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 THE-PEOPLirS'BOO 
 
 
GIFT OF -. 
 
4RCHITECTURE 
 
 f. . ■ 
 By MRS. ARTHUR BELL 
 
 AUTHOR OF "THE ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF ART,"^**MASTERPIE 
 THE GREAT ARTISTS," "REPRESENTATIVE PAINTERS OF 
 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC. 
 
 LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK 
 67 LONG ACRE, W.C, AND EDINBURGH 
 NEW YORK; DODGE PUBLISHING CO. 
 

 20 6 
 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 Introduction: What Architecture is — 
 Materials employed — Definition of 
 distinctive features of the two main 
 styles, Trabeated and Arcuated 
 
 I. Egyptian, Asiatic, and Early American 
 Architecture .... 
 
 II. Greek Architecture .... 
 
 III. Roman Architecture .... 
 
 IV. Early Christian Architecture . 
 
 V. Byzantine and Saracenic Architecture 
 
 VI. Romanesque Architecture . 
 
 VII. Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman Archi 
 tecture ..... 
 
 VIII. Gothic Architecture in Europe 
 
 IX. Gothic Architecture in Great Britain 
 
 X. Renaissance Architecture in Europe . 
 
 7 
 13 
 22 
 31 
 36 
 45 
 
 52 
 60 
 
 72 
 83 
 
 XI. Renaissance Architecture in Great Britain 88 
 Index 93 
 
 m 
 
 310451 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2007 with funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/architectureOOdanvrich 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 WHAT ARCHITECTURE IS — MATERIALS EMPLOYED — DEFINITION 
 OF DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE TWO MAIN STYLES, 
 TRABEATED AND ARCUATED 
 
 It is only when a building entirely fulfils the purpose for 
 which it is intended and bears the impress of a genuine style 
 that it takes rank as a work of architecture. This definition, 
 exclusive though it at first sight appears, brings within the 
 province of the art every structure which combines with 
 practical utility beauty of design and execution, from the 
 humblest cottage to the most dignified temple or palace. 
 Suitability of material and harmony with its surroundings are 
 among the minor factors that give to a building vitality of 
 character and contribute to its enduring value, a value en- 
 hanced by its reflection of the needs and aspirations of those 
 by whom and for whom it was erected. 
 
 Wood appears to have been the earliest material used for 
 the building of a home when out-of-door dwellings took the 
 place of the caves that were the first shelters of primitive 
 man. At Joigny in France there still exist examples of what 
 are supposed to be the most ancient of all such dwellings, 
 namely circular holes, locally known as huvards, in which the 
 trunk of a tree had been fixed, the branches plastered over 
 with clay forming the roof of a simple but rain-proof refuge. 
 Huts of wattle and hurdle work dating from prehistoric times 
 have also been preserved, some rising from the ground, others 
 from platforms resting on piles sunk in the beds of lakes. 
 These were in their time superseded by stronger structures, 
 with walls made of squared beams piled up horizontally and 
 fastened together at the corners with wooden pegs ; the roof 
 being formed of roughly sawn planks. Out of such primeval 
 houses as these were evolved in the course of centuries the 
 picturesque half-timbered cottages of mediaeval Europe and 
 the quaint wooden churches of Norway such as the character- 
 istic one at Hitterdal. 
 
 Limestone, granite, and sandstone were used for building at 
 a very remote period in much the same way as wood, large 
 blocks, fresh from the quarry, of all manner of different shapes, 
 being piled up horizontally or stood on edge, no cement being 
 
vi INTRODUCTION 
 
 employed, though in certain cases crushed stone was used to 
 fill up the spaces between the blocks. To walls or buildings 
 of which courses of undressed stone were the only materials, 
 the name of Cyclopean has been given because of the errone- 
 ous belief that it was originated by the Cyclopes, an imaginary 
 race of giants, supposed to have lived in Thrace,. a province of 
 ancient Greece. 
 
 Bricks, that is to say, dried blocks of clay, were used at a 
 very early date as a supplement to or substitute for wood and 
 stone for building purposes. The most ancient bricks were 
 not subjected to artificial heat but were simply exposed to 
 the sun, and even when kiln-baked bricks were introduced 
 they were often employed merely to face the older variety. 
 Spacious and lofty buildings consisting entirely of bricks 
 were erected at a ve-ry early date in Assyria, Persia, and else- 
 where, and some of the most noteworthy architectural sur- 
 vivals of the Roman Empire are of the same material. 
 
 The main features of a building are determined by the shape 
 of the walls or the mode of arrangement of the pillars that take 
 the place of walls, the way in which the roof is constructed, 
 and that in which the openings of the doors and windows are 
 spanned. The earliest roofs were flat, and the most ancient 
 mode of linking together the supports of doors and windows 
 was to place a plank of wood or slab of stone known as a Imtel 
 across them at the top. To this style of roofing and spanning, 
 which reached its most perfect development in the temples of 
 Greece, the name of the traheated was given, derived in the first 
 instance from the so-called trabea, a toga adorned with hori- 
 zontal stripes. 
 
 It was only by very gradual degrees that the trabeated mode 
 of roofing and spanning was succeeded by what is known as the 
 arcuatedf or that in which the arch takes the place of the hori- 
 zontal beam. In early Roman temples and palaces the Greek 
 style was long carefully copied, but in utilitarian works such 
 as bridges, viaducts, and drains the arch was employed at a 
 very remote period. An arch whether circular or pointed con- 
 sists of two series of stones cut into the form of wedges 
 known as voicssoirSf o, central one at the apex or highest point 
 called the keystone locking the two series together. This beauti- 
 ful contrivance, the inventor of which is unknown, gradually re- 
 volutionised the science of architecture. It was used at first, 
 tentatively as it were, in combination with the horizontal beam 
 or slab of stone, but in the end became in its rounded form the 
 distinctive peculiarity of the Romanesque and in its pointed 
 shape of the Gothic style. 
 
ARCHITECTURE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 EGYPTIAN, ASIATIC, AND EARLY AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 The most ancient existing examples of EgjT)tian architecture 
 are the royal tombs of the Memphite kingdom known as the 
 P}Tamids, of which the oldest is that of King Seneferu (about 
 3000 B.C.) at Medam, and the largest, which rises to a height of 
 481 feet from a base 764 feet square, that called the Great 
 Pyramid of King Cheops (3788 36G6) at Ghizeh, near Cairo, on 
 which 100,000 men are said to have been 
 continuously employed for thirty years. ^-"^^^^^^ 
 The latter is not only a marvel of construe- t^^M^ 
 
 tive skill, but is by many authorities con- r" " ' 1 
 sidered to be a most accurately designed f?II^> 
 astronomical observatory. C^H^t^- 
 
 The Pyramids consist of masses of admir- ^^^ttj-.*:-::^ 
 ably squared and polished stones^ in certain lHH^* M | 
 cases supplemented with bricks piled up in j H^^fl^jB 
 the form of a rectangle around a sepulchral " ffSSrW^I 
 chamber, the entrance to which was most rr ^x, 
 
 carefullv concealed. \Vlien the body of the ^b^r^aSd^'ssafe^' 
 monarch had been placed in it the tapering in Great Pyramid 
 mound above it was finished off with huge 
 facing blocks, that were skiKully worked into the angle re- 
 quired and finally levelled to a smooth surface. 
 
 Near the Pyramids of the kings are the tombs, known as 
 Mast abas, of their wives and children and of the great officers 
 of state. They are constructed of stone, are square or oblong 
 in form, and their walls are adorned with paintings of scenes 
 from contemporary life, the whole reminiscent of earlier timber 
 structures. Later tombs are those hewn out of the living rock 
 at Beni Hassan and elsewhere, dating from about 2500 B.C., 
 with porticoes upheld by columns resembling those of Greek 
 
 7 
 
8 
 
 AftCKITECTURE 
 
 temples, and %t or curved roo^s, the latter suggestive of the 
 piif^ciple oic tk3 inidh . having been known to those who 
 excavated them. 
 
 It was between 1600 B.C. and 1110 B.c. that the Egyptians 
 reached their highest point of civilisation, and it was during 
 that period that were erected the magnificent Theban temples, 
 of which those at Karnak and Luxor, which were connected by 
 an avenue of colossal sphinxes, are the finest still remaining. 
 The plan of all Egyptian temples of whatever size was the 
 
 same : a horizontal gateway flanked on either sidaby masses of 
 masonry of considerably greater height than it, known as 
 pylons, their surfaces enriched with symbolic carvings, giving 
 access to a square space open to the sky, and partly surrounded 
 with cloisters, leading into a noble hall of huge dimensions, its 
 flat roof upheld by columns, some with capitals resembling 
 lotus buds, others representing the head of the goddess Isis. 
 Beyond this hall were a number of small dark rooms, the use 
 of which has never been ascertained, enclosing within them the 
 nucleus of the whole, the low narrow mysterious cell or 
 sanctuary in which was enshrined the image of the god to 
 whom the temple was dedicated. Outside these noble build- 
 ings were ranged obelisks, or four-sided tapering-pillars of 
 great height, covered with hierogl3rphics commemorating the 
 
EGYPTIAN, ASIATIC, AND EARLY AMERICAN 9 
 
 triumphs of the kings, and colossal figures, few of which remain 
 in dt% which added greatly to the dignity of the appearance 
 of the whole. 
 
 To the same period as the temples of Thebes belong those 
 of very similar general design hewn out of the sides of the 
 mountains of Nubia, of which the best example is the larger 
 of the two at Ipsambul, specially noteworthy for the huge 
 seated figure of the monarch for whom it was built, the great 
 Rameses II, guarding the entrance to it. The tombs of the 
 Theban rulers, like the Nubian temples, were hewn out of the 
 living rock, and are many of them, notably those known as the 
 Tombs of the Kings and the Tombs of the Queens in the plains 
 watered by the Nile, of vast extent, labyrinths of passages, 
 
 Tomb at Beni Hassan 
 
 alternating with large rooms, leading to the actual sepulchral 
 chamber. 
 
 Of considerably later date than any of the buildings referred 
 to above are the temples of Denderah, Edfou, and Philse, 
 erected after the conquest of Egypt by the Greeks, but they 
 all resemble those of the Theban dynasty in general style, 
 whilst that at Esneh is a good example of the results of 
 Roman influence. 
 
 Very great is the contrast to Egyptian architecture pre- 
 sented by the Asiatic buildings that have been preserved to 
 the present day. In the former stone was the usual material 
 employed, and the mode of construction was as a general rule 
 that known as the post and lintel, whilst in the latter brick 
 was almost exclusively used, and the arch was a distinctive 
 feature. The so-called Babylonian or Chaldean, Assyrian, 
 and Persian styles resemble each other so greatly that they 
 may justly be said to belong to one type, evolved by the 
 inhabitants of the extensive region watered by the Euphrates 
 
10 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 and Tigris, who like the Egyptians attained to a very advanced 
 civiUsation at a remote period. Of the temples not a single 
 one has been preserved, but the remains have recently been 
 excavated, in the mounds on the site of Babylon, of four that 
 consisted of numerous chambers enclosing a large court with 
 towered gateways, whilst at Assur another has been uncovered 
 of a somewhat similar design. To atone for the lack of temples 
 many Asiatic palaces have been to some extent reconstructed, 
 the most remarkable being those unearthed near the villages 
 of Nimrod, Khorsabad, and Koyunjik, all supposed to be relics 
 of Nineveh. They originally consisted of lofty many-roomed 
 structures raised on high platforms, and entered from arched 
 gateways flanked by colossal winged bulls of stone. The brick 
 walls were encased in alabaster slabs carved with figure subjects 
 in low relief, some of which are in the British Museum, and 
 galleries, rising from columns with capitals that foreshadowed 
 
 Terrace Wall at Khorsabad 
 
 Greek forms, admitted air and light freely. The Palace of 
 Nebuchadnezzar has also recently been identified, and must 
 when uninjured have been an immense castle-like pile with a 
 vast number of courts and halls to which a paved way led up. 
 
 Tombs and palaces are the chief relics of Persian architec- 
 ture. Many of the former, notably that near Murghab, sup- 
 posed to have been the sepulchre of Cjtus, resemble Greek 
 temples in general style, whilst others are rock-cut and recall 
 the Mastabas of Egypt. Of the palaces those at Persepolis were 
 the most remarkable, for in them Persian architecture reached its 
 fullest development. Their ruins, that rise from a platform some 
 forty feet high hewn out of the surface of the living rock, to 
 which long flights of steps led up, consist of vast columned halls 
 entered from detached porticoes known as propylsea. When 
 intact the largest of these halls, named after Xerxes, must have 
 exceeded in size the cathedrals of Canterbury or Winchester. 
 
 Other noteworthy relics of early Asiatic architecture are the 
 
EGYPTIAN, ASIATIC, AND EARLY AMERICAN 1 1 
 
 tombs of Lycia, Phrygia, and Lydia. The first named— of 
 which the so-called tomb of the Harpies now in the British 
 Museum is a typical example — are all either cut in the living 
 rock or carved out of detached masses of stone, in either case 
 recalling in their general appearance the log-huts of pre- 
 historic times. More ornate than those of Lycia, the Phrygian 
 
 Restored Section of Hall of Xerxes 
 
 sepulchral monuments, of which the grave of Midas at Doganlu 
 Js the finest, are also rock hewn, but their shape and decora- 
 tion are more suggestive of the tent than the wooden dwelling, 
 whilst those in Lydia are comparatively primitive, being in 
 some cases, notably in the Tumulus of Tantalus on the Gulf 
 of Smyrna, mere masses of stone heaped up above a huge 
 mound. 
 
 The most ancient examples of Indian archi- 
 tecture are the Stambhas or Lats, the earliest 
 dating from the time of Asoka (272-236 B.C.), 
 that are pillars bearing inscriptions and sur- 
 mounted by a symbolic animal such as an 
 - elephant or a lion, of which there is a good 
 specimen at Allahabad, and the Stupas or 
 Topes, mounds encased in masonry, crowned 
 by a reliquary containing memorials of Buddha 
 or of his chief disciples, and enclosed within 
 a stone railing elaborately carved with scenes 
 from the life of the founder of Buddhism, with 
 an even more ornate gateway at each of the 
 four corners, of which the finest is the larger 
 of two at Sanchi in Central India. Even 
 more interesting than the Lats and Stupas are the Viharas 
 or Buddhist monasteries, of which there is a specially good 
 example at Nigope near Behar, and the Chaityas or temples, 
 of which those at Karli, Ellora, Ajunta, and Elephanta are 
 amongst the finest. All alike hewn out of the living rock, the 
 former consist of a square central hall with or without columns, 
 
 Capital of lAt 
 
12 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 surrounded by cells for the monks, whilst the latter, of more 
 complicated design, resemble in general plan a Roman basilica. 
 A wide nave with rows of massive pillars upholding a slightly 
 domed roof is flanked by lateral aisles, and at the eastern end 
 
 Section of Cave at Karli 
 
 rises a semicircular sanctuary containing a seated figure of 
 Buddha. 
 
 Out of the Buddhist religion grew that known as the Jaina, 
 and many fine temples, of which the most remarkable are that 
 at Sadri and the Dilwana Temple on Mount Abu, remain that 
 were erected for the use of its professors. It was usual to 
 group a number on some hill-top, and the plan of each was 
 
 View of Temple at Sadri 
 
 generally that of a Greek cross, a columned portico giving 
 access to a complex collection of shrines, each approached by 
 avenues of pillars and roofed in with a separate dome, whilst 
 the exterior was adorned with rounded towers finished off 
 with pointed finials suggestive of a spire, the whole both 
 inside and out being richly decorated with carvings. 
 
 Hindu architecture, or that of those who hold the Brahmanic 
 faith, differs very greatly from Buddhist, its chief characteristic 
 
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 13 
 
 being a lofty pyramidal tower of several stories, as a general 
 rule covered with ornament, that reached its fullest develop- 
 ment in the so-called pagodas, of which there are fine specimens 
 at Jaggernaut, Mahavellipore, and Palitana. In different parts 
 of India various modifications of this general style occur to 
 which distinctive names have been given, but the same spirit 
 may be said to pervade them all, from the great Temples of 
 Bhuvaneswar, Tanjore, Bundaban, and elsewhere, to the 
 humbler shrines scattered throughout the length and breadth 
 of the vast continent and of its island dependencies. 
 
 There is nothing very distinctive about the architecture of 
 China or Japan. The Buddhist temples in both countries recall 
 those of India, but the pagodas, most of which are of wood 
 faced with porcelain tiles, differ slightly in having a curved 
 roof to each story. The palaces of China are impressive on 
 account of their vast extent and the use of copper in their 
 construction, but the domestic buildings of Japan are all of 
 comparatively small size. 
 
 In America as in Asia are many deeply interesting architec- 
 tural relics of the civilisation of the early inhabitants, of which 
 the most remarkable are the ruins of Cyclopean buildings on 
 the shores of Lake Tatiaca, the remains of the ancient city 
 of Ouzco, all in Peru, and the Teocallis or temples and Palaces 
 of the kings in Mexico, Yucatan, and Guatemala, none of which 
 however call for description here as they did not influence the 
 architecture of the future in their own or any other country. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE 
 
 In their architecture as in their sculpture the Greeks gave 
 eloquent expression to the exquisite feeling for symmetry of 
 form which was one of their most distinctive characteristics. 
 Architects and masons were in close touch with the people for 
 whom they built, no social barriers, so far as the arts and crafts 
 were concerned, divided class from class, citizens, aliens, and 
 even slaves vying with each other in their zeal to produce the 
 best work possible. 
 
 The finest buildings of ancient Greece and its dependencies 
 entirely fulfilled the conditions of true architecture, for they 
 were beautiful alike in design and execution, admirably adapted 
 to the purpose for which they were erected, and in complete 
 harmony with their surroundings. Moreover they are of 
 
14 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 exceptional importance in the history of the evolution of the 
 art on account of the influence they exercised on that of other 
 countries, all their distinctive features having been either 
 copied or modified in those of the rest of 
 Europe. 
 
 The Greeks, though they were doubtless 
 acquainted with the arch, the dome, and the 
 tower, refrained as a general rule from using 
 them, probably because they considered them 
 unsuitable to the topographical and climatic 
 conditions that prevailed in their native land. 
 They achieved their highest results by means 
 of correctness of proportion and dignity of 
 outline, giving far more attention to the ex- 
 terior than to the interior of their buildings, 
 and in this respect diflfering greatly from the 
 Egyptians, who endeavoured to impress the 
 spectator chiefly by the vast extent and mas- 
 siveness of their temples and palaces. 
 Recent discoveries on the site of Knossos in Crete of the 
 remains of a many-roomed' palace, and elsewhere in the same 
 island of circular stone tombs, all of which betray strong Oriental 
 
 : : 
 
 : ] 
 
 • • • m 
 
 Plan of Greek 
 Temple 
 
 Doric Capital 
 
 influence, confirm the opinion of archaeologists that it was in 
 the islands of the uEgina Sea that the first works of architecture 
 properly so called were erected in Europe. On the mainland 
 of Greece, notably at Mycenee and Tiryns, exists relics of many 
 
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 
 
 15 
 
 ^ 
 
 ? 
 
 buildings, including at the former the noble 
 Lion Gate that gave access to the Acropolis, 
 and at the latter the residence of a chieftain, 
 which maintain the continuity between the 
 earliest and the latest phase of Greek archi- 
 tecture, and may justly be said to presage the 
 triumphs of the Golden Age. 
 
 From first to last Hellenic architecture was 
 characterised by unity of purpose, its grandest 
 forms being essentially the same in general 
 principle as its earliest efi'orts, the mud walls 
 with timber pillars upholding a flat wooden 
 roof, having been gradually transformed into 
 stately colonnaded structures in costly mate- 
 rials, that to this day remain absolutely un- 
 rivalled in their exquisite beauty of proportion 
 and the close correlation of every detail with 
 each other and the whole. 
 
 The grand temples of Greece were built either 
 of stone or of marble. As a general rule they 
 are set on a platform to which a long flight of 
 steps lead up, and are enclosed within an outer 
 wall or a continuous colonnade. Their plan 
 is extremely simple: a parallelogram, formed 
 in some cases entirely of columns, in others 
 with walls at the side and columns at the ends 
 only, encloses a second and considerably smaller 
 pillared space known as the cella or naos, that 
 enshrined the image of the god to whom the 
 building was dedicated, and was entered from 
 a pronaos or porch, and with a posticum or 
 back space behind it, sometimes supplemented 
 
 by a kind of second cella called 
 the opisthodomus or back temple. 
 The front columns at either end 
 are spanned by horizontal beams 
 that uphold a sloping gable called 
 a pediment, the flat, three-cornered 
 surface of which is generally adorn- 
 ed with sculpture in bas-relief, 
 and along the side-columns is 
 placed what is known as the en- 
 tablature, that consists of three 
 parts, the architrave resting on 
 the capitals of the columns, the 
 Portion of a Doric Entablature frieze above it, and the cornice, the 
 
 Column from the 
 Parthenon 
 
16 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 last of which sustains the flat roof, usually covered with tiles or 
 marble copies of tiles. 
 
 Greek architecture is generally divided into three groups or 
 orders: the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, each of which, 
 
 The Parthenon 
 
 though the buildings belonging to them resemble each other 
 in general plan, is distinguished by certain peculiarities of the 
 columns and entablatures. The Doric was the earliest to be 
 employed, but the Ionic, that early succeeded it, was long 
 
 Metx)pe from the Parthenon 
 
 used simultaneously with it, sometimes even in the same 
 building, whilst the Corinthian did not come into use until 
 considerably later. 
 
 In the Doric order the column has no separate base, but 
 rises direct from the top step of the platform on which the 
 
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 
 
 17 
 
 building it belongs to stands. It is of massive form and has 
 what is known as an entasis or slightly convex surface, it is 
 
 Portion of Frieze of Parthenon 
 
 generally fluted, that is to say, cut into parallel perpendicular 
 channels, several rings called annulets connecting it with the 
 
 capital, which consists of an — ^ — 
 
 echinus or rounded moulding 
 and an abacus or unrounded 
 slab resting on the echinus. 
 The Doric entablature is 
 equally simple, the architrave 
 being perfectly plain, whilst 
 the frieze is adorned with 
 triglyphs or three upright 
 projections with grooves be- 
 tween them, set at equal dis- 
 tances from each other, the 
 spaces separating them,known 
 as metopes, being as a rule 
 enriched with fine sculptures 
 of figure subjects. The frieze 
 is connected with the cornice 
 by narrow bands called mu- 
 tules resting on the triglyphs 
 and metopes, and the cornice 
 itself has a plain lower band 
 known as the corona, surmounted by more or less decorated 
 courses of stone or marble. . 
 
 Portion of Frieze of Parthenon 
 
18 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Ionic Capital 
 
 The Ionic and Corinthian orders are alike characterised by 
 lightness and grace rather than massiveness and simplicity. In 
 both, the columns, instead of rising direct from the platform, 
 
 have a complex base consisting 
 of a number of circular mould- 
 ings one above another, the fluted 
 shafts are comparatively slim and 
 tapering, and the channels in 
 them are divided by spaces called 
 fillets. In the Ionic order the 
 flat abacus of the Doric capital 
 is replaced by two coiled volutes 
 projecting beyond the echinus 
 on either side, and the horizontal 
 portion between the volutes is surmounted by finely carved loaf 
 mouldings. The Corinthian order is specially distinguished by 
 the ornate decoration of the capitals, that represent calicos 
 of flowers and leaves, chiefly those of the acanthus, 
 arranged so as to point upwards and curve out- 
 wards in much the same style as they do in nature. 
 The architrave in both the Ionic and the Corinthian 
 orders consists of plain slabs, but the frieze — which 
 is not divided as in Doric buildings into triglyphs 
 and metopes — is in nearly every case enriched with 
 a series of beautiful figure subjects, and is there- 
 fore known as the Zoophorus or figure-bearer. 
 
 Among the most ancient remains of sacred 
 Greek architecture are those of the Herseon or 
 Sanctuary of the Goddess Hera at Olympia ; of the 
 temple that preceded the Parthenon at Athens ; 
 and of those at Assos in Asia Minor, Selinus in 
 Sicily, and Corcyra in Corfu, the last a very typical 
 example of archaic Doric, with a pediment in 
 which are primitive sculptures of a gorgon flanked 
 by lions. Of somewhat later date are the ruined 
 temples at Girgenti, Syracuse, and Segesta, all in 
 Sicily, the last the best preserved of all ; the 
 group at Psestum in Southern Italy, of which 
 that of Neptune is the finest, the pediments having 
 been originally filled in with beautifully executed 
 sculptured figures. The Temple of Athene in the ionic Column 
 island of ^gina marks the transition from the 
 extreme severity of early Doric to the more ornate buildings 
 of the Golden Age of Greek architecture, its decorative 
 sculptures being of exquisite design and execution. The 
 Temple of Jupiter at Athens, begun in the Doric style by 
 
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 
 
 19 
 
 Pisistratus about 540 b.c. and not completed until about 174 B.C., 
 has Corinthian capitals on some of its columns, and the Temple 
 of Theseus, of uncertain date, in the same city, that consists 
 entirely of white marble, ranks, in spite of its severe simplicity, 
 even with that of Neptune at Psestum on account of its fine 
 proportions and the admirable finish of every detail. 
 
 It was in the Parthenon, or Temple of the Virgin Goddess of 
 Wisdom, at Athens, that the Doric style found its highest 
 
 !UJUUUUIJUUUUJ^JU<^ 
 
 \rjy^yL\yjyjy^yjyjy.^^ 
 
 7—7 
 Ionic Entablature from the Erecthenm 
 
 expression, for in it wore combined the massive grandeur of 
 the archaic period with the refinements of construction, decora- 
 tion, and lighting of a more scientific but not less aesthetic age. 
 It occupies the site of an earlier building, the relics of which 
 are referred to above, that was destroyed by Xerxes, and it 
 rises from the summit of the lofty rock of the Acropolis that 
 dominated the ancient city. It was built, it is supposed, 
 by the famous architects Ictinus and Callicrates about 440 B.C., 
 under the enlightened ruler Pericles, and its decorative sculp- 
 tures, some of which are now in the British Museum, were the 
 work of Phidias and his pupils, and, mutilated though they 
 
20 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 are, they still rank amongst the greatest masterpieces of 
 plastic art. 
 
 Before the Parthenon, after being long used as a Christian 
 church, was reduced to ruins by the explosion of a shell, when 
 in 1687 it was desecrated by being converted into a powder 
 magazine by the Turks during their struggle with the Venetians, 
 it must have been one of the very noblest buildings in the 
 world, forming with other sanctuaries and secular buildings on 
 the world-famous hill a spectacle of surpassing grandeur, the 
 pride and glory of the whole Greek world. 
 
 The Parthenon was 228 feet long by 101 broad, and 64 feet 
 high; the porticoes at each end had a double row of eight 
 columns ; the sculptures in the pediments were in full relief, 
 representing in the eastern the Birth of Athene, and in the 
 
 Acanthus Ornament 
 
 Corinthian Capital 
 
 western the Struggle between that goddess and Poseidon, 
 whilst those on the metopes, some of which are supposed to be 
 from the hand of Alcamenes, the contemporary and rival of 
 Phidias, rendered scenes from battles between the Gods and 
 Giants, the Greeks and the Amazons, and the Centaurs and 
 Lapithge. 
 
 Of somewhat later date than the Parthenon and resembling 
 it in general style, though it is very considerably smaller, is the 
 Theseum or Temple of Theseus on the plain on the north-west 
 of the Acropolis, and at Bassse in Arcadia is a Doric building, 
 dedicated to Apollo Epicurius and designed by Ictinus, that has 
 the peculiarity of facing north and south instead of, as was 
 usual, east and west. 
 
 Scarcely less beautiful than the Parthenon itself is the grand 
 
GREEK ARCHITECTURE 
 
 21 
 
 triple portico known as the Propylsea that gives access to it on 
 the western side. It was designed about 430 by Mnesicles, and 
 in it the Doric and Ionic styles are admirably combined, whilst 
 in the Erectheum, sacred to the memory of Erechtheus, a hero 
 of Attica, the Ionic order is seen at its best, so delicate is the 
 carving of the capitals of its columns. It has moreover the 
 rare and distinctive feature of what is known as a caryatid 
 porch, that is to say, one in which the en- 
 tablature is upheld by caryatides or statues 
 representing female figures. 
 
 Other good examples of the Ionic style 
 are the small Temple of Nike Apteros, or 
 the Wingless Victory, situated not far from 
 the Propylaea and the Parthenon of Athens, 
 the more important Temple of Apollo at 
 Branchidse near Miletus, originally of most 
 imposing dimensions, and that of Artemis 
 at Ephesus, of which however only a few 
 fragments remain in situ. 
 
 Of the sacred buildings of Greece in 
 which the Corinthian order was employed 
 there exist, with the exception of the 
 Temple of Jupiter at Athens already re- 
 ferred to, but a few scattered remains, such 
 as the columns from Epidaurus now in the 
 Athens Museum, that formed part of a 
 circlet of Corinthian pillars within a Doric 
 colonnade. In the Temple of Athena Alea 
 at Tegea, designed by Scopas in 394, how- 
 ever, the transition from the Ionic to the 
 Corinthian style is very clearly illustrated, 
 and in the circular Monument of Lysicrates, 
 erected in 334 B.C. to commemorate the 
 triumph of that hero's troop in the choric 
 dances in honour of Dionysos, and the 
 Tower of the Winds, both at Athens, the Corinthian style is 
 seen at its best. 
 
 In addition to the temples described above, some remains of 
 tombs, notably that of the huge Mausoleum at Halicarnassus 
 in memory of King Mausolus, who died in 353 B.C., and several 
 theatres, including that of Dionysos at Athens, with a well- 
 preserved one of larger size at Epidaurus, bear witness to the 
 general prevalence of Doric features in funereal monuments and 
 secular buildings, but of the palaces and humbler dwelling- 
 houses in the three Greek styles, of which there must have 
 been many fine examples, no trace remains. There is however 
 
 Corinthian Column 
 
 from Monument 
 
 of Lysicrates 
 
22 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 no doubt that the Corinthian style was very constantly em- 
 ployed after the power of the great republics had been broken, 
 
 1 
 
 Corinthian Entablaturo from Monument of Lysicrates 
 
 and the Oriental taste for lavish decoration replaced the leva 
 for austere simplicity of the virile people of Greece and its 
 dependencies. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 After the Qolden Age of Greek architecture properly so called 
 was over, a kind of aftermath prevailed for some little time in 
 the peninsula and the outlying colonies of Greece, to be suc- 
 ceeded by a transition time to which the name of the Hellenistic 
 has been given, during which is supposed to have been inaugu- 
 rated the use of the arch and the vaults which were in course 
 of time to revolutionise the art of building. 
 
 It has long been customary to give to the Etruscans, an 
 Asiatic people who in very early times occupied a considerable 
 
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 23 
 
 portion of Italy, the credit of the first introduction of the arch 
 in Western Europe. It is however now more generally believed 
 that the Roman style of building was an offshoot of the Hellen- 
 istic, in which the dome was certaiidy employed, though no 
 exist in (j^ examples of its use can be quoted. The city of 
 Alexandria, founded about 332 B.a by Alexander the Great, is 
 known to have had four principal colonnaded streets leading 
 from a four-arched central buildiui^, and many are of opinion 
 that much of the town was built over arched cisterns. The 
 dome may possibly have been in the first instance introduced 
 into weetem Europe as a cover for the hot baths in which 
 the wealthy delighted, and its form was probably the same as 
 that of the one preserved at Pompeii. The famous arched 
 drain at Rome, known as the Cloaca Maxima, so constantly 
 referred to as the greatest masterpiece of the Etruscans was 
 not, it has now been proved, built until after their subjugation 
 
 Romao Barrel Ysolt 
 
 and extinction as a nation. For all that they were without 
 doabt most skilful architects and engineers ; the walls of their 
 cities were of oydopean masonry and were entered from arched 
 gateway!, a good example of which ia to be seen at Vol terra, 
 constructed of wedge-shaped stones fixed without cement. 
 Their rock-cut toml^, such as those at Cometo, Vulci, and 
 Chiusi, are divided into many chambers, the walls adorned 
 with paintings, the roof upheld by columns, and the facades re- 
 sembling those of Egyptian temples, whilst the tumuli in which 
 they sometimes buned their dead are surmounted by pyramids 
 of earth resting on stone foundations. 
 
 From whatever source Roman architects got their inspira- 
 tion, they very soon absorbed all external influences and 
 stamped the buildings they erected with a character of their 
 own. From the first sun-dried bricks, sometimes combined 
 with stone, were the chief materials used, even the grander 
 structures of the best period such as the huge palaces and 
 halls were of plastered brickwork, stone having been as a 
 
24 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 general rule reserved for such works as temples, theatres, and 
 triumphal arches. Concrete was also largely employed, and 
 timber in many cases was turned to account for roofiiig. The 
 most distinctive peculiarity of the architecture of the Romans is 
 the vaulted roof, which they employed in an infinite variety of 
 ways, introducing it at every possible opportunity. The simplest 
 form, known as the waggon or barrel vault, is a semicircular arch 
 spanning two walls, whilst a more elaborate contrivance consists 
 of two intersecting vaults of the same height crossing each 
 other at right angles, which was used in Rome as early as 
 75 B.C. These two forms were sometimes supplemented by 
 what are distinguished as conches or half-domes over external 
 semicircular recesses, of which the apse is a characteristic 
 example. With the aid of these three varieties of vaulting, 
 that were occasionally combined with consummate skill, the 
 
 Intersecting Vaulting 
 
 Romans were able to roof in large or small circular spaces, and 
 in some few cases, as in the Baths of Caracalla at Rome, 
 they even to a certain extent anticipated the clever contrivance 
 known as the pendentive, a triangular piece of vaulting spring- 
 ing from the corners of a right-angled enclosure, that was later 
 brought to such perfection in Byzantine architecture. 
 
 With their wonderful system of vaulting the Romans com- 
 bined the columnation and entablature of the Greeks, intro- 
 ducing innovations however that were in many cases anything 
 but improvements. Thus they sometimes supplemented the 
 foliage of the Corinthian capital with the volutes of the Ionic ; 
 whilst what is known as the Tuscan style is really merely a 
 modification of the Doric, and is wanting in the simple dignity 
 that characterised the latter, the metopes being adorned with 
 sculptures very inferior to the beautiful figure subjects of the 
 Parthenon and other Greek temples. Roman architects were 
 in fact rather skilful engineers and adapters of the aesthetic 
 
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 25 
 
 conceptions of others than original designers of new forms of 
 beauty, but they were unrivalled in their power of harmoniously 
 co-ordinating in a single building an infinite variety of struc- 
 tural features. They were moreover exceptionally successful 
 in the laying out of cities, as proved by the wonderful groups 
 of buildings in the fora or public squares in which courts of 
 justice and markets were held, of the capital and other cities, 
 and by the fine continuous vistas of their streets, in which 
 irregularities were masked by clever contrivances, adding 
 greatly to the symmetry of the general effect. Temples, 
 basilicas, baths, bridges, aqueducts, triumphal arches, palaces, 
 and private houses were all set in the environment most 
 
 Pont du Gard, Nlmes 
 
 suitable to them, and even tombs were ranged according to a 
 definite plan, not, as in most modern cemeteries, dotted here 
 and there in an arbitrary manner. 
 
 The earliest Roman works of architecture were of a purely 
 utilitarian character, and in addition to the Cloaca Maxima 
 already mentioned the most noteworthy still in existence are 
 the bridges over the Tiber, the aqueducts of the Campagna 
 outside Rome, and the so-called Pont du Gard at Nimes, France. 
 The most ancient temples greatly resemble those of Greece, 
 and amonsfst them may be named as specially typical those of 
 Fortuna Virilis and of Antoninus and Faustina, both now in use 
 as churches, and that of Venus and Kome, all in the capital, 
 that of Diana at Nimes known as the Maison Carree, and that 
 of the Sun at Baalbec. Of later date are the beautiful circular 
 
ARCHITECTURE 
 
 temples, of which the grandest example is the Pantheon of 
 Rome, built under Hadrian about a.d. 117, in which Roman 
 architecture reached its noblest development. The colonnaded 
 porch with entablature and pediment, that detracts so much 
 from the external effect of this magnificent building, did not 
 originally belong to it, but formed the entrance of a temple 
 built by Agrippa more than a century before, and was added 
 to the Rotunda after the completion of the latter. 
 
 The internal diameter of the Pantheon is 142 feet 6 inches, 
 and its height at the apex of the dome is 
 the same ; its walls are 20 feet thick, and 
 its concrete dome is adorned with deeply 
 recessed panels or coffers and has a single 
 circular opening at the crown through 
 which alone light is admitted. The floor is 
 of marble ; bronze pilasters flank doorways 
 of the same metal, the oldest existing speci- 
 mens of their kind, and it is supposed that 
 when first completed the whole of the out- 
 side was cased in white and the inside in 
 coloured marbles. 
 
 Other circular temples of Roman origin, 
 but on a much smaller scale than the 
 Pantheon, are the Temple of Vesta and that 
 in the Forum Boarium, Rome, the latter 
 much injured and spoiled by a modern roof 
 quite out of character with it ; the one at 
 Tivoli near the capital, known as that of 
 the Sybils, still beautiful in spite of the 
 loss of much of its entablature and many 
 of its columns; the Temple of Jupiter at 
 Spalato with a domed roof upheld by 
 columns ; and that at Baalbec, which has 
 the distinctive feature of a curved instead 
 of a perfectly flat entablature. 
 
 A very special interest attaches to the 
 Roman basilica on account of its having so long been supposed 
 to have been the type on which the earliest Christian churches 
 were built. Basilicas were used as courts of justice and exchanges, 
 more rarely as market-places, and the most ancient are said to 
 have been merely square spaces, enclosed within rows of columns 
 open to the air, that were however soon succeeded by walled 
 buildings roofed with timber or with vaults of concrete sup- 
 ported on massive piers of stone. In them a raised semicircular 
 space at the eastern end was divided off by columns known as 
 cancelli for the use of the magistrate and his lectors, and between 
 
 Section of Pantheon 
 
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 27 
 
 it and the main body of the liall, wMch was divided by columns 
 into a navo and aisles, rose tlie altar on which sacrifice was 
 offered up before any business of importance was entered upon, 
 
 A good example of an early Roman basilica is that called 
 the Ulpian in the Forum of Trajan, Rome, dating from a.d.98, 
 which is said to have had a flat roof and double aisles, the latter 
 surmounted by galleries, whilst that of Maxentius and Constan- 
 tine, the ruins of which are known as the Temple of Peace, also 
 in the capital, of considerably later date, A.D. 31 ii, had a groined 
 central roof and barrel-vaulted side aisles. 
 
 It was in their Therm» or Baths rather than in their 
 
 RomaD Doric Column 
 and Entablature 
 
 Roman Ionic Column 
 and Entablature 
 
 Roman Corinthian 
 Column and En- 
 tablature 
 
 Temples and Basilicas that the Roman architects achieved their 
 greatest triumphs. These were vast complex structures fitted 
 up with every conceivable luxury for the use of Imthers, with a 
 large hall artificially heated and known as t)ie tepidarium, open 
 colonnaded courts, and many subsidiary buildings including 
 gymnasia, debating rooms, &c They combined simple grandeur 
 of structure with rich internal decoration. The most ancient 
 Thermae in Rome, of which extensive ron.ains still exist, were 
 those of Caracalla, erected in a.d. 217, already referred to in 
 connection with the earliest use of the contrivance which 
 foreshadowed the pendentive. Rising from a lofty platform, the 
 noble tepidarium was roofed in by three fine intersecting vaults. 
 
28 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 and its walls were cased iv marble. With their supplementary 
 buildings the baths covered a space some 110 yards square, and 
 beneath them were many vaulted rooms for the attendants on 
 the bathers. Amongst their ruins were found the master- 
 pieces of sculpture known as the Farnese Hercules and the 
 Farnese Bull, but when they were first placed there, there is 
 no evidence to prove. 
 
 Larger and more imposing in appearance even than the 
 Baths of Caracalla were those of Diocletian, that were capable 
 of accommodating more than 3000 bathers and were built about 
 A.D. 303. The grand hall or tepidariumand the barrel-vaulted 
 
 Temple of Vesta, Rome 
 
 entrance portico were most successfully converted in the 
 sixteenth century into the church of S. Maria degli Angeli by 
 Michael Angelo, and one of two circular structures that flanked 
 the encircling wall was later consecrated under the name of 
 S. Bernardo, and is still used as a place of worship. 
 
 Next in importance to the Thermae rank the Amphitheatres of 
 the Roman Empire, in which gladiatorial contests and other 
 trials of skill took place, and without which no town however 
 small was considered complete. Though their detail was almost 
 exclusively borrowed from the Greeks — tiers of arches resting 
 on columns and surmounted by an entablature rising one 
 above the other — their architects managed to impress on them 
 a distinctive character of their own. Finest of all still existing 
 examples is the Flavian Amphitheatre, generally known as the 
 
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 29 
 
 Coliseum at Rome, which occupies the site of the famous 
 Golden House of Nero, and was completed about A.D. 70. It 
 is of elliptical plan, measures some G12 by 515 feet, and was 
 from 160 to 180 feet high. It was capable of containing some 
 80,000 spectators, and was for a long period the chief meeting- 
 place of the Roman citizens. The exterior is four stories high 
 and consists of a series of three rows of arches, the lowest with 
 Doric, the second with Ionic, and the third with Corinthian 
 capitals, the last surmounted by a row of Corinthian pilasters, 
 forming a fourth story, which is supposed to have been 
 originally of wood and to have been rebuilt in stone considerably 
 later. The groups of seats, which, with the central arena they 
 commanded, were protected from the weather by a moveable 
 awning called the velarium, corresponded with the exterior 
 stories, and to each tier a staircase led up, wide vaulted 
 corridors connecting the various entrances with each other, 
 running round the entire building, the whole producing a most 
 harmonious and pleasing effect. 
 
 At Verona, Capria, Pola, and Pezzuoli in Italy, at Syracuse in 
 Sicily, and at Aries and Nimes in France are remains of import- 
 ant Roman amphitheatres, and of the rarer theatres used for 
 dramatic entertainments must be named the two well-preserved 
 examples at Pompeii, the ruins of the Odeion of Herodes 
 Atticus at Athens, and most ancient of all, the remains of the 
 so-culled Theatre of Marcellus at Rome now incorporated with 
 the Orsinii Palace, all which appear to have resembled the 
 Coliseum to a great extent in their general style and decora- 
 tion. 
 
 Of the vast and imposing palaces built or added to by 
 successive Roman emperors, that included audience chambers, 
 basilicas, stadia for athletic games, galleries, state dining- 
 halls, baths, and many suites of apartments for various purposes, 
 there exist unfortunately but a few remains. Nero's Golden 
 House, several of the ruins of which were excavated in the 
 16th century, and inspired Raphael with some of the decora- 
 tive details of the loggia of the Vatican, is said to have covered 
 more than a mile of ground, and at one time the whole of the 
 Palatine Hill was occupied by stately edifices, with the Palace 
 of Autjustus in the centre and those of Tiberius, Caligula, 
 Nero, Domitian, and Septimius Severus, who greatly added to 
 and modified the work of his predecessors, grouped about them, 
 but all that can now be fully identified are some of the ground 
 plans with a few of the minor details of structure. To atone 
 for this however, much of the Palace oi Diocletian at Spalato 
 in Dalmatia, to which that emperor withdrew after his abdica- 
 tion in A.D. 305, which originally formed a small town in itself, 
 
30 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 is still to a great extent intact, including a temple now used as 
 a cathedral, a gallery 520 feet long by 24 wide, and a few of the 
 covered arcades that originally connected its various parts. 
 
 What is left of the so-called Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli near 
 Rome proves that it too was of vast extent, with a great variety 
 of buildings, different suites of rooms having been occupied 
 according to the seasons, and at Pompeii and Herculaneum, 
 thanks to the remarkable preservation of many of the houses 
 in them, notably that named after Pansa, the domestic archi- 
 tecture of the private citizens of the great Roman Empire, of 
 which picturesque arcaded courts were a noteworthy feature, 
 can be well studied, as well as that of the temples, triumphal 
 arches, public baths, &c., all of which greatly resembled 
 those of the Capital. 
 
 Whether the Romans were or were not the first people of 
 
 Arch of Titus at Rome 
 
 Western Europe to use the arch, they certainly took a very 
 great delight in it, setting up ornately decorated examples of 
 it at the entrances to their towns, their fora, and their bridges, 
 as well as in commeriioration of great victories in war and of the 
 completion of civic enterprises. Most remarkable of those 
 still standing in Rome are the Arch of Titus of one spaii only, 
 erected in memory of the destruction of Jerusalem by the 
 Emperor after whom it is named ; the triple-span arch of 
 Septimius Severus, and the smaller one of Constantine. Though 
 they were rather triumphs of ensfineering skill than works of 
 architecture properly so called, the fine stone built aqueducts 
 such as those in the Campagna of Rome and at Nimes must 
 be mentioned here on account of ^ the aesthetic effect of the 
 long rows of lofty arches, and a few words must also be said of 
 the Pillars of Victory, of which that of Trajan at Rome is the 
 
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 31 
 
 most notablo still extant, adorned as it is with a spiral of finely 
 sculptured bas-reliefs. 
 
 In the early days of the Roman power it was customary to 
 cremate the dead, the ashes being preserved in urns that were 
 ranged in cells known as Columbaria, generally hewn in the 
 living rock. As time went on, however, the Egyptian mode of 
 sepulchre was adopted. Bodies were embalmed and laid in 
 stone or marble coffins which were placed in the basements of 
 tombs of two or more stories, surmounted by round towers 
 with pointed or circular roofs. Of these complex resting- 
 places of the dead the finest now in existence is the Mole or 
 Mausoleum of Hadrian, known as the Castle of S. Angelo, at 
 Rome, which is some SCK) feet high and was originally encased 
 in marble. No burial was allowed within the walls of a Roman 
 city, but the approaches were generally lined with tombs as 
 at Rome, at .Pompeii, and elsewhere, most of them, though on 
 a smaller scale, of a similar plan to that of Hadrian. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 It was in the low, gloomy, dimly lighted subterranean galleries 
 known as catacombs, hewn in the Tivijjg rock near Rome, that 
 Christian architecture may be said to have had its first crude 
 beginnings. The passages in the walls of which the graves of 
 the dead were hollowed out, widened at intervals into spacious 
 Vc-ulted halls, where the persecuted followers of the crucified 
 Redeemer met in secret for worship or to take part in the 
 funeral services for those they had lost. 
 
 It was long taken for granted that it was not until the first 
 issue in A. D. 313 of the Edict of Milan by Constantino, Emperor 
 of the West, and Licinius, Emperor of the East, that the pro- 
 fessors of the new faith ventured to erect above ground build- 
 ings for the exercise of the rites of their religion, but recent 
 discoveries prove that Christian churches were built as early as 
 the 3rd century in many parts of the Roman empire. To 
 quote but two cases in point, relics of a circular one with a 
 small apse at the eastern end have been found at Antepellius 
 in Asia Minor, and of one of the basilican type at Silchester in 
 England. Moreover, heathen temples were occasionally con- 
 verted into churches, whilst basilicas were sometimes used for 
 Christian services just as they were. 
 
 Some few early Christian churches were possibly modelled on 
 
32 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 classic tombs such as those referred to in the chapter on Roman 
 architecture, but the more usual form was the basilican, the 
 altar having been placed on the raised platform within the 
 semicircular apse at the eastern end, the bishops and clergy 
 occupying the seats assigned in halls of justice to the prsetor 
 and his assessors, whilst the congregation met in the nave and 
 aisles. Ere long, however, to this general plan was added the 
 distinctive feature of transepts or transverse passages running 
 across the entrance to the apse, thus giving to the whole 
 
 ■#--1- 
 
 : NARTHEIX ; 
 
 Plan of a Basilica 
 
 building the form of a cross. Later structural changes were 
 the erection of an arch above the altar, the heightening of the 
 nave, the connecting of the columns between the nave and 
 aisles by arches instead of horizontal architraves, the intro- 
 duction of windows, to which the collective name of the cleres- 
 tory or the clear-story was given, in the semicircular heads of 
 the arches and more rarely into the upper part of the low 
 external walls of the aisles, the apse, which was gradually 
 lengthened eastwards, being left comparatively dark, the only 
 light proceeding from the main body of the church. Simul- 
 taneously with or in some cases earlier than these alterations, 
 
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 33 
 
 a portico known as the narthex was added at the western end, 
 extending across the whole width of the nave and aisles, for 
 the use of those, such as catechumens or penitents, who were 
 not privileged to enter the church itself. The narthex in its 
 turn was sut within an atrium or outer colonnaded court, in the 
 centre of which was a fountain, used by worshippers for ablu- 
 tions before entering the consecrated building. 
 
 A minor characteristic of early Christian churches was the 
 richness of the internal decoration, mosaics that is to say, 
 patterns or pictures made of many coloured pieces of glass or 
 stone, combined in certain examples with marble carvings and 
 gilding, adorned the vaulting, the wall, and even the floor, a 
 kind of mosaic known as the optLS alexandrinum being generaUy 
 used for the last, the whole producing a very gorgeous but 
 harmonious eff'ect. 
 
 One of the most interesting existing early Christian churches, 
 that remains very much what it was when first completed, is 
 that of the Nativity at Bethlehem, built in a.d. 327 by the 
 Empress Helena when on her quest for the True Cross, with 
 the Convent to which it originally belonged, that was de- 
 stroyed by the Turks in 1236 and later restored by the 
 Crusaders. The Church of the Nativity rises above a natural 
 cave now converted into a crypt or vaulted subterranean 
 chamber. It is of cruciform plan, and though its unpretending 
 exterior is of brick, the interior has four rows of massive stone 
 pillars dividing the nave from the aisles, which as well as the 
 choir at the eastern end have semicircular apses. 
 
 Contemporary with this humble building, that is closely 
 associated with all the most sacred memories of the early 
 Church, were the vast basilican places of worship erected at 
 Rome by Constantino and his immediate successors, which have 
 unfortunately been either destroyed or so much modified as to 
 retain little of their distinctive character. The Cathedral of 
 S. Peter occupies the site of one of them, which had five aisles, 
 a nave 80 feet wide, a comparatively small apse, and a noble 
 atrium ; the Church of S. Giovanni in Laterano retains but a 
 few details of its predecessor of the same name, but that of 
 S. Paolo fuori le Mura or St. Paul without the walls, built by 
 Theodosius in 386, is supposed to be a true copy, so far as 
 structure is concerned, of the grand basilica destroyed by 
 fire in 1823. It has a nave 280 feet long by 78 wide, and the 
 whole building is 400 feet in length by 200 wide. A noble 
 arch spans the intersection of the transepts, and lofty columns 
 with richly carved capitals divide the nave from the aisles 
 and the latter, of which there are five, from each other, "but 
 the roof is only a flat wooden one, the external walls are want- 
 
 C 
 
34 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ing m dignity and solidity, whilst the height, 100 feet only, is 
 quite out of proportion with the otherwise noble dimensions. 
 
 Another very fine early basilican church in Rome is that of 
 S. Maria Maggiore, occupying the site of a 5th century build- 
 ing, some of the marble columns of which with Ionic capitals 
 have been incorporated in the later structure. The Churches 
 of S. Agnese and S. Lorenzo are also of basilican plan, and have 
 both the somewhat rare feature of galleries over the aisles. 
 The former is but little altered since its erection/ whilst the 
 latter has gone through a long series of 
 vicissitudes. It was founded in the 4th 
 century and greatly added to in the 5th 
 by Sixtus III, who joined a second church 
 on to it, so that it had an apse at each end. 
 Both these apses, with the walls between 
 the earlier and the later buildings, were 
 pulled down in the 13th century by order 
 of Pope Honorius III, who had the earlier 
 church converted into a choir and the later 
 into a nave, with very satisfactory results. 
 Even more interesting than S. Lorenzo 
 is S. Clemente, Rome, that consists of 
 two buildings of widely separated dates one 
 above another, the lower, which now serves 
 as a crypt, supposed to have been built at 
 the beginning of the 6th century, the upper 
 not until 1108. Both are of the same general 
 plan as the other basilican churches de- 
 scribed, with certain differences in minor 
 details, including in the more modern por- 
 tion a low marble screen dividing the choir 
 and altar from the nave. 
 
 To many of these early churches fine 
 cloisters, that is to say, arcaded colonnades 
 encircling the outer walls, were added, those that once enclosed 
 the ancient basilica of S. Paola fuori le Mura being among the 
 finest still preserved, that may be said to have anticipated the 
 beautiful ambulatories of later monastic and collegiate build- 
 ings. 
 
 In other cities of the Roman empire are many noteworthy 
 early basilican churches, including S. Apollinare Nuovo .within 
 and S. Apollinare in Olasse without the walls of Ravenna, the 
 cathedral of Torcello, that is connected by a narthex with the 
 later S. Fosca, in which the transition from the Roman to the 
 Byzantine style is shadowed forth, and the cathedrals of Parenzo 
 and Grade in Istria, the former retaining almost intact its 
 
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 35 
 
 beautiful colonnaded atrium, the latter chiefly remarkable for 
 its fine mosaic pavement. 
 
 In addition to the early churches of basilican plan are a few 
 of circular form, such as that at Rome enshrining the tomb of 
 S. Constanza, the daughter of Constantino, dating from about 
 A.D. 354, which has a domed roof and vaulted aisles, the 5th 
 century church of S. Stefano Rotondo in the same town, the 
 latter, though greatly modified in detail, still preserving its 
 two concentric ranges of columns, S. Vitale at Ravenna, and 
 S. George at Salonika, that has a circular nave but an oblong 
 chancel and apse, whilst the 6th-century tomb of Theodoric 
 is typical of the use of a similar plan in sepulchral monuments. 
 
 In the first centuries of the Christian era it was customary 
 for the ceremony of baptism to be performed in buildings known 
 as baptisteries, apart from, but close to, cathedrals and import- 
 ant parish churches. These buildings were as a general rule of 
 circular or octagonal plan with a tank in the centre of the in- 
 terior, of size sufficient for the total immersion of candidates. 
 The earliest and also one of the finest existing examples is the 
 Baptistery of Constantino that rises close to S. Giovanni in 
 Laterano, Rome, and is two stories high, with a central domed 
 roof of timber and flat-coilinged aisles, the massive porphyry 
 columns dividing them from the space set apart for the cere- 
 mony of baptism, being surmounted by slender pilasters. 
 Another fine early Baptistery is that at Nocera, which resembles 
 that of Constantino in general plan and style. 
 
 The Christians of Egyptian descent, to whom the name 
 of Copts has been given, evolved a style of building that com- 
 bined with oriental traditions certain details of western archi- 
 tecture. They were very early familiar with the dome, and 
 employed it in churches of a basilican ground-plan even before 
 it was adopted in the Roman Empire. Moreover, certain of 
 the barrel vaults and arches in Coptic places of worship were 
 pointed, so that the most distinctive characteristic of Gothic 
 architecture may be said to have been to some extent antici- 
 pated. Except for the effective feature of the dome the exteriors 
 of these buildings were plain and unpretending, but the 
 interiors were in many cases lavishly decorated with marble 
 mosaics. Other peculiarities were the division of the eastern 
 extremity into three semicircular or square recesses, each con- 
 taining an altar, the use of an elaborately carved screen shut- 
 ting off the choir or chancel from the nave and aisles, and the 
 introduction of galleries above the latter for the use of the 
 women of the congregation. 
 
 Specially noteworthy examples of Coptic architecture are 
 the two churches in Upper Egypt known as the White and 
 
36 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Red Convents, the former supposed by some authorities to be 
 even older than the church of the Nativity of Bethlehem, the 
 Cth century church of Dair-as-Suriani in the Desert, and the 
 8th century S. Sergius or Abu Sargah at Cairo, whilst in 
 the oasis of El Bagawat have recently been excavated a 
 large number of sepulchral chapels, dating probably from the 
 5th century, many of which have domed cupolas greatly 
 resembling in structure those of considerably later Byzantine 
 buildings. 
 
 In Syria, as well as in Egypt, are many very interesting early 
 Christian churches, including the vast complex 5th century 
 building at Kalat Seman dedicated to S. Simeon Stylites, which 
 has four basilicas, each with an apse, grouped about a central 
 octagon ; the 6th century church at Sergiopolis ; and the 
 smaller contemporaneous ones at Qalb Lorzeh and Roueiha ; 
 all of which, though they resemble in general plan the basilicas 
 of Rome, have certain details that appear to shadow forth the 
 characteristics of the Romanesque style, notably in the first 
 the cruciform bays dividing the nave from the aisles, in the 
 second, the use of the lobed arch, and in it and the Roueiha 
 building the grouping of the clerestory windows. 
 
 Asia Minor is also rich in examples of early Christian archi- 
 tecture, of which one of the most remarkable is the 5th 
 century S. Demetrius at Salonika, of basilican plan with 
 transepts at the eastern end, nave arcades resembling those 
 of S. Clemente, Rome, and galleries above the aisles, such as 
 those of the Coptic places of worship quoted above. With it 
 must be named the 6th century church in the same city, now 
 used as a mosque, under the name of Eski Djuma, and the con- 
 siderably later churches at Bin Bir Kilissi that have only 
 recently been explored and are of basilican plan with barrel- 
 vaulted roofing. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 BYZANTINE AND SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 The term Byzantine has been given to the style of architecture 
 which was the outcome of the fusion of the best building tradi- 
 tions of the East and of the West, the former contributing the 
 distinctive structural feature of the dome, with the minor details 
 of richness of colouring and lavishness of decoration, the latter 
 dignified symmetry of proportion and scientific solidity of con- 
 struction. 
 
 It was in Byzantium, when in 330 the first Christian Emperor 
 
BYZANTINE AND SARACENIC 
 
 37 
 
 chose it as his headquarters, and its name was changed in his 
 honour to Constantinople, that the union which was to be so 
 prolific of results took place. Unfortunately however none of 
 the churches erected under the auspices of Constantino in the 
 new capital have been preserved, the sole relic of his reign, so 
 far as architecture is concerned, being the foundations of the 
 apse of a church, now replaced by a considerably later building, 
 in which he had the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem enclosed. The 
 oldest existing church in Constantinople is a basilica of the 
 Roman type dating from 463, with nothing distinctive of the 
 new style about it, but there is historical evidence that the 
 noble S. Sophia, in which that style reached its fullest develop- 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 
 .^^W 
 
 ^W\ "l 
 
 i^^ 
 
 
 •^mJa^^^''^^-^ 
 
 Vi\, 
 
 
 ^^^fjf 
 
 ThC 
 
 — k^ 
 
 
 III 
 
 ^JSBLj^aiL^-vjf'ji 
 
 SMyijij iiiiii pj 4 , , J h' 
 
 tSSk — ^^- -"■ 
 
 
 
 r::.-^ 
 
 
 S. SophU, ConsUntinople 
 
 ment, was preceded in Constantinople by other grand buildings 
 of a similar type, including one dedicated to the Holy Apostlos 
 which was cruciform in plan and had five domes. 
 
 The m os^ distinctive peculiarity o f Byzantine architecture is 
 the roQfii4flUQYer ot Bonarcl siMM^p^ with tKe'^ of the pyndentiye. 
 a clever expedient already explained, that was carried to great 
 perfection by the builders of Constantinople and those who 
 elsewhere followed their example. Previously employed in 
 comparatively small structures, it now became the fundamental 
 principle for the roofing over of spaces of a great variety of 
 extent, groups of domes and semi-domes, in many cases supple- 
 mented by tapering towers rising with imposing effect from 
 massive outer walls. The long aisles and uave of the Roman and 
 early Chriatiun basilicas were replaced by a more or less square 
 
38 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 glan, lofty piers spanned by arches upholding the central cupola^ 
 wKilst the galleries above the aisles rested on slender columns 
 such as were also employed to rail off the sanctuary and narthex 
 from the main body of the building. The whole of the interior, 
 which was lighted from windows in the dome, was most pro- 
 fusely decorated, the walls having dados or slabs of dififerent 
 coloured marbles supplemented by mosaics, with which every 
 portion of the domes, semi-domes, and pendentives were also 
 covered, whilst the columns, in many cases of variegated 
 marble, had beautifully carved capitals of an infinite variety 
 of design. 
 
 It is customary to divide the history of the development of 
 Byzantine architecture into two distinct periods, the first ex- 
 tending from the 4th to the close of the 6th century, the 
 second from the 8th to the 13th century, there having 
 been a pause between them during which no buildings of any 
 importance were erected owing to the wars which convulsed 
 alike the East and the West. As already stated, no actual 
 buildings belonging to the earlier portion of the first period 
 remain, but there exist in S. Vitale at Ravenna and still more 
 in S. Sophia at Constantinople unique examples of the golden 
 age of Byzantine architecture, the inspiring influence of which 
 was felt throughout the whole of Europe and the greater part 
 of Asia. The former church, begun about, 526, is of octagonal 
 plan, each division, except that containing the choir, with an 
 apse of its own, and though the interior has been greatly spoiled 
 by restoration, the general effect of the vaulted roofing, marble 
 casing of the walls, and mosaics of the eastern end is extremely 
 fine. San Vitale is, however, altogether excelled by the world- 
 famous S. Sophia, now the chief mosque of Constantinople, 
 which occupies the site of a basilica built under Constantine, 
 that was burnt down early in the reign of Justinian. The 
 latter emperor at once ordered the erection of its successor, 
 appointing as architects Anthemios of Thralles and Isodoros 
 of Miletus, 
 
 Begun in 532 and completed in 537, S. Sophia is of very 
 simple yet most dignified external appearance, so symmetrical 
 is the grouping of its many domes and semi-domes, whilst the 
 interior, though it has none of the rich colouring usual in 
 oriental buildings, is unsurpassed in the harmony of its struc- 
 tural details, all of which lead up, as it were, to the huge central 
 dome, the lower portion of which is pierced with a series of 
 small windows throwing a flood of light upon the vast circular 
 space below. The general plan is square, but a fine narthex 
 consisting of two spacious halls one above the other projects 
 fllightly beyond the actual church at the western end. The 
 
BYZANTINE AND SARACENIC 39 
 
 nave, which is lOG feet wide by 225 long, has a semicircular 
 apse with small recesses opening out of it at either end, and is 
 separated from the aisles by rows of closely set columns with 
 ornate capitals, spanned by arches upholding two-storied 
 arcaded galleries, roofed in by semi-domes, except at the 
 northern and southern ends, which have walls with nimierous 
 small windows. One large western window illuminates the 
 nave, and there is also a double circle of lights round the apse, 
 the galleries, and the narthex. 
 
 Other interesting early Byzantine buildings are the Baptis- 
 tery at Kalat-Seman and the church of S. George at Ezra, both 
 in Syria, each of which is of square plan with an octagonal 
 central space, the latter having the comparatively unusual 
 feature of a dome upheld by what is known as a drum, that is 
 to say a low vertical wall instead of pcndentives. The church 
 of S. Sergius at Constantinople, contemporaneous with S. 
 Sophia, is specially noteworthy on account of the introduction in 
 it of a classic entablature, combined with distinctive Byzantine 
 features, with which may be named the much-restored S. 
 Lorenzo at Milan and the church of the Virgin at Misitra, the 
 ancient Sparta. 
 
 To the second period of Byzantine Architecture belong not 
 only several fine buildings in Constantinople, but others in 
 Greece, Asia Minor, the North of Italy, and elsewhere, all of 
 which, though they have the leading structural features of the 
 style, are distinguished by certain minor local characteristics. 
 The most noteworthy in the capital are the now secularised 
 church of S. Irene, founded by Constantine and rebuilt con- 
 siderably later, and the church of the Chora monastery, specially 
 remarkable for it« beautiful mosaics, whilst in Greece the 
 Churches of S. Nicodemus at Athens and that of Daphni not 
 far from it, with the two monastic churches at Stiris and 
 the churches of S. Sophia and S. Elias, at Salonika, are all 
 thoroughly Byzantine, bearing a close resemblance to each other. 
 They are all, however, excelled by the great Cathedral of S. 
 Marco at Venice, which rivals even S. Sophia in the exquisite 
 beauty of the interior and excels it in the ornate richness of 
 the exterior. 
 
 Founded early in the 9th century, S. Marco was partially de- 
 stroyed in 978 and rebuilt soon afterwards in the original style, 
 that of a basilica without transepts, but in the second half of 
 the nth century it was completely transformed by addi- 
 tions converting it into a cruciform building, roofed over by 
 five domes of the same size, and with five arcaded porches at 
 the western end that form one of the grandest fa9ades in the 
 world. Numerous columns of many covered marbles uphold 
 
40 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 graceful arches, the spandrels, or triangular spaces between 
 themj&lled in with gleaming mosaics, and above them rise other 
 arches that contrast well with tapering towers supported on 
 slender pilasters to which the domes beyond form an admirable 
 background. Within the church to which this magnificent nar- 
 thex gives entrance, an infinite variety of harmonious details 
 combine to produce an entrancing effect: one charming vista 
 succeeding another, the whole flooded with light from a vast 
 number of windows, there being no less than eighty in the 
 domes alone. Mosaics of difterent dates and greatly varying 
 aesthetic merit completely clothe the surfaces of the vaulting, 
 the capitals of the columns — many of which, by the way, are 
 purely decorative, upholding no arches — are elaborately carved, 
 and the flooring is of marble, slabs of considerable size being 
 set in patterns of tesserae. 
 
 In the various countries which fell under the influence of 
 the followers of Mahommed a style of architecture was evolved 
 that had marked affinities with the Byzantine, the first 
 mosques having been designed, it is supposed, by Christian 
 architects of Oriental origin, who retained the square or circular 
 ground-plan of early churches, though they modified the in- 
 terior to suit the requirements of the new religion, introducing, 
 for instance, a central tank for ablutions. Mosques intended 
 for worship only, generally had flat roofs, the use of the dome 
 being at first distinctive of a burial place, but as it very soon 
 became usual to inter in mosques, the dome came to be quoted as 
 a distinctive feature of them. By degrees simple unadorned 
 mosques were replaced by vast buildings with many arcaded 
 courts entered from ornate lateral doorways, whilst certain 
 characteristic features were introduced, of which the chief were 
 the stalactite vaulting, the name of which explains itself, the 
 horse-shoe arch, and the minaret, the last named a turret of 
 several stories gradually decreasing in circumference, each with 
 a balcony of its own from which the mueddin calls the faithful 
 to prayer. Pointed arches were also constantly employed as 
 well as the form known as cusped, that is to say one with a 
 triangular projection springing from the inner curve. A 
 minor but most significant characteristic of Saracenic architec- 
 ture is the elaborate surface decoration in which geometrical 
 designs, letters, &c., are interwoven with consummate skill, but 
 in which no figures of animals are ever introduced, the repre* 
 sentation of life being strictly forbidden by the Koran. 
 
 Although Arabia was the birthplace of the founder of Islam, 
 there are few Saracenic buildings of importance in it. The 
 so-called great Mosque at Mecca, which has been a goal of 
 pilgrimage from all points of the Mahommedan world for so 
 
BYZANTINE AND SARACENIC 
 
 41 
 
 many centuries, has been since its foundation completely rebuilt, 
 not assuming its present form until the middle of the 16th 
 century. It has little that can be called architectural style 
 about it, consisting as it does of an arcaded enclosure in the 
 centre of which is the Kaaba, a heathen shrine that existed 
 long before the time of Mohammed, the whole surrounded by 
 a wall with several gateways and minarets. 
 
 In Jerusalem various characteristic buildings bear witness 
 to the prevalence of the Mahommedan faith in the Uoly 
 City of the Christians, including the 7th century Mosque el 
 Aksah, originally a Christian church transformed into what it 
 
 Section of Mosque el Aksah at Jerusalem 
 
 now is by Calif Omar, and the 8th century shrine erroneously 
 named after him, also known as the Dome of the Rock, both 
 of which rise from the site of the Jewish Temple. The latter 
 is of octagonal plan, and, though its details are of a some- 
 what hybrid character, many of the columns having been filched 
 from other buildings, whilst the decorations of the great 
 dome and of the exterior were added in the 16th century, 
 is of very singular charm on account of the symmetry of 
 its proportions and the richness of its colouring, the walls 
 being cased in Persian tiles and the windows filled with stained 
 glass. 
 
 It appears to have been in Egypt that Saracenic architecture, 
 strictly so-called, first attained to the structural dignity and 
 appropriateness of ornamentation that were to distinguish 
 
42 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 it in Persia, Spain, and India. In the 7th century Mosque 
 of Amru and that of Ibn Touloun, dating from the 9th cen- 
 tury, both at Cairo, the earlier phases of the style can be 
 studied, whilst the later development is illustrated in the 
 same city by the 13th century Mosque of Kalaoon, the 
 14th century Mosque of Sultan Hassan, that has the rare 
 feature in a Mahommedan building of a cruciform plan, the 
 contemporaneous Mosque of Sultin Barkook, and the small 
 15th century Mosque of Kait-Bey, the last specially noteworthy 
 on account of its beautiful internal decoration and its graceful 
 minaret. 
 
 In Persia the finest mosques are the 13th century one at 
 Tabrez known as the Blue, and that at Ispahan dating from 
 the 16th century, which has a grand dome and noble gate- 
 ways with pointed arches, whilst at Serbistan, Firanzabad, 
 Ukheithar, Kasir-i-Shirin, and elsewhere in the same country 
 are remains of palaces and other secular buildings, ranging 
 in date from the 4th to the 9th century, that give proof of 
 great structural and decorative skill on the part of the 
 architects who worked for the fire-worshippers, who, though 
 they required no temples in which to worship their gods, 
 lavished vast sums on their own homes. 
 
 Beautiful as are the relics of Saracenic architecture in Egypt, 
 Syria, and Persia, they are excelled by many remarkable 
 buildings in Spain, where, after the conquest of the country by 
 the Moors in the 8th century, the style reached its fullest 
 development. The most remarkable examples of it are the 
 Mosque at Cordova, begun in 786 by Abd-el-Rahman and added 
 to from time to time by his successors, with the result that it 
 affords an excellent illustration of the modification of details 
 that took place as time went on ; the 12th century Giralda 
 or Tower at Seville, noteworthy for its fine proportions and 
 effective surface decoration, the 13th century Alcazar or 
 castle in the same town, and above all the Palace of the 
 Alhambra, that dominates Granada from a lofty height above 
 the city, which was begun in 1248 by the Moorish King, Ibn-1- 
 Ahmar and added to by his successors. Of the original buildings 
 that, when first completed, must have been one of the grandest 
 and most finely situated groups in the world, all that now 
 remain are the towers of the north wall, in one of which is the 
 vast hall of the Ambassadors, and various colonnaded rooms 
 and porticoes ranged round two spacious courts, one called that 
 of the Fishpond, the other that of the Lions. The delicate 
 grace of the columns and arches, with the richness of their de- 
 coration and of every inch of surface, has never been surpassed 
 either in beauty of design or harmony of colour, whilst the 
 
BYZANTINE AND SARACENIC 
 
 43 
 
 effects of perspective from the doorways and other points of 
 view are equally unrivalled. No sint^le detail is superfluous 
 or without its special meaning in relation to the whole, and 
 even what to the uninitiated appear mere geometrical designs 
 on the walls, lintels, &c., are quotations from the Koran and 
 classic Arabic poetry. 
 
 When through the breaking up of the power of the Moors 
 in Spain, the architecture introduced by them seemed fated to 
 share their decline, a kind of revival of it took place in Con- 
 stantinople through the conquest of that city by the Turks in 
 1453. Unfortunately however the style made no real progress 
 
 Section of Moaque at Cordoba 
 
 there, the mosques and other buildings erected by the new 
 owners being rather Byzantine than Saracenic, even that 
 known as the Suleimanyeh, built between 1550-1556, and the 
 Ahmediyeh, dating from 1608-1614, greatly resembling St. 
 Sophia. 
 
 In India the mosques and palaces erected by the Mahommodan 
 conquerors and their successors are even more beautiful and 
 impressive than the Buddhist and Hindu buildings described 
 in the section on Asiatic architecture. Their distinctive cliar- 
 acteristics, as in Egypt, Persia, and Spain, are the skilful com- 
 bination of the dome, the arch and the minaret, and the lavish 
 surface decoration of the interior, with certain other peculiari- 
 ties that were the outcome of local tradition. More attention 
 was given, for instance, to external appearance, huge recessed 
 
44 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 gateways and colonnaded cloisters surmounted by rows of purely 
 decorative domes on pilasters, being of frequent occurrence. 
 At the same time, stalactite vaulting was rarely employed, 
 whilst horizontal courses of corbels or arches in which each 
 stone projects slightly beyond that on which it rests, were 
 used as supports for the domes instead of pendentives. 
 
 Among the most noteworthy still-existing examples of Indo- 
 Saracenic architecture are the early 15th century Jumna 
 Musjid or Great Mosque at Ahmedabad, that has certain details 
 recalling Hindu post and lintel structures ; the late 15th 
 century Adinah mosque at Gaur, which has 385 domes ; the 
 16th century Jumna Musjid at Bijapur, that has the 
 
 Section of Taj Mahal, Agra 
 
 singular feature of a central space covered in by a dome 
 upheld by intersecting arches, set in a number of squares with 
 flat roofs ; the Mosque built by Akbar in the second half of 
 the 16th century at Futtehpore Sikhri, the gateways of 
 which are specially characteristic ; and the remarkable build- 
 ings at Delhi and Agra, erected in the 17th century under 
 the enlightened Shah Jehan, including in the former citj^ the 
 Jumna Musjid and the fortified palace, and in the latter the 
 Moti Musjid or Pearl Mosque, and the Taj Mahal, both 
 exceptionally beautiful, in which the Saracenic style may 
 justly be said to have reached its culmination, nothing that 
 can be compared with them having been since produced either 
 in India or elsewhere. The Taj Mahal, built by the Emperor 
 as a tomb for himself and his favourite wife, is indeed of dream- 
 like and ethereal charm, with its well-proportioned domes and 
 
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 
 
 45 
 
 minarets, cased, as is the rest of the exterior, in white marble, 
 and its interior enriched with mosaics of precious stones. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Tfie term Romanesque is given to the period between the 
 beginning of the 9th and the middle of the 12th century, 
 but there was no real break in the continuity of the evolution 
 of Christian architecture in Europe from the time when that 
 
 Simple IiitcnectiDg Vanlting 
 
 art first freed itself from Pagan influence till it reached its 
 noblest development in the Gothic style. 
 
 From first to last the keynote of structure was the use of 
 the arch for vaulting and for the spanning of piers and 
 columns, and its form is, as a general rule, indicative of the 
 phase of development to which it belongs. Although, however, 
 it may be said that the semicircular arch is characteristic of 
 Romanesque buildings, the lintel is occasionally used simul- 
 taneously with it in interiors, and the chief entrances are in 
 many cases spanned by horizontal beams or courses of stone 
 that are, however, as a general rule surmounted by arches. 
 Moreover in late Romanesque work the pointed arch is now 
 and then introduced shadowing forth the approaching change. 
 
46 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 It was not in the invention of new forms of vaulting but 
 in the adaptation and improvement of those already in 
 existence that Romanesque architects chiefly displayed their 
 skill. The earliest Romanesque vaults were simple intersect- 
 ing arches similar to those which had long been in use, but as 
 time went on these were superseded by what is known as 
 ribbed vaulting ; that is to say by roofs divided into bays by a 
 framework of diagonal ribs supporting fillings in of thin stone 
 called severes, which in their turn gradually developed into the 
 complex and ornate system of Gothic vaulting. To counteract 
 the thrust of arched and ribbed vaulting the device of 
 buttresses was hit upon. These buttresses consisted at first 
 of a series of supports introduced beneath the roof of the 
 aisles and extending from the back of the nave to the aisle 
 
 Ribbed Vaulting 
 
 ilibbed Vaulting 
 
 wall, which were later supplemented by the external buttresses 
 known as flying, that were to be so distinctive a feature of 
 Gothic architecture. 
 
 Other characteristics of Romanesque architecture are the 
 slenderness of the columns as compared with those of earlier 
 buildings, the disuse of classic capitals, and the substitution 
 for them of what is known as the basket form, that is to say, 
 semicircular mouldings enclosing floral designs, later replaced 
 by a great variety of forms, such as flowers, leaves, human and 
 animals* heads. The grouping of columns in clusters also 
 came into use, the general tendency being towards the produc- 
 tion of an effect of grace and lightness rather than of strength 
 and solidity. Arched cornices were introduced to relieve the 
 monotony of the walls above the pillars of the nave, whilst an 
 even more marked change took place in the windows, which, 
 though small and few in early Renaissance buildings, gradually 
 increased in number, in size, and in the beauty of their tracery. 
 At the eastern end of churches several windows were in some 
 cases grouped together, divided only by slender pilasters, and 
 
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 47 
 
 above the western entrance large circular windows known as 
 the rose or wheel— according to certain peculiarities of their 
 tracery— were introduced, whilst the walls were pierced by rows 
 of complex windows, each with a number of different lights. 
 
 In Romanesque churches the beautiful colonnaded narthex 
 of the early Christian basilica is replaced in Northern and 
 occasionally in Southern Italy by a projectmg, and elsewhere 
 by a simple, porch ; but to make up for the loss of what was 
 a very eflfective feature, the whole of the western fa9ade, 
 including the recessed doorway giving access to the nave, is 
 
 Clustered Column 
 
 Buttress 
 
 Buttress 
 
 generally most richly decorated with sculpture and carving, 
 figures in niches, grotesque animal forms of symbolic meaning, 
 with floral and geometrical designs of great variety and beauty 
 adorning every portion. 
 
 On either side of the west front of many Romanesque build- 
 ings, more rarely also from the point of junction of the 
 transepts and nave, rise lofty square or octagonal towers, the 
 earlier with flat, the later with more or less steeply pitched roofs, 
 that gradually developed into the tapering spires so character- 
 istic of the Gothic style. Occasionally the eastern apse is 
 flanked by a turret or small tower, and in some cases, chiefly 
 in Italy, a detached and lofty tower known as a Campanile 
 
48 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 or Bell Tower — though it only rarely contains bells, being some- 
 times merely a secular monument — rises close to the church 
 or at a little distance from it, but connected with it by a 
 cloister. 
 
 In S. Ambrogio, Milan, begun in the 9th and completed 
 in the 12th century, the gradual change from the early 
 Christian to the Romanesque style as 
 developed in Italy can be studied. It 
 has a nave of basilican type, a nai thex 
 surmounted by a gallery, a pediment- 
 like gable at the western end, an oc- 
 tagonal cupola roofing over the eastern 
 apse, with a circle of windows flooding 
 the choir with light, a triforium or 
 arcaded storey above the aisles, and 
 most characteristic of all, an open ex- 
 ternal arcaded gallery, admitting air 
 and light beneath the roof of the apse, 
 such as was to become so effective a decorative feature of 
 later buildings, and in some cases to be extended along the 
 aisles and above the chief entrance. 
 
 S. Michele, Pavia, is a typical and very beautiful example of 
 the Romanesque style of the twelfth century, specially note- 
 
 Rose Window 
 
 Example of Arched Cornice 
 
 worthy features being its cruciform plan, its two-storied 
 aisles, and its external gallery with clustered pilasters; and the 
 contemporary S. Zeno, Verona, though it has no triforium and 
 is not vaulted, has noble clustered piers from which sprang 
 arches — only one of which remains — spanning the nave, alternat- 
 ing with single columns. 
 
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 49 
 
 Other fine Romanesque buildings in Italy are the Cathedral 
 of Verona, which has a fine two-storied porch ; the Cathedral of 
 Novara, specially noteworthy for its beautiful atrium ; S. 
 Miniato, Florence, that is of basilican plan, and, though it is 
 without transepts, has the distinctive Romanesque feature of 
 transverse arches upheld by clustered piers spanning the nave 
 and aisles ; S. Antonio, Piacenza, with transepts at the western 
 instead of the eastern end, fine intersecting vaults roofing in 
 the whole building, and a tower rising from the junction of the 
 nave and transepts ; and the Cathedral of Pisa, the last a 
 complex building with vaulted aisles, a dome above the inter- 
 section of the transepts and nave, a flat roof over the latter, 
 and a lofty triforium gallery running round the entire church, 
 the general effect being most pleasing and harmonious. Close 
 to the cathedral are the 12th century circular Baptistery, 
 that has considerably later additions, and the famous Leaning 
 Tower, the three buildings forming one of the finest archi- 
 tectural groups in the world. 
 
 Certain very marked characteristics distinguish the buildings 
 of Sicily from those of contemporary date on the mainland of 
 Italy, the Romanesque style, as is very clearly seen in the 
 Cathedral of Monreale, having been there considerably modified 
 alike by Saracenic and Norman influences. The pointed arcli 
 was adopted long before it came into use elsewhere in Europe, 
 having been, it is suggested, a modification of the horse-shoo 
 form so characteristic of Moorish mosques. 
 
 In France, Romanesque ecclesiastical architecture followed, 
 in the main, the same lines as in Italy, with, in many cases, one 
 notable addition, that of the chevet, a circlet of chapels round 
 the eastern apse, which gradually grew out of what was known 
 as an ambulatory, that is to say, a space in which perambulation 
 was possible, obtained by the extension of the aisles behind the 
 choir. In early examples of the ambulatory the circle was con- 
 tinuous, as in the church of S. Saturnin, Auvergne, but as time 
 went on, small somi-circuLir chapels were introduced, with 
 windows between them, that gradually developed into the 
 chevet, the chapels increasing in number and in size, and in 
 some cases extending westwards along the aisles. 
 
 The churches and cathedrals of Southern France difl^er in 
 several respects from those of the North, the a,isleless basilica 
 plan with barrel, intersecting, or domed vaulting being of fre- 
 ([uent occurrence in the former, whilst in the latter the beauti- 
 ful arcaded aisles and steeply pitched roof presage the approach 
 of the Gothic style with its pointed arches, groined roofs, flying 
 buttresses, and tapering pinnacles. 
 
 The five-domed S. Front in Perigueux, though it has rudi- 
 
 D 
 
50 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 meiitary aisles only, is a good example of an early French 
 Romanesque building, in which Oriental influence is very per- 
 ceptible, it being in some of its features a copy of S. Marco, 
 Venice, whilst in the later Cathedral of Angouleme of cruciform 
 plan with apsidal chapels, that of Le Puy with a triple entrance 
 porch, the church of S. Hilaire, Poitiers, with its irregular 
 domes, the uncompleted S. Ours, Loche, with its pyramidal 
 octagonal spires, S. Saturnin, Toulouse, with its central many- 
 storied tapering tower, the 12th century churches of Vezelay 
 and Avallon ; the cathedral and church of La Trinite at 
 Angers, both combining pointed arches with domed vaulting, 
 the gradual development of the southern branch of French 
 Romanesque architecture can be very clearly studied. 
 
 In many of the noble churches and cathedrals of Northern 
 France and elsewhere the Romanesque may justly be said 
 to have melted into the Gothic style, some of them combin- 
 ing as they do the most beautiful features of both. To the 
 cost of their erection ecclesiastics and laymen alike contributed 
 with eager zeal, and amongst the architects and craftsmen 
 employed on them, class and professional rivalry were merged 
 in one common enthusiasm to promote the glory of God, all 
 desire for individual distinction being merged in an unselfish 
 ambition to aid in producing a building worthy of His worship. 
 
 In Normandy was inaugurated the phase of Romanesque 
 architecture which was to develop on such noble lines in 
 England, the chief distinctions of which are the massiveness oi 
 the walls and pillars, the great length of the nave, the richness 
 of the decoration alike of the shafts and capitals of the columns 
 and of the round-headed arches they uphold. Very notable 
 examples are the Abbaye aux Hommes, the Abbaye aux Dames, 
 and the Church of S. Nicholas, all at Caen, the first with circular 
 arched vaulting and western towers ending in spires, the 
 second with a Gothic roof of intersecting pointed arches, the 
 third with three apses, each with a steeply pitched roof, a porch 
 with three arcades at the western end, and a low gabled tower 
 rising from the point of intersection of the nave and transepts, 
 the three buildings illustrating well the transition from the 
 simple basilica to the complex Gothic structure. With them 
 may be named the Abbey of Jumidges, of which unfortunately 
 but a few relics remain, which had beautiful clustered piers 
 alternating with single columns upholding semicircular lateral 
 arches, a flat roofed nave, and vaulted aisles. 
 
 Other fine Romanesque churches of Northern France, all of 
 which differ somewhat in general appearance from those of 
 Normandy, are the Cathedrals of Noyon and Soissons, the 
 church of S. Pierre at Lisieux, all of which combine pointed with 
 
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 51 
 
 semicircular arches, and above all the Cathedral of Le Mans, 
 which has a very characteristic Romanesque nave flanked by 
 round-headed arches and roofed over with an equally character- 
 istic groined Gothic vault, whilst the choir, added in the early 
 13th century, is encircled by a beautiful chovet, the exterior 
 of which with its many buttresses and pinnacles presents 
 a most impressive appearance. 
 
 One of the finest Romanesque buildings in Europe is the 
 Cathedral of Tournai, Belgium, which has a flat-roofed nave 
 of exceptional length, picturesque lateral storied galleries, a 
 central tower with a lofty spire, and two supplementary towers, 
 also with spires, flanking the northern and southern apses. 
 Elsewhere m Belgium are several flat-roofed churches of 
 basilican plan, some with ambulatories in the French style but 
 no apsidal chapels. In Spain, on the other hand, the chevet is 
 rarely absent from ecclesiastical buildings, whilst a distinctive 
 local feature is a low central dome or tower known as the 
 cimborio, which is in many cases scarcely more than a swelling 
 of the roof at the point of intersection of nave and transept. 
 
 Germany is especially rich in Romanesque churches, which, 
 like those of Belgium, are of basilican plan with flat roofs. In 
 the Cathedral of Trier can be studied the gradual growth of 
 the Teutonic form of the Romanesque style, for it was origin- 
 ally an early Christian Church of the Roman type, which was 
 converted into one of a more distinctive style in the 11th 
 century by additions, including a western apse, whilst the noble 
 vaulting of the nave dates from the 12th and the choir from 
 the 13th century. As time went on the multiplication of 
 apses became characteristic of German churches, it being usual 
 to add one at the western end, and more rarely also on the 
 northern and southern sides, the beautiful tapering columns 
 dividing them from the aisles, with the small chapels beyond 
 them, producing very fine effects of perspective. Other peculi- 
 arities of German Romanesque buildings are their great neight 
 and the noble proportions of the interiors, with the finely 
 balanced grouping of the cupolas, towers, and turrets of the 
 exterior ; to which must be added the absence of the great 
 Western doorway that lends such distinction to French, Italian, 
 and Belgian churches. 
 
 Very fine examples of the style in Germany are the churches 
 of S. Maria in Capitolo Cologne, S. Quirin in Neuss, and the 
 cathedrals of Nuremberg and Bamberg, but it was in those of 
 Speier, Mainz, and Worms that it achieved its greatest triumphs. 
 The first, it is true, has no western apse, but this is atoned for 
 by a fine narthex, and in the other two the western extension 
 is as conspicuous as the eastern. Dignified simplicity and 
 
52 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 sense of space are the chief characteristics of all three buildings, 
 massive columns upholding the arcading flanking the naves,; 
 whilst the walls of the aisles are unbroken by triforia, the piers 
 at Speier and Worms being carried right up to the clerestory- 
 windows, whilst at Mainz two arches are placed one above the 
 other, the vaulting of the nave springing from the upper tier. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON AND ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Example of Saxon 
 Arcading 
 
 In Great Britain, even more than on the Continent, the archi- 
 tecture of the past reflects national character, its distinctive 
 peculiarities having been the outcome of local conditions difi'er- 
 ing widely from those that obtained elsewhere, which largely 
 modified the styles introduced from without. On the arrival 
 of the Romans in the first century of the 
 Christian era, there were, with the exception 
 of the monoliths on Salisbury plain known 
 as Stonehenge and other prehistoric relics, 
 the origin of which has never yet been dis- 
 covered, no buildings of greater pretension 
 than mud huts or circular stone or wooden 
 houses with a hole in the tapering roof 
 through which air was admitted and smoke 
 dispersed. The houses, palaces, and churches 
 erected by the invaders were, as proved by the remains at 
 Silchester, Wroxeter, and elsewhere, of the type of those of 
 Imperial Rome, and on them many British masons were em- 
 ployed, who thus acquired a knowledge of the principles of 
 construction that stood their successors in good stead. Those 
 successors, however, showed no desire to per- 
 petuate the style introduced by the con- 
 querors, and when« the latter withdrew in 
 the 5th century the buildings they left 
 behind them were allowed to fall into rapid 
 decay. 
 
 Very quickly too did most of the converts 
 to Christianity relapse into heathenism, and 
 although the lamp of faith was long kept 
 burning in Ireland and in Scotland, no trace exists of the 
 churches in which the little remnant of the followers of the 
 Redeemer met for worship. Of those built later under the 
 auspices of Saints Augustine, Paulinus, and other early bishops, 
 
 Example of Saxon 
 Arcading 
 
ANGLO-SAXON AND ANGLO-NORMAN 53 
 
 not one escaped destruction, but there is strong evidence to 
 prove that they were of the basilican apsidal plan, that never 
 took very deep root in England, but was in many cases ousted 
 by the sanctuary with a square-shaped eastern extension. 
 
 It is usual to give the term Anglo-Saxon to all relics of 
 buildings in Great Britain, that can be proved to date from 
 between the early 7th century and 1066, but Pre-Conquest 
 would be more strictly accurate, Anglo-Saxon architects having 
 contributed but little to the evolution of style, for they were 
 wanting in initiative, rarely trying experiments with new 
 features as was the constant custom of their Norman successors. 
 To this, however, there was one brilliant exception in Bishop 
 Wilfrid of Y^rk, who greatly improved the primitive church, 
 built by King Edwin in the capital of his see, that was later 
 destroyed by fire, and erected noble minsters at Hexham and 
 Ripon, of which the fine crypts with massive 
 pillars still remain beneath the considerably 
 later buildings. In the south of England, 
 too, there was considerable architectural ac- 
 tivity in the 7th and 8th centuries, whilst in 
 the 9th the return of King Egbert from his 
 long exile at the Court of Charlemagne ap- 
 pears to have led to the introduction in 
 Wossex of the Oriental branch of the Roman- 
 esque style to which the cathedral of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle belongs. 
 
 The chief characteristics of the so-called 
 Anglo-Saxon style are the great height in 
 comparison with the length and breadth of 
 a building, a rectangular plan, massive square towers, un- 
 adorned angular or semicircular arches, stunted clumsy-looking 
 columns with roughly carved or plain capitals, long narrow 
 round-headed deeply recessed windows, massive walls without 
 internal decoration, with on the exterior a somewhat ornate 
 surface ornamentation, combined with a series of peculiar 
 clamps known as quoins at the angles of the walls, greatly 
 strengthening the structure. There were no aisles or tran- 
 septs in early Anglo-Saxon buildings, but the chancel was 
 divided from the nave by an arch sometimes with and some- 
 times without carving. 
 
 It is supposed that most of the early Anglo-Saxon churches 
 were built of wood, and at Greenstead in Essex an example 
 remains of the mode in which such buildings were constructed, 
 though the probability is that none of the original material 
 remains. Of the stone buildings that succeeded those in the 
 more perishable material a few only are still in existence, in- 
 
 Tower of Sompting 
 Church, Sussex 
 
54 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 eluding the Abbey Church of Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, the 
 oldest consecrated building still in use in England, the Tower 
 of Earl's Barton Church in Northamptonshire, parts of Bar- 
 freston Church, Kent, that has a fine Norman doorway : 
 Sompting Church, with the unusual feature of a gabled tower 
 with a spire, and that of Worth, both in Sussex, the latter 
 with rudimentary transepts and a semicircular apse, with which 
 may be mentioned S. Lawrence at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts, 
 of somewhat uncertain but probably later date than any of 
 these, for it has a square Eastern end and decorative arcad- 
 ing on the upper portion of the walls, prophetic of coming 
 changes. 
 
 Certain portions of St. Martin's Church, Canterbury, notably 
 a doorway in the chancel and parts of the foundations, are 
 supposed to have belonged to a Saxon church of earlier date 
 than the crypts of Hexham and Ripon already referred to, and 
 which was preceded by an even more ancient building, one of 
 the very first places of Christian worship erected in England. 
 
 The so-called Pyx House in Westminster Abbey, a low 
 narrow solemn-looking vaulted room with a row of massive 
 pillars in the centre, and a single archway in the south transept, 
 are all that are left of the noble sanctuary built under the 
 direction of the last of the Saxon kings, but these relics, with 
 a few conventual buildings, suffice to connect with Anglo-Saxon 
 times a church that is perhaps more intimately associated 
 than any other with the history of England from the close of 
 the 11th to the middle of the IGth century, it having been 
 added to under every successive occupant of the throne. 
 
 The Anglo-Norman style, that succeeded the Saxon, prevailed 
 in Great Britain from the conquest to the last decade of the 
 12th century, becoming at that time either merged in or super- 
 sjdod by the earliest phase of the Gothic. 
 
 Always most enthusiastic • builders, the Normans found in 
 the land of their adoption fuller scope for their energies than 
 in their own, and before they became absorbed in the race they 
 had conquered, they left their impress throughout the length 
 and breadth of their new domain, monasteries, cathedrals, and 
 parish churches, castles, and dwelling houses rising up in every 
 direction, all stamped with a most distinctive character, the 
 result of the welding into one of Anglo-Saxon and Norman 
 traditions, and the modification of a foreign style by local con- 
 ditions of material and environment. In many cases somewhat 
 crude and heavy, Norman work has yet always an imposing 
 dignity, and is, as a general rule, admirably suited to the site it 
 occupies and the purpose for which it is intended. 
 
 The chief characteristics of Anglo-Norman ecclesiastical 
 
ANGLO-SAXON AND ANGLO-NORMAN 55 
 
 buildings aro a cruciform plan ; the £froat length in comparison 
 with the breadth of the nave, which joins the choir without the 
 
 Plan of Norman 
 Church 
 
 Norman Gapiul. 
 
 White Tower, 
 
 London 
 
 liase and Ca])iUl 
 
 of Nonnan 
 
 Pillar 
 
 Norman Capital 
 
 intervention of a Bcroony such screens as are in titu being of 
 much later date than the churches in which they are found ; 
 
 Nurraan Arcading 
 
 Norman Window 
 
 Norman Arcading 
 
 Norman Window 
 
 Norman Window 
 
 columns of greater girth and height than the Saxon type, some 
 circular, others six or eight sided, the circular type occasionally 
 clustered in groups of six or more, with roughly carved capitals 
 
56 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 of which the so-called cushion form is of most frequent occur- 
 rence, upholding arches of wide span, massive walls, those of 
 the nave with rows of purely ornamental arcading, beautifully 
 proportioned triforia and clerestories ; long, narrow, round- 
 headed windows, two or three being often grouped together ; 
 deeply recessed and finely decorated doorways ; strong external 
 
 Norman Window 
 
 Norman Doorway 
 
 buttresses ; twin western towers and a loftier central one 
 rising from the intersection of nave and transepts. With 
 certain notable exceptions referred to below, Norman churches 
 have flat timber roofs, but those of the crj^pt beneath them are 
 generally of groined stone with plain or only 
 slightly ornamented ribs. 
 
 Another very distinctive characteristic of the 
 Norman style is the richness of the surface 
 decoration of the interiors of cathedrals and 
 churches, the bases, shafts, and capitals of the 
 
 H. ^ . ,^ ^ p columns, the arches, headings of windows, mural 
 ^''nilli-_<!, J arcades, &c. being all enriched with mouldings 
 l|l|U''l|pjf of an infinite variety of form, including the 
 so-called cable resembling a rope, the billet 
 not unlike short bits of rounded wood, the 
 chevron or zig-zag, the fret or fillet, the lozenge, 
 the trellis, the cone, the scollop, and wave with the so-called 
 torus, a convex swelling, and the cavetto, a hollow mould- 
 ing, the last two used almost exclusively on the bases of 
 columns. 
 
 Among noteworthy existing examples of the Anglo-Norman 
 style are the nave, transepts and western doorway of Hereford 
 Cathedral; the choir, transepts, and nave of Peterborough 
 
 Norman Buttress 
 
ANGLO-SAXON AND ANGLO-NORMAN 57 
 
 Cathedral; the naves of Gloucester, Exeter, Chichester, and 
 
 Cable Moulding 
 
 Billet Moulding 
 
 Ely Cathedrals ; certain portions of Canterbury Cathedral, 
 including the choir chapels, part of the cloisters, the baptistery 
 
 Chevron or Zig-zag Moulding 
 
 Diamond or Lozenge Moulding 
 
 tower, S. Anselm's Tower, and a fine staircase leading up from 
 the Close ; the Chapter House of Worcester Cathedral ; the 
 
 Trellis Moulding 
 
 greater part of Norwich Cathedral, which, though it has the 
 French chevet at the eastern end, combines with it the dis- 
 
 
 Cone Moulding Scollop Moulding 
 
 tinctive English characteristics of a nave of great length and 
 
58 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 long transepts, the former with fourteen noble bays ; the naves 
 of S. Alban's Abbey, Southwell Minster, and the Priory Church 
 of Christchurch, Hants ; portions of the nave and transepts 
 and the central tower of Christchurch Cathedral, Oxford ; the 
 beautiful portal oi Tewkesbury Abbey, the finest in England, 
 and the doorway of Hales Church, Norfolk, on which may be 
 seen many of the characteristic mouldings enumerated above. 
 
 Somewhat later in date and even more distinctively Anglo- 
 Norman than the examples quoted above, is the noble Cathedral 
 of Durham, in which the style reached its fullest culmination. 
 It remains, with the exception of the so-called Chapel of tho 
 Nine Altars that replaces the original apse, very much what it 
 was when first completed, and reflects the national unity that 
 was becoming ever more and more complete whilst it was 
 
 Norman Church at Kilpeck 
 
 being erected. A very noteworthy feature of this most effective 
 building, in which every detail is subordinated to the general 
 effect, is the vaulted roof of the nave, one of the very few dating 
 from Norman times, significant of the approaching revolt 
 against the flat roofs that had so long been looked upon as 
 essential. In spite of certain crudities of structure it har- 
 monises well alike with the vaulting of the aisles and transepts 
 of earlier, and of the choir of somewhat later date. The great 
 clustered piers alternating with cylindrical columns, the fine 
 arches spanning them, the beautiful triforia and clerestories, 
 and above all the long vista of nave and choir, combine to place 
 Durham Cathedral in the very highest rank amongst con- 
 temporary buildings either in England or on the Continent, 
 whilst in the Galilee Chapel, to which a porch, replacing an 
 earlier entrance, gives access, the details of the transitional 
 Norman style can be very clearly studied, the graceful inter- 
 secting arches, upheld by slender coupled columns, recently 
 
ANGLO-SAXON AND ANGLO-NORMAN 59 
 
 supplemented by additional supports, enriched with character- 
 istic mouldings, shadowing forth the approaching change to the 
 early English phase of Gothic. 
 
 Winchester Cathedral, originally a very typical Norman 
 building designed by William of Wykeham, retains its Norman 
 framework, covered over, as it 
 were, with a drapery of detail in 
 the latest development of Eng- 
 lish Gothic, and with it may be 
 named as characteristic Norman 
 buildings with Gothic addi- 
 tions, Peterborough Cathedral, 
 all Norman except the west 
 front and eastern extremity of 
 the choir; Malmesbury Abbey, 
 with a flat -roofed nave and 
 vaulted aisles, the latter with 
 pointed arches ; the Cathedral 
 of Exeter ; the Minster of Sher- 
 bourne ; and portions of West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 Many parish churches, too, 
 including those of Kilpeck in 
 Herefordshire, a very typical 
 Norman building ; Tickencote in 
 Lincolnshire, with intersecting 
 pointed arches ; S. Peter's in 
 the East, Oxford, with a groined 
 vaulted roof; Barf reston Church, 
 Kent, with a very beautiful re- 
 cessed doorway ; Goring and 
 Iffley in Oxfordshire ; and above 
 all, S. Bartholomew's in London, 
 date from Norman times, and, 
 though they have all been more 
 or less modified by restoration, 
 retain the general characteristics 
 of the period to which they 
 belong. 
 
 Anglo-Norman secular architecture is characterised by much 
 the same qualities as ecclesiastical, the castles and residences 
 of the sovereigns and the nobles having been of dignified and 
 impressive appearance, well proportioned, and thoroughly in 
 harmony with their surroundings. During the reigns of the 
 Conqueror and his successors many noble strongholds were 
 erected on points of vantage. The most important feature, 
 
 Plan of Peterborough Cathedral 
 
60 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 and in every case the first to be built, having been the lofty 
 central keep or donjon, the home of its owner in peace, and the 
 last refuge of a besieged garrison in time of war. In it was a 
 fine hall, in which the host received his guests, with a raised 
 platform known as the dais for the use of those of high rank, 
 and the approach to it was protected by a complex series of 
 defences, including deep ditches or fosses, walls with towers and 
 turrets at intervals, forming two distinct enclosures known as the 
 outer and inner baileys, often covering a vast extent of ground, 
 the whole encircled by a deep moat that could be filled with 
 water when necessary. The great main entrance was flanked 
 by towers, and in connection with the heavy doors of solid oak 
 was a portcullis, that is to say, a grating of timber and iron 
 bristling with spikes, that could be drawn up from within, cut- 
 ting off all access to the inner precincts. 
 
 Some few Norman castles, all considerably modified to suit 
 modern requirements, are still in use as residences or public 
 buildings, including those of Windsor, Warwick (both specially 
 typical), Norwich, Dover, Richmond in Yorkshire, and the Tower 
 of London ; the keep of the last named (known as the White 
 Tower) and the chapel dedicated to S. John being amongst 
 the best examples of the Anglo-Norman style in existence ; 
 whilst at Rochester, Colchester, Croft, Headingham, and 
 Kenilworth are extensive remains of other strongholds, that 
 before they fell into decay, must have equalled in grandeur 
 those of Windsor and Warwick. A very remarkable example 
 of a private residence dating from Norman times is Haddon 
 Hall in Derbyshire, the seat of the Duke of Rutland, which 
 retains the original great hall with a dais and minstrels' 
 gallery, and a number of fine suites of rooms to which various 
 wings were added during the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, 
 affording an excellent opportunity for the study of the 
 development of English domestic architecture. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE 
 
 The first decades of the 12th century were marked through- 
 out Europe, as far as architecture was concerned, by the final 
 breaking loose from the Roman traditions that had so long 
 been accepted as binding, and the revolt against which had 
 been inaugurated more than a hundred years before. The 
 struggle between the old and new methods of building very 
 
GOTHIC ARCHITFXTURE IN EUROPE 61 
 
 clearly reflected that of the people for greater freedom of 
 thought and action in the countries in which it took place. 
 The keynote of both was an aspiration after nobler things, 
 and, in architecture, a yearning for religious expression, 
 typified by the pointing upwards of the spires and pinnacles of 
 churches and cathedrals, coincided with the craving of builders 
 for increased lightness and grace of structure. The lofty 
 vaults and complicated systems of buttresses of the Gothic 
 style bore striking witness to the ambitious daring of their 
 designers, a daring more than justified by its results. 
 
 The term Gothic, that now calls up a vision of ethereal 
 beauty, was, strange to say, first given to the style that 
 grew out of the Romanesque by the artists of the Renaissance 
 as an expression of their contempt for what they looked upon 
 
 Gtothic Vaulting 
 
 as outworn methods of building, similar to those of the Gothic 
 barbarians in warfare. It very soon, however, lost all associa- 
 tion with this most inappropriate comparison, becoming synony- 
 mous with all that is most beautiful in the architecture of 
 the period to which it is applied. 
 
 The most important characteristics of Gothic buildings are 
 the introduction, wherever possible, of vertical or very sharply 
 pointed details, such as highl y pitched roofs and gables, spires 
 and pinnacles, pointed arches and pointed vaulting, flying 
 buttresses* that grew ever slenderer and more decorative, lead- 
 ing downwards from the roof, and counteracting the tremendous 
 thrust of the suspended vault of stone^^ all of true structural 
 value. To these must be added the minor peculiarities of 
 slenderer columns than those of Romanesque buildings, several 
 being often clustered together, mouldings cut into the stone of 
 
62 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Gothic Vaulting 
 
 the capitals of the columns, arcading <^c., instead of projectintj 
 beyond the surface, the grouping of several windows under the 
 arch, and the increase in the beauty of their tracery. The so- 
 called lancet or long narrow window with stilted head, pointed 
 li^e an arch, is specially distinctive of Early Gothic^ and was 
 later supplemented by the more elaborate rose window, the 
 stained j^^lass in them, and in the more complex groups, adding 
 greatly to the aesthetic effect of the whole building, the many 
 coloured light from them relieving 
 the monotony of the stone work. 
 
 The general appearance of the in- 
 terior of a Gothic cathedral, with its 
 long perspective of nave, aisles, and 
 choir, its finely proportioned triforia 
 and clerestories, and, above all, its 
 graceful arches leading up to their 
 points of union in the soaring roof, 
 may justly be called a poem in stone, 
 whilst its exterior is equally remark- 
 able for the close correlation of all 
 its parts, producing an impression 
 of consistent unity of design. An 
 added charm is given alike to the interior and exterior by the 
 combined richness and quaintness of the decorative sculpture^ 
 in which is clearly illustrated the delight in symbolism of the 
 mediaeval craftsmen, who, working in close accord with archi- 
 tect and builder, supplemented efiigies of heroes and hero- 
 ines of the faith, royal patrons, &c., with emblematic animals, 
 fruit, flowers, and foliage, welding the most incongruous forms 
 into an elaborate and beautiful scheme of ornamentation. 
 
 It was in Northern France that the Gothic 
 style was first developed, and there, as else- 
 where, it passed through three phases. The 
 first, characterised by comparative severity of 
 style and simplicity of decoration, prevailing in 
 the 12th and 13th centuries ; the second, to 
 which the name of Rayonnant is sometimes 
 given, on account of the ray-like window tracery, in the 14th ; 
 and the third, known as the Flamboyant, because of the flame- 
 like tracery and general brightness of the ornamentation, in 
 the 15th century. 
 
 A hint of the coming change was, as has already been shown, 
 given in many a Romanesque building, notably, to quote but 
 two cases in point, in the Cathedral of Evreux, and the Church 
 of S. Etienne, Beauvais, but it was in the Cathedral of S. 
 Denis, near Paris, founded in 1141), that the full significance 
 
 Gargoyle 
 
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE 63 
 
 of that change was revealed. It retains, it is true, round- 
 hMded arches above some of its windows and a few projecting 
 decorative mouldings, but in other respects it is essentially 
 Gothic, its double aisles foreshadowing those of the later Notre 
 Dame of Paris, which may justly be said to be an epitome of the 
 development of the pointed style in France. Specially dear 
 to the French nation on account of its intimate association with 
 many thrilling episodes of its history, it remains, in spite of all 
 the vicissitudes through which it has passed, so far as its general 
 structure is concerned, very much what it was when first com- 
 
 ^^ ^.^s^^^ ^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 Flsring Buttress 
 
 pleted in the late 13th century. The noble western fa9ade, 
 with its profuse and ornate ornamentation, and the fine square 
 towers flanking it, each pierced with efiective openings and 
 adorned with grotesque gargoyles, contrast with the slender 
 central spire — which, by the way, is modern — tiers of graceful 
 flying buttresses, and the numerous groups of pinnacles, whilst 
 the long line of the great roof ridge brings into relief the com- 
 parative intricacy of the design of the rest of the building, 
 especially of the extremities of the transepts with their fairy- 
 like arcading, beautiful sculptures, and grand rose windows. 
 
 The most distinctive details of the interior of Notre Dame 
 are the massive piers and symmetrical arches of varying width 
 
64 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Gothic Arcade 
 
 of the nave, the simple but most effective vaulting of it, the 
 double aisles and the choir ; the short- 
 ness of the transepts, atoned for by the 
 unusual length of the semicircular apse, 
 with its circlet of chapels ; the combina- 
 tion in the clerestory of pointed-headed 
 and rose windows, and, above all, the 
 exquisitely proportioned and spacious 
 triforium, which surmounts the whole 
 of the double aisles and forms a circular 
 gallery with arcaded openings, harmonis- 
 ing alike with those of the nave below and 
 the clerestory above, and a stone vault 
 of pointed intersecting arches spring- 
 ing from slender 
 clustered columns. 
 Contemporaneous with Notre Dame is 
 Laon Cathedral, the original and charac- 
 teristic chevet of which was replaced in the 
 early 13th century by a square termination, 
 in imitation it is supposed of some English 
 church, but which otherwise resembles the 
 Cathedral of Paris, especially in its fine 
 western fa9ade and open vaulted triforium. 
 In the Cathedral of Chartres, founded in 
 the 12th century, but practically rebuilt 
 in the 13th after its almost complete de- 
 struction by fire, the further progress of 
 the style may be studied, its arches being 
 more stilted and its nave and choir wider 
 than those of its predecessors, whilst its 
 closed-in triforium is significant of the 
 ever increasing height of the roofs, neces- 
 sitating the strengthening of the walls, 
 a change that was, however, quickly suc- 
 ceeded and, to a great extent, neutralised 
 by the piercing and filling in with glass 
 of the wall behind the arcading. Other 
 characteristics of Chartres Cathedral are 
 the noble sculptures of the west front, 
 that are not only among the finest but 
 the least injured in France, those of the 
 south and north porches that are scarcely 
 inferior, the dignified towers surmounted by 
 beautiful and graceful spires of different but harmonious de- 
 signs, and the double tier of flying buttresses of the nave. The 
 
 Gothic Steeple 
 
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE 65 
 
 last named are moreover of unusual construction, each consist- 
 ing of two parts, the upper strengthened by an arcade with 
 round-headed arches, springing from massive stunted piers, 
 that seem to connect the advanced Gothic of the rest of the 
 building, with the late Romanesque style. 
 
 The Cathedral of Rheims is another typical Gothic building 
 with a western fagade, the deeply recessed central portal of 
 which is especially fine, resembling those of Notre Dame, Laon, 
 and Chartres ; a remarkably eflfective central tower that rises 
 nearly sixty feet above the high-pitched roof ; a well-developed 
 chevet, a walled-in triforium similar to that of Chartres, a noble 
 series of clerestory and several grand rose windows filled with 
 very beautiful stained glass. 
 
 In the Cathedral of Amiens French Gothic architecture 
 touched its highest point of excellence, 
 before the over exaggeration of its dis- 
 tinctive peculiarities sounded the note of 
 decadence. Begun in 1230, when all the 
 structural problems of The pointed style 
 had been finally solved, it was completed 
 in 1272, an'd although it has more than 
 onc6*'t5Sen seriously injured by fire, it has 
 been so successfully restored that it still 
 remains one of the noblest churches of 
 Europe, the one thing detracting from 
 the solemn beauty of its general external 
 appearance being the later Flamboyant 
 spire, that is quite out of character with 
 the rest of the building. Its great height 
 and breadth ; the symmetry of its propor- 
 tions ; the dignified simpUcity of its vault- 
 ing, which in nave, aisles and transepts, 
 chevet chapels and ambulatory is of similar design, the centre 
 from which the ribs radiate being in every case so situated tliat 
 these ribs are all of equal length ; the grand sculptures and fine 
 arcading of the great west front, the towers of which, though 
 they differ in detail, harmonise well with each other ; the ex- 
 quisite statues and bas-reliefs of the transept portals ; the 
 combined strength and grace of the many flying buttresses ; 
 the admirable system of lighting, windows occupying the whole 
 of the space between the main arcades of the nave and the 
 roof ; the beautiful and varied effects of perspective from many 
 different points of view in the interior ; with the minor detail 
 of the marvellous carvings in the choir, justify the claim that 
 Amiens Cathedral is the crowning glory of Gothic architecture 
 and an ample vindication of its principles. 
 
 Gothic Clustered 
 Column 
 
66 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 In the contemporaneous Beauvais Cathedral, that was in- 
 tended to rival that of Amiens in its height and in the ethereal 
 lightness of its stilted arches, a convincing proof was given of 
 the danger of carrying those principles too far, for the vaulting 
 of the choir collapsed before the completion of the building, 
 which, though it was restored and added to later, still remains 
 unfinished. With it may be mentioned the Sainte Cliapelle of 
 Paris, the window tracery in which is very fine ; the Cathedral 
 of Coutances, which has a very fine central lantern tower — 
 that is to say, one with windows that throw a light upon the 
 centre of the interior of a building — and a beautiful tapering 
 spire ; and the Cathedral of Lisieux, with a very characteristic 
 chevet and vaulting resembling that of the Cathedral of 
 Amiens. 
 
 The Cathedral of Le Mans, already referred to in connection 
 with its noble Romanesque nave, has a most beautiful late 
 13th century Gothic choir, with one of the finest chevets in 
 France. The aisles, that at the western end of the building 
 are single, develop at the transepts into a double circlet, with 
 chapels radiating from them, whilst the choir has exceptionally 
 fine 13th and 14th century stained glass windows. The general 
 effect of the interior, in which the solemn dignity of the nave 
 contrasts with the almost ethereal beauty of the choir and 
 its surroundings, is most impressive, whilst the exterior with 
 its graceful flying buttresses and pinnacles is equally fine. 
 
 The Cathedral of Bourges is another typical 13th century 
 Gothic building which, though it is without the usual transepts, 
 has a beautiful apse, the ambulatories of which have unusually 
 wide spaces between the columns, double aisles flanking the 
 nave as well as the choir and chevet, producing a unique im- 
 pression of vastness, whilst the exterior is equally effective with 
 its five grand western portals, a long main rcof unbroken by 
 towers or spires, and a series of steeply pitched supplementary 
 roofs above the chapels of the eastern end. 
 
 Dating from the same period as the cathedrals just noticed 
 is the fortified Abbey of Mont St. Michel, that has been again 
 and again rebuilt, and in which the gradual evolution of the 
 Gothic style in France can be well studied, especially in the 
 lovely chapel justly called the Merveille or the Marvel, that, 
 with its cloisters, is stiJl much what it was when finished in 
 1228, whilst the Chatelet or Gate-house, with its massive round 
 towers and the various abbatial buildings, such as the Salle 
 des Hotes or Guest-Hall, are equally characteristic of French 
 domestic architecture of the same period. On the other hand 
 the Abbey Church, that crowns the mount, has been so much 
 restored and modified that little of the original structure 
 
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE (J7 
 
 remains, except the crypt which, with its massive piers and 
 arches and many supplementary chapels, is practically the same 
 as that from which uprose the famous abbey, the building of 
 which was a labour of love to so many successive abbots. 
 
 The Church of S. Pierre, Caen, which has a fine tower with a 
 beautiful pierced spire, is a good example of the second period 
 of the Gothic style in France, and at Rouen the Rayonnant 
 and Flamboyant phases are exceptionally well illustrated. The 
 Abl>ey Church of S. Ouen was built entirely in the 14th 
 century, and, with its characteristic high-pitched roofs over 
 each bay of the aisles, its lofty towers — those at the west end 
 with tapering spires — its delicately sculptured portals, double 
 tiers of flying buttresses, triple division of arcades, triforium, 
 and clerestory in the nave, the number and beauty of its stained 
 glass windows, its graceful clustered piers, that rise without 
 a break from the ground to the springing of the vault, and 
 its beautiful chevet, with its circlet of eleven chapels, is an 
 epitome of all the most characteristic features of Gothic archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 The Church of St. Maclou in the same town is a fine gem of 
 Flamboyant work, with its stilted arches, tapering spires and 
 pinnacles, and lavish internal and external decoration, whilst 
 in the Cathedral of Rouen can be recognised details of each of 
 the three stages of French Gothic, combined with those of the 
 later Renaissance. The western facade, laterel portals, toweri, 
 spires, and fine rose windows are typically Flamboyant, and 
 tne general view of the interior, with its long vista of nave and 
 choir, its slightly pointed arcading, two tiers of which divide 
 the nave from the aisles, and, above all, its simple but most 
 effective vaulting, is essentially that of an early example of the 
 pointed style, that of the Lady Chapel being especially efloctive. 
 
 Good secular examples of the Gothic style in France are the 
 Palais de Justice and Hotel de Bourgtheroulde, both at Rouen, 
 the Chateau of Coucy near Liion, the Hotel de Cluny, Paris, 
 the Chateau de Pierrefonds in Normandy, and, most character- 
 istic of all, the House of Jacques Cceur at Bourges. It was, 
 however, in Belgium that Gothic municipal and domestic archi- 
 tecture reached its noblest development, the great halls of 
 the towns being remarkable for their dignified and massive 
 appearance, and, except in the Litest examples built after the 
 decadence had set in, for the severe restraint of their ornamen- 
 tation. Of rectangular plan, and several stories in height, with 
 steeply pitched roofs, the gable ends adorned ^^ith many 
 pinnacles, and the long sloping sides broken by dormer windows, 
 contrasting with the rows of pointed-headed lights in the 
 walls beneath, and lofty central tower of ornate design, these 
 
68 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 noble buildings, of which those at Ypres, Bruges, Brussels, 
 Ghent, and Tournai are the best, are the chief pride of the 
 cities to which they belong. They rival in the affections of 
 the people even the cathedrals of contemporary date, although 
 those of Antwerp, specially noteworthy for its seven aisles, 
 Louvain, the nave and transepts of which, as already stated, 
 are Romanesque, whilst the choir is a fine specimen of Early 
 Gothic, Brussels, Ghent, Louvam, and Liege are all noble 
 structures, resembling those of France in general plan, though 
 most of them are shorter and of greater width. 
 
 In Spain, as in France, Gothic architecture passed through 
 three phases : the first, that prevailed in the second half of the 
 12th and the first of the 13th century, to a great extent 
 the outcome of the Romanesque ; the second that succeeded 
 it and lasted until the beginning of the 15th century, dis- 
 tinguished by great dignity of structure and appropriate- 
 ness of ornamentation ; the last, that prevailed until nearly the 
 middle of the 16th century, corresponding to a great extent 
 with French Flamboyant, though it lasted longer and was 
 considerably modified by Moorish influence. 
 
 To the first period of Gothic architecture in Spain belong 
 the Cathedrals of Santiago de Compostella, of cruciform plan 
 with a vaulted roof, semicircular headed arcades and windows, 
 and an ornate western fa9ade recalling that of Chartres ; 
 Zamora, Taragona, and the older of the two at Salamanca, the 
 three last retaining the characteristic cimborio, or low dome, 
 already referred to in connection with Romanesque work in 
 Spain, rising from the intersection of nave and transepts, but 
 of more complex structure than in earlier examples, the ribs of 
 the vaulting being upheld by pendentives and the whole sur- 
 mounted by a secondary dome of considerable height pierced 
 with windows, and at Salamanca flanked by four circular 
 towers. Unfortunately, in later Spanish ecclesiastical archi- 
 tecture this beautiful feature was abandoned, and the Cathe- 
 drals of Toledo, Leon, and Burgos are of the French type, with 
 chevets, double aisles, clustered pillars upholding pointed arches, 
 vaulted roofs, ornate decorative arcading, fine open triforia, 
 and lofty clerestories. The exterior of that of Burgos is es- 
 pecially ornate, with three pinnacled towers, tapering open- 
 traceried spires rising from those at the western end. In the 
 14th century the cruciform plan, which had so long prevailed, 
 was replaced in Spain by one without either aisles or transepts ; 
 the buttresses that had previously been introduced outside 
 the building to resist the thrust of the vaulting, were brought 
 within the walls so as to make the nave one vast vaulted hall, 
 flanked by lateral chapels as in the fine Cathedral of Gerona 
 
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE 69 
 
 and the Church of S. Maria del Pino at Barcelona. Later, how- 
 ever, this comparatively simple mode of structure was super- 
 seded by vast complicated buildings such as the Cathedral of 
 Salamanca and that of Segovia, both dating from the 16th 
 century, the vaulting of which is especially complicated, with 
 very ornate ribs, whilst the towers closely resemble those of 
 contemporaneous Moorish mosques. 
 
 The Gothic style, that was alike alien to the Italian tempera- 
 ment and unsuited to the Italian climate, never really took 
 root in Italy, the soil of which was thoroughly impregnated 
 with classic traditions. The horizontal cornice, so character- 
 istic of Greek and Early Roman architecture is of frequent 
 occurrence, the round arch was long retained in combination 
 with pointed highly-pitched roofs, and spires are rare, whilst 
 the beautiful groined vaulting, the flying buttresses, and the 
 exquisite window-tracery, that lend so great a charm to the 
 catnedrals and churches of France and England, are very 
 seldom met with. There was no gradual evolution in Italy 
 from Early to Late Gothic, and for this reason it is usual to 
 treat Itahan buildings in the pointed style in three geographical 
 instead of chronological groups, namely, the northern, central, 
 and southern. To the first belongs the Cathedral of Milan, the 
 largest Gothic building in Italy, the exterior of which is some- 
 what spoiled by its over-decorated western facade, though the 
 ett'ect of the long rows of lateral pinnacles, the numerous flying 
 buttresses, the low conical dome and lofty spire is very fine. 
 The interior, with its vast nave, double aisles, and complex 
 apse, its lofty piers, with capitals consisting of life-sized figures 
 iu niches, and its noble clerestory, presents an appearance of 
 grandeur unequalled by any other Gothic church in Italy. The 
 Certosa or Carthusian Monastery, the fa9ade of which is a 
 century older than the rest of the building ; the Churches of 
 S. Maria del Carmine and S. Michele, both at Pavia, the latter 
 with a very typical campanile ; the Cathedral of Genoa ; the 
 Churches of S. Anastasia and S. Zenone at Verona, are all good 
 examples of Italian-Gothic, whilst amongst secular buildings 
 in the same style in Northern Italy, the Ducal and other 
 palaces at Venice, such as the so-callad Ca' d'Ora are remark- 
 able for the beauty of their proportions, the efiectiveness of 
 their window-grouping, and the general appropriateness and 
 grace of their decorative details, especially of their balconies. 
 
 In Central Italy the Cathedrals of Florence and Siena are 
 specially typical, the former, with its dome of considerably later 
 date than the rest of the building, contrasting with the Cam- 
 panile or Bell Tower named after Giotto, the latter being 
 noteworthy for the combination of a dome with pointed 
 
70 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 arcading and horizontal cornices, and the association on the 
 west front of rounded with stilted arches, the last a peculiarity 
 also of the cathedral at Orvieto, the facade of which is one of 
 the most beautiful in Italy. 
 
 The Gothic work of Southern Italy is far more florid than 
 that of the rest of the peninsula, and this is equally true of that 
 of Sicily. In the churches of both, as in the earlier Boman- 
 Gsque buildings already noticed, Saracenic, Greek, and Roman 
 influences are alike noticeable, especially in those of Naples and 
 the Cathedrals of Palermo, Monreale, and Messina, the three 
 last named combining the pointed arch destinctive of Gothic, 
 with the elaborate surface decoration so characteristic of the 
 Norman style. 
 
 German architects did not adopt the pointed arch until 
 considerably later than those of the south and west of Europe, 
 but to atone for this they delighted in highly pitched roofs 
 with stilted gables, and lofty towers, with pointed roofs and 
 tapering spires. The exteriors of their buildings differ very 
 greatly from the interiors, in which the round-headed windows 
 and semicircular arches of the Romanesque style are retained, 
 enriched, however, with beautiful and ornate carving. The 
 term round-arched Gothic is therefore often applied to the 
 earliest phase of the style in Germany, of which good examples 
 are the Churches of the Holy Apostles, of S. Martin and S. 
 Maria in Capitolo, all in Cologne, the Abbey Churches of 
 Arnstein and Andernach and the Liebfrauenkirche at Treves, 
 the last built on the foundations of a much earlier chapel. 
 
 The second phase of Gothic architecture in Germany, in 
 which the pointed arch was substituted for the semicircular, 
 did not begin until the second half of the 13th century. To it 
 belong the greater part of the Cathedral of Strasburg, which 
 combines, with much beautiful Romanesque work, a typical 
 Gothic fa9ade with a fine open tracery spire, a companion to 
 which was designed but never erected. The Cathedral of 
 Freiburg, with a graceful and ornate spire, the Church of S. 
 Stephen at Vienna, with aisles almost as lofty as the nave, 
 portions of the Church of S. Sebald, Nuremberg, the decorative 
 sculpture of which is remarkably fine, and, above all, the 
 Cathedral of Cologne, the noblest example of German Gothic, 
 with an exceptionally symmetrical plan, which in spite of the 
 fact that the building extended over more than a century, and 
 that the west point was only completed in the 19th century, 
 was not departed from, so that it remains a unique specimen 
 of mediaeval design. It has a noble nave, double aisles, one 
 of which is continued round the eastern apse and is divided 
 into seven chapels, forming a picturesque chevet. Massive 
 
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE 71 
 
 towers with a tapering central spire and many pinnacles 
 flank the western entrance, elaborately decorated buttresses 
 break the long lines of the walls, and from the intersecting nave 
 and transepts rises a slender but most effective spire. 
 
 To the third period of Gothic architecture in Germany 
 belong Ulm Cathedral, which has a nave of exceptional height ; 
 
 Plan of Cologne Cathedral 
 
 the unfinished Church of S. Barbara at KuUenberg, with a very 
 picturesque chevet, the exterior of which is most lavishly 
 decorated, and a steeply pitched roof of unusual height, with 
 soaring towers and pinnacles; S. Catherine at Oppenheim, 
 the over ornate complex decorative carvings of which are 
 specially typical ; and the parish Church of Thaun, the western 
 portal of which is remarkably fine. 
 
72 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 With these ecclesiastical buildings may be named the 
 town halls of Liibeck, Brunswick, Miinster, and other German 
 towns, which, though they are neither so beautiful or so 
 characteristic as those of Belgium, are of noble and symmetrical 
 proportions, whilst a word of recognition must also be given to 
 the beautiful domestic architecture of Germany, especially that 
 of Prague, Nuremberg, and Frankfort all rich in survivals of 
 mediaeval times. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 Gothic architecture in England and Scotland followed to some 
 extent the same lines as in France,! with, however, certain 
 notable differences that were the ^outcome of the national 
 feeling which had begun to make itself felt as early as the 
 close of the 11th century. Until then the Normans had 
 remained a distinct and alien element in what appeared to 
 
 Early English Lancet "Window 
 
 Early English Window 
 
 them a foreign land, but now they had become fused with the 
 natives of that land, sharing their sesthetic as well as their 
 political aspirations. The note of change was first sounded in 
 the architecture of the now united races in a rebellion against 
 the heavy massiveness of the Norman style, and a desire for a 
 greater redundancy of what may be called structural decoration 
 in place of extraneous surface ornamentation. The general 
 proportions of buildings gradually became slenderer, the walls 
 
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN 73 
 
 loftier, the windows longer, the piers and columns slighter, 
 arid the arches more pointed, these peculiarities becoming more 
 and more accentuated as time went on, till they culminated in 
 the noble and exquisitely beautiful cathedrals and churches 
 that vied even with the best of those of Northern France. 
 
 It is usual to divide the development of English Gothic 
 architecture into three periods : tJie^Earlx^JJ^lish, the Decor- 
 ated, and the Perpendicul<ir — the first prevailing from about 
 lli89 to 1307, tlie second from the latter date to 1380, and the 
 third from 1380 to 1485, whilst the name of Tudor has been 
 given to the transitional time between the last phase of Gothic 
 and the introduction of the Renaissance style, lasting from 
 
 Early English Capital 
 
 1485 to about 1546. It must, however, be added that hardly 
 any buildings exist belonging entirely to one period, architects 
 having in almost every case been compelled to be content with 
 adding to or modifying the work of their predecessors. 
 
 Amongst the characteristics of Early English architecture 
 are groined vaulting with main diagonal ribs only, long 
 narrow lancet-headeu windows, clustered piers with capitals 
 consisting generally of delicately carved foliage, pointed arcad- 
 ing, the archivolt or arched portion enriched with mouldings, 
 'ill which the ornament known as the dog-tooth is of frequent 
 occurrence, ornate yet dignified western fagades- with deeply 
 recessed doorways decorated with slender columns and beautiful 
 bas-reliefs, hicjh pitched roofs with stilted gable ends, lofty 
 towers and spires, and plain buttresses ranged in pairs at the 
 angles of buildings. 
 
 The Early English lancet window has a unique significance 
 
74 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 in the devolopment of Gothic architecture this side of the 
 Channel, for it inaugurated an important structural change, its 
 constantly increasing length aiding greatly in the breaking up 
 of the triple division of walls — supposed by some to have been 
 emblematic of the Holy Trinity — with arcading, triforium, and 
 clerestory. By slow degrees the triforium was first reduced 
 to a mere decorative feature, and then eliminated altogether, 
 whilst the clerestory usurped its place in addition to its own. 
 
 Early English Capital 
 
 Early English 
 Capital 
 
 jiase of Early 
 English Pillar 
 
 In Decorated buildings the wmdows are larger and divided 
 into a greater number of lights than in Early English, the heads 
 being filled with tracery of geometrical design ; the fa9ades are 
 more complicated and at the same time less effective, the towers 
 and spires are loftier and supplemented by many pinnacles and 
 finials, flying buttresses are multiplied ; parapets with pierced 
 
 Capitals of Early English Clustered Pillar 
 
 openings, canopied niches containing figuresand other purely de- 
 corative features give to the exteriors a great richness of general 
 appearance. In the interiors the simple Early English vault- 
 ing is superseded by roofs divided into a great number of dif- 
 ferent compartments, the points of intersection being marked 
 by stone bosses or masses of carving, whilst increased lavish- 
 ness of decoration characterises every portion of the building, 
 
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN 75 
 
 mouldings of a great variety, amongst which the ballflower is 
 of frequent occurrence, being introduced wherever possible. 
 
 In Perpendicular Gothic, as its name implies, the vertical 
 tendency became ever more and more marked; towers, spires, and 
 piimacles became more and more numerous, all decreasing in 
 bulk and increasing in height. Turrets with many airy finials, 
 springing from flying buttresses that were adorned with figures 
 
 
 \1^ 
 
 ^1^ 
 
 w 
 
 Ij.. 
 
 f: 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 '«^ 
 
 r:^V^-^. 
 
 ""mt 
 
 Early English Ornaments 
 
 of lions, dragons, and other symbolic creatures, rise above 
 equally ornate parapets, the dignified single-centred arch was 
 replaced by a four-centred form, and rectilinear lines superseded 
 the beautifully flowing tracery of earlier windows. It was, how- 
 ever, the complex ana exquisitely delicate groined roofing, fcjjg-t "^ 
 chie%--eharacten8ed the jTgrpendicular style, lending to the [ 
 interior of the buildings in which it was employed an othereaLj 
 
 Early English Omaments 
 
 charm that has never been surpassed. In the so-called f^u? 
 tracery roof^ that was the culmination of this distinctive form 
 of vaulting, the entire surface of the roof is covered with radia- 
 ting ribs resembling the sections of an outspread fan, connected 
 by bands of trefoil or quatrefoil ornament known as cusping, 
 and, in some cases — notably in that of Henry VII's chapel at 
 Westminster — with pendant stalactite ornaments drooping from 
 
76 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 the point of intersection of the groins. In some Perpendicular ' 
 buildings, as in the Churches of S. Stephen and S. Peter's 
 Mancroft at Norwich, ornate open timber roofs, enriched with 
 beautiful carving, take the place of those of stone, and in the 
 final or Tudor phase of the style such roofs, to which the name 
 
 Early English Dogtooth Ornament 
 
 of hammer beam has been given, and of which those of Wolsey's 
 Great Hall at Hampton Court and of Westminster Hall are 
 good examples, were almost as elaborate as the fan tracery 
 variety. Characteristic features of secular Tudor buildings are 
 the extensive use of panelling, the bow or projecting window 
 rising direct from the ground, the oriel window or window sup- 
 
 Early English Arcading 
 
 Early English Doorway, 
 Westminster Abbey 
 
 ported by a corbel of stone often finely carved, battlements with 
 open tracery work and richly decorated gables, fine specimens of 
 all of which are to be seen at Hampton Court Palace. 
 
 One of the earliest Gothic structures in England is the choir 
 of Canterbury Cathedral, designed by the Burgundian Williams 
 of Sens, which recalls in general style certain contemporane- 
 
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN 77 
 
 ous French ecclesiastical buildings. Foreign influence is also 
 noticeable in the somewhat later Ripon and Chichester Cathe- 
 drals, but by the beginning of the 13th century English 
 Gothic had freed itself almost entirely from the trammels of 
 French traditions, and started forward on the path from which 
 it never deviated, combining a consummate mastery of struc- 
 
 Plan of Salisbury Cathedral 
 
 tural principles and an unwearying attention to detail with a 
 unity of expression that makes an English Gothic church or 
 cathedral an ideal reflection of the spirit of the age which 
 witnessed its erection. 
 
 The Cathedrals of Wells, Lincoln, and Salisbury, the choir 
 of Ely Cathedral, and the choir, transepts, and part of the 
 
78 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 cloisters and other details of Westminster Abbey, are typical 
 examples of the Early English phase of Gothic. The first 
 named especially is unrivalled in the symmetry of its general 
 proportions and the richness and appropriateness of its decora- 
 tions. Its western facade rivals that of Amiens Cathedral in 
 the restrained dignity of its general design, the delicacy of its 
 decorative arcading, and the number and variety of its finely 
 sculptured figures. The central tower, though its upper 
 portion belongs to the Decorated period, harmonises well with 
 the rest of the exterior, whilst the interior is truly a poem 
 in stone, with the long perspective of the nave flanked by 
 graceful arches, springing from clustered piers with capitals of 
 exquisitely carved foliage, noble triforia and clerestories, and a 
 simple arched vaulting of intersecting ribs. The transepts, 
 that are of earlier date than the nave, serve as a kind of in- 
 
 Decorated Window 
 
 Decorated 
 Pinnacle 
 
 Decorated 
 Capital 
 
 troduction to it, and in the choir the transition from Early 
 English to Decorated Gothic can be well studied, the western 
 portion dating from the 12th and the eastern from the 13th 
 century. 
 
 Though the exterior of Lincoln Cathedral is of a somewhat 
 hybrid character, the towers and doorways of the west front 
 being Norman, the arcading and decorative sculpture Early 
 English, and the central tower Decorated, the general eftect 
 is grand and impressive. The interior, though not quite so 
 ornate as that of Wells, is almost as beautiful, the great 
 rose windows being specially noteworthy features. The so- 
 called Angel Choir, which has a very fine triforium, is a gem of 
 Early English work, and the three 15th century chapels adjoin- 
 ing it are equally characteristic of Perpendicular Gothic. 
 
 The beautiful Early English choir of Ely Cathedral contrasts 
 forcibly with the noble Norman nave, and the so-called Galilee 
 Porch is one of the finest examples of the first phase of Gothic 
 in the country, but the exterior of the building has been 
 
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN 79 
 
 almost entirely rebuilt, the great central tower, which fell in 
 1322, having been replaced by the present one in the Decorated 
 phase of Gothic. The Early English portions of Westminster 
 Abbey closely resemble the other examples of the style just 
 quoted, though the bays of the choir are not so well propor- 
 tioned as those of Lincoln. Before the 15th century additions 
 to Salisbury Cathedral and the sweeping away of the statues 
 and other sculptures that adorned its west front, it must 
 have been almost as typical as that of Lincoln or of Wells of 
 the Early English style, and it still remains, in its rectangular 
 plan and square eastern termination, a true representative of 
 the ideals of native architects. 
 
 The transepts of York Minster, in one of which is the famous 
 window with lancet -headed lights, known as the Five Sisters, 
 is a good example of the transition from Early English to 
 Decorated Gothic, and the same may be said of portions of the 
 
 Decorited Ball Flower Ornament 
 
 ruins of Hexham Abbey, the Saxon crypt of which has already 
 been referred to, notably of the transepts with windows resem- 
 bling those of York Minster, and of the many relics of the noble 
 monastic buildings of Yorkshire, including those at Ripon, 
 Jervaulx, Rivaulx, and Whitby. The Cathedral of Glasgow is 
 another beautiful building in the first phase of Gothic, the choir, 
 beneath which is a noble crypt of earlier date, being especially 
 fine, and with it must be named the ruins of the great abbey 
 clmrches of Kelso, Jedburgh, and Dryburgh, that have dis- 
 tinctive Norman as well as Early English details. 
 
 The first half of the 14th century was the golden age of 
 English architecture, during which the Decorated gradually 
 grew out of the Early English style, the two being in many 
 cases so completely merged in each other that no break is 
 discernible. The foundations of a truly national style had 
 been laid in the Cathedrals of Wells and of Lincoln, in which 
 originality of design was combined with consummate technical 
 skill of execution, and in the buildings that succeeded them, 
 architect and craftsmen still worked together in complete 
 
80 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 harmony. The wealth of imagination of the latter found 
 its best expression in emphasising the structural lines of the 
 noble conceptions of the former ; niches, with their figures, 
 cusping, finials and crockets, ball flowers and bosses, all be- 
 coming essential details of one harmonious whole. 
 
 The nave and choir of Exeter Cathedral are especially typical 
 of Decorated architecture at its best. They rise from the 
 foundations of an earlier church, of which the Norman towers 
 above the transepts are relics, and are absolutely unsurpassed 
 in the simple dignity of the arcading spanning the clustered 
 piers, the exquisite beauty of the groined roofing, the bosses 
 of which are decorated with delicate carvings of a great variety 
 of subjects, and the fine tracery of the win- 
 dows. Unfortunately the general effect of 
 the exterior, in spite of the fine Norman 
 towers and the beauty of the decorative 
 sculpture of the west front, is inferior to 
 that of the interior, a 15th century porch 
 harmonising ill with the earlier work, whilst 
 the breadth is too great for the height of 
 the building. 
 
 Other good examples of Decorated Gothic 
 are the Church of St. Mary, Oxford, with a 
 very fine spire ; the nave and chapter-house 
 of York Minster, which has a very beautiful 
 window at the western end, the flowing 
 tracing of which is specially distinctive of 
 the style ; the choir of Lichfield Cathedral, 
 which has, however, certain Early English 
 
 Decorated Steeple ^^^^^^^ ' ^.^^ ^Jl^^^ ^^ Carlisle Cathedral with 
 an exceptionally beautiful eastern window or 
 nine lights with elaborate tracery ; the Lady Chapel of Wells 
 Cathedral ; the crypt, all that is left of St. Stephen^s, West- 
 minster, now used as a chapel of the Houses of Parliament, 
 the lantern tower of Ely Cathedral ; the ruins of Tintern 
 and Battle Abbeys, with those of Melrose Abbey, which has 
 also characteristic Perpendicular features. To the same period 
 as these ecclesiastical buildings belong the Round Tower at 
 Windsor, the Hall of the Bishop's Palace at Wells, Conway, 
 Caernarvon, and Chepstow Castles,all recalling Norman domestic 
 architecture in the general massiveness of their structure, that 
 is relieved by the comparative lightness of such details as the 
 doors and windows. 
 
 Unfortunately the second half of the 14th century was 
 marked by a tendency to destroy or obliterate the character- 
 istic details of Early English and Decorated buildings, a 
 
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN 81 
 
 notable example of which is Gloucester Cathedral, the 
 beautiful eastern apse of which was pulled down, whilst the 
 piers and walls of the rest of the building were concealed 
 
 Hammer Beam Roof 
 
 as much as possible, the barbarism being, it must be owned, 
 atoned for to some extent by the addition of a noble eastern 
 window in the Perpendicular style. The nave of Westminster 
 Abbey, on the other hand, begun just after the restoration of 
 Gloucester Cathedral was completed, harmonises well with the 
 earlier choir, and may be quoted, with the choir of York Minster 
 and the naves of Canterbury and Winchester Cathedrals, as 
 examples of the transition from the De- 
 corated to the Perpendicular styles. To the 
 final phase of the latter belong Beverley 
 Minster, the Cathedral of Chester, and the 
 Abbey Church at Bath, the western fa9ades 
 of all of which are very fine, but it was in 
 Henry VII's Chapel, Westminster Abbey, 
 King's College Chapel, Cambridge, and St. 
 George's Chapel, Windsor, with those of 
 Hol3rrood and Roslyn in Scotland, that the 
 style reached its fullest development. That development 
 was, alas, however, all too soon followed by a decadence that was 
 ushered in by an employment of too lavish and often meaning- 
 less ornamentation which had nothing to do with structural 
 necessities. 
 
 Westminster Chapel, in addition to the characteristic fan- 
 tracery roof already referred to, has an exceptionally beautiful 
 chevet with five apsidal chapels, a finely vaulted nave. 
 
 Perpendicular 
 Koofiog 
 
82 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 aisles, and cloisters, in which Decorated and Perpendicular 
 details are harmoniously combined. King's College Chapel, 
 Cambridge, and St. George's, Windsor, are both entirely in the 
 
 Perpendicular Window 
 
 Perpendicular 
 Niche 
 
 Perpendicular style, whilst the Scotch examples quoted above 
 are specially noticeable for the contrast their massive pillars 
 and arcades present to the airy lightness of their vaulting. 
 
 Less important Perpendicular ecclesiastical buildings are 
 the parish churches of Blakeney and Cley in Norfolk, the 
 former with a specially fine east window, the latter unfortu- 
 nately almost in ruins, but notable on account of 
 the beauty of the decorative carving ; the parish 
 church of Fairford, Gloucestershire, the stained 
 glass windows of which are amongst the finest 
 in England ; and Christ Church College, Oxford, 
 in which town, by the way, Gothic traditions 
 lingered longer than anywhere else in England. 
 Notable secular buildings in the latest phase of 
 English Gothic are Westminster Hall, and the 
 earlier portions of Hampton Court Palace, 
 whilst Longleat Palace, Wiltshire, and Christ Church Hall, 
 Oxford, with a fine open timber roof, are good examples of 
 the transition from the Gothic to the Renaissance styles, the 
 general plans belonging to the former and the decorative 
 details being Italian in feeling. 
 
 Corbel 
 
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE 83 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE 
 
 The term Renaissance, signifying revival, has been given to the 
 style which succeeded the Gothic. It was, to a great extent, 
 a reversion to classic ideals modified to suit modern require- 
 ments. Its leading characteristics are simplicity of plan, 
 symmetry of proportion, and massive grandeur of general 
 effect, a minor peculiarity being the lavish use of plaster, not 
 only for surface decoration, but also in some cases for the 
 actual structure of such details as cornices, &c. 
 
 The Renaissance style was inaugurated in Italy, where, as 
 already stated, the Gothic never took root, and spread thence 
 to the other countries of Europe, assuming in each country a 
 certain distinctive character of its own in harmony with its 
 
 Example of Renaissance Oraament 
 
 environment. In Italian Renaissance ecclesiastical architec- 
 ture the old basilican plan was revived, the dome became again, 
 as in ancient Rome, the crowning glory of the building, and 
 was combined with horizontal entablatures upheld by columns, 
 with capitals of one or another of the Greek orders, and 
 porticoes with pediments. In secular Italian Renaissance 
 a very notable feature is the central cortile or courtyard 
 surrounded by open arcades, above which are the principal 
 apartments, of style corresponding with that of the arcades, 
 the round-headed windows being divided from each other 
 by slender pilasters, and the spandrels above them filled 
 in with sculptured ornamentation. The principal facade of 
 Italian palaces was especially ornate, richly decorated courses 
 
84 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 of stone dividing the stories from each other, in which the 
 fenestration or grouping of the windows was peculiarly effec- 
 tive. 
 
 Whereas in the history of mediaeval architecture few names 
 emerge from the obscurity in which those who planned and 
 erected the great cathedrals, churches, and castles were content 
 to remain, in that of Renaissance the individual architect 
 comes to the front, all the designing having been done by 
 him and the whole work carried on under his personal super- 
 intendence. In the new movement Florence took the lead, 
 owing the pre-eminence she quickly won to the gifted and 
 versatile Filippo Brunelleschi, who, like so many of his famous 
 contemporaries, was a skilled goldsmith and sculptor before he 
 became an architect. His first work of importance was the 
 dome he added to the unfinished cathedral of his native city, 
 which was soon succeeded by the Churches of S. Spirito and 
 S. Lorenzo, both of which are typical Renaissance buildings, as 
 is also the Puzzi Chapel, on which the architect displayed his 
 wonderful sense of symmentry, combining domes, arches, and 
 lintels with consummate skill. 
 
 Fine examples of Renaissance secular architecture in Florence 
 are the Riccardi and Pitti Palaces, both designed by Brunel- 
 leschi, but considerably modified after his death, the Rucellai 
 Palace by Alberti, a worthy successor of Brunelleschi, the 
 Guadagni Palace, designed by Bramante, and the Pandolfini, 
 designed by Raphael, the last very characteristic of the mature 
 phase of Italian Renaissance. 
 
 It was in Rome that the style reached its noblest develop- 
 ment, and the Cathedral of S. Peter^s, on which all the greatest 
 architects of the 16th and 17th centuries were successively 
 employed, afi'ords a unique opportunity for its study. Built 
 on the site of the old basilica of S. Peter, alluded to in the 
 section on Early Christian architecture, what was to become 
 the largest church in the world was begun by Bramante in 
 1506. His plan, that of a square with four projecting apses, to 
 be covered in with a central and four supplementary domes, 
 was followed until his death in 1514, when the work was 
 carried on by Giuliano da San Gallo, Fra Giacondo and 
 Raphael, who were in favour of certain modifications of the 
 original design, that if carried out would have converted the 
 square into a Latin cross. The withdrawal of San Gallo, and 
 the deaths of Giacondo and Raphael in 1515, led to Baldasarre 
 Peruzzi being appointed architect, and under his auspices the 
 plan was changed to that of a Greek cross. Before his death 
 in 1536 the present south transept and the vaulting, that was 
 to encircle the central dome were finished, and the massive pen- 
 
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE 85 
 
 dentives that were to uphold the latter were be^un. The next 
 architect to take up the vast scheme was Antonio da San Gallo, 
 who, could he have obtained the necessary funds, would have 
 added a lon^^ pronaos or corridor of approach, to be entered from 
 a domed porch at the western end. In his model the interior 
 of the central portion of the cathedral, with the notable excep- 
 tion of the dome, appears much as it does now, so that with its 
 aid a good idea can be obtained of the state of the buildingj 
 when, in 1546, Michael Angelo was appointed architect in chief, 
 
 Facade of a Venetian Palace 
 
 and set tha seal of his genius upon a complex creation which 
 was already a reflection of the highest constructive and aesthetic 
 achievement of the golden age of Italian architecture. Reve- 
 rencing the noble design of Bramante, Michael Angelo left the 
 interior, of which the symmetry of plan and beauty of the 
 many pilasters with their Corinthian capitals are notable char- 
 acteristics, much as he found it, but though he introduced 
 on the exterior Corinthian pilasters resembling those of the 
 interior, he greatly modified the general aspect of the former 
 by the removal of the projecting chapels and the aisles round 
 
86 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 the apses. It was in his design for the dome that Michael 
 Angelo achieved his greatest architectural triumph, for without 
 tampering at all with what had already been done by Bramante, 
 he set upon the cylindrical drum that artist had intended 
 to uphold a dome, which was to be a mere reproduction of that 
 of the Pantheon, a magnificient structure of original design 
 which dominates the capital, producing an absolutely unrivalled 
 impression of combined strength, vastness, and symmetry, 
 the eye being irresistibly led up from drum to dome and 
 from dome to lantern. From within the cathedral the eiBfect 
 is scarcely less grand, a wonderful sense, of space being conveyed 
 by the soaring vault, that seems to spring heavenwards of 
 its own volition. 
 
 Michael Angelo died before his masterpiece was completed, 
 but so far as the dome was concerned his design was carried 
 out, with certain slight modifications, by Giacomo della Porta 
 and Domenico Fontana. Unfortunately, however, the rest of 
 the great architect's scheme was departed from and its eff'ec- 
 tiveness destroyed by additions which he would most certainly 
 have condemned. At the suggestion of Pope Pius IV the 
 fa9ade built under Michael Angelo was pulled down and re- 
 placed by Maderno with that still m sihi^ whilst the nave was 
 lengthened out of all proportion to the rest of the building. 
 
 In spite of this lamentable mistake, the general effect of the 
 interior is remarkably fine, and is greatly enhanced by the rich 
 colouring of the lavish decoration of every portion, the massive 
 piers and vast arches spanning them, and the vaulted coff*ered 
 ceilings, all harmonising with and supplementing each other. 
 Moreover, the unhappy result of the substitution of Maderno's 
 for Michael Angelo's fa9ade was to some extent neutralised 
 in 1666 by the erection under Bernini of the lofty colonnade 
 encircling the piazza of S. Peter in the simple and dignified 
 Doric style, that forms an appropriate approach to the cathe- 
 dral. 
 
 In the Renaissance palaces of Rome classic details were 
 more closely copied than in Florence, pilasters and arcades 
 forming, in almost every case, the chief decorations of the ex- 
 teriors. Notable examples are the so-called Venetian Palaces, 
 the Cancellaria designed by Bramante, the Sacchetti by 
 Antonio San Gallo, and, above all, the Farnese, the grandest 
 in the capital, begun by San Gallo and completed by Michael 
 Angelo, with portions of the Vatican, including the Hall of the 
 Belvedere, designed by Bramante. 
 
 In Venice, where the Renaissance style was necessarily modi- 
 fied by the peculiar conditions of the lagoon city, good ex- 
 amples of it are the Churches S. Maria dei Miracoli, S. Zaccaria, 
 
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE 87 
 
 and S. Maria dtlla Salute, with the palaces of Vendramini, 
 Calergo, Trevisano, and Cornaro, all, however, excelled by the 
 beautiful Palazzo Grimani designed by San Michele and the 
 Library of S. Mark of Sansovino. 
 
 At Vicenza the famous architect Palladio erected many 
 noble Renaissance churches, including the Redentore, enclosed 
 the ancient Basilica in grand classic arcades, and designed a 
 great number of fine palaces. In Milan the finest Renaissance 
 structures are the sacristy of S. Maria Presso S. Sabino, the 
 apse of S. Maria della Grazie and the arcaded court of the great 
 Hospital, all designed by Bramante. Near Pavia is the fine 
 Certosa, the fa9ade of which is the work of Ambrogio Bor- 
 gognoni ; » Genoa is rich in effective groups of Renaissance 
 palaces after the designs of Alessio, and owns a late Renaissance 
 church ascribed to Puget, and at Verona is the typical Palazzo 
 del Conseglio, built by Fra Giocondo. 
 
 It was not until the beginning of the 16th century that the 
 Renaissance style gained a footing in France, and even for 
 some time after that French architects, whilst adopting its 
 main features, clung to certain characteristic Gothic details. 
 This is very notably the case in some of the royal chateaux 
 on the Loire, justly considered the finest secular Renaissance 
 buildings in the country, especially in that of Chambord, which, 
 with a typical Renaissance fa9ade, has a highly pitched roof 
 with soaring pinnacles and pointed-headed dormer windows. 
 
 Other fine Early Renaissance French buildings are the wing 
 added by Frances I to the old castle of Blois, famous for its 
 beautiful external spiral staircase, the chateaux of Chenonceaux, 
 Chateaudun, and Azaz-le-Rideau, the Hotel de Ville at Beau- 
 gency, the Church of S. Eustache, the Hotel des Invalides, 
 the western portion of the Louvre, and the Luxembourg, all 
 in Paris. To the latest phase of what eventually became 
 almost a national style, belong the Pantheon, the Palais Royal, 
 the College and Church of the Sorbonne, all in Paris ; the relics 
 of the noble Chateau built for Richelieu on the site of the 
 great minister's native village by Lemercier, the Chateau of 
 Ballery in Normandy, the additions to the castle of Blois, the 
 Chateau des Maisons near, and the Church of Val de Grace in 
 Paris, all by Francois Mansard, whose name is associated with 
 a picturesque form of roof invented by him. 
 
 In the chateau of Versailles, designed by Jules Mansard, a 
 distant connection of the greater Fran9ois, the first note of 
 the decadence of the Renaissance style was sounded, for well- 
 built and richly decorated though it is, the huge structure is 
 lacking in the dignified grandeur, so distinctive of the buildings 
 enumerated above. 
 
88 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 Although it was in Italy and France that European Re- 
 naissance architecture achieved its greatest triumphs, some 
 few fine examples of it remain in other countries, including in 
 Spain the great Monastery and Palace of the Escurial near 
 Madrid, the central church of which is especially fine, the 
 Cathedrals of Burgos, Malaga, and Granada, the town halls of 
 Saragossa and Seville, and portions of the Alcazar of Toledo, 
 the convent of Mafra in Portugal, the Town Hall of Antwerp, 
 the Council Halls of Leipzig and Rothenburg, the Cloth Hall 
 of Brunswick, the Castle of Schallenburg, and the Hall of 
 the Belvedere at Prague. 
 
 It is unnecessary to refer in detail to the many buildings in 
 Europe in what is known as the Rococo style, of which grotesque 
 and meaningless ornamentation is the chief characteristic, but 
 it must be added that in the early 19th century something like 
 a new classic revival took place on the Continent. The Church 
 of La Madeleine and the Opera House in Paris, the Arco della 
 Pace at Milan, the Royal Theatre at Berlin, the Glyptothex 
 and Pinacothex of Munich, the Walhalla at Ratisbon, the 
 Museum of Dresden, and the Church of S. Isaac at St. Peters- 
 burg being notable instances of the skilful way in which Greek 
 details of structure were combined by the best architects with 
 modern requirements. 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 It was only by very slow degrees that the Renaissance style 
 was introduced into England, native architects and those for 
 whom they worked having clung with almost pathetic devotion 
 to the traditions of the past. At the end of the 15th century 
 the Gothic style was still in full vigour on this side of the 
 Channel, and although early in the 16th century it was to a 
 great extent modified by the influence of the foreign artists 
 who were attracted to the court of Henry VIII by the lavish 
 patronage of the young monarch, it continued to the end of 
 the century to check the development of pure Renaissance, 
 the two styles to a great extent neutralising each other. 
 
 It is significant of the change of the attitude of rulers and 
 ruled towards religion that took place in England during the 
 16th and 17th centuries, that it was no longer in churches and 
 cathedrals that architecture achieved its greatest triumphs, 
 but in palaces, manor-houses, colleges, and places of public 
 
RENAISSANCE IN GREAT BRITAIN 89 
 
 entertainment. No longer was the soaring Gothic style to 
 voice in stone the aspirations of worshippers for closer inter- 
 course with the divine ; the best energies of architects were 
 henceforth to be directed to the promotion of comfort and luxury 
 in private life, and for the realisation of this comparatively 
 ignoble aim the revived classic style was peculiarly adapted. 
 True, the spirit of the Renaissance did not display itself so 
 fully in architecture as in other branches of human endeavour, 
 
 Portion of Lilford Hall, Northants 
 
 but for all that its working was very apparent, assuming a 
 certain character of its own in England. 
 
 First Italians, amongst whom the most distinguished were 
 Torregiano, designer of the tomb of Henry VII in West- 
 minster Abbey, Giovanni da Majano, and Giovanni da Padua, 
 the architect of Longleat in Wiltshire, then Flemings and 
 Germans, none of -vjrhom, however, except John of Cleves, 
 designer of Caius College, Cambridge, rose to any special 
 eminence, endeavoured to graft their own upon English 
 methods, succeeding with rare exceptions only so far as the 
 minor details of ornamentation were concerned. 
 
90 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 It is not to these men of alien birth but to the builders and 
 masons of rural England that the country owes the many noble 
 residences, dating from the late 16th and early 17th centuries, 
 that, Gothic so far as their principles of construction are con- 
 cerned, are enriched or spoiled, according to the point of view 
 from which they are considered, by Renaissance ornamentation. 
 Amongst these builders Thomas Holt, author of the Divinity 
 School of Oxford, and Robert Smithson and John Thorpe, joint 
 designers of Wollaton Hall, Northamptonshire, were especially 
 distinguished. To the last named many critics also attribute 
 Holland House, London, Rushton, Kirkby and Apethorpe Halls 
 in Northamptonshire, and Knowle House in Kent, all of which 
 are truly typical examples of English 16th or early 17th 
 domestic or academic architecture at its best. To about the 
 same period belong Lilford Hall, Northants, Westwood, Bol- 
 sover, Charlton, and Hatfield Houses, all somewhat wanting in 
 the dignified simplicity of plan of the work of the men quoted 
 above, but with an undoubted charm of their own. 
 
 The master-builders who alike designed and executed the 
 many beautiful mansions and colleges of the Elizabethan age 
 — with whom must be associated the later John Abel, designer 
 of several fine market-halls, including those of Kingston, Here- 
 ford, and Leominster — may justly be said to have paved the way 
 for Inigo Jones, the first Englishman to introduce pure Re- 
 naissance architecture into his native land. Already before his 
 advent these humble predecessors had partly evolved, out of the 
 mediaeval castle and the mediaeval cottage, what was to become 
 the typical English home, bringing about something like a re- 
 volution in planning by the innovations introduced by them 
 with a view to admitting more air and light, and rendering 
 access to the upper floors easier by the substitution of an in- 
 ternal staircase, for the external flight of steps leading up to 
 each separate room hitherto the fashion. 
 
 Gifted with a vivid imagination and a rare faculty of design, 
 Inigo Jones succeeded in so adapting Italian ideals, especially 
 those of Palladio, to English needs, that he may justly be said 
 to have founded something approaching to a national style. 
 Unfortunately few of the many schemes evolved by him were 
 carried out in their entirety, but his plans and drawings prove 
 him to have been the equal and, in some respects, even the 
 superior of his great successor. Sir Christopher Wren. Of his 
 grand design for the* new Palace of Whitehall after the fire of 
 1619, the Banqueting Hall, considered his masterpiece, alone 
 was completed, but he was the real architect of the equally 
 successful Greenwich Hospital, for it was his plan that was 
 followed after his death by Wren, 
 
RENAISSANCE IN GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 91 
 
 Although it is the custom to dwell much on the unique 
 opportunity afforded to Sir Christopher Wren by the great fire 
 of 1666, there is no doubt that even without it he would have 
 set his seal on the period during which he lived. His additions to 
 Hampton Court Palace are most dignified and appropriate, his 
 semi-Gothic Tom Tower at Oxford well illustrates his keen 
 sense of environment, and his design for a Royal Palace at 
 Winchester, had it been carried out, would have given to that 
 city a building worthy to rank with its cathedral. As it is, his 
 
 Portion of Greenwich Hospital 
 
 fame rests chiefly on his work in London, although the masterly 
 scheme he drew up for the rebuilding of the whole town had 
 to be considerably modified. 
 
 S. Paul's Cathedral, that dominates the vast agglomeration 
 making up the modern capital, reflects, in its solemn and digni- 
 fied beauty, almost as clearly as did a mediaeval ecclesiastical 
 Gothic edifice, the spirit of its age, during which the Puritan 
 replaced the Roman Catholic ideal, and a rigid Protestantism 
 became the religion of the people. Of noble and most har- 
 monious proportions, S. Paul's is cruciform in plan, every 
 portion of its exterior and interior subordinated to the great 
 central dome, that, consisting as it does of an outer and inner 
 vault, is equally impressive whether seen from within or from 
 without. From whatever point of view, the dome, with its 
 graceful lantern surmounted by a cross, remains the central 
 feature of a structure at unity with itself, consistent in every 
 
92 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 detail, the western towers and the great central portico with 
 their appropriate classic pilasters and columns all being in 
 complete and satisfying accord. 
 
 The Churches of S. Stephen, Walbrook, S. Andrew, Holborn, 
 S. James, Piccadilly, S. Clements Danes, S. Bride's, Fleet Street, 
 and Bow are amongst the finest designed by Wren. The 
 steeples of the last three are especially noteworthy as the 
 earliest examples in England of the use of that feature in 
 Renaissance buildings. 
 
 Sir Christopher did not pass away until the 18th century, 
 which was to witness a rapid decline of architecture in 
 England. His imiuence had begun to wane even before 
 his death, and few of his immediate successors, with the 
 exceptions of his pupils, Nicholas Hawkesmoor, architect of 
 S. George's, Bloomsbury, and other London churches of similar 
 design, and Sir John Vanburgh, who designed Castle Howard 
 and Blenheim Palace, rose to eminence. James Gibbs, designer 
 of the RatclifFe Library at Oxford, also did some good work ; the 
 brothers Adam successfully imitated classic forms in certain 
 London and Edinburgh buildings, and Sir Robert Taylor won 
 some distinction by the Halls erected by him in Herefordshire 
 and Essex. 
 
 Towards the close of the century a classic revival inaugurated 
 by Sir William Chambers, designer of Somerset House, took 
 place in England, and it became the fashion to add a Greek 
 portico to every important public or private building. Typical 
 examples of the new departure are S. Pancras Church, London, 
 that is a kind of compilation from the Parthenon, the Erec- 
 theum, and the Temple of the Winds at Athens, and S. George's 
 Hall, Liverpool, a skilful adaptation of the design of a hall 
 of one of the great Thermae of Rome. 
 
 Early in the 19th century a reaction took place against the 
 classic style, which was not really adapted to the English 
 climate, and architects began to show a desire to revert to 
 Gothic traditions. In this new movement Sir Charles Barry 
 took the lead. The Houses of Parliament, in the latest phase of 
 the style, considered his masterpiece, is specially successful in 
 its general plan arid in the picturesqueness of its exterior. 
 With Sir Charles Barry must be associated Augustine Pugin, 
 a man of fine genius and originality, with a genuine feeling for 
 mediaeval Gothic, Norman Shaw, and Bodley, all of whom have 
 done much to leaven the utilitarian tendencies of modern 
 times. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Alhambra, the, 42 
 Amiens Cathedral, 65 
 Amphitheatres, Roman, 28 
 Anglo-Norman style, 54 
 Anglo-Saxon style, 53 
 Arch, vi 
 
 Arches, Roman, 30 
 Architecture, definition of, v 
 Asiatic architecture, 9 
 Assyrian architecture, 9 
 
 Babylonian architecture, 9 
 
 Baptisteries, 35 
 
 Basilicas, Roman, 26 
 
 Baths, Roman, 27 
 
 Buddhist architecture, 12 , 
 
 Buvards, v 
 
 Byzantine architecture, 24, 3(3 
 
 Caryatid Porch, 21 
 Castles, Norman, 59 
 Cathedrals. See Churches 
 Chaityas, 11 
 Chartres Cathedral, 64 
 Chinese architecture, 13 
 Christian architecture, Early, 31 
 Churches, Anglo-Norman, 54 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, 53 
 
 Byzantine, 37 
 
 Early Christian, 31 
 
 Gothic, 62, 68, 76 
 
 Renaissance, 84 
 
 Romanesque, 47 
 Coliseum, 29 
 Cologne Cathedral, 70 
 Coptic architecture, 35 
 Corinthian style, 16, 18, 21 
 
 Doric style, 16, 18-21 
 Durham Cathedral, 58 
 
 Egyptian architecture, 7 
 Etruscan architecture, 22 
 
 Flamboyant Gothic style, 62, 65, 
 67 
 
 Gothic style, 50, 60 
 
 British, 72 
 
 Decorated, 73, 74. 78. 79, 80 
 
 Early English, 73, 78. 79 
 
 French, 62 
 
 German, 70 
 
 Italian, 69 
 
 Perpendicular, 73, 75, 80, 81 
 
 Spanish, 68 
 Greek architecture, 13 
 
 Hindu architecture, 12 
 
 Indian architecture, 11 
 Ionic style, 16, 18, 21 
 
 Jones, Inigo, 90 
 
 Keystone, vi 
 
 Lats, U 
 Lintel, vi 
 
 Mansions, English Renaissance, 90 
 Mastabas, 7, 10 
 Materials employed, v, 9, 23 
 Mosques, 40 
 
 Nineveh, 10 
 Norman style, 54 
 Notre Dame of Paris, 63 
 
 Palaces, Greek, 14 
 Persian, 10 
 
 98 
 
94 INDEX 
 
 Palaces, B€naiesancO,>86 
 Roman, 2i)' ' ' 
 
 Pantheon, 26 
 Parthenon, 19 
 Persian architecture, 9, 10 
 Peruvian architecture, 13 
 Pyramids, 7 
 
 Rayonnant Gothic style, 62, 67 
 Renaissance style British, 88 
 
 European, 83 
 
 French, 87 
 
 Italian, 83 
 Rococo style, 88 
 Roman architecture , 22 
 Romanesque style, 45 
 Roofing, arcuated and trabeated, vi 
 
 S. Ambrogio, Milan, 48 
 
 S. Marco, Venice, 39 
 
 S. Paul's Cathedral, 91 
 
 S. Peter's Cathedral, Rome, 84 
 
 S. Sophia, Constantinople, 38 
 
 Saracenic architecture, 40 
 
 Stambhas, 11 
 Stupifes, 11 
 
 Taj Mahal, 44 
 Temples, Babylonian, 10 
 
 Egyptian, 8 
 
 Greek, 15, 18 
 
 Indian, 11 
 Tombs, Egyptian, 7 
 
 Greek, 21 
 
 Persian, 10 
 Topes, 11 
 Tudor style, 73, 76 
 Tuscan style, 24 
 
 Vaulting, Gothic, 61 
 
 Roman, 24 
 
 Romanesque, 45 
 Viharas, 11 
 Voussoirs, vi 
 
 Westminster Abbey, 76, 78, 81 
 Wren, Sir Christopher, 90 
 
 12^3 
 
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 69. Eucken: A Philosophy of Life . . By A. J. Jones, M.A., B.Sc, Ph.D. 
 
 ^°' "^^^BSLuty"""^"**^. ^'?''=^°^°^^. °^ }ByC.W. Valentine. B. A., D.Phil. 
 
 71. The Problem of Truth .* .* ! '. By H. Wildon Carr, Litt.D. 
 
 72. The Church of Engrland . , . By Rev. Canon Masterman. 
 
 74. The Free Churches .... By Rev. Edward Shillito, M.A. 
 
 75. Judaism By Ephraim Levine, M.A. 
 
 76. Theosophy By Annie Besant. 
 
 78. Wellington and Waterloo . . .By Major G. W. Red way. 
 
 79. Mediaeval Socialism . . By Bede Jarrett, O.P., M.A. 
 
 80. Syndicalism By J. H. Harley, M.A. 
 
 82. Co-operation By Joseph Clayton. 
 
 83. Insurance as a Means of Investment By W. A. Robertson, F.F.A. 
 85. A History of English Literature . F5y A. Compton-Rickett, LL.D. 
 
 87. Charles Lamb By Flora Masson. 
 
 88. Goethe By Prof. C. H. Herford, Litt.D. 
 
 92. The Training of the Child . . . By G. Spiller. 
 
 93. Tennyson By Aaron Watson. 
 
 94. The Nature of Mathematics . . By P. E. B. Jourdain, M.A. 
 
 95. Applications of Electricity . . .By Alex. Ogilvie, B.Sc. 
 
 96. Gardening . . ... By A. Cecil Bartlett. 
 
 98. Atlas of the World . . ; . By J. Bartholomew, F.R.G.S. 
 
 101. Luther and the Reformation . . By Leonard D. Agate, M.A. 
 
 X03. Turkey and the Eastern Question . By John Macdonald, M.A. 
 
 104. Architecture By Mrs. Arthur Bell. 
 
 105. Trade Unions By Joseph Clayton. 
 
 106. Everyday Law By J. J. Adams. 
 
 108. Shelley By Sydney Waterlow, M.A. 
 
 110. British Birds By F. B. Kirkman, B.A. 
 
 111. Spiritualism By J. Arthur Hill. 
 
 112. Kindergarten Teaching at Home ^ { ^ p^XluJ^or °^ '^^ ^^'"''"^^ 
 
 113. Schopenhauer. ... . By Margrieta Beer, M.A. 
 
 114. The Stock Exchange . . . By J. F. Wheeler. 
 
 115. Coleridge .... ^ ^ - ^ 
 
 116. The Crusades .... 
 
 117. Wild Flowers .... 
 X18. Principles of Logic 
 119. The Foundations of Religion 
 X20. History of Rome . 
 X3X. Land, Industry, and Taxation 
 
 By S. L. Bensusan. 
 By M. M. C. Calthrop. 
 By Macgregor Skene, B.Sc. 
 By Stanley Williams, B.A. 
 By Stanley A. Cook, M.A. 
 By A. F. Giles, M.A. 
 By Frederick Verinder. 
 
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