 
 
 In both these works the music agrees with the 
 situation in a marvellous way. In Fidelio^ for 
 instance, the simplicity of the music belonging to 
 the chatter of the two young folk over their work, 
 the ballad of the girl and the early quartet in 
 canon, agrees with the simple emotions that are in 
 the hearts of the four characters. As the plot 
 gathers in intensity, the musical material gathers 
 force also, while the words allied with the music 
 are less and less concerned with meditation, more 
 
138 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 and more part of the action of the story. There is 
 the duet between the governor and the jailer, full 
 of argument, persuasion and objection, wherein the 
 music is full of change of key and of idea, just 
 hung together in form by the beginning and ending 
 in the same key. There is the soliloquy following 
 when Leonora, her heart wrung with anxiety and 
 fear for the terrible threats she has just heard 
 against her husband's life, pours out her feelings in 
 accompanied recitative of declamatory and canta- 
 bile phrases, varying with every shade of the 
 emotion which is running through her, and then 
 yields to prayer and hopefulness — two emotions 
 which bear her onward, the music interpreting her 
 feelings as the words leave her lips. T^xq finale of 
 this act, too, piles on musical effects and interest 
 with the growing eagerness and anxiety of Leonora 
 in her search for Florestan. All of these songs are 
 truly of the kind allowed by the old Greek writer 
 quoted before, " songs which do not stand between 
 the pauses or stops of the action, but enter into the 
 action itself." 
 
 The beginning of the second act is a sort of rest 
 in the excitement, for the story begins anew from 
 another point of view — the gloom of the prison 
 and the misery of the prisoner. The music then 
 is simpler in form, though strongly emotional. 
 Accompanied recitative, with all the intensity of 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 139 
 
 feeling that can be given to it by expressive 
 phrases and declamation in the voice part, and by- 
 strong or delicate orchestral effects and expressive 
 passages of all kinds in the accompaniment both 
 with and beside the vocal phrases — this all gives 
 vent to the changeful ideas of the words that 
 Florestan utters in his loneliness. He, too, has a 
 long air in his soliloquy, natural enough under the 
 circumstances, for he has nothing to cheer him but 
 memory, and it is natural he should dream of his 
 loved wife, and almost believe he sees her there, 
 releasing him. An indwelling emotion it is, that 
 pours out in long phrases, with a long, lasting key. 
 Nothing in music gives such a sensation of fixed- 
 ness, of dwelling or remaining thoughts as a long 
 course in one key. Many would put this aside as 
 a mere technicality ; yet, in a place like this, it has 
 its emotional effect very strongly, even upon those 
 who may be ignorant of its existence. It sounds, 
 whether we realise it or not. 
 
 The quartet in the prison is at once the most 
 emotional and full of action of all the movements 
 of the opera, and it is the one in which Beethoven 
 has most shown the power of key-form in second- 
 ing the emotional meaning of the words. The 
 movement is a most perfect sonata. Every verbal 
 idea and every little action, with its own musical 
 idea and key, takes a place in the musical form 
 
140 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 relative to its own value as an idea, and thus has 
 its emotional meaning enhanced by its place rela- 
 tive to other ideas. It is not merely by an excited 
 manner of music that excitement of expression 
 can be kept up. Motion or change of key is a 
 fertile source of excitement. In this movement, 
 the primary verbal idea of the attempted murder 
 holds the whole scene together as a group of ideas, 
 and not a heterogeneous heap. Therefore, too, 
 the keys are made to succeed one another, to last, 
 and to be related in such a way as to connect 
 them in one as a group of connected keys. Interest 
 is worked up by this means, along with the grow- 
 ing excitement of the scene, till it culminates with 
 the sound of the royal emissary's trumpet outside. 
 This is a signal for cessation of anxiety and of 
 wrong-doing, a signal for peace, and for rest and 
 quietness in the music. Therefore, there is no 
 more modulation ; the music returns home to its 
 main key, and remains there for the whole of the 
 long coda of the movement.^ 
 
 Weber applied to the overture this per- 
 
 Webers r ^ r • • i 
 
 opera over- fection of key-form m expressmg the 
 
 ture. emotions belonging to verbal ideas. 
 
 The plan of his overture to Der FreyschiitZy for 
 
 instance, was a development of that of Gluck's 
 
 1 A fuller analysis of the movements in Fidelia will be found in 
 the present author's Form or Design in Vocal Music. 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 141 
 
 overture. To prepare the audience and set them 
 in the right emotional key, so to speak, that they 
 might the readier enter into the feelings that the 
 composer wished them to have when the drama 
 was put before them — this was his motive. There- 
 fore he set before them subjects from the opera in 
 their due relative position, that they might suggest 
 corresponding emotions, also in due relative pro- 
 portion. Weber, too, made more variety of 
 movement in the soliloquies that he had in his 
 dramas. Expressive as the arias of the best com- 
 posers were, and far more elastic in nature than the 
 fixed forms of Scarlatti and his successors, their form 
 was still not adapted for every poem. Weber broke 
 the usual succession of movements in his arias, and 
 made an alternation of movement and recitative that 
 varied according to the form of the succession of 
 ideas in each individual soliloquy. In this way he 
 brought them to be very like the cantatas of Purcell. 
 
 It was Rossini who first, in Italy, 
 revived Monteverde's habit of accom- arand opera 
 panying with the full band all through "'^'^^^ ^^ 
 
 the opera. He gave up the use of the 
 harpsichord or pianoforte which had been before 
 with the recitativo secco for a distinct part of the 
 dialogue. This was in his opera Otello in the early 
 part of the nineteenth century. The form of opera, 
 therefore, became in Italy nearly the same as the 
 
142 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 grand opera in France, though without the ballet, 
 
 which has always belonged to the French grand 
 
 opera. 
 
 . ,, ^ Soon after Rossini's Otello, the con- 
 Andto Ger- ' 
 
 many and tinuous music, with band accompani- 
 ng an . j^^j^^^ went into German opera with 
 Spohr's Jessonda, and a few years later into English 
 opera, with John Barnett's Fair Rosamond. 
 
 Two types of operas, therefore, have 
 
 Opera , . ,, r i • i 
 
 follows two gone about into all parts of the musical 
 
 ^yP^^- world. There was the French grand 
 
 opera style (but without the ballet when written 
 out of France), a development of the ideal left by 
 Gluck, with every addition of musical material 
 that the genius or invention of successive com- 
 posers could put into it ; and there was the Italian 
 opera buffa, lightened in some countries and made 
 more dignified in others, but, in all, keeping the 
 conversational character of a great part of the 
 dialogue. It is in the hands of the composer 
 and of the librettist to make these opera forms 
 dramatic or the reverse, interesting or uninter- 
 esting. Some operas will interest some hearers, 
 while others will interest other hearers, according 
 to their tastes ; but if an opera interest no one, 
 we may call it uninteresting and therefore 
 undramatic. 
 
 Many operas of various kinds have been pro- 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 143 
 
 duced in all countries since the days of Rossini's 
 Otello which have all the necessary parts to make 
 them interesting on the stage : Pacini's Saffo, for 
 instance, and Verdi's // Trovatore, in the pure 
 Italian school, Rossini's Giiillauvie Tell in the 
 French, Der Freyschut::^ for the German ; and for 
 the English, among others, Macfarren's She stoops 
 to Conquer^ Sullivan's Ivanhoe^ and the delicate 
 works of Goring Thomas. But many have also 
 been produced in all the nineteenth century, 
 especially in the Italian and German schools, 
 which have little to interest an audience in the 
 story which is presented before them. A certain 
 beauty in the music no doubt there was, — but 
 music will not make a story, much as it will do 
 to enhance and show up the beauty of one. 
 Musicians cannot but be grateful to Wagner for his 
 many writings in reminder of the great operatic 
 principle that the story is the chief part or founda- 
 tion of a drama, whether with music or without. 
 
 Given a good story, — that is, a story ^^. 
 
 Object of 
 which can be presented clearly by music in an 
 
 stage means, — and it is the musician's opera. 
 
 business to strengthen the impression upon the 
 
 audience by every method that is in his power. 
 
 Now the stage means of presenting a story are 
 
 actions and words, — words spoken or sung. The 
 
 musician, as we have seen, helps in two ways, — by 
 
144 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 arranging the declamation or effective delivery of 
 the words whereby they can be made far more 
 impressive than by simple speech, however skilful 
 the elocution may be, and by interpreting the 
 emotion of the characters. The history of opera 
 is, after all, a continual struggle for mastery 
 between these two ways. Caccini and Peri made 
 the opera all declamation, believing that it was 
 the only kind of music possible for a singer while 
 acting; and Monteverde put some expression of 
 emotion into the accompaniment. After that, the 
 expression of emotion found excessive vent in 
 formal and redundant airs, as formal and redun- 
 dant as were the emotions of early novels. Then 
 came Gluck, Mozart and the best of the writers 
 after them, and struck the balance between the 
 two ways by finding that it was possible for an 
 actor to sing cantabile without standing stock-still, 
 — that acting did not mean ceasing to sing, nor 
 did singing mean ceasing to act, — that dialogue 
 might be full of emotion, and music of a perfect 
 kind full of action. 
 
 After a time the emotional parts again over- 
 powered the declamatory effects in the hands of 
 weak writers, and singers began to stand still 
 again on the stage ; though this weakness never 
 equalled the intense formalism of the days of 
 Hasse, before Gluck and Mozart came up. It was 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 145 
 
 rather after the kind of some of the modern novels 
 wherein there is more philosophy and analysis of 
 character than of story. It was then that Wagner 
 cut the Gordian knot in his later works by giving 
 declamatory work only to the voices throughout 
 the play, and relegating the expression of emotion, 
 throughout the play, to the accompaniment solely, 
 — using therefore the principle of the Florentine 
 writers with additional means of orchestration. 
 
 The one great objection to this lateral division 
 of music is that it uses only a part of the resources 
 of music ; it uses, as it were, the outer surface of 
 the art, and not the innate principle of it. In the 
 days when it was supposed that women ought not 
 to know much about the anatomy of their bodies 
 it was averred that "beauty is but skin-deep." 
 Nowadays we all know that the fairest lady in the 
 land would be without beauty if she were without 
 a perfect skeleton and well-knit muscles. So it is 
 with music. Its beauty is far more than "skin- 
 deep." There is the principle underlying music 
 which the constant use of declamatory music 
 prevents in its necessarily changing keys ; and 
 that is the principle of resting and recurring keys. 
 It is a principle that has grown very gradually 
 into music, side by side with the growth of the 
 expression of emotion in music. Only dimly 
 shadowed in madrigals and in popular music of 
 K 
 
146 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 the same day. it was entirely absent from the 
 early declamatory dramas. It was evident in the 
 Purcell and Handel examples that we have looked 
 at in a previous chapter, and more elaborately 
 developed in the Gluck, Mozart and Beethoven 
 examples. Wherever cantabile music and rhyth- 
 mic form appear, there will be key-form to help ; 
 and these three qualities unite in music which is 
 to express feeling. It is in the use of this kind of 
 music, in conjunction with the declamatory (decla- 
 matory, be it remembered, in its three manners, 
 unaccompanied^ with band, and in tifue), that the 
 greatest amount of variety and contrast can be 
 got ; and all this, grouped in proportionate masses 
 of either kind, is the material of the music of a 
 good opera. 
 
 A modern Look at Verdi's Otello ; what a story it 
 opera. jg for showing on the stage ! How the 
 
 story is emphasised by the music ! Here is variety 
 enough, and massing of the different kinds of 
 music, with relief and contrast. There is the 
 wonderful piece of declamation by which the 
 opera makes lago confess his real character to 
 the audience. This is a conciser mode than the 
 course of actions and conversations with other 
 persons by which he is gradually shown in Shake- 
 speare ; for an opera libretto requires the ideas to 
 be more concise and massed together in their 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 147 
 
 kinds than a spoken drama, so that it may yield 
 better to the expression by music. This Mephis- 
 tophelian Credo, as it is called, with its ever-chang- 
 ing ideas, with force rather than with feeling, is 
 of the most emphatic kind of declamation. It is 
 oratorical, rather than mere speech. The music 
 corresponds with this by its ever-changing course 
 of keys, its absence of phrase- rhythm, and an 
 alternation of orchestral phrases with or between 
 the vocal phrases. It has been introduced by mere 
 conversational words between lago and Cassio, 
 where there is some actual recitativo parlante of 
 the old kind, as well as recitative of the accom- 
 panied kind. After the so-called Credo ^ lago's first 
 temptation of Othello begins almost as conversa- 
 tion, and the phrases are light and fragmentary, 
 answered in the same kind in the orchestra ; but 
 gradually, as the words become more full of emo- 
 tion, the phrases of music lengthen. For instance, 
 when the first germ of jealousy comes into Othello's 
 mind and he cries, " By heaven, he echoes me, as 
 if there were some monster in his thought, too 
 hideous to be shown," it is with a long complete 
 phrase. The same is the case when lago gives his 
 fearsome hint to Othello to " beware of jealousy." 
 All this is with rapidly changing keys. A contrast 
 follows in the ballad strains of the chorus of women 
 and children and sailors who are about Desdemona 
 
148 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 with their flowers and gifts — the music simple in 
 form, smooth in rhythm and lasting in key. 
 
 In the third act, wherein Othello accuses Desde- 
 mona of unfaithfulness, the dialogue is strongly 
 emotional yet with some question and answer. 
 These rapid questions and answers are, in short, 
 fragmentary declamation, while the previous greet- 
 ing between the two, with Desdemona's affectionate 
 yearning and Othello's cutting sarcasms, is in rhyth- 
 mic phrases of connected key. Desdemona's declara- 
 tion of her innocence is also rhythmic and sustained 
 in key. Towards the end of the same act many 
 of the performers are combined, with a culmination 
 of excitement, in a long succession of movements 
 (after the fashion of the Mozart finale already 
 described), in which keys remain for some time. 
 The utter loneliness of Othello after all the people 
 have left him but lago, finds vent in a few short 
 phrases ; he is beyond even the expression of 
 emotion. It is convulsion and then silence. Silence 
 — with the terrible contrast of the swooning body 
 of Othello stretched at the feet of his tempter, 
 while the outside world are shouting in ecstasy at 
 his political triumphs. 
 
 The next act is another contrast. It begins with 
 Desdemona and Emilia alone. Sorrowful and 
 fearful, Desdemona is quiet, for she knows her 
 innocence. There is therefore time for emotion 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 
 
 149 
 
 to have full play in her mind ; and while a few 
 conversational words are in speaking recitative, 
 the deep emotions pour forth in song. Her music 
 is cantabile of the most expressive kind, simple in 
 key-form and in clearest rhythm. Here is the 
 beginning of her ballad of the willow. 
 
 Andante mosso. 
 
 VPP Pian - gea . 
 
 do nel-l'er - ma 
 
 :t==t: 
 
 ■jKumi 
 
 ■.z^igz^z^: 
 
 IZJZl 
 
 njz^etc. 
 
 lau - da, Pian -gea la me . . . sta 
 (By special perjnisston of Messrs G. Ricordi&^Co., 266 Regent Sif-eet, London. ) 
 
 The part 
 
 In all this long course of variety, con- 
 trast and relief, the orchestra does not played by the 
 play an independent part, but is woven ^^^ ^^^ ^'^' 
 into the music of the characters, now preceding, 
 now answering, now supporting the strains of the 
 voices and in some cases interpreting the sentiment 
 while the voices recite words on a repeated note. 
 There is even the extreme variety of a passage in 
 pantomime — not thtjoke which we are accustomed 
 to think of in England as pantomime, but a solemn 
 kind in which Othello shows his intense feelings, 
 without a word, by his actions in the darkened 
 chamber of Desdemona, while the orchestra inter- 
 
ISO MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 prets and adds to the impression given by his 
 actions. Here, too, is the beauty of association ; for, 
 at the moment when he kisses his sleeping wife 
 before murdering her (executing, as he deems it), a 
 short phrase is quoted from the long strain of the 
 love-duet which comes early in the opera. The 
 whole strain comes later when Othello kills him- 
 self, while kissing Desdemona's dead face, crying, 
 " I kiss'd thee, ere I kill'd thee. No way but this." 
 The story is ^S^i" ^^^ again, it must be said, the 
 the chief. interest of an opera depends upon the 
 interest of the story, and whether it will show well 
 upon the stage. This does not mean that there is 
 to be no interest found in the music, nor in the 
 acting, the scenery, the dresses, the singing and 
 the orchestra. 
 
 It means that the story is the suggestion, or 
 origin of all the interest that is to be found in 
 every one of the other parts which make the 
 whole ; and each part, in its own way, intensifies, 
 increases, clears or explains the interest of the 
 story. 
 
 If the scenery be good, it points the locality and 
 surroundings of the story ; and therefore the scene 
 painter and the carpenter use every art and device 
 in their power to make suggestive pictures and 
 fittings among which the characters of the story 
 are to move about. Even the dresses and the 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 151 
 
 marshalling of the characters help in the general 
 effect, as well as to make us distinguish between 
 the king and the peasant, or between an army and 
 a crowd ; therefore that part is carried out as well 
 as possible. 
 
 If the enunciation of the words and the declama- 
 tion of the sentences be good, it makes the audi- 
 ence hear and understand the words, and with them 
 the chief course of the story. There are a few 
 people who think that acting means nothing but 
 running about the stage and screaming ; yet there 
 is much to be done in a quiet way. For a look 
 may be worth much, and a gesture, a tone of 
 voice, even a quiver in the voice may speak 
 volumes. 
 
 If the music be good, in harmony, melody and 
 orchestration, in rhythm of all its varieties and in 
 design — good, that is to say, in all its parts — it 
 strengthens the sentiments that belong to the 
 situations and words, as well as strengthens the 
 accents of the words, and thus it adds to the 
 whole spiritual effect of the story. If the singing 
 and playing be good, it enables the audience to 
 hear what the music is intended to show. 
 
 The better all these parts of a musical drama, 
 the better will be the effect of the story upon the 
 audience. They must all be of the best, and be 
 all of the best that is appropriate. The scene- 
 
152 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 painter must not be forbidden to paint a beautiful 
 picture in perfect form or design of light and shade, 
 colour or drawing, nor be restricted to the con- 
 ventional decorative style ; neither must the actor- 
 singer be forbidden to use an expressive tone of 
 voice or gesture, nor to sing an expressive cantabilc 
 phrase or two ; the stage manager must not be 
 forbidden to bring a mass of people on the stage 
 shouting at the tops of their voices. 
 
 None of these sharers in the work being for- 
 bidden to use the best of their capabilities, neither 
 must the composer be restricted to the convention- 
 alities of what Rubinstein called the decorative 
 style of music — an unending fantasia in time. 
 
 ^ , Gluck said, not so much by his 
 
 A?id every- ^ '' 
 
 thing else of words as by his works, "I must 
 the best. ^g^ music to the ultimate extent of 
 
 its powers in all that I can. I must make it 
 express everything that it is capable of express- 
 ing. I will make my characters pour out expressive 
 music along with their words. I will make my 
 chorus express the most vehement and character- 
 istic emotions that belong to their actions and 
 their opinions. I will put a long-standing emotion 
 in long-lasting phrases and forms ; while I will put 
 a rapidly changing argument in short phrases that 
 vary in key and manner with every momentary 
 change of thought. I will make the orchestra 
 
THE RISE OF OPERA 153 
 
 strengthen these expressions of emotion in every 
 way they can, by phrases with or before or after 
 the voices, or by the greatest variety of colour in 
 the instruments that my band is capable of giving, 
 so far as I know." We may go further, and almost 
 fancy Gluck saying, " If there is any other musical 
 device with expression in it, I wish I knew it, 
 that I might apply it." Gluck's works utter this 
 language as plainly as a man's work can speak his 
 thought. 
 
 So did others ; and in carrying out this high 
 ideal they invested the dialogue of an opera with 
 the character of poetry as well as of the drama, 
 and made it the suggestion of the highest forms of 
 music. 
 
 There are those who say that musical design in 
 all its variety is undramatic, and hinders the action 
 of a drama ; it is unnatural, they say. If we allow 
 this, we must go further, and allow that all poetry 
 and poetic feeling is undramatic and hindering to 
 the action of a drama. Yet no story is without 
 poetic feeling of some kind ; the very action of the 
 human mind (and what higher product of nature 
 can we have than the human mind ?) — the very 
 action of the human mind upon a story is to 
 produce and show forth emotion or sympathetic 
 feeling. If Beethoven can make an air expressive 
 of the utmost anxiety, or can make the course of 
 
154 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 keys of an exact sonata-form add to the excite- 
 ment of a struggle for life between four characters ; 
 or if Mozart can make a chain of movements so 
 various in their different motions and keys as to 
 increase the effect of the busy activity and the 
 worries of eight or nine scheming comedy char- 
 acters ; or if Verdi, following Shakespeare's lead, 
 can put such a ballad into the centre of an exciting 
 drama that it wrings the hearts of the audience 
 with sympathy for the sufferings of Desdemona, 
 ay, and for the pangs of the man who loves her 
 and is yet fool enough to give way to jealousy — if 
 all this is possible, there is no need to say that 
 good music, that is to say, music in good form, is 
 out of character with drama. 
 
 Only let there be variety and order. A little 
 chaos is a pleasing relief; and, in its place, is a 
 great artistic beauty. But it must be balanced 
 and steadied by constancy and repose ; for even 
 chaos may become a dreary waste. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 
 
 '* And Miriam the prophetess took a timbrel in her hand ; and 
 all the women went out after her, with timbrels and with dances. 
 And Miriam answered them, Sing ye to the Lord, for He hath 
 triumphed gloriously." — ExODUS xv. 20, 21. 
 
 IT was at the church of San Filippo Neri at 
 Rome that the oratorio earned its name. The 
 oratory, God's house of prayer and praise, was the 
 place where the most complete work of music and 
 poetry was first performed, the highest form in 
 which the two arts are combined, and combined 
 for the highest work, that of praise and prayer to 
 our Creator. For there is surely no nobler work 
 in God's creation than the mind, soul and body 
 which is united in the person of the creative artist, 
 who possesses some little fragment of his Maker's 
 creative power, and by it makeSy or creates, a living 
 artistic work. And there is, without doubt, no nobler 
 work for that creative artist's hands than that of 
 leading the minds of others of God's human 
 creatures to acknowledge the greatness of their 
 Maker. This was the purpose of the first oratorio. 
 
 Oratorios partake of three natures ; 
 they are dramatic, narrative, or what 
 
 X5S 
 
156 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 is called didactic (literally, teaching). Though in 
 their beginnings they are distinct, the three kinds 
 very early began to blend. 
 
 The course of the dramatic oratorio, 
 which is specially Italian, is bound up 
 with that of opera. It is, in fact, an opera founded 
 upon a sacred story, instead of upon a secular. 
 The sacred dramas, mysteries and miracle-plays of 
 mediaeval times, were quite as much the fore- 
 runners of this kind of oratorio as they were of the 
 opera ; while the principles of the new recitative 
 drama of Caccini and Peri were applied to the 
 sacred musical dramas of the time by Cavalieri, and 
 his works acted in churches. Later, in the days of 
 Scarlatti and onwards, the sacred musical dramas 
 or oratorios were performed in Italy, in theatres, 
 at particular Church seasons, instead of the secular 
 operas ; and the type of both was the same. This 
 was the intention of Rossini's Moses in Egypt ; and 
 the chorus in it we know so well, Dal tuo stellato 
 sogliOy is sung on the stage by performers in the 
 character of Israelites by the banks of the Red Sea. 
 
 The narrative type was not called 
 Nar?-ative. ... , , - , , . 
 
 oratorio m its early days, but had its 
 
 beginning in the recitation of the Passion of our 
 
 Saviour according to the different gospel narratives ; 
 
 this was customary at Passion-tide from very old 
 
 times. In them, the words of the persons were 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 157 
 
 sung by different singers, while the story was by 
 one only. The Roman performance of the Passion 
 was, from earliest times up to latest, constructed 
 of the Bible words, and plain-song music. The 
 Lutheran churches, on the contrary, very soon 
 began to use original music, and also reflective 
 passages interspersed among the divisions of the 
 Bible narrative ; in some examples, complete 
 original poems were set, in place of the Bible words. 
 
 The service in the oratory of San 
 Filippo Neri, the true origin of the 
 name, was the beginning of the didactic type. 
 Very much akin to the " service of song " which is 
 used in some churches and chapels of our own 
 time, it was an oration, or sermon (whence 
 the epithet didactic) with hymns sung by the 
 congregated members of the oratory. As the 
 music grew in importance the work became more 
 and more like the oratorios that we know of later 
 years. The hymns increased in number and 
 became elaborate anthems, while the oration be- 
 came declamation in song ; narrative came to be 
 used and characters were personified, till the 
 peculiarities of all the three types were welded 
 together in one composition. 
 
 Long before the days of Bach, the recitation of 
 the Passion had attained great popularity in 
 Germany ; and all the art of which the different 
 
158 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 composers were capable had been applied to their 
 settings of the Passion. 
 
 Bach's setting is full of variety and 
 sion-miisic shares the natures of each of the three 
 
 according to j^i^ds of oratorio, though it is not 
 S. Matthew. ' 
 
 called an oratorio. There is the plain 
 
 gospel narrative, of which the part concerned 
 
 with the action is all given to one voice. Then 
 
 the words of the persons speaking are given 
 
 to other solo singers, while the words of the chief 
 
 priests, the people and the disciples are given to 
 
 the chorus. This brings the dramatic character 
 
 into the work, even though it is without action ; 
 
 for in some places an almost representative effect 
 
 is made by the question and answer of the persons. 
 
 Besides this, there are the reflections. Some of 
 
 these are soliloquies for one or other of the singers 
 
 in an impersonal manner ; some are choruses as 
 
 if for the general body of the church, while some 
 
 are hymns or chorals^ actually to be sung by the 
 
 congregation in the sacred building wherein the 
 
 work is performed. To crown all, there was in 
 
 the Bach work, the Lutheran practice of the 
 
 sermon preached between the parts. These all 
 
 bring in the devotional character — that action of 
 
 praise, prayer and teaching which belonged to the 
 
 didactic oratorio of the church of San Filippo Neri. 
 
 The eminent critic and composer, G. A. Mac- 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 159 
 
 farren, has drawn a beautiful mental picture of the 
 scene of the first performance of Bach's greatest 
 Passion-music. " A spacious church, invested with 
 all the solemn associations peculiar to the sacred 
 building, wherein the edification of hearts and souls 
 must have been involved in the artist's design for 
 the erection of columns and windows; at either 
 end (for there were two choirs, two bands, and two 
 organs) the capacious orchestra filled with singers 
 and instrumentalists, whose labour is rendered holy 
 by the occasion, by the great human thought that 
 has been brought to bear on the explication of 
 this, and by the sanctuary wherein it is celebrated ; 
 towering above each orchestra the lofty organ, 
 whose time-honoured employment in church service 
 has rendered its acceptance general as a symbol of 
 worship; and in the great area between these 
 galleries of solemn song, a vast public surrounding 
 the pulpit, wherein the presence of the preacher 
 gives sanction and significance to the whole, every- 
 one imbued with the religious truths that are 
 commemorated ; and all — the little children who 
 are learning to love the right, the women who are 
 lovingly teaching them, and the men who are 
 defending mother and child in the fond task of 
 mutual duty — all taking part in the choral hymns, 
 lifting their common voice in the heartfelt testi- 
 mony. Let us imagine this scene — which is no 
 
i6o MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 fabrication of fancy, but a feeble, very feeble picture 
 of a once-living fact — and we may, perhaps, be able 
 to conceive with what impressions the congrega- 
 tion withdrew from St Thomas's Church in Leipzig, 
 at the close of evensong, on Good Friday, 1729."^ 
 
 ^^ ^, Let us take examples of the charac- 
 
 How the ^ 
 
 words are ter and treatment of the words out of 
 treated. ^j^^ course of the oratorio. There is, 
 
 far on in the story, the narrative, " Now at that 
 feast the governor was wont to release unto the 
 people a prisoner, whom they would." This, for 
 the principal tenor singer, is recitative, free as to 
 time, and with a light harpsichord or pianoforte 
 accompaniment. The words of Pilate follow, in 
 the same kind of music, but for a bass voice. Then 
 narrative again for the tenor is followed by the 
 words of Pilate's wife, allotted to a treble. Narra- 
 tive again is followed by Pilate's words, from the 
 bass voice, " Whether of the twain will ye that I 
 release unto you ? " The two words of narrative, 
 ''They said," are followed by the single word, 
 " Barabbas," from the full chorus, personifying the 
 people with dramatic vividness. The narrating 
 tenor has " Pilate saith unto them," and is followed 
 by Pilate's replying question, " What shall I do 
 then with Jesus, who is called Christ ? " The 
 
 ^ Introduction to Novello's edition of Bach's " St Matthew 
 Passion," 1870. 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO i6i 
 
 narrator has " They all said," and immediately 
 upon that, the cry of the people, " Let Him be 
 crucified," follows with the dramatic effect of 
 imitation in the fugual manner, the cry being thus 
 repeated by the voices one after another, and 
 carried on as it might be in a yelling crowd. 
 
 Allegro .^ 
 
 Bass begins. 
 
 I 
 
 The altos enter immediately after the last note 
 of the example, while tenors and basses go on and 
 trebles come later in similar fashion, beginning on 
 another note. This chorus, so short that the sentence 
 is not uttered more than twice in each of the voices, 
 is followed by a choral, or hymn, for the congrega- 
 tion, " Mysterious act of God's Almighty mercy. 
 Condemned to death, behold the Lord of Glory." 
 This belongs to the didactic, or teaching part of 
 the oratorio ; it is a meditation on this point of 
 the story, and an application of it to the use of the 
 Church. The word behold^ in this expression, " be- 
 hold the Lord of Glory," seems to show that the 
 Lutheran pastor, Deyling, who compiled the book, 
 
i62 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 had in his mind an impression from the old habit 
 of sacred dramas ; in these, of course, the repre- 
 sentative of the sacred Person would be there 
 exhibited before the gaze of the congregation. 
 Many others of the meditative passages show this 
 feeling. It is a feeling that must still be very strong 
 in the minds of the German people, as shown by 
 the sacred plays and half-sacred operas which are 
 so often performed among them. 
 
 A few words now from the narrator, and Pilate's 
 question (from the same bass who had his words 
 before), "Why, what evil hath He done?" are 
 followed by a comment on the question, from a 
 solo voice, " To us He hath done all things well : 
 the blind man sight from Him received, the lame 
 man leap'd and walk'd. He told us of His Father's 
 word ; He sent the devils forth, the mourners He 
 hath comforted, and sinners, too. He hath received. 
 Besides this, Jesus nought hath done ! " It is an 
 accompanied recitative, described, by the eminent 
 critic named before, as of the style of Caccini and 
 Peri rather than of the more modern accompanied 
 recitative ; this is the case, because it is in strict 
 time throughout and without rhythm of phrases. 
 " Its merit is wholly in the force with which it 
 renders the words, and in this merit the specimens 
 by Bach are pre-eminent." Another comment or 
 meditation follows, on the Saviour's love and suffer- 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 163 
 
 ings for us, and is a more rhythmic composition 
 for the same voice as the recitative. In both of 
 these movements the solo voice personifies the 
 Christian Church of later days than those of the 
 events which are mentally exhibited before the 
 audience. They are didactic, or teaching ; that is, 
 they point out the lesson to be drawn from the 
 story. 
 
 The narrator follows, with the few words, " But 
 they cried out the more and said." Now follows a 
 very dramatic, or representative effect in the repe- 
 tition of the chorus which was sung just before, 
 "Let Him be crucified" (see page 161). A 
 striking part of the effect comes from its being a 
 note higher, a fact which gives more urgency to 
 the cry. After more narrative and more words 
 from Pilate, the cry of the people, " His blood be 
 on us and on our children," comes vividly before 
 us. First uttered in all voices together, the words 
 are next repeated among the different parts, at 
 different accents and on different notes ; thus the 
 chorus portrays the clamouring of a multitude, 
 excited and urged on by fanatics. 
 
 In similar ways is the whole story carried on, 
 and illustrated or commented upon. In some places 
 the meditation takes the form of adoration — the 
 adoration of the Church of the composer's time ; 
 thus, after the mocking " Hail ! King of the Jews," 
 
i64 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 from the soldiers (represented by the chorus), the 
 congregation fall in with the hymn, "O Thou 
 whose head was wounded . . . Whom once in 
 light enthroned, The angels did adore . . . My 
 joy, my one endeavour ... To serve Thee, 
 gracious Saviour, And magnify Thy Name." 
 
 A beautiful effect is in the meditation after the 
 account of the Crucifixion ; it is treated as if 
 divided between the teacher and the hearers. The 
 solo voice is pointing to the scene enacted before 
 our mind's eye, as if in a drama, and telling the 
 principle to be learnt from it. " See, . . . see 
 the Saviour's outstretch'd arm, Sinners to redeem 
 from harm. Come. Come." The chorus, as if in 
 the person of ignorant learners, ask, "Come where? 
 Come where?" while the teaching solo answers, 
 "Come to Jesu's bosom, seek salvation freely 
 offer'd." This poetic effect is repeated twice in 
 the course of the movement, with other apt words. 
 At another point in the narration, at the rend- 
 ing of the Temple veil, there is an example of 
 vivid description in the accompaniment. Though 
 Bach's reserve of force keeps it still for the harpsi- 
 chord alone, the effect is clear. 
 
 Bach's great contemporary, Handel, 
 HandeVs ^ , . t^ . ^. i • • u- 
 
 dramatic had written Passion-tide music in his 
 
 oratorios. g^rly days; but it was to an original 
 poem built upon the Gospel story. After he had 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 165 
 
 been in England many years, writing operas in his 
 own vigorous style on the Italian model of the 
 time, he turned to oratorio and found his full 
 strength in that. Many a time has the story been 
 told how his money losses as an opera manager 
 brought us the gain of the greatest of art works, — 
 how his failure in one line brought him success in 
 another. But, though without knowing it, he had 
 worked hard and well for this end all the time of 
 his operatic life, and the later success was the 
 natural result of this peculiar work. With two 
 grand exceptions his oratorios were of the same 
 form as the operas he had written before. Like 
 many of the Italian oratorios of the same time, 
 they were in the dramatic form and capable of 
 being acted. The story was told by the persons 
 speaking, with meditation or soliloquies in the 
 mouth of the characters, the music being carried 
 on by recitative both dry and accompanied, with 
 solos, concerted pieces and choruses. This was 
 the same plan as the operas of Scarlatti and his 
 followers. 
 
 The performance of oratorios, however, notwith- 
 standing their operatic plan, was in England 
 invariably, and in Italy often, without action, 
 scenery, or character costumes. This is the 
 meaning of the expression applied to the later 
 performances of Ads and Galatea^ that it was 
 
i66 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 done " after the manner of an oratorio." It was a 
 secular work, and had first been performed with 
 action. Esther^ too, a sacred work, was advertised 
 as to be performed " without clothes," an expres- 
 sion at which we are inclined to smile ; but it is a 
 question whether our modern expression, " without 
 costume," would be less open to amiable quizzing. 
 In the course of Handel's oratorios, therefore, 
 the beautiful pieces that we are so familiar with 
 take their places as parts of an actable drama. 
 Deeper and deeper still, is the accompanied recita- 
 tive of Jephtha, when his daughter meets him on 
 his return from victory, and he is struck with grief 
 at realising the consequences of his vow. Angels 
 ever bright and fair, is the soliloquy of Theodora 
 as she is led to her martyr's doom. What thd I 
 trace each herb and flower, is the humble meditation 
 of Solomon, giving glory to Jehovah for the gift of 
 wisdom. Then in Saul the chorus, Along the 
 monster atheist strode, is expressive of the Israelites' 
 terror at the appearance of the giant Goliath, when 
 he "defies the armies of the living God." The 
 chorus. The youth inspired by Thee, expresses 
 their joy at the sight of the death of the giant 
 by the hand of the lad David, and the next chorus 
 shows their recovery from the panic into which 
 they had fallen. Our fainting courage soon restored^ 
 so that they were able to destroy their enemies. 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 167 
 
 Following this is the meditation after the battle, 
 when they ascribe glory to their Maker, How 
 excellent TJiy Ncnne, O Lord. All these examples 
 might be possible on the stage. But in some of 
 these oratorios we begin to feel a slight tend- 
 ency towards either the didactic or the narrative 
 character. This is a natural development of their 
 purpose for the concert room instead of the stage. 
 Where action is not made use of, it is soon of no 
 use to arrange for it, and a composer begins to find 
 other and better means for arousing interest in the 
 story. So, to go back to Italy, we find the 
 narrator, who originated in the Passion-tide per- 
 formances, made use of in concert oratorios, in 
 place of the continued dramatic form of telling the 
 story by means of the characters ; this form having 
 in such a place become nothing but a form, and 
 not a necessity. After Handel's many oratorios on 
 the dramatic model, with these leanings towards 
 other ways, he soared far higher, and produced 
 two works of new forms, which developed the 
 narrative and the didactic in conjunction with the 
 dramatic, the didactic parts rising to anthem music 
 of the largest description. 
 
 Thus Israel in Egypt follows two grand Narrative 
 divisions. The first half is narrative, andanthem. 
 the second didactic; or, more correctly in this 
 case, it is a development of the San Filippo Neri 
 
i68 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 service of song into a great anthem. Some hearers, 
 whose love for the stage is strong, throw a feeling 
 of dramatic representation even over these divi- 
 sions. They feel that the scenes described in the 
 first part are actually passing before them, while 
 the second part brings before them the sight of 
 Moses and the people of Israel assembled on the 
 banks of the Red Sea, " in joyous transport at their 
 deliverance, with devout thankfulness and a deep, 
 solemn, and always calm impression of the tre- 
 mendous scenes which they have so lately wit- 
 nessed ; the broad expanse of cloudless heaven, the 
 boundless landscape and glowing, genial climate 
 all assuring them of freedom and peace." ^ 
 
 It was the invention of Handel's genius and great 
 sense of fitness which made him take away the 
 narration from the solo, to which it had been 
 given in other composers' works, and give it in 
 Israel almost entirely to the chorus. For many 
 years after the first performance of Israel in Egypt, 
 it has been said, this novel treatment was not 
 appreciated by hearers. They were accustomed 
 to the imitation, so to speak, of a dramatic repre- 
 sentation, and, in some countries, they were used 
 to the narration by a solo ; but the narration by a 
 chorus was left for us in modern times to enter 
 fully into. We have learnt that the grandeur of 
 
 ^ G. A. Macfarren, notes upon Israel in Egypt. 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 169 
 
 the events related was best interpreted by the 
 power of the large body of singers. The same 
 feeling of fitness made Handel put the second part 
 also of this oratorio chiefly into the mouth of the 
 chorus, who might better represent the thankful- 
 ness of the great crowd of Israelites. 
 
 Though the first part is narrative throughout, 
 there are distinct varieties of narrative. The ex- 
 traordinarily simple introduction to the story — 
 " Now there arose a new king over Egypt, which 
 knew not Joseph," who set taskmasters over Israel 
 to afflict them with burdens — is put into the 
 mouth of the narrator of old style, a solo tenor. 
 It is a cold statement of a fact, wherein everything 
 pathetic is left to the imagination. There is no over- 
 ture to work up our minds to the proper key, no 
 grand effects in the accompaniment to suggest 
 deep feelings, no sentimental phrases in the solo 
 to give a pathetic impulse to our thoughts. It is 
 only the old-fashioned declamatory recitative, with 
 a few accents given to it by the light accompani- 
 ment, leaving the words free to make their own 
 impression. And what an impression it is ! We 
 know this by what follows. The next few words 
 are still Bible narrative, but so full of emotion that 
 Handel has given it to a long course of music for 
 the chorus ; and, by the movement of the parts 
 now with, now against, one another, by some 
 
i;o MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 modulation and many expressive harmonies he has 
 woven the two main phrases into a web of pathos. 
 " The children of Israel sigh'd ... by reason of 
 the bondage . . . and their cry came up to God." 
 
 The tenor recitative of the sending of Moses 
 and Aaron is simple, till the last words relate the 
 beginning of the signs of God's power. " He 
 turn'd their waters into blood!' The breathless 
 effect of the tenor's low note upon this word sets 
 the key of feeling for the following chorus, which 
 expresses the narrative, " they loathed to drink of 
 the river." 
 
 Other narratives for the chorus touch the 
 emotion belonging to each wonder with such force 
 that they kindle our imagination. We imagine 
 that we hear the innumerable insects — that we are 
 witnessing the grandest hail and thunderstorm that 
 ever was on earth — that we are feeling our way in 
 Egyptian darkness. We even sympathise with the 
 horrified joy of the Egyptians, when they were 
 " glad when they departed " who seemed to have 
 been the cause of all these terrors. "But as for 
 His people, He led them forth like sheep ; " and 
 here is the tenderness of the act brought out by 
 the chorus with its smooth, pastoral and almost 
 childlike expression. These chorus-narratives are 
 all in continuous music. 
 
 Yet another kind of narrative is in the phrase. 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 171 
 
 " He rebuked the Red Sea, and it was dried up." 
 This is a declamatory recitative for the chorus ; it 
 is necessarily i7i time, in order to keep the many 
 voices together, but it is with all the effect of 
 declamation — immensely powerful by means of the 
 mass of voices of the eight-part choir, and ren- 
 dered more impressive by the contrast between the 
 two divisions of the phrase. The first of these 
 divisions has the voices with instruments, loud and 
 strident ; the second, voices alone, hushed, and 
 almost more solemn. 
 
 The second, or anthem part of Israel in Egypt 
 is the song of Moses and the people, "Sing ye to 
 the Lord, for He hath triumphed gloriously." 
 Parts of it tend towards narrative, when the 
 Israelites recount the wonderful works of the Lord 
 in delivering them out of the fury of their enemies. 
 Such are the chorus " The horse and his rider 
 hath He thrown into the sea " ; again, " The depths 
 have covered them," and " In the greatness of 
 Thine Excellency Thou hast overthrown them 
 that rose up against Thee " ; and the duet, " Thou 
 in Thy mercy hast led forth Thy people." Yet 
 further they utter prophetic narrative, " The 
 inhabitants of Canaan shall melt away, they shall 
 be as still as a stone, till Thy people pass over." 
 " Thou shalt bring them in to their inheritance." 
 
 There are a few words of recitative narration : 
 
172 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 "Miriam . . . took a timbrel . . . and all the 
 women went out after her with timbrels and 
 dances." Miriam's song closes the oratorio with 
 praise, anthem-like, repeating the music, as the 
 original story repeats the words, of the beginning 
 of Moses' song, " Sing ye to the Lord, for He hath 
 triumphed gloriously." 
 
 Chiefiy With the exception of a few points, 
 
 anthem. |-}^g whole of the Messiah is a series 
 
 of anthems, or didactic meditations. Like the 
 meditative passages in Bach's Passion^ they are 
 suggested by scenes that are supposed to be 
 passing before the mind's eye of the audience, as 
 if in an acted drama. So well known, so deeply 
 familiar to us is the sacred story that it needs not 
 to tell it over again ; we need only to be reminded 
 of it, to remember it scene by scene. Thus, being 
 built upon the spiritual aspect of the story of a life, 
 it becomes more than a narrative or biography ; it 
 is rather a celebration of a life, — the grandest life 
 that ever was in the world. 
 
 Here indeed there is an overture, as Handel's 
 works generally had. It is said that Handel first 
 wrote the overture in the classical form of the age, 
 with the usual three movements, and those of the 
 usual type {adagio^ allegro and minuettd), but so 
 imbued was he with the subject of his oratorio, 
 that he was enabled to see the unfitness of the 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 173 
 
 form, and the lighter Jina/e was cut out. This left 
 the overture, as we now feel it to be, a solemn 
 introduction which fulfils the duty afterwards 
 prescribed by Gluck ; that is to say, it prepares 
 our minds for the impressions which are to come 
 upon us by-and-by. 
 
 First, after the overture, are a series of medita- 
 tions on the prophesied coming of the Life that 
 is celebrated in the oratorio. " Comfort ye," 
 " Every valley shall be exalted, and the rough 
 places smooth," " The glory of the Lord shall be 
 revealed," "O thou that tellest good tidings," 
 " The people that walked in darkness have seen a 
 great light," " Unto us a child is born, the mighty 
 God . . . the Prince of Peace." All these are 
 illuminated by music that every one knows and 
 every one loves. 
 
 Next after this comes what some have com- 
 pared with the pictures of the Nativity, in which 
 the greatest masters have delighted to exercise 
 their powers. The pastoral symphony forms a 
 miniature overture to the scene, and calls the 
 feeling of peace into our minds. We are now 
 ripe for the narrating recitative that follows, how 
 " there were shepherds abiding in the fields, keep- 
 ing watch over their flock by night." How quickly 
 now does our imagination work ! It shows us the 
 moonlight and the hillsides, the sheep within the 
 
174 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 stony walls of their fold, the shepherds in their 
 rough garments : we can almost smell the tender 
 vines, and the oleanders that are growing near at 
 hand. Then more reciting narrative tells us what 
 we can almost see, the coming of the angel with 
 his "glad tidings of great joy." Dramatic effect 
 comes forward when the words of the great com- 
 pany of angels are given to the chorus, " Glory to 
 God in the Highest ! " 
 
 Several of the recitatives after this are so far nar- 
 rative that they suggest the points of the Life that 
 are to be thought of at the moment. The words 
 ''Then shall the eyes of the blind be opened ..." 
 draw our thoughts towards the miracles of 
 healing worked by Him who went about doing 
 good, and lead us to the comment, " He shall feed 
 His flock." Again, "All they that see Him laugh 
 Him to scorn " is the recitative which suggests the 
 chorus, " He trusted in God that He would deliver 
 Him," words which are at once commenting and 
 dramatic, for while recitative and chorus are the 
 prophetic words of the Psalmist, those of the 
 chorus are the mocking quotation from the Psalms 
 which is made by the chief priests, scribes and 
 elders at the Crucifixion. 
 
 The two recitatives, "Thy rebuke hath broken 
 His heart," and " He was cut off," share the same 
 narrative character with the songs that immedi- 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 175 
 
 ately follow them, " Behold, and see if there be 
 
 any sorrow like unto His sorrow," and " Thou 
 
 didst not leave His soul in hell." 
 
 From this point the oratorio is entirely of the 
 
 didactic or anthem character following the course 
 
 of events ; the meditations are on the subjects of 
 
 the Resurrection and Ascension of the Saviour, 
 
 the sending of the apostles, and the ineffectual 
 
 rage of the heathen against Christianity, "The 
 
 kingdom of this world is become the kingdom of 
 
 the Lord ! " Then follows the beautiful third part 
 
 of the oratorio, dealing with the resurrection of 
 
 the dead and the life everlasting. " If God be for 
 
 us who can be against us ? " " Blessing and honour, 
 
 glory and power be unto Him that sitteth on the 
 
 throne, and unto the Lamb, for ever. Amen." 
 
 Though Mendelssohn was a devoted ^ 
 
 Greek play 
 student of Bach's works, he was also as a?i ideal 
 
 a good classical scholar. St Paul, the ''f ''''^i^''^^^- 
 
 earlier of his two oratorios, therefore, shows a good 
 
 deal of resemblance to the Bach settings of the 
 
 Passion, while the later one, ElijaJi, is an almost 
 
 perfect example of the ideal of the Greek play. 
 
 Although it is without action, it yet follows the 
 
 course of a drama, with the same treatment of 
 
 the chorus as in Greek plays. Thus the story is 
 
 told from the mouth of the characters, — Elijah, 
 
 Obadiah, Ahab, the angel, the widow, the youth- 
 
i;6 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 ful servant and the people. It is told chiefly in 
 accompanied recitative, in which are some phrases 
 in time^ and there is much help from the orchestra. 
 The recitatives are either for solos or for chorus ; 
 there are also some few longer choruses of narra- 
 tive. Some meditations on different points of the 
 story are given to the solo characters ; others 
 belong to solos or to chorus in the same imper- 
 sonal way that is sometimes adopted by the 
 chorus and their leader in Greek play. In this 
 work these impersonal utterances stand as the 
 meditation which is put into the mind of the 
 audience, — in fact, they are didactic. 
 
 The introduction, like that of Israel in Egypt, is 
 a few words of simple recitative, which are 
 allowed to sink into the hearts of the hearers 
 without ornament ; but instead of being uttered 
 by the impersonal narrator, as in Israel, they come 
 as the words of one of the characters of the story, 
 Elijah. " As God the Lord of Israel liveth, before 
 whom I stand, there shall not be dew nor rain. ..." 
 After this recitative there is an overture (which 
 had no place in Israel in Egypt) to depict the 
 emotional effect of such a prophecy, and thus 
 prepare our minds for the coming sorrows. From 
 this point the chorus, in the person of the people, 
 describe the fainting state of the land. " Help, 
 Lord . . . the deeps afford no water, the children 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 177 
 
 cry for bread, and none giveth. . . . Lord, bow 
 Thine ear ..." This is all dramatic, that is, 
 spoken by the characters. So also, amongst many 
 other points, in the scene of the sacrifice the story 
 is carried on by the words of Elijah, Ahab and 
 the people. There is the agreement, "The God 
 that answereth by fire. He is the Lord " — the 
 people's cry, " Baal, hear us," and Elijah's mocking, 
 " Call him louder, peradventure he is on a journey, 
 or he sleepeth." The Bible words, " There was none 
 that answered," are shown dramatically, yet with- 
 out being spoken, by the few bars of silence which 
 make so great an effect after the hurried excite- 
 ment of the chorus. . . . '* Hear and answer," . . . 
 a moment's silence . . . "Hear and answer": silence 
 again, is all the reply. 
 
 Then comes Elijah's turn, and his recitative and 
 aria are his prayer for the fire to be sent upon his 
 sacrifice. To strengthen the effect upon us, the 
 composer here points it by an impersonal utterance 
 of the thoughts he deems it right for the audience 
 to have in mind. What should Elijah do at this 
 point ? The audience, in their thoughts, bid him 
 *' Cast thy burden upon the Lord, and He will let 
 none be ashamed that wait upon Him." This is 
 of the nature of Greek chorus. Elijah then takes 
 up the tale with more prayer ; and the chorus, in 
 the person of the people, describe what happened. 
 M 
 
178 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 " The fire descends from heaven," and presently 
 describe its effect upon themselves by avowing 
 ** The Lord, He is God." 
 
 Later in the oratorio, there are events which 
 were unseen by mortal eye, yet they must be 
 described. Therefore the chorus take a character 
 more completely impersonal than in any other 
 work we have previously spoken of They use the 
 words of the inspired narrative — " Behold, God 
 the Lord passed by. And a mighty wind rent the 
 mountains around . . . and the sea was upheaved 
 . . . and after the earthquake a fire . . . and after 
 the fire, a still, small voice ..." 
 ^qIq Among the early Italian writers, an 
 
 narfator. oratorio that was to be for concert use, 
 and therefore without acting, was made complete 
 by a performer who was called historicus. He 
 was the historian or story-teller who told the com- 
 plete story of the play. This was adopted from 
 the Passion-tide narrative oratorios, and applied to 
 other sacred stories. Neither Handel nor Men- 
 delssohn made use of this practice, but later 
 English composers have done so. In Macfarren's 
 oratorios especially, the part of the narrator is 
 developed much beyond what it was in the 
 historicus of old time. It contains the many 
 varieties of expression that are made possible by 
 the different kinds of recitative — free, and in time, 
 
 \ 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 179 
 
 with accompaniments and phrases of interludes. 
 In his St John the Baptist the narrator is of great 
 importance, while it is in conjunction with many 
 highly dramatic scenes, and much anthem or 
 didactic music. His Resurrection is more strictly 
 of a narrative kind than has been since the days 
 of Bach. Like the Passion-tide works, it is a 
 narration by one solo voice of a portion of the 
 Gospel, which tells the story of an event, while 
 meditations in the different points of the story are 
 given by solos or chorus as if in the person of the 
 congregation, or the church at large. 
 
 In King David^ while most of the story is told 
 by the words of the characters, yet some of the 
 most interesting and touching music belongs to the 
 recitative of the narrator. The overture to King 
 David is retrospective, and shov/s the feelings 
 called up by events that happened before the 
 opening of the story. The first events of the 
 story are shown in dramatic form by the words of 
 David and the people, the anointing of David as 
 King of Israel, and the bringing home of the Ark. 
 There is one meditative passage like the comments 
 of the Greek chorus as part of the audience. The 
 words of Nathan follow, with his prophecy of 
 the great Descendant of David. David expresses 
 his humility, and the people re-echo Nathan's 
 prophecy. 
 
i8o MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 Another section of the story comes now from 
 the narrator. A very few words tell the terrible 
 account of the fall of a good man into sins of the 
 deepest kind. The conciseness and the reserve 
 with which it is told only add to the intenseness of 
 the impression made upon us. The beautiful 
 strain for the orchestra introducing the recitative 
 breathes of the under-current of tender affection, 
 which survived all the dastardly acts, and which 
 afterwards won forgiveness for David and bless- 
 ings for Solomon. 
 
 IjIbs 
 
 Andante sostentito. 
 Clarionet. 
 
 {By permission of Msssrs Stanley, Lucas <5r» Son, 3 Wells Street, London.) 
 
 The long strain which grows out of this be- 
 ginning is used again, broken into fragments, 
 between the sentences of the recitative. The 
 narrator tells how *' David walked upon the roof 
 of the king's house, and saw a woman that was 
 very beautiful to look upon." Phrases of a more 
 and more excited character are mingled as the 
 rest of the story is told — the message sent, " Set 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO i8i 
 
 ye Uriah in the forefront of the hottest battle, and 
 retire ye from him that he may die " ; and how 
 when he was dead, his wife became the king's 
 wife. Then at the end, the solemn phrase, " But 
 the thing that David had done displeased the 
 Lord," is put to a fragment of an old church tone, 
 adding great dignity to the narration. Though 
 these words are part of the ancient Bible narrative, 
 yet there is meditation contained in them which is 
 as true to the life of this present age as it was of 
 the age of which the story tells. Therefore, the 
 impression of present-day religion is cast over the 
 narrative with perfect truth by this comparatively 
 modern church tone. 
 
 The next meditation is even more to the same 
 effect. The sins of which David was guilty are 
 just as great temptation to the human nature of 
 to-day. We, who are taking part in the oratorio 
 as listeners, may have been tempted, or may yet 
 be tempted in kindred ways. Just as the con- 
 gregation took part in the service of Bach's 
 Passion-tide oratorio, and, by heart and sometimes 
 by voice joined in the chorus, the solo and the 
 choral, so we who listen are to take part in this 
 oratorio, though it is but in our hearts, and not 
 with our actual voices. Thus, after the narrative 
 from the life in Judea of olden time, comes, most 
 naturally as well as poetically, the prayer that we 
 
i82 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 may not err like David ; and this is in words taken 
 from the Liturgy of to-day, even with a fragment 
 of the music that we are accustomed to associate 
 with those words. It is an unaccompanied chorus, 
 "Remember not, Lord, our offences . . . neither 
 take Thou vengeance of our sins. . . . Spare us, 
 good Lord. . . . From all blindness of heart and 
 deadly sins . . . good Lord, deliver us." 
 Ballad in Nathan's parable of the ewe lamb has 
 oratorio. ^l form which had not been used before 
 in the course of oratorio. It is a story within a 
 story. Nathan relates the parable to David as 
 one of the old minstrels might have sung his ballad 
 of heroic or terrible deeds, with all the fire of 
 expression that might come from declamation. 
 It is a ballad of the highest kind. So is the music 
 a ballad. Not indeed a ballad in the simple 
 repetition of one strain of music, but a ballad in 
 the reciting of distinct strains of words, each strain 
 having a distinct and different musical idea. 
 
 Yet another novelty in the course of 
 * oratorio is found in King David, and in 
 others by the same composer — the dialogue. When 
 Handel had written numberless operas, he turned 
 to oratorio, and used in the sacred works the skill 
 as well as the dramatic power that he had formerly 
 applied to works for the stage. Macfarren did 
 the same, in his way. After writing and bring- 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 183 
 
 ing out on the stage many operas, he began 
 to write oratorio. What wonder, then, that he 
 found dehght in applying dramatic effects to his 
 oratorios ? Here, then, in King David is a strongly 
 dramatic succession of movements, which the term 
 dialogue, applied to the first one, stamps at once as 
 written with a feeling for representation. David, 
 an old man now, is seated at the gates, while 
 women are around him, and others on the city 
 wall are straining their eyes for messengers to 
 come across the plains. The battle is afar off, 
 between the rebellious Absalom and the king's 
 army. The women pray for protection from the 
 rebels, while the king's thoughts are upon his son. 
 " There come men running." " If they come 
 running, there be tidings in their mouth." " Behold, 
 here come other men running." " They also bring 
 tidings." "Speak, what of the battle?" and all 
 ask, one after another, " What of the battle, what 
 of the battle ? " The swiftest runner, first to arrive, 
 can only utter breathlessly, " All is well," but he 
 knows no more. David has no thought but for 
 his erring son. " Is the young man Absalom 
 safe ? " So when other runners come with their 
 tidings of victory, there is the same eager question, 
 " Is the young man Absalom safe } " And when 
 the messengers cry in exultation, " The enemies of 
 our lord the king and all that rise against thee to 
 
i84 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 do thee hurt, be as that young man is ! " David is 
 overcome. He is but a broken old man, worn out 
 with all the warfare among his children, which was 
 the punishment laid upon him to purify him from 
 his great sin; and he cries aloud, *'0 Absalom, 
 my son, my son ; would God I had died for thee, 
 my son." Dramatic indeed is the short song that 
 pours out these words, for it is one long sob. 
 
 After the story has been brought to its end, the 
 final chorus is in the person of the audience (or 
 congregation, as in Bach's work), and is an actual 
 anthem, ending with the Gloria Patri. 
 
 ^, , , It was the intention of the composer 
 
 Old and ^ 
 
 New Testa- to work the first part of this oratorio 
 7nent ideals. ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^j^ ]^^^\^\ ideal of Stern 
 
 justice ; while the second and closing part should 
 similarly be brought on to the Christian ideal of 
 mercy and forgiveness, — nay, more, even to the 
 yearning joy of the Almighty over the repenting 
 sinner. It is for this reason the first part ends 
 with the awe-striking words, "Vengeance belongeth 
 unto the Lord," for the punishment of the wicked 
 doers is not in ours but in God's mighty hands. 
 Then comes the terrified expression, "Oh, how 
 suddenly do they consume and come to a fearful 
 end ! " For this reason, too, the second part is 
 drawn up through the repentance of David and 
 the return to his duty as a king to the expression 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 185 
 
 of the meditative anthem, " Joy is in heaven, and 
 among the angels of God over one sinner that 
 repenteth ... for the Son of man is come to 
 seek and to save that which was lost." And there- 
 fore we of the audience or congregation say, by 
 the voices of the chorus, may " Glory be to the 
 Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, 
 Who are One in this mercy." 
 
 A ballad of a more usual kind than 
 
 , Another 
 
 Macfarren s parable of Nathan is found ballad in 
 
 in Sir Hubert VdiVry's Judilh. More oratorio. 
 usual, in that there are repetitions of the same 
 music, and that a rhythmic tune, with the new 
 stanzas of words. Though it is a novelty to find 
 this kind of music in an oratorio, it is singularly 
 appropriate in its place in Judith. Like Nathan's 
 parable, it is a story within a story ; but, unlike 
 that, it is a story told by a mother to her children, 
 and therefore seems to ask for the extreme sim- 
 plicity of form. 
 
 A work of a kind different to any of Romance 
 those already described is Sir Arthur ^'^^ oratorio. 
 Sullivan's Golden Legend. Though in the judg- 
 ment of the composer it is not an oratorio (for in 
 the introduction he describes it as a cantata), it 
 yet has so much of the character of oratorio in its 
 seriousness and in the sacred nature of its subject 
 that it seems right to include it in the series of 
 
i86 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 development. It is not an oratorio, in the sense 
 that the custom of many years has built such 
 works upon Bible stories, whereas the Golden 
 Legend is built on a mediaeval legend. Custom, 
 too, has kept away the element of romance from 
 the oratorio, but the Golden Legend finds its climax 
 in the love of Prince Henry and Elsie. Yet among 
 the sacred dramas that were acted in mediaeval 
 times in churches for the edification of the wor- 
 s hippers, those that were styled mysteries were of 
 an allegorical character. It is to these that we 
 must look for the origin of a work of the nature of 
 the Golden Legend. It is a story of human devising, 
 yet with a sacred motive, and full of the mysticism 
 of the age from whence the legend came. There 
 is anthem or meditation in it, but, with one 
 exception, it is in the person of the characters and 
 not of the audience. The story is told dramatically, 
 that is, by the words of the characters. The dia- 
 logue is, however, supplemented in some places by 
 stage directions ; and as these can only be known 
 by reading the book, their necessity prevents the 
 work from fulfilling a completely dramatic course. 
 It is, as the introduction describes it, a series of 
 scenes which illustrate the story. 
 
 The prologue, deep in its mysticism, illustrates 
 the fruitless efforts of Lucifer and his attendant 
 evil spirits, Storm and Night, to destroy the 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 187 
 
 cathedral, — the solid structure built upon the 
 foundation of faith and defended with the bless- 
 ing of God. Here the events are told by the 
 words of Lucifer and of the other spirits, — of the 
 bells which are deemed to be ringing out the 
 sacred mottoes inscribed upon them, — and of the 
 choir who are singing within the cathedral. 
 
 The next section supposes Prince Henry in his 
 chamber, visited by Lucifer ; and it tells by the 
 words of these two and the comments of watching 
 angels, how the Prince is tempted to sin by 
 Lucifer. Following this we are to imagine a 
 village scene. There is an evening hymn by 
 villagers, and by the words of Elsie and her 
 mother we learn that she will sacrifice her life to 
 save Prince Henry from sore disease. All this is 
 told as if for stage presentation. 
 
 The next scene, however, has a new 
 
 Narrative 
 course ; it is mingled narrative and with move- 
 
 dramatic, yet without any hint of the ^^^^^^' 
 
 stage. The words of the characters relate how 
 
 they are journeying along the highway towards 
 
 the place where Elsie is to give her life-blood for 
 
 the health of the prince ; and in our minds we are 
 
 led with them from point to point. We hear how 
 
 by the side of dusty hedge-rows they are borne by 
 
 toiling horses, how the air is sweet with blossom 
 
 and leaf, and the view stretches before them ; we 
 
i88 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 hear how pilgrims are travelling by the same high- 
 way while chanting their hymns, with Lucifer 
 among them, as a false pilgrim, on the watch to 
 tempt and lead astray those who are ready for 
 him ; we hear how the travellers come within 
 sight of the sea, and ships are sailing in the dis- 
 tance. All this would be impossible in any other 
 kind of work, and is new even in this. 
 
 After the remainder of the scenes are told in 
 simple dramatic form, the epilogue follows, which 
 is the only meditation given in the person of the 
 audience. It, however, is not anthem, but a 
 poetical comparison drawn between the unselfish 
 devotion of Elsie and the power of the gentle rain 
 to refresh and nourish the thirsty land. 
 How the When we compare oratorio and 
 
 purpose opera, we find the differences have 
 
 aistingtnshes 
 
 oratorio all grown from the diversity of the 
 
 from opera. QJ^jg^ts for which they primarily have 
 
 been written. For while opera is for amusement, 
 
 oratorio is for edification, and, more especially, 
 
 religious edification. 
 
 Oratorio and opera are alike in many points. 
 
 Both work by means of artistic effect. Both must 
 
 be built upon a story ; and the more interesting 
 
 the story is, the more interesting the musical work 
 
 will be. Both consist largely of recitative and 
 
 have artistic alternation of ca7itabUe and declama- 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 189 
 
 tion, of lasting keys and changing keys. Both 
 have their variety of means of showing the music 
 and of intensifying the colour, so to speak, by solo 
 and concerted music, by chorus, instrumental 
 accompaniment and interlude. The difference 
 between the two lies in the object. 
 
 Some people claim edification for opera and the 
 spoken drama, just as some claim it for the novel 
 and other works of fiction. Doubtless there is 
 great possibility of it ; but in all these cases it 
 must be indirect. If it is direct it is evident, and 
 then it becomes a fault in composition. Yet in 
 oratorio, the sacred musical drama, it is the very 
 essence of the work. 
 
 The early mysteries and miracle-plays w^ere to 
 teach holy thoughts — doctrines as well as Bible 
 stories — to those, so numerous at the time, who were 
 rudely illiterate, who could not read for themselves 
 and could scarcely even understand the language 
 of the learned writers. These works needed there- 
 fore to be acted in order to be understood, and 
 though the teaching was directly intended by the 
 authors it was only indirectly understood by the 
 hearers. The narratives of the Passion, only 
 partly dramatic, implied more culture in the 
 hearers, for their edification was by the story alone, 
 without representation. The San Filippo Neri 
 performances gave more direct instruction, by 
 
190 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 means of the sermons, which were also included in 
 the Lutheran Passion narratives. The hymns of 
 San Filippo Neri and the chorals of the Lutheran 
 churches were direct instruction in the sense of 
 guiding the thoughts of the audience to adoration 
 and prayer. In later works, too, this is the source 
 of all development in the form. Handel shows 
 this in his individual self, for he began with the 
 more indirect instruction of the purely dramatic 
 oratorio, carried out on the lines of the opera ; 
 and he developed, as he became greater in the art 
 of oratorio, into Israel and the Messiah^ wherein 
 the teaching is evident and direct. In the more 
 modern German and English works, just now 
 described, this teaching element is also clear. 
 Therefore of the three natures at first pointed out 
 in oratorio, didactic, narrative and dramatic, the 
 didactic overshadows the other two and renders the 
 whole work characteristic. 
 
 But besides this direct edification of the hearers, 
 there is in oratorio the same indirect and artistic 
 effect for good which may be, and ought to be, in 
 the secular works of highest calibre. It arises 
 from the purely musical effect upon our emotions 
 and minds. By it the composer can strengthen 
 the effect of good emotions and impressions. He 
 may point out this or that thought for our 
 preference, and may make it more emphatic by 
 
THE COURSE OF ORATORIO 191 
 
 the power of expression in the music which in- 
 tensifies every fragment of emotional meaning 
 in the words and sentiments. It is this indirect 
 teaching belonging to the Golden Legend, which 
 helps to make it the modern descendant of the 
 mystery plays of old time. 
 
 May we now consider the point established with 
 which we started this description of the course of 
 oratorio, when we claimed that an oratorio is the 
 highest type of work in which music and poetry 
 are united ? 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 
 
 Music is like Architecture, and a great symphony like a great 
 cathedral. Both must be built up, stone by stone and note by 
 note in the maker's mind, and be complete before the plan of it 
 can be laid before the builders and the performers who are to show 
 it to the world. Then, though myriads come under the influence 
 of this great fane, and praise God with the emotions that are pro- 
 duced by the grandeur of it, they know not that every stone and 
 every note has been graven out of the quarry of the maker's brain. 
 But the Maker of all things knows ; for He has given a breath of 
 His own Creative Power. 
 
 IT is curious to note, when we read writings 
 upon art, how truly the diplomatist spoke 
 when he said that words were to hide our thoughts, 
 not to show them. There was a quotation from 
 Goethe which I read many times in its place at 
 the head of an esteemed musical journal now long 
 dead and regretted, the Musical Worlds and every 
 time I read it I wondered the more what it meant : 
 " Music is wholly form and power." Even now 
 that I have learnt to put a meaning to it, the first 
 impression of the words, when I look at them 
 again, is of something apart from Goethe's inten- 
 tion. For words have a first meaning to us apart 
 from that which may be put upon them by deep 
 192 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 193 
 
 study and explanation. The first thought we have 
 when we hear the word " form " is, no doubt, associ- 
 ated with the human form divine, as when we read 
 in the Bible account of the Three Children in the 
 fiery furnace, that "the form of the fourth was 
 like the Son of God " ; while power may bring 
 before our minds the cruel power of a tyrant, or 
 the irresistible force of an Atlantic wave as it 
 rushes up our shore. It is long, very long, before 
 we can bring our English minds to associate the 
 word " power," as well as the polyglot " dynamic 
 nuances " of a late critic, with the alternations and 
 gradations of loud and soft, — the crescendo and 
 diminuendo^ the piano and forte of our music pages. 
 Equally long is it before we can associate the 
 English word form with the musical plan, design 
 or construction to which it has become fixed by 
 translation from the German. 
 
 In the different musical works ana- 
 lysed hitherto in this book, it must have Jq^^^ design 
 
 been felt that there is a principle which or plan in 
 
 7nusic ? 
 runs through them, and which is plainly 
 
 audible to the musical ear, as well as visible to the 
 
 musical eye. A connection could always be found 
 
 binding together the keys that were in the same 
 
 piece of music. The same principle that makes 
 
 the different notes of a key hang round the one 
 
 note that gives its name to the key, makes differ- 
 
 N 
 
194 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 ent keys hang round the chosen principal key, and 
 makes different portions of music hang around 
 that portion which is written in the chosen or 
 principal key. There is more of one key and less 
 of others ; one key makes the starting-point as 
 well as the return home, while others make the 
 variety and diversions. And there is nothing very 
 difficult in all this ; it is but the name and the 
 words used which make it seem difficult. 
 
 For example, every one knows the scale of C 
 on the pianoforte key-board, with its seven white 
 notes, and every one knows the scale of G with 
 six white and one black, Ff. It does not require 
 much analytical skill to look at the tune in Chap. 
 I. called Near Woodstock Town, and to realise 
 that the first phrase of this uses a set of notes 
 which belong only to the scale of C, — viz., C, D, 
 E, F, G and B — while the second uses a set of 
 notes which belong only to the scale of G, — G, A, 
 B, C, D and FJ. Then the third and fourth phrases 
 use the whole of the scale of C and no more, — C, 
 D, E, F, G, A and B. Now if we realise that the 
 scale of any particular note is only the key of that 
 note with all its related notes arranged in a row, 
 we have taken our first lesson in the musical key- 
 design, or plan, or form, of modern classical music. 
 We can now see that, on the principle set down a 
 few words back, the tune makes its start in the 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 195 
 
 chosen key, C, and its home-coming in the same ; 
 while the middle part makes variety by the use 
 of another key which is nearly related to the first. 
 
 It is this principle of relationship between the 
 keys which are used in a composition, and of 
 balance and proportion between the quantity of 
 music in them, and of their position, which makes 
 the chief difference in modern music between music 
 that is classical and music that is not. Now, though 
 this is one principle, there are many ways of apply- 
 ing it. Design does not mean uniformity; pro- 
 portion does not mean similarity. For we may 
 speak of a well-proportioned man or of a well-pro- 
 portioned horse, but their forms are different, and 
 no one expects a man to have a head like that 
 of a horse. So in musical key-design, there is 
 one principle, but many ways of carrying it out. 
 
 There are two other factors in musical design 
 
 o 
 
 which are of less importance in modern classical 
 music than key-design ; but they help much when 
 made to follow the same plan as the other. These 
 are the arrangement of the rhythm and of the 
 musical ideas. 
 
 To find out how these things work in a sym- 
 phony, or in any of those instrumental composi- 
 tions which hang together in groups of movements, 
 we must follow two ways. For one, we must find 
 the connection of key and the contrast of idea and 
 
196 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 rhythm which binds together the different move- 
 ments, making them a whole, united composition ; 
 and for the other, we must find the connection of key 
 and the course of idea and rhythm which makes 
 the design of each movement in the group. 
 
 When writing of home music in England 
 «rS/ (Chap. I.) we spoke of the In nomines 
 in a sy?n- and Fancies that were written for viols 
 ^^■^' and other instruments about Eliza- 
 
 bethan times. In nomines were the earlier kind 
 and were in the same style of writing as the 
 madrigals of the time, and in one movement. 
 Fancies were later, but still in much the same 
 style. Some of Orlando Gibbons' Fancies, how- 
 ever, in the earlier half of the seventeenth century, 
 were in three movements, short though the works 
 were as a whole ; thus they were the beginning 
 of groups of movements in England. On the Con- 
 tinent it was Lulli, in the latter half of the same 
 century, who began grouping movements together. 
 This was in the overtures to his operas. 
 Eariv '^o^ it was no new thing of the time 
 
 overtures. to have an opening strain that should 
 serve as introduction to the play that was to follow. 
 For the plays in England, before Shakespeare, were 
 introduced by old songs sung or tunes played, and 
 again more after each act of the play. In one 
 notable example each act of the play was introduced 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 197 
 
 by pantomime accompanied by a large band of in- 
 struments of the time. Later than this, the early 
 operas of Italian invention had short instrumental 
 preludes, but so slight were they that one of Peri's, 
 in 1600, had but eight bars ; and even Monteverde, 
 with his large band, did not have much more. 
 
 When we come to LuUi and his improvement of 
 French opera in the latter half of the century, the 
 ouverture is one of his great points. He made his 
 overtures of sometimes two, sometimes three, move- 
 ments. Whether Scarlatti imitated Lulli or in- 
 vented for himself matters not ; but a few years 
 later Scarlatti also, in his improvement of opera in 
 Italy, made use of operatic introductions in three 
 movements. 
 
 Very soon we find these groups in instrumental 
 music apart from the opera, when they appear to 
 be a natural development of the Fancies. These 
 are sonate da camera, sonate da chiesa, violin sonatas 
 and concertos — the latter being sonatas for the full 
 band. These all were in groups somewhat similar 
 in their alternation of quick and slow movement. 
 The number of movements varied, three, four or 
 even five. But the overtures generally remained 
 as three, until Gluck improved the opera and with 
 it the connection between overture and opera; then 
 he compressed the overture into a single but com- 
 pletely conceived movement. 
 
198 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 In these early works in groups of Connection 
 movements, beginning from Gibbons, ^y ^^y- 
 
 there was that amount of key connection which is 
 produced by all the movements being in the same 
 key ; though, very soon, variety began by the use 
 of a new key for the middle movement. With 
 this an increase of definiteness must be felt in the 
 design. There is less design in a simple string of 
 pearls, however beautifully they may match, than 
 when a string is looped and graduated in accord- 
 ance with the curve of the throat round which it 
 is to hang. So there is less design in the series 
 of movements in one key that belongs to the Lulli 
 form of Handel's overture to Solomon^ and to the 
 suite of selected dance pieces that was so much 
 used, than in the sonatas of Bach and of Handel 
 for violin, for these latter had a slow movement of 
 different key. Handel's overture to Esther and 
 his Occasional Overture^ too, are of more perfect 
 design, because they have a middle movement in a 
 different key to the rest. This improvement in the 
 design is because there is variety, as well as con- 
 nection in the key — there is more stuff, so to speak, 
 out of which to make the design. 
 
 When we come to Haydn, we find 
 Greater 
 variety in that whether there are three move- 
 
 thekeys. ments, as in most of his pianoforte 
 sonatas, or four, as in his symphonies and quartets. 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 199 
 
 his habit is to put the slow inner movement in a 
 new key. But there is great increase of variety in 
 the relationship of the keys. Sometimes the new 
 key is the dominant of the main key, sometimes 
 the sub-dominant ; or, if he begins in Eb he has 
 the andante in C minor the sub-mediant, or in G 
 minor, the mediant. Another work begins in Eb 
 and, by using a very chromatic relationship, the 
 neapolitan sixth, he has the slow movement in Fb — 
 translated into Ek This is the same relationship, 
 by the way, as the little modulation in Mozart's 
 beautiful Lacrymosa described in Chap. II. 
 
 Beethoven went further in the variety of key 
 which gives connection to the group of movements. 
 In several of his works he put the lighter of the 
 middle movements in a new key, instead of the 
 slow ; while in some of his later quartets and 
 trios, he put both inner movements in other keys 
 than the principal, thereby giving the additional 
 variety of design that comes from the use of two 
 keys related to the main. Spohr did the same, in 
 symphonies and quartets ; and this practice has 
 been followed, in most cases, by all classical writers 
 since, with many modifications according to the 
 taste or fancy of the moment. In this plan, the 
 main key remains the backbone of the design, 
 while the middle movements branch out to other 
 related keys, thereby making variety at the same 
 
200 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 time that they keep the connection in a group. 
 To enumerate examples of this would be to make 
 dry bones out of the beautiful body of music. Let 
 us find out the truth of it when we look for some- 
 thing else. 
 
 Our idea as to the style appropriate to 
 Connection 
 
 by contrast symphonic music has its expression m 
 of movement. ^^^^ ^^^.j^ ^j^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ -^^ ^ 
 
 writer of the twelfth century how great crowds of 
 singers in the North and West of England would 
 pour out their voices "in a kind of symphonic 
 harmony " ; in some parts of the country this 
 would be " multifariously and with many modes 
 and tunes," and in others, some " murmuring the 
 bass," while other voices were " in a soft and 
 pleasing manner warbling the upper." The effect 
 was, as he meant to describe it, grand and rich, 
 without harsh noise. In later times, we hear of 
 the first attempts at a single sonata movement, or 
 suonata as it was called, as being " great swelling 
 masses of sound," and that this music, which was 
 one of the novelties of the early opera days, was 
 intended to be an exhibition of sound, instead of 
 what the new composers deemed the old-fashioned 
 involvements of melody and part-writing of the 
 madrigal age. This grand, harmonic effect has 
 been kept all along as the basis of the symphony 
 or sonata type. 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 201 
 
 Many works in the early days of instrumental 
 music were but vocal music played by instruments ; 
 and these were more or less fugual, or madrigalish, 
 if we may be allowed the word, in their course. 
 Thus they had imitations, more or less close, of 
 the different unrhythmical melodies introduced ; 
 and each idea was carried out to the full before 
 the next one was touched. Their main design, 
 therefore, was on the old - fashioned principle, 
 namely, that of the treatment of the musical idea. 
 When the plan was begun of grouping movements 
 together, the treatment of the idea was still the 
 main source of the design, though rhythm was 
 called in to help in the elaboration of the design. 
 The connection which formed the movements into 
 a group (besides the unity of the key) was made 
 by the contrast between one movement in a grand 
 style and dignified rhythm, with another in a 
 fugual style without phrase rhythm, and again with 
 a third in a dance style and dance rhythm. This 
 was Lulli's form of overture, and probably the 
 dance came from the use of the ballet in French 
 opera. 
 
 Even in two of Orlando Gibbons' Fancies in 
 three movements, sixty years before LuUi, there 
 was contrast between the style of the movements. 
 The first was in common time, and also the last, 
 while the middle was in triple time, and thus a 
 
202 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 predecessor of the modern minuet movement In 
 the first of each set the parts imitated one another 
 closely in madrigal style ; while the latter two, 
 moving all parts together as a complete idea, were 
 of a style in advance of the madrigal. 
 
 The early sonatas long retained a fugual move- 
 ment in many examples ; but the Italian overture, 
 though its early examples had the same series 
 that had been used by Lulli, soon began to change. 
 Whether this change was done by Scarlatti, or not 
 till later, is doubted by some writers ; at all events, 
 tradition has given the name of the " Scarlatti form " 
 to the old Italian overture in three movements 
 that varied from the Lulli form of three move- 
 ments. In their alterations they brought back the 
 grandly harmonious effect of the older suonata even 
 with the allegro movement, and did away with the 
 fugue. Thus the Italian overture, or sinfonia as it 
 was called even when joined to an opera, directly 
 foreshadowed the modern symphony by its manner 
 as well as by its title. In the usual form this 
 sinfonia had a dignified allegro, then a slow move- 
 ment followed by another allegro different to the 
 first Sometimes a short largo preceded the whole. 
 Here, then, was connection by contrast of style. 
 Ha d / Outside of the operatic overture a good 
 the style deal of variety was used in the series. 
 
 ^' Composers were experimenting, and 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 203 
 
 feeling about for the best course to pursue in their 
 sonatas for one or more instruments, and their 
 concertos for full band. When Haydn came, he 
 fixed more clearly the style of each one of the 
 many movements. Instead of the variable alter- 
 nations between a fugual movement and a largo, a 
 rhapsodical piece of recitative and a dance measure. 
 Haydn, by writing so many works of the kind, 
 made it an established custom that a symphony 
 should have its most important movement at the 
 beginning, which should be in that design which 
 we now call the sonata-form, or first movement 
 form — that it should have a slow movement in 
 some sort of singing manner expressive of deep 
 sentiment — a minuet with its second, or alternative 
 minuet — and a finale of a more brilliant allegro 
 than the first. Custom, I say, not rule — for, so 
 long as the dignity of the type and the variety 
 and connection of key are maintained, there is no 
 more compulsion in the matter. 
 
 Haydn dignified the quartet with four move- 
 ments, thus giving it the importance of a symphony; 
 while his pianoforte sonatas he kept to the old 
 overture number of three, and sometimes only two. 
 
 Beethoven, in many cases, gave the symphonic 
 dignity of four movements to pianoforte solos, 
 while he left the three - movement group to the 
 solo concerto, which it has kept to the present day. 
 
204 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 In many of Beethoven's works the dance move- 
 ment of the old group is much changed, and 
 thereby more dignity is brought to the whole. 
 Instead of the minuet and its alternative which 
 Haydn derived from the old sonatas, and from the 
 Lulli overture, Beethoven used a scherzo. This is 
 often a continuous movement of some length, and, 
 instead of the regular, even phrases of the old 
 dance measure, a good deal of variety is made 
 use of, and the rhythm is sometimes broken by 
 slackening the time. Yet liveliness remains the 
 special character of the movement, — liveliness 
 which often amounts to humour. 
 
 rr . . . We said just now that there was no 
 
 Variety tn "' , 
 
 modern compulsion in the special order of 
 
 series. movements. If any one wants novelty 
 
 he has only to invent it, if his genius is great 
 
 enough to show him how to do it well. Let us 
 
 follow out some exceptions to the custom that has 
 
 been described ; we shall find that many of them 
 
 are returns to the old experiments of the days 
 
 before Haydn. 
 
 One of Beethoven's most elaborate quartets, 
 
 the posthumous one in Ct minor, has a fugue for 
 
 its first movement, instead of the now usual form 
 
 which we call sonata-form, or first-movement form. 
 
 This is a return to the old habit of times near to 
 
 the madrigal age, when fugual writing was the 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 205 
 
 natural course for scholastic music to follow. It 
 is not unusual now to have fugues for other move- 
 ments in the series. Mozart's Jupiter symphony 
 has a fugue for the last movement ; so has 
 Beethoven's beautiful sonata in Ab, the last but 
 one in the long list of pianoforte sonatas. Mendels- 
 sohn, too, to come later in history, put a fugue in 
 the finale of one of his quartets. All these give 
 the composition a look-back to old times. 
 
 The air with variations, whether used for a first 
 movement, as in Beethoven's earlier sonata in Ab, 
 — for slow movement, as the movement in C, in 
 his sonata in G, op. 14, No. 2 — or for finale, as in 
 the same composer's symphony in Eb, the Eroica 
 — is a look-back to old-fashioned forms. 
 
 Another look-back is the use of recitative in 
 these groups of movements. We know that the 
 invention of recitative was due to an effort to 
 bring declamatory expression into music, and it 
 was the result of the greater feeling for poetic 
 expression in music. The " song without words " 
 of Mendelssohn's habit was not so new in general 
 meaning as it was in title and in execution ; for, 
 as was remarked just now, instrumental music was 
 for many years but vocal music without voices. 
 Musical declamation, then, was made use of in 
 the sonata groups of old time, and the solo instru- 
 mentalist had to give all the force of expression 
 
2o6 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 he could to the notes and intervals of his music 
 just as if he were a singer, only without the words 
 to explain the cause of his poetic emotion. A 
 most beautiful example of this, in a modern use, 
 is in Beethoven's sonata in Ab, the one just now 
 mentioned as having a fugue for the last move- 
 ment. It is also one of those which have four 
 movements. The recitative, with the arioso which 
 follows it, together resemble the vocal scena 
 and aria^ and take the place of the usual slow 
 movement of Haydn's group. 
 
 After a few introductory chords the first phrase 
 is as it might be for a voice, at the same time that 
 its scope is adapted for an instrument. 
 
 Recit. Piu adagio. 
 
 "i^'^- 
 -^*=^-=^- 
 
 Fed. _ 
 
 w^_ Andante. 
 
 Interludes and vocal phrases alternate till the 
 arioso follows with this beginning : — 
 
 Arioso. IV- 
 
 Dolenti.-J^: 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 207 
 
 
 A sort of parallel between the instrumental 
 recitative and air, with the real vocal music from 
 which it is derived, may be found in the Choral 
 Symphony. In this Beethoven uses declamatory 
 phrases for the violoncellos and double basses, in 
 alternation with cantabile phrases for the rest of 
 the band, just as if the mass of bass strings were 
 a solo voice with the band accompanying and 
 answering, as in the old Italian recitativo accom- 
 pagnato of Scarlatti's invention. Immediately after 
 this passage, the entry of the voices with the same 
 kind of work, confirms this interpretation of the 
 origin of the style. 
 
 All this declamatory music in the 
 Choral Symphony is, in a way, intro- between 
 
 ductory to the final movement. Many '«^^^''^^«^-^- 
 other composers besides Beethoven have made use 
 of a short movement which, like this, leaves off in 
 an unfinished way, and therefore has the effect of 
 leading into the next and more important move- 
 ment. Sometimes it is but a short phrase or two 
 that is used as a link between movements, — and 
 
2o8 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 this, whether by Beethoven, by his successors, or 
 even by his predecessor, Emmanuel Bach, who 
 seems to have done everything that was adopted 
 later as a novelty. In Beethoven's Waldstein 
 sonata this little phrase is much lengthened, but 
 still remains shorter and less complete than an 
 ordinary movement ; it therefore serves as a link 
 between the other two movements, while it does 
 not assert its own individuality. In later writers 
 this little movement between others is given the 
 name of intermezzo, which sometimes appears to 
 be a reason for shortening the whole, as in Schu- 
 mann's pianoforte concerto, and sometimes a 
 device for adding variety without lengthiness to 
 the usual number of four movements. With the 
 latter reason we find it in Sterndale Bennett's 
 symphony in G minor. Here is the usual allegro 
 which is in G minor, and the minuet in Bb, with its 
 trio in Eb ; here is the Romanza, the slow singing 
 movement, in D, and the Rondo Finale in the 
 principal key, G minor. All these are complete 
 movements, each of their own kind and in their 
 own key. But in addition there is a little intro- 
 duction to the minuet ; there is a phrase or two to 
 modulate from the end of the minuet to the 
 beginning of the Romance, and there is a little 
 intermezzo in minuet time between the Romance 
 and ih^ finale. 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 209 
 
 One other device for giving complete- 
 
 Early ideas 
 ness to the design of the group must repeated in a 
 
 be named, one that is a modern treat- ^^^^^ ^'^^'^^l 
 ment of the older habit of design by 
 means of the musical ideas. In the anthem of the 
 madrigal age that we looked at in Chap. II. we 
 found that the ideas (or melodies, as all the ideas 
 were in those days) were collected into masses ; 
 that one idea was made use of to its utmost, — 
 that it was repeated in imitation among all the 
 voices, the different imitations combined in various 
 ways, augmented, diminished, inverted, and sub- 
 jected to all manner of treatment before another 
 was introduced ; and thus that the music became 
 a series of masses, each composed of one melody 
 as its principal material. In modern music, how- 
 ever, the design of the musical ideas has an added 
 completeness given to it by the repetition of first 
 thoughts in a later part ; and fragments or whole 
 divisions of early ideas are introduced into the 
 construction of the later parts. Of the repetitions 
 of whole sections in a single movement we shall 
 have much to say when we come to the special 
 movements. But this repetition when applied to 
 groups of movements is not so common. A rare 
 example in Beethoven's works is the declamation 
 for the basses in the choral symphony just now 
 spoken of; for their phrases are quotations from 
 O 
 
210 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 the earlier movements in the same symphony. 
 The sonata in Ab noticed before as having a fugue 
 for the fi7iale and a short sce7ia and arioso for the 
 slow movement (pp. 205-6), has a great deal of the 
 recitative and arioso repeated in the middle of 
 the fugue. Though a repetition, it sounds anew 
 because of the new and remote key into which it 
 is put (G minor). In other cases, part of the 
 scherzo is repeated in the middle oi th.Q finale. 
 
 Two of Mendelssohn's early quartets, the 
 work of his wonderful youth, make use of 
 the music of the early movements, welding the 
 phrases in among the music of the later move- 
 ments. 
 ^ . ^ It was said, in the early part of this 
 
 tke separate chapter, that we were to follow two 
 movements. 1. . ^ . ^1 , . c 
 
 Imes m tracmg the design of sym- 
 phonic works. We have sketched out "the 
 connection of key, and the contrast of idea and 
 rhythm which bind together the different move- 
 ments into a whole, united composition," we have 
 now to find "the connection of key, and the course 
 of idea and rhythm which make the design of each 
 movement in the group." 
 
 To begin with the simplest — the 
 
 movevmit minuet. Many of these were of no 
 
 of the greater length than the old popular 
 
 symphony. 00 l u 
 
 tune of Near Woodstock Town (p. 31), 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 211 
 
 and their design as simple. Save in this 
 respect, that instead of the one tune being re- 
 peated over and over again, like the ballad-tune, 
 for as many verses as were to be sung, or as many 
 rounds to be danced, there was a second tune to be 
 used in alternation. But the minuet in one of 
 Haydn's symphonies in Eb makes a little change 
 from this original simplicity, for it is stretched out 
 in some places, while contracted in others. It 
 begins as follows : — 
 
 ^^-TJiJg 
 
 And though its first part does not modulate, as 
 Near Woodstock Town, yet it does what has 
 the same effect of coming to a semicolon in 
 writing ; namely, it ends on the dominant chord 
 with what is called a half-close, or half-cadence. 
 Here comes the first stretching-out of the plan ; for 
 the last bar of the phrase, having an accent like 
 the last bar of the example, is repeated twice. 
 This repeated bar makes a little codetta to the 
 first part of the tune. 
 
 The second part of the tune modulates into new 
 keys. The ideas, too, are fragmentary. A few 
 notes resemble the same last bar of the example 
 
212 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 in accent, though the intervals are different and 
 they are drawn on into something quite fresh. 
 The whole of the example is also imitated on 
 different notes, and carried into different music. 
 This makes an end of modulation, and gradually 
 it falls back into a repetition of the first strain. 
 Now it is as it was before, and in its old key. Not 
 quite to its old end though, for, just as we feel we 
 are coming to the former half-close, the music 
 changes, and makes as though it would come to a 
 rest upon the tonic. This expected rest is again 
 averted, and new music grows out into a coda, 
 which brings us after all to the full close 
 (equivalent to a full-stop in writing). All these 
 stretchings-out of the rhythm put the tune out of 
 the simple dance-form, and make it more sym- 
 phonic in character. 
 
 The alternative tune, or trio as it is called, is a 
 little different, though also extended from ordinary 
 ballad, or dance outline. There is a strain in 
 Eb» which ends with a full close. This strain is 
 quite complete, then there comes a middle part 
 wherein are new keys and fragments of the first 
 idea growing into something fresh. Then a repe- 
 tition of the first strain of the trio follows, exactly 
 as it was before, and with the same close to end it. 
 After this the first minuet (p. 211) is to be played 
 again. 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 213 
 
 Beethoven sometimes used the quiet, Scherzo a 
 graceful manner of the minuet ; but he jest instead 
 oftener used, in its place in the group, ^J ^ ^ 
 a quicker measure which has generally had the 
 name of scherzo. In fulfilment of the jocular title, 
 the scherzo in Beethoven's C minor symphony 
 begins as in the next example. There is a degree 
 of apparent solemnity about the first few notes, as 
 they come from the heavy bass instruments, that 
 makes one wonder where the joke is going to be ; 
 but as the higher, softer sounds come out with the 
 end of the phrase, we feel it as a smile drawn from 
 an unwilling face. 
 
 Allegro. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 L-fez* 
 
 1 I t,-:^ - 
 
 pp 
 
 poco rit. 
 
 ^^^pmm 
 
 :etc. 
 
 Sva bassa. 
 
 \L/ 
 
 Here, then, is a ritardando, with a pause, that 
 deprive the movement of any ordinary dance 
 character, unless we can think of it in connection 
 with the curtsey in the Lancers. After this, some 
 curious horn-notes, loud and repeated, accompanied 
 with staccato notes from the strings, carry the 
 music into other keys. A repetition of the opening 
 
214 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 is in another key, and carried on differently, 
 bringing back the repeated notes newly continued. 
 Soon the first phrase and main key return again 
 somewhat altered, decorated, and brought to a 
 full close. This is the first full close of the move- 
 ment. Two or three bars of the repeated notes 
 form a codetta. All this represents the first 
 minuet of Haydn's example, but much longer, 
 and, being without the stops in the rhythm, much 
 more continuous. After this the basses bustle off 
 with a new idea for the trio (answering to the 
 alternative minuet). It is C major now. They 
 are almost incoherent in their garrulity, and are 
 imitated in turn by the tenors, the second violins 
 and the first violins ; in fact it is carried out as 
 a tiny fugue. Here is old fashion again. To- 
 wards the end the bustle dies away, and the soft 
 wind instruments bring peace and quiet into the 
 atmosphere. There is no full close at the end 
 of the trio, but it drops into a return of the 
 scherzo. This return gives us the whole of the 
 beginning and of the ending, which were in the 
 main key ; but in place of the long middle part 
 with many keys, we have but a few bars, and 
 those in yet another key. At the former end of 
 the scherzo there was a full close, but this time 
 the close is avoided in a curious manner. For, 
 though the indefinite sound of the drum gives 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 215 
 
 the tonic note, C, hovering on throughout the 
 coda, even into the last chord, the more definite 
 sounds of the bass strings have Ab, and they 
 presently move about, and rest upon G. By this 
 they do away with any sensation of resting that 
 might belong to the drum note, and the close 
 becomes one with a double meaning. 
 
 Finally, the scherzo bursts into the last move- 
 ment as full of joy as it might be. Here, then, 
 is the connection between two movements that 
 was spoken of before — a connection made by the 
 fact that the last chord of the scherzo requires 
 the first note of the finale in order to complete 
 the cadence. There is a connection of idea, too, 
 between the two movements, made by the repe- 
 tition of a phrase out of the scherzo in the 
 middle of the finale ; for there the time changes 
 back to that of the scherzo for a few bars, 
 and the repeated horn-notes come in a different 
 guise. 
 
 Beethoven sometimes repeated the 
 trio after the second time of the scherzo, 
 and in such a case the scherzo came again for 
 a third time, when it might be either shortened 
 or extended. Schumann made two distinct trios 
 instead of simply repeating the same. This made 
 a more complete composition for the whole extent. 
 Thus in Schumann's C symphony the scherzo is of 
 
2i6 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 rapid, animated manner, in C, and the first trio, a 
 legato strain in another time and key. The 
 scherzo repeated, another trio follows in contra- 
 puntal manner and in a third key ; while the 
 scherzo comes again for a third time, and a coda 
 growing from it, completes the movement. 
 
 All these changes in the course of this lighter 
 movement in the group tend to give it a more 
 continuous design than the alternative dance tunes 
 of the old way, while they allow liveliness to be 
 kept as the characteristic, thus contrasting the 
 movement with the other three, which are gener- 
 ally more serious. 
 
 No lono-er Mendelssohn cast away the last 
 triple time, resemblance to the old minuet when 
 he turned the scherzo into a f or a f movement, 
 If we think of the dance at all, in his scherzos, it 
 is the dance of fairies and elves, among whom his 
 music tripped as merrily as any. Some one has 
 said that he and Shakespeare went hand in hand 
 among such small folk, as befitted great minds to 
 be small on the right occasion. For brilliance and 
 charm we need never go further than Mendelssohn 
 in his scherzos; and all the time the natural 
 exuberance is guided into the most accurate of 
 designs. Sometimes they are one long connected 
 movement of the same shape as the usual first 
 movement : such is the scherzo of the Scotch 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 217 
 
 symphony. At other times they are a kind of 
 capriccio, yet with the main principle of key-form 
 running through them. 
 
 As we found before, the customary jhe song 
 symphony, as left by Haydn, had " a r^^ovemenL 
 slow movement in some sort of singing manner ex- 
 pressive of deep sentiment " (p. 203). This is one 
 of the legacies left us by the days of early instru- 
 mental music when " it was but vocal music played 
 by instruments " (p. 201 ). See how that legacy has 
 been treasured up by the long line of composers, 
 ever since those days ! See how many different 
 ways this movement, essentially a song, has been 
 made lovely and attractive to all kinds of hearers ! 
 
 Here, too, we may begin with the ballad-tune. 
 There is a tune, little more than the ballad-tune of 
 Near Woodstock Town, in its squareness of 
 rhythm, in the slow movement of Beethoven's 
 sonata in D, sometimes called Pastorale. It has 
 a second strain of alternative, after which the first 
 returns and is wound up by a little coda. Yet 
 there is room for the utmost expression in this 
 little movement. 
 
 There is another little tune in the slow move- 
 ment of the Sonate Pathetique, where the ballad- 
 like repetitions of the tune are separated and yet 
 connected by melodies of a more fragmentary 
 nature. 
 
2i8 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 There is another, which is a reminder of the old 
 days of English round-singing (pp. 16-20), in the 
 slow movement of Beethoven's symphony in A, 
 wherein the different parts in turn take up the 
 melody phrase by phrase, each part continuing 
 while the new ones enter — a burden going on the 
 while in the bass part. 
 
 More elaborate, we must next put the recitativo 
 and arioso of Beethoven's sonata in Ab already 
 described (p. 206). It is essentially a song, but a 
 song of less square rhythm than the ballad-like 
 strains just mentioned. 
 
 Other works are none the less songs that they 
 are such as no human voice could compass ; but 
 they are, rather, developments out of the vocal 
 kind made suitable for the instrument which has 
 to sing them. The middle movement of Men- 
 delssohn's violin concerto is one of these ; it is a 
 perfect vocal work. Here is a long train of thought 
 for the solo violin, with its companion band to 
 interlude and support it, just as they would a solo 
 singer. The music passes through several kindred 
 ideas and is complete in its own key, though there 
 is slight modulation in its course. This train of 
 thought done and closed, there is another one, long, 
 elaborate and in another key. This leaves off in 
 an unfinished way, falling into a shortened version 
 of the first train of thought and key. The two 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 219 
 
 thoughts are closely connected by their keys, the 
 first in C and the second in A minor, while the 
 musical ideas of the two are contrasted. Both 
 deeply emotional, the first is as calm as the second 
 is agitated. The end of this movement is con- 
 nected, by a little intermezzo^ with the finale of 
 the concerto. 
 
 Thousrh it would seem quite fair ^ , , 
 
 ^ ^ Concerted 
 
 that a solo concerto, such as the fore- song for the 
 
 going, should have a solo song for its orchestra. 
 
 slow movement, an orchestral work has larger 
 
 possibilities. True the beautiful Romanza in 
 
 Sterndale Bennett's G minor symphony has been 
 
 called a song without words for the violas, because 
 
 the body of violas are treated as a kind of solo, 
 
 and have the chief part of the singing to do ; but 
 
 in many orchestral song movements the singing 
 
 is divided between different instruments, as the 
 
 interesting phrases should be divided between the 
 
 voices in a concerted piece of vocal music. Let 
 
 us look at one in which not only this takes place 
 
 but the outline of the whole movement is more 
 
 elaborate. 
 
 The andante cantabile in Mozart's symphony 
 
 in C, the Jupiter, begins with a few declamatory 
 
 phrases for the violins, who are the singers at first, 
 
 while other instruments support them with chords. 
 
 This begins as follows : — 
 
220 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 Andante cantabile Full Band. 
 
 Violins. 
 
 Violas & Basses. 
 
 The singing of the violins goes on in more flowing 
 fashion. Now a hautboy comes in to colour the 
 violins and presently a flute takes his place an 
 octave higher, while the violoncellos double it an 
 octave lower. Then the higher instruments wait, 
 while violoncellos and violas have a singing phrase 
 like the violins' opening, which is answered by the 
 violins. All this has been in the key of F. 
 Presently a new idea, an agitated one, is divided 
 between the upper and lower instruments answer- 
 ing one another, while middle ones accompany. 
 This is in C minor and serves to introduce a new 
 thought in C major, beginning as follows : — 
 
 
 .etc. 
 
 A new voicing comes with this new thought and 
 key, for there is a quartet of song, while the 
 horns hold a long note as a sort of atmosphere of 
 sound, and the second violins play a harp-like 
 accompaniment. All this winds through new 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 221 
 
 phrases till a little decoration given to the violins 
 is imitated by the flute in tiny melodies and they 
 go on to and fro while others are playing arpeggios, 
 smooth melodies or even light bass notes. A 
 close in the key of C makes the end of the first 
 part. After this close there is a short time when 
 everything is more broken and fragmentary, 
 whether key, idea or rhythm ; larger things are 
 cut, while lesser things are extended. Fragments 
 of the agitated thought that was before in C minor 
 are here in rapidly-changing keys. The little turn 
 that formed the close of the first part is repeated 
 and echoed from second violin to first, and from 
 flute to hautboy, and thus makes a gradual de- 
 scent through a chain of beautiful discords into a 
 repetition of the first thought and key. 
 
 Many movements would make this repetition of 
 the first thought just what it was before. This 
 one, however, is repetition with variety. It begins 
 alike, but speedily there is decoration — quicker 
 notes come in one voice, then answered in another. 
 Part comes in a new key, the nearly related sub- 
 dominant. More decorations come and these at 
 last turn into a course of their own, distinct from 
 the old strain, and we have what some call an 
 episodical idea, — that is, one which we have not 
 had before in the movement, an event which was 
 not in the old story. Presently this drops back 
 
222 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 into an old thought, the quartet song on p. 220. 
 This really was the idea of second importance in 
 the early part. It was then in C, but now, as we 
 have had enough of variety and are due to come 
 home again from our wanderings, we want the 
 main key of the piece to help to draw the movement 
 to an end. For this reason, therefore, this old idea 
 is changed by being put into F. It is quite fresh 
 in sound compared with what it was before in the 
 other key, and yet it has more of home-coming 
 about it, because of its being the main key. Now 
 we have all the music that was before in this idea, 
 only a few changes that might be suggested by the 
 transposition having made the music higher or 
 lower, and therefore more suitable for different 
 instruments. Some phraselets that were high in 
 the violins are now low in the bassoons, some that 
 were in the bassoons are now in the horns, while 
 some that were low down in the horns are now 
 high up in the violins. Instead of stopping at the 
 cadence, an extra grant of beauty comes. Just as 
 if we were going to repeat the whole first part, the 
 first example (p. 220) comes again ; but the answer- 
 ing phrase is repeated, broken and lengthened. It 
 is only a little coda, after all, that serves to make 
 the end seem more final. 
 
 Finale ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ musical misfortunes 
 
 moveme?tt. ^h^t we make the same words do duty 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 223 
 
 for many meanings. We have 2i finale to an opera, 
 and a finale to symphonic works, but different 
 courses are followed in their construction. An 
 o^QVdi finale is a chain of movements, while a sym- 
 phony y?;?^/^ is but one. Generally lighter than a 
 first movement in artistic development, it is lighter 
 than the slow in emotional tendency, while it is 
 more elaborate than the minuet, or whatever other 
 manner of movement may take the place of the 
 old dance. 
 
 Custom has given more variety of design to the 
 final movement than to either the first or the 
 minuet. Many finales are written as rondos. 
 
 How far old poetry has been the sue^- 
 
 ^ / -^ ^ Compare 
 
 gestion of this form, one cannot say ; Rondo with 
 
 perhaps it is the natural process which Roundel. 
 
 carries on everything from one stage to another 
 
 in waves — from simple to division, and from 
 
 division again to compression and so to division 
 
 again. At least, we may take the old poem as a 
 
 comparison to help us to understand the less easily 
 
 defined musical form. Look back to Chaucer's 
 
 roundel in Chap. I. Here are three lines which 
 
 contain the principal thought or subject of the 
 
 poem, the welcome to summer — 
 
 " Now welcom Somer, with thy sonne softe, 
 That hast this wintre's v/eders over-shake, 
 And driven awey the long nightes blake ! " 
 
224 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS 'MADE OF 
 
 At one time we thought this might have been 
 sung as an accompaniment to the rest, like the 
 burden. Well, there are often two ways of doing 
 a thing, even besides the old rule of the right way 
 and the wrong way ; and when we do not know 
 which is the right, we may as well consider two 
 ways as possible. 
 
 Next after this first or principal subject of the 
 poem comes a branch idea or episode, wherein the 
 poet talks of something else which is related to 
 the original idea ; it is a contrast and yet con- 
 nected. 
 
 " Seynt Valentyn, that art ful by on-lofte ; 
 Thus singen smale foules for thy sake." 
 
 These lines are connected, not merely by the 
 general sense that St Valentine has to do with 
 birds, but by the grammatical sense of the words 
 Thus singen, which make necessary the repetition 
 of Now welcom Sonier, in order to finish the 
 sentence. That is to say, that " smale foules " are 
 to sing " now welcom." It is an old saying that 
 birds begin to sing on St Valentine's Day. 
 
 The return of the original thought has just so 
 much of the words as will serve to tell us what the 
 poet is thinking about. 
 
 Now a new thought comes which we may call 
 a second episode — 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 225 
 
 " Wei ban they cause for to gladen ofte, 
 Sith ech of hem recovered hath his make, 
 Ful blisful may they singen whan they wake." 
 
 Like the first episode, this is kindred with, yet 
 diverse from the principal subject ; and like it, 
 too, it falls into the same, " Ful blisful may they 
 singen. . . . Now welcom Somen" 
 
 This final coming round of the principal thought 
 makes the complete roundel. 
 
 Every minuet and trio follows this rondo prin- 
 ciple up to a certain point. That is to say, there 
 is a first complete strain, as complete as the " Now 
 welcom Somer " with its two lines following. This 
 is the first minuet. Then there is a second strain, 
 to match the two lines about " Seynt Valentyn " ; 
 this is the trio or alternative minuet. Then comes 
 again the first minuet, like the return of " Now 
 welcom Somer," except that it is complete as the 
 final return of that. But the ordinary minuet and 
 trio stops there. When we get to some of the 
 scherzos of Beethoven which have the trio repeated 
 and the initial tune played thrice, we are a step 
 nearer the poem roundel of two episodes. And 
 when we get to Schumann's two distinct trios we 
 are nearer still to the poem. 
 
 Most trios keep one difference from the episodes 
 of the roundel, in that they are complete in them- 
 selves. Some of the final movements of Haydn's 
 P 
 
226 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 sonatas have this effect in the episodes. One can 
 hardly feel a similar effect in any of the verbal 
 rondos or roundels. In the northern song, " We're 
 a' noddin', nid, nid, noddin' at our house at home " 
 is the principal thought — it is for joy that "Jamie 
 he's come home," and the episodes are connected 
 together as a story, while they all fall into the 
 repetitions of the principal thought. " When he 
 knocket at the door, I thocht I kent the rap. And 
 little Katie cried aloud, My daddie he's come back ! 
 . . . Noo we're a' noddin' with joy." 
 
 Even in the whimsical " Butter and eggs, and a 
 pound of cheese," of Calverley — while the principal 
 subject, with the poetic license of the caricaturist, 
 has no sort of connection with the episodes, these 
 themselves have an incompleteness which binds 
 them together as a sort of story. With the musical 
 rondo with complete episodes, however, the real 
 connection is of the same kind as that between 
 groups of movements — it is the relation of the 
 keys and the contrast of the style. Look in the 
 little slow movement of Beethoven's that was 
 named first in our list of cantabile movements 
 (p. 217). There is the opening strain in D minor, 
 which is legato in style ; this contrasts and is con- 
 nected with the alternative which is in D major 
 and is of a livelier mood. 
 
 But in well-developed rondos it is more often the 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 227 
 
 case that the episodes are unfinished, so that they 
 
 require the repetition of the other part to complete 
 
 them. They end with a chord belonging to the 
 
 key of the returning strain ; and this is just in the 
 
 same way as in the Chaucer roundel, the birds are 
 
 to "singen. Now welcom Somen" The slow 
 
 movement of Mendelssohn's violin concerto (p. 218) 
 
 does this, with one episode ; while an example 
 
 with several episodes is the pretty movement 
 
 which ends Beethoven's pianoforte 
 
 ^ A real 
 
 sonata in E, op. 14. Here the first rondo 
 
 episode is in B and is repeated in A in finale, 
 
 the place of the third episode, while the middle one 
 is in G, a more distant relation. Every one of 
 them work round to their end upon the dominant 
 chord of the key of the main subject, and so lead 
 naturally into the return of the first thought. 
 
 The longer the work, the more do these episodes 
 become extended, and the rhythm more broken. 
 The design thus becomes of more interest in com- 
 parison with the simple alternations of the old 
 minuet and trio. There is a verbal likeness to 
 this in some old poems and ballads, in which parts 
 of the story were told in prose between rhythmic 
 verses of the poem. The old French romance 
 Aucassin et Nicolete is a beautiful example of this, 
 in a refined style of work.^ 
 
 ^ Edited and translated into English by F. W. Bourdillon. 
 
228 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 Rougher examples of the same kind of thing are 
 not unknown in the story-telling days of old 
 ballads, Scotch and others. 
 
 Something of this prose effect is in the middle 
 episode of the movement last mentioned ; but still 
 more is in thej^«<a:/(? of Beethoven's pianoforte con- 
 certo in Eb, known as the Emperor. The principal 
 subject begins thus : — 
 
 I 
 
 %va bassa. 
 
 It is a finished idea, that is, it ends with a full 
 close or cadence in its own key. From this close 
 the music begins again, but soon turns off from the 
 key, with long phrases of less regular rhythmic 
 manner, and so goes into the first episode. This, 
 beginning as follows, is a distinct strain in a new 
 key. 
 
 
 :fc=^ 
 
 letc. 
 
 doice. z^vrv 
 
 m- 
 
 Without making a full close, this episode turns 
 back to the original thought as above. Like the 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 229 
 
 first repetition of " Now welcom Somer," the music 
 is not the whole of what came at first, but "just 
 enough to tell us what the poet is thinking about." 
 Here it makes a full close. After this all sorts of 
 play is made with fragments of the old ideas — the 
 first example and little bits taken out of later parts. 
 They are put into new keys, broken up, extended, 
 and put into the mouths of other instruments than 
 they were before. This, the middle episode, goes on 
 for a long time, like the prose relation we spoke of, 
 till a long unrhythmic passage of arpeggios brings 
 back the dominant of the old key ; and while the 
 solo instrument is making a long shake upon this 
 note, waiting, as it were, for the cadence to make a 
 stop, the band steals in almost imperceptibly with 
 the first thought again. From hence we have the 
 music from the beginning (as if the " Now welcom, 
 Somer," of the roundel) with its full close. Then 
 comes again the music that introduced the first 
 episode (p. 228). It is in the main key this time, 
 for we have had new keys enough, and we want 
 the home-coming effect now. Still, a fragment is 
 in a new key, which was before in the main ; so 
 that we have not quite put away novelty. From 
 this last little novelty the main idea returns in 
 full, as if " Now welcom Somer," had returned 
 again after a third episode. Now, however, any 
 change that is made in it is by the avoidance of 
 
230 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 anything that might suggest going onwards. It 
 is all suggestive of winding-up or ending ; there 
 is much iteration of dominant and tonic chords, 
 and insistence on full closes again and again. The 
 music is, in fact, playing the part of coda as well 
 as that of the last time of the subject. 
 
 Many movements of this elaborate kind of rondo 
 are hard to distinguish from the design generally 
 belonging to first movements. The difference 
 must be looked for in the comparative importance 
 of the principal subject over the episodes, and the 
 decided nature of its close compared with those of 
 the episodes. It is a matter of instinctive feeling, 
 in some cases, to find out where the prominent 
 points are placed and what is their relative pro- 
 portion. It is so with the final rondos of Brahms' 
 orchestral serenades in D and in A. 
 
 The rondo is perhaps the modern form which 
 is most affected by the position of its ideas ; 
 especially is this in the elaborate kinds where 
 so much of the main key is used at the end that 
 the sub-division can only be found by the groups 
 of ideas. On the other hand, there are rondos 
 where the form is only indicated by the key ; this 
 is in vocal music chiefly. In them the principal 
 subject is represented by the main key, which 
 comes round and round with either old or new 
 ideas ; while the episodes are ever new ideas 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 231 
 
 with different keys more or less related to the 
 principal. 
 
 0\}i\^x finales are written, definitely, in pinaUs in 
 the same design that more specially for7n of first 
 belongs to the first movement of the 
 usual group. Perhaps those intended as finales 
 may be more brilliant and gay than a first move- 
 ment usually is, but they are none the less in- 
 teresting and full of art. The finale of Mozart's 
 symphony in C, known as \.\\t Jupiter y follows the 
 usual course of a first movement, and is at the same 
 time a fugue with all the devices oi point counter 
 pointy of imitation, inversion and all that can make 
 a fugue into the most elaborate work. Yet for 
 brilliance and beauty of general effect it is un- 
 equalled. 
 
 Like a "bonne bouche" we keep the „. , 
 
 ^ ^ First move- 
 
 best for the end of the chapter. It is ment or 
 
 in the first movement of a symphony ^^^^ a-jorm, 
 that the greatest efforts of the composer are put 
 forth ; and we must not think it strange if a propor- 
 tionate difficulty be felt by the listening artist, who 
 would understand all that has been intended in it. 
 Much that we have said as to lesser movements 
 will help to explain the course of this larger one. 
 For instance, the old tune of Near Woodstock 
 Town (p. 32) is a miniature of the usual design 
 of a first movement. As we pointed out in the 
 
232 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 early part of this chapter, the tune agrees with 
 the general principle of key-form, because it begins 
 with enough music in C to decide it to be the main 
 key of the piece, and because the tune modulates 
 in the middle and then ends with a large propor- 
 tion in that main key. This makes a proportion 
 or balance in the keys. Now let us further realise 
 that, besides agreeing with this general principle, 
 the tune agrees with a special design because, 
 about half-way through, it makes a decided stop 
 Half-way ^^ the chord of G, which is the domi- 
 rest. nant of the main key of C. It is this 
 
 half-close, or rest upon the dominant at the end of 
 about half of the movement, which is the distin- 
 guishing feature of the design called the sonata 
 form, or first-movement form. We can trace it 
 through all movements, however large, that belong 
 to that kind of design. It is in the Haydn minuet 
 (p. 21 1) where there is a half-close at the double- 
 bar. If this stop had been a full close, as in the 
 alternative trio of the same minuet, the special 
 design would have been some kind of rondo, instead 
 of being the little sonata that it is. 
 
 The slow movement of Mozart described before 
 (p. 219, etc.) is a longer example of the sonata 
 design. Being in F, it comes to its half-way rest 
 upon the dominant when it closes in the key of 
 C at the end of the first part (p. 221). 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 233 
 
 All these movements, however short or long, 
 make a final end by a full close on the tonic of 
 their own key, and this makes a balance with the 
 half-close in the middle of the movement. 
 
 Now note another item in the design Sonata first 
 of the tune Near Woodstock Town, P^^^- 
 
 Half of the first part of the tune is in C, while the 
 second half of that part is in G. Look at the ex- 
 ample on page 32. Technically, we call that the 
 division of the first part into subjects ; one being 
 the tonic subject, the other the dominant subject. 
 Let us now look to a larger specimen of the same. 
 Not the Haydn minuet, though many minuets 
 have it, but the Mozart slow movement. Here is 
 the long stretch of music in F beginning with 
 the first example (p. 220), which seems to lose 
 itself in an unfinished way into the portion in C 
 minor. Then comes a clearly defined strain in C 
 major, which continues from the second example 
 to the bar before the double bar. So the whole 
 of that first part is divided, like that of the Wood- 
 stock tune, into the portion in F, or tonic subject, 
 and the portion in C major, or dominant subject. 
 The fragment in C minor is only an appendage, or 
 dwindling away of the first subject. 
 
 After the half-way rest, the course of Second half 
 the design is to bring back the main of the design. 
 key, and so to travel home again to the full 
 
234 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 close in order to make the balance. In the 
 Woodstock tune, being so short an example of 
 the design, all the second part therefore is in the 
 main key of C. The Haydn minuet is more de- 
 veloped, for musical idea comes into play to help 
 the design of the key. Here the former idea 
 (p. 21 1) is brought back along with the former 
 key (p. 212), and is carried on to a full close. 
 
 More development still is in the plan of the 
 Mozart movement, for here there are two distinct 
 subjects in the earlier half. These then are both 
 " recapitulated " (as the technical word is), where 
 the F strain comes back rather more than half- 
 way through the movement (see p. 221). But in 
 order to make this a return of key as well as idea 
 all through this part, the second or dominant 
 subject is transposed into the main key (p. 222), 
 and so carried on to the close. 
 
 ^ ^ Two more points are to be noticed in 
 
 Free fan- ^ 
 
 tasia and the second half of the design. These 
 
 ^^^'^' are not in the Woodstock tune, for they 
 
 are means of lengthening and of making works of 
 more importance. In the Haydn minuet, after the 
 half-way rest, or close on the dominant, there was 
 music that was fragmentary in idea and changing 
 in key. Some of it was like fragments of the first 
 part, and some was new. This is a way of stretch- 
 ing out the second part, which sometimes has the 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 235 
 
 name oi fantasia ox free fantasia. It is a name 
 which, tracing from the old days of Fancies or 
 Phantasies, points to the fragmentary or changeful 
 nature of the rhythm, ideas and keys. The same 
 sort of thing, more largely carried out, is in the 
 Mozart slow movement, after the close in C, 
 "when everything is more broken," before the 
 return to the first subject in F (p. 221). 
 
 The coda, on the other hand, is a lengthening 
 out at the end of the movement In the Haydn 
 minuet it grows out of the averted cadence. When 
 we had come to the end of the repetition of the 
 first part (p. 212) and we thought of a close, it came 
 not, but new music came instead of it. This was 
 the coda or tail-piece. In the Mozart, too, we 
 were at the end of repeating in F what was before 
 in C. Here the expected full close or cadence 
 came (p. 222), but not the expected stop upon it ; 
 fresh music out of old grew on till we were satis- 
 fied. This was the coda. So the fantasia stretches 
 the second part at its entry, while the coda does 
 the same duty at its end. 
 
 Now to a real first movement. Very 
 generally, the real first movement is ideas in a 
 much longer than any other movement fi^^^ move- 
 m the same sort of ground-plan ; and 
 one way of getting this length is by having many 
 distinct ideas in the different groups or divisions of 
 
236 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 key. Thus in Mozart's Eb symphony, the first 
 movement (after the introduction) begins with the 
 thought (a) in the next example. This is carried 
 on for some time, and immediately on its close, 
 another comes, beginning as (d), and is carried 
 on to a close. At this close a third (c) begins 
 immediately. 
 
 (a) Allegro. 
 
 Violins 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 (3) I All. 
 
 Wi- 
 
 tJLJL-L-LJ -¥ 
 
 -f ^' 
 
 :etc. 
 
 Violins. I^fe.^ 
 
 Basses and Wind. 
 
 :etc. 
 
 It is during the course of this third idea that the 
 music becomes made of the notes of the key of 
 F, and this is as a preparation for the dominant 
 subject which is near at hand. After the end of 
 this long third idea the dominant subject begins 
 in the key of Bb- 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 237 
 
 Violins. 
 
 Basses. ^ _-— 
 
 S^'<^ /'fli-.va 
 
 
 B t? quavers throughout in bass. 
 
 After a repetition of this, a new thought grows 
 out of it, then three or four others, all short, but 
 carried out to different lengths, and all answering 
 and continuing one another. So that in the tonic 
 subject, or division in Eb, we have had several ideas, 
 and also in the dominant, or division in Bb- Now 
 comes a full close in the key in which was all this 
 second subject. This close is the half-way rest of 
 the movement. 
 
 It is not invariably that there are several ideas 
 in a first or a second subject. Sometimes there 
 may be several in either, but not in both subjects. 
 In Mozart's G minor symphony, for instance, there 
 is but one in the first subject, beginning thus : — 
 Allegro molto. Violins in 8vas. I 1^ 
 
 ^§^^=^^ 
 
 i=z:^ 
 
 Violas & Basses. 
 
238 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 -3. -^ ^^==M i~J: 
 
 letc. 
 
 .^ %^ 
 
 But it is given twice, each time with a different 
 course after the first beginning. The first time it 
 goes on in G minor up to a half-close ; the second 
 time it soon turns off into Bb and F with a 
 different course of idea, and so to the half-close 
 just before the second subject enters. The second 
 subject, on the other hand, has several ideas, as 
 well as several ways of carrying them on. First 
 comes (a) in the next example ; it is carried to a 
 close, and at once begins again, is then turned off 
 from the close into new music and lengthened. At 
 the close of this in its turn, another idea begins, (d) 
 in the next example. 
 
 Strings. 
 
 
 All in 8ves 
 
 From the close of this a little play is made with 
 a fragment of the opening thought of the move- 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 239 
 
 ment (p. 237) in conjunction with a new one in 
 
 other instruments. These are repeated with the 
 
 higher melodies lowered and the lower ones raised, 
 
 while the whole is carried on to a new end, which 
 
 is the close of the first part. 
 
 The rhythm of first movements is more 
 
 Varying 
 various than that of other movements. rhytJun of 
 
 This p-ivcs more continuousness to the first ?nove- 
 ° rnents. 
 
 effect of the music. For instance, the 
 
 opening idea of this G minor symphony (p. 237) 
 
 begins with two phrases of the ordinary 4-bar 
 
 rhythm, but its continuation is of short phrases 
 
 united into one long one, while the second time of 
 
 the same idea begins with the ordinary phrase, 
 
 and continues into longer ones of various length. 
 
 After the first part of the ordinary ^ 
 
 first movement, with its two subjects, of ideas and 
 
 there follows the part which is called ^^^' 
 
 the fantasia ox free fantasia. This is in the same 
 
 order as in the Haydn minuet and the Mozart 
 
 slow movement already described. In this free 
 
 fantasia are mostly the former ideas, but they are 
 
 broken up and placed in new company, while the 
 
 rhythm is cut and changed in all ways. Above 
 
 all, the keys are quickly changed, and the main 
 
 tonic and its dominant are generally avoided. 
 
 Generally, we say, because in some cases the main 
 
 tonic begins this part as a sort of introduction ; or 
 
240 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 a fragment may come in the course. But it is so 
 blended with others and with new keys, that we 
 have no time to recognise it save as a passing 
 acquaintance of the many new keys through which 
 we are moving. So in the G minor movement, 
 just after the close of the first part (the half-way 
 rest of the whole movement) we have the be- 
 ginning idea (p. 237); but it is in FJf minor 
 instead of G minor, and only the first eight bars. 
 Then the last bars of this fragment are repeated, 
 but in E minor. From here we go into G major, 
 and four bars only of the tune part are put in the 
 bass, while a new top is written. Now the music 
 goes to D minor, and the same four bars are in the 
 upper part, while the new top descends to the bass. 
 All this time a few stray notes in the wind instru- 
 ments serve to thicken the atmosphere of music. 
 Now we are in C, the four bars of tune go into the 
 bass, and the new top again into the violin part, to 
 be reversed again in Bb and extended, and again 
 in D minor. Presently only the first bar of the 
 thought is used, but tossed backwards and forwards 
 from violins to flutes and hautboys, with a holding 
 note of the bassoon to keep them together. Next 
 the play is between all the strings together on the 
 one hand, and all the wood-wind on the other, 
 while the key changes every three or four bars — 
 Bb minor, C minor, G minor. Then a yet shorter 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 241 
 
 fragment is used, no more than three notes, from 
 one to another, in changing harmonies. Finally, 
 on a held D, first in the bassoons and after in the 
 horns, the flutes and hautboys die down to the 
 close in G. Upon the last notes of their closing 
 phrase the violins steal in with the opening idea 
 (p. 237) again in the old key, and from thence go 
 on with the recapitulation of the whole first and 
 second subjects. 
 
 This fantasia section of the G minor symphony 
 is all made of the initial and most important idea 
 of the first part. The corresponding fantasia of 
 the Eb symphony, on the other hand, is made 
 principally of a fragment that occurred in the 
 very last bars of both the first and the second 
 subjects ; an insignificant trifle in itself, which 
 becomes interesting by the changes of key and 
 the involvements of the different parts that have 
 the fragment. 
 
 The keys of this section are sometimes closely 
 connected with the main one ; so it is in this Eb 
 symphony. In the G minor one there is another 
 way, for the division starts with a key which is 
 not at all related, and gradually comes round to 
 nearer ones for the home-coming. Other sym- 
 phonies are treated by a contrary process, for the 
 division begins with keys that are near relations, 
 and falls into a distant one for the last item of 
 Q 
 
242 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 variety before the home-coming. This was the 
 course noticed in Chap. II. with reference to the 
 Hostias in Mozart's Requiem (p. 85). 
 Return of For after all, this fantasia brings us 
 first part. ^^ck again to the old key; its object 
 is to renew or refresh the effect of the old key, 
 the old ideas and rhythm. Then comes one of 
 the chief beauties of the design, namely, the 
 return of the first part ; when the balance of the 
 whole begins to be felt, — when all seems familiar 
 and yet " refreshed," to use an expression of Pro- 
 fessor Macfarren's, because of the variety we have 
 had just before. In the Eb symphony, after the 
 fantasia just spoken of, the whole of the first sub- 
 ject which was in Eb comes again ; and where it 
 before began to move towards Bb, a change takes 
 place. The music which was in Bb is now in Eb, 
 and therefore it sounds quite new though the 
 actual course is the same as before ; and with a 
 short coda growing out of this the movement 
 closes. 
 
 So far this is a complete development 
 made in the o^ the design of a first movement. But 
 
 course of the many variations have been made in the 
 design. 
 
 filling up of this usual course. 
 
 To begin at the beginning, or rather before the 
 
 beginning, some movements have an introduction. 
 
 In some cases this introduction is made of con- 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 243 
 
 tinual changes of key, like a free fantasia, while 
 others have definite strains with a good deal of 
 the main key. Sometimes the introduction is 
 repeated at the end of the movement, as in 
 Mendelssohn's Scotch symphony, where the actual 
 movement is compacted between the introduction 
 and its repetition. 
 
 A very interesting way of putting the intro- 
 duction into closer connection with the following 
 part is when phrases from the slow introduction 
 are used in the course of the quicker movement. 
 This is done in Mendelssohn's Ruy Bias overture 
 (for overtures in one movement closely resemble 
 the form of a first movement). In other works 
 the fragment of introduction is not only repeated 
 in its old time, but also changed into that of the 
 quick, and so composed into the rest of the quick 
 music. This is done in the coda of Haydn's Eb 
 symphony (of which the minuet has already been 
 quoted), and also in the whole first movement of 
 Beethoven's Sonate Pathetique. 
 
 The second subject is often spoken of 
 
 , , , • ^ u • i. i. The second- 
 
 as the dommant subject, — a true name ^^y ^^y „^^ 
 
 in more than one sense, for it dominates always the 
 , . , . , dominant. 
 
 very largely over the rest of the move- 
 ment. But it gained its name from being so often 
 in the key of the dominant of the main key. Yet 
 here is one of the first changes made in the usual 
 
244 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 course of the plan. Some other key is chosen to 
 take this importance, as the key more used than 
 any except the main one. Still we shall find as 
 we go on that there is often some connection 
 between this new key and the dominant whose 
 place it takes. The mediant major key is the 
 earliest variety. We can trace the beginning of 
 its use as a near relative in old tunes in a minor 
 key ; there it shares a place with the key of the 
 minor seventh, which has not survived into modern 
 use. Such tunes are the dump, quoted in Chap. I., 
 and also Stingo, Cold and Raw, The Oak and 
 the Ashj The Three Ravens and Near Taunton 
 Dean, which may be found in Chappell's " Popular 
 Music of the Olden Time," and the latter five in 
 the present writer's "Form or Design in Music." 
 The G minor symphony of Mozart, which we have 
 just now been looking at, shows the use of the rela- 
 tive major for the second subject. (See p. 238.) 
 
 The part which brings back the old 
 Second "■ 1 . , 
 
 subject trans- ideas in their old form, turns this rela- 
 
 posed. ^j^g major division into the main key ; 
 
 and so, what was before in major is now in minor. 
 
 Very beautiful, too, is the effect of this change, 
 
 as we can hear for ourselves if we look onwards 
 
 in the G minor movement ; for this is the way 
 
 Mozart has treated it here. After the repetition 
 
 of the opening idea, of which we heard at p. 241, 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 245 
 
 there is new music inserted, and then we come 
 upon a new version of the two fragments next 
 quoted (p. 238). It is the complete second sub- 
 ject, changed from Bb viajor to G minor, and the 
 change gives it quite a new colour of expression — 
 
 S trings, 
 
 r 
 
 
 Basses 8z/a bassa. 
 
 In many later works the composers are 
 so in love with the effect of the major preserving 
 
 key, in its contrast with the minor which ^^^ major 
 -' , form. 
 
 they have chosen for their principal, 
 
 that they use another major key in the transposed 
 
 part. Often this is the major form of the main 
 
 key. So it is in Mendelssohn's Rtiy Bias overture. 
 
 It is a choice of beauties whether the effect of the 
 
 change from major to minor is better than the 
 
 preservation of the contrast between the group in 
 
 minor with the group in major. 
 
 Yet other keys are used for the second 
 , . ^ J ^, ^ V 1 Other second- 
 
 subject, and they seem to be chosen ^^y j,^y^ ^^^^y 
 
 with a reference to the usual dominant ^^ deputies 
 as their origin. The key chosen for and ionic. 
 the transposed version interprets this 
 reference, for it will actually bear the same rela- 
 tion to the main tonic as the first key bore to the 
 
246 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 dominant So in Beethoven's sonata in C, op. 
 53, dedicated to Count Waldstein, the secondary- 
 key is E, which is related to the usual dominant 
 (G) by being its major 6th ; while in the recapitu- 
 lation of this subject this key is replaced by A. 
 Now A is the major 6th of C, so that the two 
 keys take their place by virtue of their relationship 
 to the two which would more usually be in those 
 places. E is in the place of G, and A in the place 
 of C. 
 
 Of course it now becomes necessary for some- 
 thing to be done to bring about the home-coming 
 after this modulating return of the second subject, 
 else we shall never end the movement. In the 
 Waldstein sonata, therefore, this key of A lasts 
 but a short time, as if only to assert its right to be 
 there and to make freshness ; the music then turns 
 off into the usual key for the remainder. In other 
 works the home-coming effect is brought about by 
 a coda. This is the way in Brahms' symphony 
 in F. Here, too, is the more remote connection 
 acting as deputy for the dominant, and it is the 
 same relation as in the Waldstein sonata. The 
 second subject, which is in a different time to the 
 first, is in A. When we come to the later part of 
 the movement, all the music that was in A is 
 transposed to D, a key which bears the same rela- 
 tionship to the main key, F, that A does to the key 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 247 
 
 of C, its dominant, and after all this is done there 
 begins a coda in the main key. This coda makes 
 as though it would be a repetition of the whole 
 part, for it begins the old first idea again, just as 
 did the slow movement of Mozart's that we looked 
 through earlier in this chapter. It threatens to 
 be something like a rondo, but it is not so really ; 
 and as in the Mozart movement, it turns off into 
 a new course of music like, but unlike, that which 
 went before — in fact, a coda. It is all in the main 
 key, and so brings all home to a close in the 
 movement's own key. 
 
 It would be an endless work, though , 
 
 a labour of love, to note all the lesser varieties are 
 changes and varieties that have been ^ ^pun . 
 made, all founded on this design as the main out- 
 line. But we may give some idea of the elasticity 
 with which music can be treated. 
 
 There are the fragments of modulation to near 
 or to remote keys that can be used transiently in 
 the course of each of the divisions of settled key. 
 Such is the fragment in the major key of the 
 minor second (neapolitan sixth) just after the 
 opening of the principal key in Beethoven's So7iata 
 Appassionata in F minor. In the very long second 
 subject of Beethoven's Eroica symphony there are 
 several modulations, but so transient and so nearly 
 related that we scarcely notice them as changes. 
 
248 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 Hence they do not take away from the influence 
 of the key which belongs to that few minutes of 
 time, while they decorate it with variety. The 
 Brahms movement mentioned just now has a 
 different variety of key in its second subject ; for, 
 while the first musette-like idea is in the major 
 form of the key, the minor form of the same key 
 comes in later, after some modulation with a new 
 idea, and so brings the half-way close of the move- 
 ment. The treatment in Beethoven's sonata in A, 
 op. 2, is the reverse of this. Here the subject 
 begins with a definite melody in E minor, turns off 
 into other keys, modulating by steps till it begins 
 another definite idea in the major form of the 
 same, and so up to the close of the subject. Both 
 these movements make the music of this division 
 hang upon the key chosen to be second in import- 
 ance in the work ; while both use modulations 
 into keys which are related to it, and are, as it 
 were, nursed between the ideas in the major and 
 minor forms of the secondary key. This makes 
 the whole division into a little group of its own. 
 
 Then again, in the coda — which principally 
 belongs to the main key, because its business is 
 to confirm and close that key — in the coda of 
 Beethoven's Eroica first movement in Eb, there is 
 a beginning with a change of key into C followed by 
 another into F minor. These two keys divide the 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 249 
 
 Eb which went before from that which is coming 
 
 after, and in no way destroy the force of the long 
 
 remainder in Ek They make the design clear by 
 
 making a distinct point between the repetition of 
 
 the whole first part wherein all has been running 
 
 its full course, and the coda wherein old ideas 
 
 are cut short while tonic and dominant chords 
 
 are often repeated, with many stops and closes. 
 
 Though one of the great features of 
 , , . . , . . r How the 
 
 the sonata design is the repetition of recapitula- 
 
 the music of the first part in the course i^on may be 
 
 changed. 
 of the second part, we must remember 
 
 that this is not a servile, but a reasonable imita- 
 tion. It is as a wise man will imitate a good man's 
 example. For this reason we find that the best 
 composers often exercise their prerogative by 
 rendering the same with a difference. The prin- 
 ciple is shown even in the tiny example which 
 stands at the very beginning of the existence of 
 the form, namely, the ballad-tune of Near Wood- 
 stock Town, for herein the second part has a 
 return of the main key, but not the former melody. 
 With the same principle, yet how differently carried 
 out, we find a large amount of change in the 
 recapitulation in the Eroica movement. Some 
 things are as usual, for the main key is brought 
 back, and the second subject is in that main key, 
 with all its transitory modulations, its rhythm and 
 
250 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 ideas in their former course. But other things are 
 new. All that part which was built upon the main 
 key in the earlier half of the movement is changed. 
 There is the same initial idea — 
 
 Alle gro con brio. 
 
 t=- 
 
 but instead of its three successive beginnings in 
 the same key, with the three ways of carrying out, 
 the first time ends in the new key of F, and so 
 . . begins the melody again in this new 
 key with yet another course for it. 
 Quickly too it plunges upon yet another new key, 
 Db, and so begins the melody again. Next, a 
 fragment of the same melody is in the old key, 
 Eb, but it is constructed upon another part of the 
 scale. Again it begins, as if for the old second 
 way of treating it, but there is a tonic pedal under, 
 which was not there before, and it is continued 
 differently. It is also for full band forte instead 
 of a " broken " band (to use the old word) playing 
 softly. Finally the old third time begins and is 
 carried on, but with some new chords which serve 
 to bring the second subject into Eb instead of the 
 former Bb. 
 
 All this has been called a recomposition of the 
 former music ; and so it is truly, for, though the 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 251 
 
 same idea is there, the whole process of putting 
 together the music is different to what it was in 
 the earlier part of the movement. 
 
 There are simpler means of renewing 
 the effect of the recapitulation ; one is by ^"^ shorter. 
 taking out what may seem redundant at a second 
 hearing. The Eb symphony of Haydn, the minuet 
 of which has been quoted, has a long passage which 
 comes after the important ideas of the first subject 
 have been shown. Its object is to introduce the 
 second subject, and beautifully it fulfils its pur- 
 pose. However, Haydn must have felt that this 
 was not needed when the ideas were given again 
 at a later part of the movement ; so the passage 
 was not used again and the music in the recapitu- 
 lation goes straight from the end of the principal 
 ideas of the first subject to the beginning of the 
 second. 
 
 For the beauty of adding, look again Orlength- 
 to Mozart's G minor symphony, where ^^^• 
 
 is a great piece put in the recapitulation which 
 was not in the first part. If we remember, after 
 the twice beginning of the first idea (p. 237) there 
 was a sudden dash into Bb with a new idea. This 
 we knew for part of the first group of key (tonic 
 subject) because it was a sudden dash, and not 
 prepared for by long waiting. It really was the 
 beginning of the preparation for the new key and 
 
252 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 new set of ideas (dominant subject), and there is 
 therefore no close all along this preparation till 
 in the bar just before the real second subject 
 begins (p. 238^). Now, in the second part of 
 the movement, after all that long time of com- 
 ing back described at pp. 240-1, and the stealing 
 in of the first key and ideas with the violins, we 
 have the same twice beginning of the first thought 
 and the same sudden dash into the new idea 
 and key, but this time it is E^, not Bb, that we 
 dash into. Now, too, instead of going a little way 
 off in order to bring in the new subject, Mozart 
 repeats this Eb thought in yet another key, and 
 with the bass and top parts inverted ; then he 
 stretches it out with repetitions of fragments on 
 different chords, in new keys. It is tossed to and 
 fro between upper and lower parts, till the music 
 gradually comes round to the last few chords of 
 the former passage, and thus to the former half- 
 close in the key of the second subject. Thence 
 the remainder follows naturally. 
 
 It is generally thought that the fan- 
 i)iain the ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ codidi are to be built up 
 fantasia and of ideas that have been heard in the 
 the coda. . . . 1 -i 1 
 
 first and second subjects, while the 
 
 choice is free as to which are to be so used. 
 Occasionally, however, a fresh one is brought in 
 as well. So, in the fantasia of the Eroica first 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 253 
 
 movement, when all seems to have been done 
 that is possible with the fragments of old ideas, 
 Beethoven throws in another, and in a remote key. 
 
 
 
 Presently it is brought into closer connection 
 with the rest by being given in a nearer key, and 
 this is carried on and joined to more fragments 
 of the earlier ideas, and soon the music drops 
 into the return of the first part. By - and - by 
 when the coda comes, this episodical idea is 
 brought in again, first as the F minor modulation 
 that we spoke of a few paragraphs back, and then 
 in Eb minor bringing the main key again for the 
 close of the movement. 
 
 Drawing near to the end of my task, xhe object of 
 — and a pleasant task it has been, — ^^^^ ^°^^' 
 it may be well to look back and to see whether 
 the aim set before me has been followed. For 
 when the suggester of this book, the late Mr W. 
 H. Davenport Adams, set me thinking about it, 
 
254 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 his words were, "not a technical manual, but a 
 readable book, — on the forms of music, the dif- 
 ferent schools ; on amateur music, drawing-room 
 music, the character of different styles as set 
 before us by the great masters, with analysis of 
 representative compositions." He added, " Many 
 skilful executants are nothing more than execu- 
 tants, and play bad music with as much willing- 
 ness as good, because they know no better." 
 
 Because they know no better ? Alas, how many 
 of us there are who " know no better." Not 
 because the thing is difficult to learn, but because 
 we have no thought of it nor of the way to learn. 
 It is not difficult ; for these things in music have 
 all grown, and everything is easy to learn if we 
 take it in the natural way of growth. " Line upon 
 line, here a little, there a little." A twig or a leaf 
 here, and a branch there, and so the tree becomes 
 great, and all done with ease and grace. This is 
 the way music has grown, and our knowledge of 
 it should grow in like fashion — as easily and as 
 gracefully. 
 
 When music was little, it sang little popular 
 tunes, with rhythmic phrases and well-marked 
 cadences, — dancing and playing its simple instru- 
 ments in time with the song. It sang, too, with 
 simple oratory, the plain-song of the Church. By 
 degrees these grew together, and through round 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 255 
 
 and canon, descant and the involvements of 
 counterpoint, music grew into long winding 
 courses. Then came poetry and declamation into 
 the art, and a natural kind of sentiment or emotion 
 fell into music. Music grew with a new life. 
 There was a place found in it for every beauty of 
 sound. Here was a place for the long continuity 
 of counterpoint, a place for the richness of harmony 
 and strains of melody, a place for the contrast of 
 power and quality in orchestral and vocal effects. 
 The rhythm grew greater and formed itself into a 
 greater receptacle for all these beauties. 
 
 There is rhythm in the vibrations of the air 
 which makes musical sounds, or they would not 
 differ from noise. There is rhythm of notes, to 
 make bars, and rhythm or balance of groups of 
 notes to make phrases, and of cadences to make 
 tunes. Now that music is grown to be great, the 
 rhythm of " great swelling masses of sound " (see 
 p. 200), or of key, balanced and contrasted against 
 one another, makes music into great works or 
 compositions. And this greater rhythm of masses 
 of keys makes the greater design — the receptacle — 
 which contains all the lesser beauties of the work. 
 
 There is yet another pedigree for musical key- 
 form besides this tracery from rhythm to the 
 " higher unity " of the work, as some call the 
 larger design when they speak of literary works. 
 
256 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 In early days, before counterpoint had come into 
 existence, people felt that a melody might be 
 doubled by other voices than the leading one. 
 They doubled it therefore in the 5th or the 4th. 
 Here was a glimmering of the truth that the 
 dominant is a note second in importance to the 
 tonic, a first instinct of musical construction by 
 keys. Later, in place of the consecutive 5ths or 
 4ths of one melody against the same at a different 
 pitch, when the one was a reflection or shadow of 
 the other — in place of this, the second tune was 
 delayed a few notes or bars. So, when the sun is 
 in front of us, our shadow is thrown behind us, 
 following us as we move. This made a canon. 
 Later again the reflected melody was made in its 
 own key, and was therefore a transposition of the 
 other, more or less exact. Then it was styled an 
 answer, while the first melody was a subject. In 
 this kind of work the two were used over and 
 over again, in alternation — subject, answer, subject, 
 answer, with various accompaniments and changes. 
 This made a fugue. Here then was the principle 
 of key-form with its primary and secondary keys. 
 There were the lesser related keys too ; for the 
 fugue, after making as much use as was necessary 
 of the tonic and dominant, made way into other 
 keys, carrying the same melody with it, and by- 
 and-by returned to the main key for its wind-up. 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 257 
 
 Later, these many little portions of music in tonic 
 and dominant keys became, as it were, sorted into 
 bunches or divisions, and thus developed into the 
 tonic and dominant subjects of a sonata first move- 
 ment ; and in this form the key of the tonic was 
 amply developed, then that of the dominant, and 
 from thence there came the division with divers 
 keys and the return back to main key for the 
 finish. 
 
 In all the main varieties of design that are in 
 classical music (and we have gone through a good 
 many in this little book), there must be found the 
 principle of massing the keys. The longer the 
 work, the more variety in the key is possible ; so 
 that, while in a symphony there is some prominence 
 given to one key and all others are grouped about 
 it, in an opera or oratorio this is not so. The key- 
 design in these largest of works is often extended 
 into an enchainment of masses more or less related 
 — an alternation of masses in one key with masses 
 in oft-changing keys. In these alternations we 
 find the construction of the lesser things of music 
 helps out the spirit of the alternation. A mass, or 
 long course in one key, has a long-settled rhythm 
 of phrases and a long-flowing idea — perhaps several 
 in succession ; it has too, very often, a long crescendo 
 or diminuendo^ ox forte ox piano. When the alternat- 
 ing mass or course of changing key comes, then 
 R 
 
258 MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 also come broken phrases, fragmentary ideas, 
 whether former or new; very often, too, it has 
 abrupt changes of loud and soft. 
 
 These are the materials out of which musical 
 design is made, but there is no hard and fast rule 
 as to how much of this, or how much of that is to 
 be used. There is the need for the composer's 
 instinct ; no one can teach him that, though he 
 may learn much for himself, and learn it he will 
 by many a failure. 
 
 There are some, both writers and hearers, who 
 like their masses of one key in homoeopathic doses ; 
 who will be satisfied with a couple of chords in 
 one key and then on to the next, and the next, and 
 so ad infinitum — who unite this to an ever irregu- 
 lar rhythm, an almost ceaseless accompaniment 
 and a repetition of former ideas always in the 
 same shape, in a sort of mixed monotony. This 
 they are apt to call musical form, and defend it 
 as *' artistic freedom." Artistic freedom, when the 
 greatest musical beauties are left out ! There are 
 some kinds of freedom which are not worth havmg 
 — the freedom, for instance, of the solitary man 
 left in a desert, scorched by a tropical sun, with- 
 out food, without water, without a beast to carry 
 him — free to die ! 
 
 Poetic idea One more thought. We spoke just 
 with design, now of the design of a literary work. 
 
THE MAKING OF SYMPHONIES 259 
 
 There is in a literary work a higher design or plan 
 for the whole work, which makes the difference 
 between one which is a complete whole and one 
 which is only a collection of ideas, like a dictionary. 
 This higher design contains all the lesser parts 
 and ideas. When music is allied to poetry, if the 
 unity of design in the literary art is joined with 
 chaotic freedom (or starvation ?) in the musical art, 
 the whole work is spoilt. For there is a mathe- 
 matical truth, that "if equals are added to un- 
 equals, the wholes are unequal." So it is with 
 a work of art. If, on the other hand, there be 
 the greater design in the music which is made to 
 coincide (to use another mathematical expression) 
 with that of the poetry, and all the lesser parts of 
 the music with the lesser parts of the poetic design, 
 then each one strengthens the other ; and the 
 design of the work as a whole, and with it the 
 grandeur of it, is increased manifold. 
 
 The character of one art is not changed by being 
 joined with another art, though each one may help 
 to interpret and thus add to the effect of the 
 other. Each must be perfect of its own kind, 
 and the result will be perfect. "If equals are 
 added to equals, the wholes are equal," says the 
 mathematician, again. 
 
 When Milton wrote about the union of poetry 
 and music as " the sister and the brother," music was 
 
26o MUSIC AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF 
 
 just opening out into the fulness of its many 
 powers of expressing poetical meaning. With 
 every form and sentiment in poetry there is a 
 kindred one in music ; and so long as they are 
 agreed, the " sister and the brother " may go hand 
 in hand, helping the rhythm of the universe. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Accidentals, traditional use of, 
 
 in singing old church music, 56 
 Accompanied dialogue, with full 
 
 band, 141, 142 
 jlcis and Galaiea (Handel), 165 
 Airs with variations, 44, 45 
 in group of movements, 
 
 205 
 Alternative tune, or trio, 212, 225 
 Amateur, the real, 49 
 Amateurs in Florence, loi 
 Anerio, loi 
 Anthem in oratorio, 167, 171, 
 
 172, 184 
 music, English, 57, 73, 98, 
 
 209 
 
 I call and cry (Tallis), 57 
 
 music example, 58 
 
 Aly Beloved spake (Purcell), 
 
 68 
 instrumental obbligato 
 
 in, 67-69 
 
 orchestration in, 67, 68 
 
 overture or symphony 
 
 in, 68 
 quartet or verse in, 66, 
 
 67, 68 
 
 ritornello in, 68, 70 
 
 accompanied recita- 
 tive in, 69 
 orchestral interludes 
 
 in, 67, 68, 69, 70 
 
 musicexamples, 69, 70 
 
 Aria, Scarlatti's, 108 
 
 scena and, Weber's, 141 
 
 S 
 
 Aria, scena and, in groups of 
 
 movements, 206 
 Arioso, in Beethoven's sonata 
 
 A|7, op. no, 206 
 Arne, opera, 114 
 Association of ideas, 150 
 As yoti like it, 6 
 Attwood, 98 
 Auber, 97 
 Aucassin et Nicolete, old French 
 
 romance, 227 
 Autolycus, II, 29 
 Ayres and Jiggs for the Violin, 39 
 
 B 
 
 Bach, C. P. Emmanuel, 208 
 Bach, J. S., 78, 158 
 
 Passion-music according to 
 
 St Matthew, 158 
 first performance of, 
 
 159 
 
 music example of, i6l 
 
 sonatas, 198 
 
 chromatic harmonies, 79 
 
 works, S. Wesley and, 46 
 
 Bacon, on masques, 1 13 
 Balade, a poem, 29 
 Balfe, 99, 136 
 Ballad, modern, 30 
 
 in oratorio, 182, 185 
 
 or ballett, a dancing song, 29 
 
 tune in symphony, 217 
 
 hawking, 1 1 
 
 Ballets in opera, 1 10 
 
 Bands in England, old time, 7, 
 
 10, 35, 36 
 
 261 
 
262 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Banquet of Mustek for the Lyra- 
 viol, 39 
 Bai'biere, //, Paisiello, 126 
 
 Rossini, 126 
 
 Barnett, John, 99, 136 
 
 Fair Rosamond, 142 
 
 accompanied dia- 
 logue, with full band, 142 
 Bede, on harp-playing, 14 
 Beethoven, 91, 199 
 
 Fidelio, 137 
 
 symphonic group, 203 
 
 symphony E[j, Eroica, 205, 
 
 247, 248-49, 252 
 
 music examples, 250, 
 
 253 
 
 C minor, 213 
 
 music example, 213 
 
 in A., 218 
 
 choral, 207, 209 
 
 concerto E[j, Emperor, 228 
 
 music examples, 228 
 
 sonata in A, op. 2, 248 
 
 Soiiate Pathetique, op. 13, 
 
 217, 243 
 
 sonata in E, op. 14, 227 
 
 A[j, op. 26, 205 
 
 D, op. 28, called Pas- 
 toral, 217, 226 
 
 C, op. 53, ded. to 
 
 Waldstein, 208, 246 
 
 Appassionata, op. 57, 
 
 247 
 
 Ajj, op. no, 205, 206, 
 
 210, 218 
 
 recit. and arioso in, 
 
 206, 218 
 
 music examples, 206 
 
 scherzo, 204 
 
 key-form, or design in, 
 
 146 
 Beethoven's works, Cipriani Pot- 
 ter and, 46 
 Bellini, 97 
 Benedictus, in Mozart's Requiem, 
 
 88 
 Bennett, Sterndale, 99 
 
 Bennett, Sterndale, symphony in 
 
 G minor, 208, 219 
 symphony, song for 
 
 violas in, 219 
 Berlioz, 96 
 
 key-design or form in, 97 
 
 B[j — B soft, or bemol, 23 
 
 Bishop, 75, 98, 136 
 
 Bizet, 97 
 
 Boieldieu, 95 
 
 Boito, 98 
 
 Bonny Sweet Robin, 12, 53 
 
 music example, 53 
 
 Boyce, 74 
 Brahms, 93 
 
 symphony in F, 246, 248 
 
 serenades in D and in A, 230 
 
 Broken music, 10, 36 
 Burden, or bourdon, 20 
 
 round with a, 20 
 
 Byrd, 39, loi 
 
 Caccini, 105, 162 
 Callcott, 74 
 Cambert, no 
 Canon in periods, 18 
 
 or round in symphony, 218 
 
 Canonic rhythm, 87 
 Cantata, German church, 78 
 
 key-design in, 79 
 
 Bach's, 78 
 
 Canterbtiry Pilgri7ns, The, 6 
 Carol, carolling, I, 3, 27 
 
 or dancing round, 15 
 
 with dancing, i 
 
 in church services, I4 
 
 Catches, 10, 18, 39 
 Cavalieri, 156 
 Cellier, 100 
 Chaminade, 100 
 Changes in opera, 106, 125 
 Chaucer's Roundell, Seynt Valen- 
 tyn, Now tuelcom somer, 17, 223 
 
 time, music in, 2 
 
 Cherubini, 96 
 
INDEX 
 
 263 
 
 Chopin, 96 
 
 Choral Symphony (Beethoven), 
 
 207, 209 
 in German church cantata, 
 
 78 
 Chorus, as narrator, 168, 170, 
 
 178 
 
 in recitative, 171 
 
 impersonal, 176 
 
 Greek, 103, 175 
 
 Choruses in Orfeo, Gluck's, 118 
 Chromatic chords, in Purcell, 64 
 
 in Handel, 71 
 
 in Bach, 79 
 
 modulations in Mozart, 85 
 
 Church scales, 55 
 
 seasons, oratorios at, 156 
 
 Cimarosa, II Matrimonio Segreto, 
 
 126 
 Cithern and Git hern ^ Lessons 
 
 for the, 40 
 Clementi, 45 
 Coda, 222, 230, 235 
 Cold and Raw, 244 
 Collections of tunes, etc., 39, 40 
 Colman, Mrs, 112 
 Come, lasses and lads, 34 
 Comedy, first enters opera, 125 
 Comique, opera, French, 135, 
 
 136 
 Composers of different nations 
 
 since Mozart, 89 
 
 foreign, in France, 96 
 
 Composition in pictures, 78 
 Concerted song, in symphony, 
 
 219 
 in Mozart's symphony 
 
 in C, 219 
 Concerto, 197, 203 
 Concertos, Beethoven, 228 ; 
 
 Mendelssohn, 218 ; Schumann, 
 
 208 
 Connection by key, 76, 197, 
 
 226 
 
 by contrast, 200, 226 
 
 Consort music, 35 
 Contrapuntal style, 74, 79 
 
 Contrast, of unison and harmony, 
 88 
 
 of movement, 200 
 
 Cooke, 74 
 
 Cosi Fan Tiitti, Mozart, 126 
 
 Court Ayres with Pavines, etc. , 40 
 
 Courtesie, 2 
 
 Counterpoint, 24, 27 
 
 Country dances, 40, 43 
 
 orchestras, 42 
 
 Coverdale's versified Psalms, 38 
 
 Cowen, 100 
 
 Cramer, 45 
 
 Credo, lago's, in Verdi's Otello, 
 
 147 
 Croce, loi 
 Cushion Dance , the, 15 
 
 Dafne, the first opera, 105 
 Dame Gladnesse, 2, 27 
 Dance, round, 15 
 
 the Hay, 15 
 
 the Cushion, 15 
 
 in groups of movements, 
 
 210 
 
 Dancing Master, the, 15, 40 
 Dancing round, 14 
 
 song, 2, 7, 29 
 
 with carolling, i, 24 
 
 Day, Macfarren and, 64 
 Day's Psalter, 38 
 Decadence of opera, 109, 115 
 Declamation in French opera, 
 
 III 
 
 or emotion, 144 
 
 Declamatory recitative, in, 120, 
 
 123, 171 
 Descant, 25 
 
 upon popular song, or 
 
 in church services, 25, 27 
 
 Desdemona singing ballads, 12, 
 
 149, 154 
 
 ballad in Otello, 148 
 
 music, example of, 149 
 
264 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Design or form in music, prin- 
 ciple of, 59, 78, 145, 193, 256 
 
 rhythm in, 195 
 
 musical idea in, 195, 
 
 201, 209, 235 
 
 of single movements, 210 
 
 of groups of movements, 76, 
 
 196, 203 
 
 in madrigals, 61 
 
 by key, 97, 145, 193 
 
 in Tallis, 59 
 
 in Palestrina, 63 
 
 in Purcell, 70, 146 
 
 in Handel, 76, 94 
 
 in Mozart, 94, 129 
 
 in Berlioz, 97 
 
 in German church 
 
 cantata, 79 
 
 combined with poet- 
 ical idea, 258 
 
 literary, 255, 258 
 
 musical, in opera, 153 
 
 Dettingen Te Deum^ Handel's, 
 72, 76 
 
 music example, 72 
 
 Dialogue, in opera, with full 
 band, 141, 142 
 
 spoken, 136, 137 
 
 with light accompaniment, 
 
 107, 126, 135 
 
 in oratorio, 182 
 
 Diatonic harmonies, 59 
 
 style, 74 
 
 character of Handel's 
 
 music, 73, 79 
 
 Didactic oratorio, 155, 157, 158, 
 161, 163, 164, 167, 173 
 
 Dies Irae, in Mozart's Reqtiiem^ZZ 
 
 Dominant discord, 64 
 
 Donizetti, 98 
 
 Drama, recitative, 105, 156 
 
 the skeleton of opera, 105, 
 
 116, 143, 150 
 
 for opera, conciser than 
 
 spoken, 146 
 
 Dramas, sacred, 156, 162 
 Dramatic oratorio, 156, 164 
 
 Dryden, 114 
 
 Duchess Blanche of Lancaster, 
 
 I, 5 
 Dulcimer, 33 
 Dump, called Heartsease, 41, 54 
 
 music example of, 41 
 
 Dvorak, 93 
 
 Early ideas repeated in a later 
 
 movement, 209, 215, 243 
 Effects, in Lacryinosa, 85 
 Elijah, Mendelssohn's, 175 
 EUicott, Rosalind, 100 
 Elysian Fields, scene in Gluck's 
 
 Orfeo, 119 
 Emotion, or declamation, 144 
 England, early Italian opera in, 
 
 112 
 
 recitative in, 41,65, 112,113 
 
 English opera, 136 
 
 school, since Mozart, 98 
 
 anthem music, 73 
 
 modern style in, 98 
 
 music, joyous character of, 
 
 I, 6, 48 
 
 Handel in, 71 
 
 tunes go abroad, 43 
 
 true taste in music, 46 
 
 Episode, 224, 227, 252 
 Episodical ideas, 221 
 Este's Psalms, 38 
 Esther, Handel's, 166 
 
 overture to, 198 
 
 Examples, musical : — 
 
 Tallis' anthem, / call and 
 
 cry, 58 _ 
 
 Siimer is icunien in, 21 
 
 The Oxfordshire Tragedy, 
 
 or Near Woodstock Town, 32 
 
 Heartsease, a dump or 
 
 dance, 41 
 
 Bon7iy Sweet Robin, 53 
 
 Purcell, anthem. My Beloved 
 
 spake, 69, 70 
 
INDEX 
 
 265 
 
 Examples, musical : Handel, 
 Dettingen Te Deum^ 72 
 
 Mozart, Requiem, 84, 88 
 
 German, French and Italian 
 
 sixth, 89 
 
 Gluck, Orfeo, 120 
 
 Iphigenia in Tatiris^ 
 
 123 
 
 Mozart, Nozze di Fts^aro, 
 
 130, 131 
 Verdi, Otello^ 149 
 
 Bach, Passion-music ac- 
 cording to St Matthew, 161 
 
 Macfarren, King David, 
 
 180 
 
 Beethoven, sonata in Ajj, 
 
 op. no, 206 
 
 Haydn, minuet from a 
 
 symphony in E[j, 211 
 
 Beethoven, symphony in C 
 
 minor, 213 
 
 Mozart, symphony in C, 
 
 220 
 
 Beethoven, concerto in Ej?, 
 
 228 
 
 Mozart, symphony in Ejj, 
 
 236, 237 
 
 G minor, 237, 
 
 238, 245 
 
 Beethoven, symphony in 
 
 Eb, 250, 253 _ _ 
 
 Expression, poetic, in madrigals, 
 61 
 
 Fancies, or Phantasies, by Tye, 
 
 Tallis, Byrd, 36, 196 
 
 Jenkins, 37 
 
 O. Gibbons, 37, 196, 201 
 
 Fidelio, Beethoven, 137 
 
 finale in, 137 
 
 Finale, opera, 127 
 
 in Mozart's Nozze de Figaro, 
 
 129 
 
 in Verdi's Otello, 148 
 
 of symphony, 222 
 
 Finale of symphony in first 
 
 movement form, 231 
 
 as a rondo, 227 
 
 as a fugue, 231 
 
 First movement, or sonata-form, 
 
 231, 235 
 
 varieties in, 242, 
 
 247 
 
 Flower and the Leaf, the, 3, 1 6 
 
 Foot, or burden, 20 
 
 Foreign composers in France, 
 
 95 
 Form (see Design), 192, 255 
 
 symphonic, 195 
 
 Free fantasia, 221, 234, 239 
 
 as episode, 229 
 
 modulations in, 241 
 
 French style, brought in by 
 
 Charles II., 41 
 French sixth, 89 
 French romance, old, 227 
 French or Lulli overture, in, 
 
 196, 201 
 French opera, grand, declama- 
 tion and declamatory recitative 
 in, III, 120, 123 
 
 and Rossini, 141 
 
 and Spohr, 142 
 
 French opera comique, 136 
 French school, since Mozart, 90, 
 
 95 
 
 Freyschiitz, Der, Weber's, 137, 
 
 140 
 Fugual imitation, 161 
 Fugue, 256 
 
 in groups of movements, 
 
 202, 204, 214, 231 
 
 Gabriel, Virginia, 100 
 
 Gabrielli, loi 
 
 Gade, 93 
 
 Gamut, 9, 54 
 
 Hortensio's, 9, 54 
 
266 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Gentlemen, singing or playing on 
 instruments, 6, 8, lo, 13, 17, 
 18, 27, 35, 36, 40, 42 
 German church cantata, 78, 79 
 
 opera, Singspiel, 136 
 
 school, since Mozart. 89 
 
 sixth, 89 
 
 Germany, early Italian opera in, 
 no, 115 
 
 French grand opera in, 
 
 142 
 
 Gibbons, Orlando, Fancies, 37, 
 
 196, 201 
 Gladnesse, Dame^ singing, 2, 6, 
 
 27 
 Glee, 74 
 
 and madrigal, difference 
 
 between, 75 
 
 Glinka, 93 
 
 Gluck, reform of opera, 115, 
 
 144, 152 
 
 overture, 117, 173, 197 
 
 and poetical meaning, 116 
 
 and key-form or design, 
 
 146, 152 
 
 Orfeo, 118, 
 
 minuet, 119 
 
 choruses in, 118 
 
 Furies' scene, 1 19 
 
 Elysian Fields' scene, 
 
 119 
 
 music example, 120 
 
 Iphigeniain Tata-is, 120 
 
 declamatory recitative 
 
 in, 120 
 
 music example, 123 
 
 Golden Legend, Sullivan, 185 
 Goss, 98 
 Gounod, 97 
 Greek actors, 103 
 
 chorus, 103 
 
 applied to oratorio, 
 
 164, I75» 177 
 
 ideas grafted on Italian 
 
 music, 103 
 
 idea of aria, 106, 109, 138 
 
 drama, origin of, 103 
 
 Greek play as model of oratorio, 
 
 175 
 model in arts, literature 
 
 and music, 102 
 
 scales in England, 53 
 
 Greene, 74 
 
 Gretry, 95 
 
 Grieg, 93 
 
 Groups of movements, 196 
 
 Haydn and Beethoven, 
 
 203 
 air with variations in, 
 
 205 
 fugue in, 202, 204, 214, 
 
 231 
 dance movement in, 
 
 210 
 
 recitative in, 205, 207 
 
 song without words in, 
 
 203, 205 
 
 variety in, 204 
 
 finale in, 222 
 
 Gtiillaume Tell (Rossini), 143 
 Guilmant, 97 
 
 H 
 
 Halevy, 95 
 
 Half-way rest, or half-close, 232 
 
 Handel, in opera, 114, 115 
 
 in English music, 71 
 
 in oratorio, 164 
 
 Handel's music, chromatic har- 
 monies in, 71 
 diatonic character of, 73, 
 
 79 
 
 key-design in, 76, 94 
 
 Dettingen Te Deuni, 72, 76 
 
 music example of, 72 
 
 Passion-music, 164 
 
 Solomon, 166 
 
 overture, 198 
 
 Saul, 166 
 
 Israel in Egypt, 167, 190 
 
 Messiah, 172, 190 
 
 overture to, 172 
 
INDEX 
 
 267 
 
 and 
 
 251 
 
 Handel's Messiah, pastoral sym- 
 phony in, 173 
 
 Esther overture, 198 
 
 Occasional Overture, 198 
 
 sonatas, 198 
 
 songs and Sir Geo. Smart, 
 
 46 
 
 Harmony, contrast of unison 
 and, 88 
 
 Harpsichord, 44 
 
 Hasse, 144 
 
 Haydn, 45, 91 
 
 sonatas, symphonies 
 
 quartets, 198, 225 
 
 group of movements, 
 
 217 
 
 symphony in Ep, 243, 
 
 minuet in, 211, 234, 235 
 
 music example, 21 1 
 
 Heartsease, a dump, 41, 54 
 
 music example, 41 
 
 Heller, Stephen, 96 
 
 Henry F., 10 
 
 Herold, 95 
 
 Hey, or Hay, a dance, 15 
 
 Historicus, or narrator, 178 
 
 Holmes, 100 
 
 Home music in England, i 
 
 what it was, 14 
 
 what it was played 
 
 upon, 32 
 
 in Chaucer's time, 2, 
 
 in Shakespeare's time, 
 
 6, 34 
 
 in Puritan times, 37 
 
 after the Restoration, 
 
 41 
 
 and Mendelssohn, 46 
 
 Homely stories first in opera, 125 
 Hortensio's gamut, 9, 54 
 Hostia^, in Mozart's Requiem, 85 
 How shotild I your True Love 
 
 know ? 1 2 
 Hullah, and choral music, 46 
 Hymns, or chorals, in oratorio, 
 
 157, 158, 161 
 
 I 
 
 / call and cry, Tallis' anthem, 
 
 57 
 
 music example, 58 
 
 Ideas, early, repeated in course 
 of work, 209, 215, 221, 234, 
 249, 253 
 
 musical, in design, 195, 
 
 201, 209, 235 
 
 Imitation, fugual, 161 
 
 in madrigal style, 20, 59, 60 
 
 In no77iines, 196 
 
 Independence of parts in madri- 
 gal style, 60 
 
 Individuality of nations and com- 
 posers, 89 
 
 Instrumental obbligato in Pur- 
 cell's anthem, 67 
 
 Instrumentation in Purcell, 67 
 
 Mozart, 82, 87 
 
 Instruments, old English, 32, 40 
 
 in sets, 35 
 
 Interest of an opera, the, 142, 150 
 
 Interludes in Italian opera, 125 
 
 Intermezzo in symphonies, 208, 
 219 
 
 Introduction, in groups of move- 
 ments, 207, 242, 243 
 
 Introduction to the Skill of 
 Mustek, with the A7-t of Des- 
 cant ^ 40 
 
 Iphigenia in Tauris{Q\\iQk), 120 
 
 scene in, 120 
 
 music example, 123 
 
 Israel in Egypt (Handel), 167, 
 190 
 
 Italian opera, early, in England, 
 112 
 
 in France, no 
 
 in Germany, no, 115 
 
 changes in, 106, 125 
 
 homely stories first in, 
 
 125 
 
 interludes, 125 
 
 comedies, 125 
 
 bufifa, 126, 135 
 
268 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Italian sixth, 89 
 
 school, since Mozart, 97 
 
 or Scarlatti form of over- 
 ture, 107, 197 
 
 opera-house in England, 1 14 
 
 opera seria, 127 
 
 Ivanhoe, Sullivan, 143 
 
 Jenkins, Fancies^ 37 
 
 Jeththa (Handel), 166 
 
 /essonda (Spohr), 142 
 
 John Dory, 28 
 
 Jomelli, 127 
 
 Joyous character of English 
 
 music, I, 6, 48 
 /udith (Hubert Parry), 185 
 
 K 
 
 Kalkbrenner, 45 
 
 Karoling, see Carolling 
 
 Key-design, see Design 
 
 Key-form, see Design 
 
 Key-note, 53 
 
 Key-system, 51 
 
 Key, secondary, in sonata form, 
 
 243 
 
 connection by, 76, 197, 226 
 
 Keys, variety of, in groups of 
 
 movements, 198 
 as deputies of tonic and 
 
 dominant, 245 
 King David {yi.2idQ.xxQn), 179 
 
 music example, 180 
 
 overture retrospective, 179 
 
 King Hefirys Mirth, 39 
 
 Lacrymosa, in Mozart's Requiem, 
 
 83 
 
 effects in, 85 
 
 music examples of, 84 
 
 Ladies* chain, 15 
 
 singing a Roundell, 4, 23 
 
 Ladies singing, 2, 5, 7, 12, 23, 27 
 
 playing on instruments, 34, 
 
 40, 44 
 Lasso, Orlando di, loi 
 Leading note, 24, 54, 58, 7^ 
 Lecocq, 97 
 Lefebvre-Wely, 97 
 Light Love, 7 
 Links between movements, 207, 
 
 215 
 Liszt, 94 
 
 Literary design, 255, 258 
 Locke, opera by, 113 
 Loder, 99 
 Logier, 45 
 Logroscino, 127 
 Lucas, Charles, and recitativo 
 
 secco, 126 
 Lulli, no 
 form of overture, III, 196, 
 
 201 
 Lydian mode, 23 
 
 M 
 
 Macfarren, G. a., 99, 136 
 
 She stoops to Conquer, 143 
 
 St Lohn the Baptist, and 
 
 Resiii^rection, 179 
 
 King David, 179 
 
 music example from, 180 
 
 Dialogue in, 182 
 
 and Day, and chromatic 
 
 harmonies, 64 
 Mackenzie, 31, lOO 
 Madrigal, e^rly, 28 
 age, and its composers, 56- 
 
 65, lOI 
 
 style, imitations in, 20, 59 
 
 independence of parts 
 
 in, 60 
 
 key-design in, 59, 63 
 
 design by idea in, 61 
 
 Madrigal, style, poetic expression 
 
 in, 61 
 diatonic harmonies in, 
 
 59 
 
INDEX 
 
 269 
 
 Marenzio, Luca, loi 
 
 Mascagni, 98 
 
 Masques, with music, 1 12 
 
 Massenet, 97 
 
 Matrinionio Segreto, II, Cimarosa, 
 
 126 
 Mediant, major key of, 244 
 Mehul, 95 
 
 Melodies first put in opera, 106 
 Mendelssohn, 31, 92 
 
 St Paul, 175 
 
 Elijah, 175 
 
 overture, Ruy Bias, 243, 
 
 245 
 
 quartets, 210 
 
 scherzos, 216 
 
 Scotch symphony, 243 
 
 scherzo in, 216 
 
 violin concerto, 218 
 
 song in, 218, 227 
 
 intermezzo in, 219 
 
 coming to England, 46 
 
 Merchant of Ve^iice, 7, 36 
 Messiah, Handel's, %"], 172, 190 
 overture, and Pastoral sym- 
 phony in, 172, 173 
 Meyerbeer, 96 
 Minor and major sevenths of the 
 
 scale together, 58, 83 
 Minor second of the key, chord 
 
 and key of, 72, 84, 247, 253 
 Minor seventh of the scale, 53, 
 
 58, 71, 83 
 Minuet, 210 
 in Gluck's Orfeo, 119 
 
 in Haydn's symphony, E[j 
 
 211, 234 
 
 music example, 211 
 
 Mirth, Sir, in the Ro7)iaunt of 
 
 the Rose, 2 
 Missa Brevis, Palestrina, 62 
 Mode, modern major, 23 
 
 Lydian, 23 
 
 Modern characteristics in old 
 
 music, 23, 58, 62, 64 
 Modern style in English church 
 
 music, 98 
 
 Modulation, principle of, 51 
 
 more in Purcell than before, 
 
 70 
 
 chromatic, 85 
 
 unrelated, 85 
 
 within first and second 
 
 subjects, 247 
 
 in free fantasia 241 
 
 Monteverde, 105, 107 
 
 Morley, 13, 61, loi 
 
 and his pupils, 26 
 
 Plaine and easie Introduc- 
 tion, 13 
 
 Moscheles, 46 
 
 Mose in Egitto (Rossini), 156 
 
 Movements in connected keys, 
 76, 198 
 
 connected by contrast of 
 
 manner, 200 
 
 Mozart, 80 
 
 blended the popular and 
 
 scholastic styles, 80 
 
 more variety and more in 
 
 order, 81 
 
 chromatic passing notes, 
 
 82,83 
 
 contrasting instruments in 
 
 the course of a strain, 82 
 
 modulations, chromatic and 
 
 unrelated, 85 
 
 contrast of unison and har- 
 mony, 88 
 
 rhythm completed by dif- 
 ferent parts, 88 
 
 orchestration, 82, 87 
 
 Requiem, Lacrymosa, 83 
 
 music examples, 84 
 
 Recordare, 87 
 
 Benedictiis, 88 
 
 Dies Irae, 88 
 
 music example,88 
 
 Hostias, 85 
 
 Cosi Fan Tutti, 1 26 
 
 Nozze di Figaro, 126 
 
 finale,' 129 
 
 music examples, 
 
 130. 131 
 
2/0 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Mozart, in opera finale, 127, 154 
 symphony in C, Jupiter, 
 
 205, 219, 231 
 song movement in, 219, 
 
 232, 233 
 
 music examples, 220 
 
 symphony E[j, 236 
 
 music examples, 236, 
 
 237 
 G minor, 237, 244, 
 
 music examples, 237, 
 
 238, 245 
 Much ado about Nothittg, 7 
 Music, home, in England, I, etc. 
 
 and mathematics, 8 
 
 in three parts, 8, li, 12, 28, 
 
 39 
 
 examples, see Examples 
 
 "for viols and voyces," 67 
 
 Greek model in, 102 
 
 Greek ideas grafted on 
 
 modern, 103 
 
 in an opera, object of, 143 
 
 Musica parlante, 105, 162 
 Musical dramas, early, in France, 
 
 no 
 
 form, see Design, 192, 193 
 
 instruments, old English, 
 
 32,. 44, 56 
 
 in sets or consorts, 35 
 
 Musical Phansies, 39 
 
 Musical Ayi-es and Dialogues, 
 
 39 
 
 Musick^s Recreations in the 
 
 Lyra-violl, 40 
 Mysteries and miracle plays, 
 
 156, 186, 189 
 
 N 
 
 Nanini, ioi 
 
 Naples school of comic opera, 
 
 126 
 Nares, 74 
 
 Narrative oratorio, 156, 167 
 with movement, 187 
 
 Narrator, in 
 voice, 157, 
 
 187 
 
 oratorio, a solO' 
 _ 158, 178 
 a chorus, 168, 170, 178,, 
 
 194, 
 
 249 
 32, 
 
 or historicus, 178 
 Neapolitan sixth, 72, 84, 247 
 Near Taunton Dean, 244 
 Near Woodstock Town, 31 
 210, 231, 249 
 
 music example of, 32 
 
 rhythm of, 32 
 
 form of, 32, 194, 231, 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar's orchestra 
 
 43 
 New phrase decorating old, 86 
 New use of former phrases, 86 
 Now Welco7)i Somer (Chaucer), 
 
 17, 223 
 Nozze di Figaro (Mozart), 126 
 
 finale in, 129 
 
 music examples from, 
 
 130, 131 
 
 O 
 
 Oak and the Ash, the, 244 
 
 Offenbach, 97 
 
 Onslow, 95 
 
 Opera, the rise of, loi 
 
 the beginning, in Florence, 
 
 IOI 
 
 Dafjie, the first, 105 
 
 melodies first put in, 106 
 
 Drama, the skeleton of, 
 
 105, 116, 150 
 
 decadence of, 109, 115 
 
 early Italian, in France, 
 
 no 
 
 in England, 112 
 
 in Germany, 1 10, 
 
 changes in, 125 
 
 — reform by Gluck, 115, 
 
 — Gluck and Mozart in 
 
 — drama conciser 
 spoken, 146 
 
 — finales, 127 
 
 15 
 
 52 
 
 144 
 than 
 
INDEX 
 
 271 
 
 Opera, by Locke, 113 
 
 by Purcell, 113 
 
 by Arne, 114 
 
 German, 115, 136 
 
 buffa, 126, 135 
 
 Naples school of, 126 
 
 seria^ 127 
 
 comique, French, 136 
 
 English, 136 
 
 French grand, ill, 120, 
 
 141, 142 
 
 two types, 142 
 
 the interest of, 142, 150 
 
 object of music in, 143 
 
 in Italy, composers since 
 
 Mozart, 97 
 Cimarosa, // Matritnonio 
 
 Segreto^ 126 
 Barnett, John, Faii- Rosa- 
 
 jHond^ 142 
 
 Beethoven, Fidelia, 137 
 
 Gluck, Or/eo, 119 
 
 — Iphigeiiia in Tatiris, 120 
 
 Macfarren, She stoops to 
 
 Conquer, 143 
 
 Mozart, Cosi Fan Ttttti, 126 
 
 Nozze di Figaro, 126, 
 
 129 
 
 Pacini, Saffo, 143 
 
 Paisiello, // Barbiere, 126 
 
 Pergolesi, La Sei-va Pad- 
 
 rona, 126 
 
 Rossini, Otello, 141 
 
 11 Barbiere, 1 26 
 
 Guillauine Tell, 143 
 
 ^"^oWx, Jes^onda, 142 
 
 Sullivan, Fcanhoe, 143 
 
 Verdi, // Trovatore, 143 
 
 Otello, 146 
 
 Weber, Dcr Freyschiitz, 
 
 137, 140, 143 
 
 Ophelia, singing ballads, 12 
 Oratorio, the first, 155, 157, 190 
 
 purpose of, 155, 188 
 
 and opera, the differ- 
 ence, 188 
 
 three kinds of, 155 
 
 Oratorio, dramatic, 156, 164 
 
 narrative, 156, 167 
 
 didactic, 155, 157, 158, 
 
 161, 163, 164, 167, 173 
 
 three kinds combined, 157, 
 
 158, 167, 175 
 
 at Church seasons, 156 
 
 treatment of words in, 156, 
 
 158, 160 
 
 anthem in, 167, 171, 172 
 
 Greek chorus applied to, 
 
 164, 175, 177 
 
 solo narrator in, 157, 158, 
 
 178 
 
 chorus narrator in, 168, 
 
 170, 178, 187 
 
 ballad in, 182, 185 
 
 Dialogue in, 182 
 
 Romance in, 185 
 
 Handel in, 164, etc. 
 
 Bach, Passio7i according to 
 
 St Matthew, 158 
 
 Handel, Esther, Jephtha, 
 
 Theodora, Solomon, Saul, 166 
 
 Handel, Israel in Egypt, 
 
 167 
 
 Messiah, 172 
 
 Macfarren, St fohn the 
 
 Baptist, 179 
 
 Resurrection, 179 
 
 Ki7ig David, 1 79 
 
 Mendelssohn, St Paul, 175 
 
 Elijah, 175 
 
 Hubert Parry, /udith, 185 
 
 Rossini, Mose in Egitto, 156 
 
 Sullivan, Golden Legend, 
 
 185 
 
 Orchestra, Nebuchadnezzar's, 32, 
 
 43 . 
 
 Orchestral interludes in Purcell's 
 
 anthem, 67 
 Orchestration in Purcell, 67 
 
 Mozart, 82, 87 
 
 Verdi's Otello, T49 
 
 Or/eo, Gluck, 118 
 
 scenes from, 118, 119 
 
 music example, 120 
 
272 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Orfeo (Gluck), choruses in, 118 
 poetical meaning in, 
 
 119 
 Otello (Rossini), 141 
 
 (Verdi), 146 
 
 lago's Credo ^ 147 
 
 Finale, 148 
 
 orchestration, 149 
 
 Desdemona's ballad, 
 
 149, 154 
 
 music example, 149 
 
 Overture or symphony in Pur- 
 cell's anthem, 68 
 Scarlatti, or Italian form, 
 
 107, 197, 202 
 ■ Lulli, or French form, in, 
 
 196, 201 
 
 first, in opera, 107 
 
 Handel's Solomon^ 198 
 
 Esther^ 198 
 
 Occasional, 198 
 
 Messiah, 172 
 
 Gluck's, 117, 173, 197 
 
 Mendelssohn's Ruy Bias, 
 
 243, 245 
 Weber's, and poetical idea, 
 
 140 
 Overtures, early, 196 
 Oxfoi'dshire Tragedy, the, see 
 
 Near Woodstock Town 
 
 Pacini, Saffo, 143 
 Paisielle, II Bar bier e, 126 
 Palestrina, 62, loi 
 
 Missa Brevis, 62 
 
 Pantomime in Verdi's Otello, 149 
 Parry, Hubert, 100 
 
 Judith, 185 
 
 Part-music and Ilullah, 46 
 
 early German, 78 
 
 Part-songs, 1 1, 13, 20, 28, 39 
 Passion-music, Roman, 156, 189 
 
 • Lutheran, 157, 158, 
 
 190 
 Bach's St Matthew, 158 
 
 Passion-music, Bach's St Mat- 
 thew, first performance, 1 59 
 
 music example, 161 
 
 Handel, 164 
 
 Pastoral symphony in Plandel's 
 Messiah, 173 
 
 Pergolesi, La Sei-va Pad7-ona, 126 
 
 Peri, Caccini and, 105, 156, 162, 
 197 
 
 Pes, or burden (see), 20 
 
 Pianoforte, 44 
 
 Piccini, 127 
 
 Phrases in time, first in Scar- 
 latti's operas, 107 
 
 Plaine and Easie Introduction to 
 Music, 13, 26 
 
 Plan in music, 193 
 
 Playford's collections, 39, 74 
 
 Poems used to be sung, 17 
 
 Poetical meaning in music, 1 16 
 
 Gluck and Weber, 
 
 117, 119, 122, 140, 173 
 
 strengthened 
 
 musical design, 122, 130, 
 139, 140, 145, 258 
 
 Ponchielli, 98 
 Popular scales, 56 
 
 style first comes 
 
 scholars' music, 56 
 
 and scholastic styles, old, 
 
 51,81 
 
 tunes, collections of, 39 
 
 Power in music, 192 
 
 Proverb, the French pipe, etc., i 
 
 Psalms to hornpipes, 1 1 
 
 and sacred songs, collec- 
 tions of, 38 
 
 Psalters, 38 
 Purcell, 64 
 
 opera by, 113 
 
 anthems, 66 
 
 Sinihem, My Be loved spake, 68 
 
 music examples, 69, 70 
 
 verse or quartet in, 66, 67 
 
 overture or symphony, 68 
 
 instrumental obbligato and 
 
 interludes, 67 
 
 by 
 135, 
 
 into 
 
INDEX 
 
 273 
 
 Purcell, accompanied recitative, 
 
 69 
 
 more modulation, 70 
 
 key-design, 70, 146 
 
 modern discords, 64 
 
 Puritans and music, 37 
 
 times, music published in, 
 
 38,39 
 
 Quartet or verse first in anthem, 
 66, 67 
 
 in Fidelio, 1 39 
 
 Quartets, Haydn's, 198, 203 
 
 Mendelssohn's, 210 
 
 Beethoven's, 204 
 
 R 
 
 Raff, 93 
 Rameau, 11 1 
 Ravenscroft's Psalms, 38 
 Recapitulation of former music, 
 
 221 
 , with changes, 221, 
 
 249, 251 
 
 in sonata form, 234, 241, 
 
 242 
 
 Recitative, invented, 104 
 
 declamatory, 146, 169 
 
 French declamatory, 120 
 
 drama and Cavalieri, 156 
 
 early, in England, 65, 1 12 
 
 in Purcell's anthem, 69 
 
 in groups of movements, 
 
 205, 207 
 
 in Beethoven's choral 
 
 symphony, 207 
 
 Sonata Aj;), op. no, 
 
 206 
 
 choral, 171 
 
 Recitaiivo accompagyiato, 107 
 
 secco^ 107, 126, 147 
 
 Recordare (Mozart), Requiem, 87 
 Refraining, or descant, 2, 25 
 Renaissance, 102, 106 
 
 Repose, moments of, in a drama, 
 
 108 
 Restoration, home music after 
 
 the, 41 
 Resurrection (Macfarren), 179 
 Rex TremendcB (Mozart), R • 
 
 qui em, 87 
 Rhythm of Near Woodstock 
 
 Town, 32 
 
 popular, first comes into 
 
 scholars' music, 65 
 
 canonic, 87 
 
 completed in different 
 
 parts, first in Mozart, 88 
 
 in musical design, 195 
 
 of first movements, 239 
 
 greater, 255, 260 
 
 Ritornello, in Purcell's anthem 
 
 68, 70 
 Romance, in oratorio, 185 
 Romanza, Bennett's symphony 
 
 in G minor, 208, 219 
 Romaunt of the Rose, the, 2, 16 
 Rondeau, Roundell, a poem, 16 
 Rondo, 223, 230 
 
 and sonata, difference, 
 
 230 
 
 Rondo-finale, 227 
 Rossini, 97 
 
 accompanied dialogue with 
 
 full band, 141 
 II Bar bier e, 126 
 
 Otello, 141 
 
 AIos^ in Egitto, 156 
 
 Giiillatifne Tell, 143 
 
 Round with a burden, 20 
 
 three ways of using the 
 
 term, 24 
 
 in a symphony, 218 
 
 dances, 15 
 
 Roundelays and catches, collec- 
 tions of, 39 
 Roundell, 4, 16, 23 
 
 Now IVeliom Scmer, 17 
 
 a song in three parts, 19 
 
 Rounds and roundelays, 18 
 Row the bote, Norman, 19 
 
274 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Rubinstein, 93 
 Russian school, 93 
 Ruy Bias, Mendelssohn's over- 
 ture, 243, 245 
 
 Saffo, Pacini, 143 
 
 Saint-Saens, 97 
 
 San Filipo Neri, the church of, 
 
 I55» 157, 189 
 6*^ /'az// (Mendelssohn), 175 
 St Valentine, 12 
 6-a«/ (Handel), 166 
 Scale, Greek, in England, 53, 54 
 • major, 54 
 
 church, 55 
 
 popular, 56 
 
 modern, or key-system, 51 
 
 Scarlatti, Alessandro, 106, 165 
 made changes in opera, 106 
 
 distinguished two kinds of 
 
 recitative, 107 
 
 or Italian form of overture, 
 
 107, III, 197, 202 
 
 aria, 108 
 
 Scena and aria, Weber's, 141 
 in Beethoven's sonata 
 
 in A[j, op. no, 206 
 Scenery in an opera, 150 
 Scherzo, 204, 213 
 Scholastic and popular styles, 
 
 old, 51, 81 
 Schubert, 91 
 Schumann, 92 
 
 symphony in C, 215 
 
 pianoforte concerto, 208 
 
 Second, minor, of the key, 72, 84 
 
 _ key of, 247, 253 
 
 Sellenger s round, 15 
 Serenades, Brahms', 230 
 Seria, opera, 127 
 Serva Padrona, La, Pergolesi, 
 
 126 
 Service of song, 157 
 Seventh of the scale, minor, 58, 
 
 71,83 
 
 Seventh of the Scale, minor and 
 
 major together, 58, 83 
 Sgambati, 98 
 Shakespeare's days, music in, 
 
 6, etc. 
 Sinfonia, 202 
 Singing by ladies, 2, 4, 7, 12, 
 
 23, 27, 
 and playing by gentlemen, 
 
 6, 8, 10, 13, 17, 18, 27, 35, 
 
 36,40,42 
 Single movements, design of, 
 
 196, 210 
 Singspiel, German, 136 
 Six men's song, Sumer is icumen 
 
 in, 20 
 
 music example, 21 
 
 modern effects in, 23 
 
 Sixth, French, German and 
 
 Italian, 89 
 Smart, Sir Geo., and Handel's 
 
 songs, 46 
 
 Henry, 98 
 
 Smith, Alice Mary (Mrs Meadows 
 
 White), 100 
 Smyth, E. F., 100 
 Solomon, Handel, 166 
 
 overture, 198 
 
 Sonate da ca?nera, 197 
 
 Sonate da chiesa, 197 
 
 Sonata, Beethoven, in A, op. 2, 
 
 248 
 
 Pathetique, 217, 243 
 
 in D, called Pastorale, 217, 
 
 226 
 Appassionata, 247 
 
 in K\j, op. no, 205, 206, 
 
 210, 218 
 
 music example, 206 
 
 -form, or first movement 
 
 form, 203, 231, 257 
 
 first and second subjects, 
 
 233, 235, 237, 244 
 
 first and second, modula- 
 tions within, 247 
 
 second part, 233 
 
 free fantasia, 234, 239 
 
INDEX 
 
 275 
 
 Sonata, recapitulation, 234, 241 
 
 changes in, 249, 251, 
 
 252 
 
 musical ideas in, 235 
 
 varieties in, 242, 247 
 
 introduction, 242 
 
 used again in course, 
 
 243 
 
 secondary key, 243, 245 
 
 and rondo, difference, 
 
 230, 232 
 
 Sonatas, early, 197, 202 
 
 of Bach, Handel and 
 
 Haydn, 198 
 
 Song without words, in groups 
 of movements, 203, 205, 217, 
 218, 219 
 
 Spohr, 91 
 
 Jessonda, 142 
 
 symphonies and quartets, 
 
 199 
 
 Stanford, 100 
 
 Sternhold's Psalms versified, 38 
 
 Stilo rappresentativo, 1 05, 162 
 
 Stingo, 244 
 
 Sullivan, 99 
 
 Ivanhoe, 143 
 
 Golden Legend, 185 
 
 Suonata, 2CX), 202, 255 
 
 Surely He hath borne, Handel's 
 
 Messiah, 87 
 Symphonic harmony, 200, 202 
 
 form, 196, 203 (see also 
 
 Sonata and Groups of move- 
 ments) 
 
 Symphonies (Haydn), 198 
 
 Spohr, 199 
 
 Symphony, first in anthem, 68 
 Symphony, Pastoral, in Handel's 
 
 Messiah, 173 
 in A (Beethoven), 218 
 
 E|?^r^zVa (Beethoven), 248, 
 
 249, 250, 252 
 
 music examples, 250, 
 
 253 
 
 Choral, Beethoven, 207, 209 
 
 G minor (Bennett), 219 
 
 Symphony in E[j (Haydn), 243, 
 
 251 
 (Haydn), minuet of, 
 
 211, 234 
 C (Mozart), slow movement 
 
 of, 219, 232, 233 
 
 music examples, 220 
 
 Y.\) (Mozart), 236 
 
 music examples, 236, 
 
 237 
 G minor (Mozart), 237, 244, 
 
 251 
 
 music examples, 237, 
 
 238, 245 
 
 F (Brahms), 246, 248 
 
 Sympson, Christopher, 18, 40, 
 
 46 
 
 Tallis, 57 
 
 anthem, I call and cry, 57 
 
 music example, 58 
 
 Tatning of the Shrew, the, 7, 34 
 Theile, 115 
 
 Theodora (Handel), 166 
 Thomas, Ambroise, 97 
 
 Arthur Goring, 100, 143 
 
 Three-men's songs, 11, 28, 39 
 Three-part singing, 8, II, 12 
 Three Ravens, the, 244 
 Tierce de Picardie, 59 
 Tonality, old and new, 51 
 Tonic and dominant, other keys 
 
 as deputies of, 245 
 Trio, 212, 225 
 
 Trios, two, in a group of move- 
 ments, 215, 225 
 Trovatore, //(Verdi), 143 
 Turn again, IVhittington, 20 
 Twelfth Night, 10, 18 
 
 U 
 
 Undersong, 20, 25 
 
 Unison and harmony, contrast of, 
 
2j6 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Verdi, 98 
 
 // Trovatore, 143 
 
 Otello, 146 
 
 lago's Credo in, 147 
 
 Finale in, 148 
 
 Desdemona's ballad, 
 
 149, 154 
 music example, 
 
 149 
 
 orchestra in, 149 
 
 pantomime in, 149 
 
 Virginals, 37, 44 
 
 W 
 
 Wagner, 94, 95, 143 
 
 Wallace, 99 
 Webbe, 74 
 Weber, 91 
 
 scena and aria, 141 
 
 overture and poetical mean- 
 ing, 140 
 
 Der Freyschiitz^ 137, 140 
 
 Wee be three Poor Mariners ^ 29 
 Weelkes, loi 
 We're cC noddin\ 226 
 Wesley, S., 98 
 
 and Bach's works, 46 
 
 S. S., 98 
 
 White, Maude Valerie, lOO 
 Wilbye, loi 
 Winters Tale., il 
 
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36 
 
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38 
 
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40 
 
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 LOST PROPERTY. 
 
 GEORGE AND THE GENERAL. 
 
 Russell (W. Clark). A MARRIAGE AT 
 
 SEA. 
 ABANDONED. 
 MY DANISH SWEETHEART. 
 
 HIS ISLAND PRINCESS. 
 
 Sergeant (Adeline) THE MASTER OF 
 
 BEECHWOOD. 
 BARBARA'S MONEY. 
 THE YELLOW DIAMOND. 
 THE LOVE THAT OVERCAME. 
 Surtees (R. S.). HANDLEY CROSS. 
 
 Illustrated. 
 MR. SPONGE'S SPORTING TOUR. 
 
 Illustrated. 
 ASK MAMMA. Illustrated, 
 Walford (Mrs. L. B.). MR. SMITH, 
 COUSINS. 
 
 THE BABY'S GRANDMOTHER. 
 Wallace (General Lew). BEN-HUR. 
 THE FAIR GOD. 
 
 W^atson(H. B. Marriot). THE ADVEN- 
 TURERS. 
 Weekes (A. B.). PRISONERS OF WAR. 
 White (Percy). A PASSIONATE 
 PILGRIM. 
 
14 DAY USE 
 
 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 
 MUSIC LIBRARY 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 
 on the date to which renewed. 
 
 Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 
 
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