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A COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR 
 
 &C. &C. 
 
A COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR 
 
 OF 
 
 SANSKRIT, GREEK, AND LATIN. 
 
 BT 
 
 WILLIAM HUGH FERRAR, M.A., 
 
 FELLOW AND TUTOE OF TEINITY COLLEGE, DFBLIIT, 
 
 IN TWO VOLUMES. 
 
 trJ^ii^\ 
 
 VOL I. /C^'^z::^^^ 
 
 Library. 
 
 LONDON: ^^^J^^^^^Olif^- 
 LONGMANS, GEEEN, EEADEE, AND DYEE. 
 
 DUBLIN : WILLIAM M^GEE, 18, NASSAU-STREET. 
 1869. 
 
DUBLIN : 
 
 hmitb at tl^e Wnikmtg ^xm, 
 
 BY M. H. GILL. 
 

 PREFACE. 
 
 Most of those writers on Philology to whose works I 
 am indebted are mentioned either in the text or notes 
 of this book, and I have here only to express my 
 especial obligations to the writings of Bopp, Schleicher, 
 Corssen, Curtius, and Biicheler, and to several valu- 
 able essays in Kuhn's Zeitschrift by Ebel, Grassmann, 
 Dietrich, Walter, and others. 
 
 I have also to thank Dr. C. Lottner, Professor of 
 Sanskrit in the University of Dublin, for helping me 
 in the revision of the proof-sheets, and for many 
 valuable suggestions supplied during the progress of 
 the work. 
 
 The abbreviations occurring in the text do not 
 require much explanation, and the following only re- 
 quire to be noticed : — 
 
 A. S., . 
 
 . Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Gr., . . 
 
 . . Greek. 
 
 Ch. SI., . 
 
 . Church- Slavonic. 
 
 Ir., . . 
 
 . . Irish. 
 
 E., ... 
 
 . English. 
 
 It., . . 
 
 . . Italian. 
 
 Fr., . . . 
 
 . French. 
 
 I. E., . 
 
 . . Indo-European 
 
 G., ... 
 
 . German. 
 
 Kel., . 
 
 . . Keltic. 
 
 0. H. G., 
 
 . Old High German. 
 
 L., . . . 
 
 . . Latin. 
 
 Goth., . . 
 
 . Gothic. 
 
 0. L., . 
 
 . . Old Latin. 
 
THK PREFACE. 
 
 Lith., . . 
 
 0. N., . . 
 
 0.,. . . . 
 
 0. 0., . , 
 0. P., . 
 0. S., . 
 
 Skr., . . , 
 
 Lithuanian. 
 Old Norse. 
 Oscan. 
 Old Oscan. 
 Old Prussian. 
 Old Saxon. 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Sp, . 
 U., . . 
 
 0. u., 
 
 Wall., 
 W., . 
 Z., . . 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 TJmhrian. 
 
 Old TJmbrian. 
 
 Wallachian. 
 
 Welsh. 
 
 Zend. 
 
 Sanskrit and Zend nouns are generally given in 
 their crude forms, except when the case-ending is 
 separated by a hyphen from the stem, or when the 
 sign of equahty is added, as in Skr. as'vas = L. equus, 
 Curtius Essay " Zur Chronologic der Indo-German- 
 ischen Sprachforschung," appears in the fifth volume, 
 " der Abhandlungen der Philologisch-historischen 
 Classe der Konigl. Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wis- 
 senchaften." 
 
 I refer to the second series of Max Miiller's Lec- 
 tures on the Science of Language, as Max Miiller, 
 Yol. II. K. Z. stands for Kuhn's " Zeitschrift fiir. ver- 
 gleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete desDeut- 
 schen, Griechischen und Lateinischen." 
 
 I have been delayed in the publication of this 
 book for more than a year through a severe attack of 
 illness. 
 
 The Second Volume of this Work will, I hope, be 
 ready for publication in January, 1872. 
 
 WILLIAM HUGH FERRAK. 
 
 33, Trinity College, Dublin, 
 September 1, 1869. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 rage. 
 
 Chapter I. The General Alphabet, 1 
 
 Chapter II. The Indo-European Language, 19 
 
 Chapter III. Grimm's Law, 26 
 
 Chapter IV. The Sanskrit Alphabet, 39 
 
 Chapter V. The Greek Alphabet, 65 
 
 Chapter VI. The Latin Alphabet, 102 
 
 Chapter VIL Roots and Stems, 178 
 
 Chapter VIII. Substantives, 199 
 
 Chapter IX. Adjectives, 299 
 
 Chapter X. Numerals, 306 
 
 Chapter XI. Pronouns, 315 
 
 Appendix. The Cerebrals, 335 
 
 Addenda et Corrigenda. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Sin 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The General Alphabet.* 
 
 §. 1. The physiology of the human voice is the true basis upon 
 which all inquiries into the origin of language and the mu- 
 tual connexion of languages should be built. 
 
 §. 2. All that the human ear is sensible of may be divided 
 into noises and sounds. Examples of the former are the howl- 
 ing of the wind, and the splashing of water. Sounds, on the 
 other hand, are produced by musical instruments or the human 
 voice. Noises are caused by rapidly changing and irregular 
 impulses communicated to the air ; sounds, by its periodic vi- 
 brations. The human voice, which is only a stream of air, 
 emitted from the lungs, becomes sound by the vibration of 
 the vocal chords, which thus put the air passing through them 
 into a state of vibration. 
 
 §. 3. An exact description of the vocal organs is not part 
 of my present plan. For such a description I refer the reader 
 
 * For further information on this subject the following works may be 
 consulted : — " Essentials of Phonetics," by Ellis ; Max Miiller's " Survey of 
 Languages," also his "Lectures on the Science of Language," Second 
 Series 5 Lepsius' "Standard Alphabet;" " Grundziige der Physiologie 
 und Systematik der Sprachlaute," by Briicke ; "die Lehre von den To- 
 nempfxndungen," by Helniholtz ; also various articles, by Ebel and others, 
 in Kuhn's Zeitscbrift. 
 
 B 
 
2 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 to any good book on anatomy ; merely adding here, that the 
 vocal organs may be said to consist of the lungs^ which by 
 being dilated or compressed act like a pair of bellows, the 
 windpipe^ the larynx^ and the upper cavities of the pharynx, 
 mouthy and nose. The larynx, the true organ of voice, is 
 placed at the upper part of the windpipe. It is narrow and 
 cylindrical below, but broad above, where it presents the form 
 of a triangular box. Its cavity is traversed by an elastic 
 membrane, which is divided into two parts, called the vocal 
 chords, by a narrow fissure called the rima glottidis. When 
 sound is produced, the vocal chords almost touch, and their 
 edges at the same time vibrate, rapidly for high, and slowly 
 for low notes. We see, then, that the vocal organs form a 
 wind instrument, in which the vibrating apparatus consists of 
 the vocal chords. 
 
 §. 4. In the impression made by a sound on the ear three 
 things can be distinguished — loudness, pitch, and quality. The 
 loudness depends on the amplitude of the oscillations of the 
 vibrating body. The pitch depends on the duration of these 
 oscillations. Now, notes of the same loudness and the same 
 pitch can be produced by different musical instruments, and 
 also by the human voice. The same note, however, of the 
 violin differs from that of the trumpet, and that from the same 
 note of the voice, and so on. This difference had already 
 been supposed to depend solely on the form of the vibrations 
 of the air, as it could not depend on either their amplitude or 
 duration. This has now been proved directly by Helmholtz. 
 The quality, therefore, is due solely to the form of the vibra- 
 tions of the air. 
 
 §. 5. The Elements of Language. 
 
 The phonetic elements {(rroLxua) are threefold — vowels 
 (0cuvr;£yTa), breathings, and consonants {avfjL<pu)va). The con- 
 sonants are divided, according to their duration, into mutes and 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 3 
 
 semivowels, these latter including liquids (vypa), nasals, and 
 sibilants (flatus) ; according to their hardness, into surds (sharp, 
 stosslaute, tenues, \pi\a, Skr. aghosha, vivaras'vasaghosha), and 
 sonants (blunt, drucklaute, mediae, juicra, Skr. goshavant, sam- 
 varanadaghosha) ; and according to their aspiration into aspi- 
 rated (EacFea, Skr. mahaprana) and unaspirated (Skr. alpapra- 
 na). In Sanskrit the term ushman is also applied to the sibi- 
 lants and /i, spars a to the mutes and nasals, and antahsthd to 
 2/, r, Z, v, as intermediate between the former and the latter. 
 
 The mediae differ from the tenues in this, that in the former 
 the glottis is somewhat narrowed to enable it to sound. 
 
 The mediae were so called because they were pronounced 
 by the Alexandrian grammarians with more aspiration than 
 the tenues, and with less than the aspirates. To us, however, 
 and most probably to the Greeks of the classical period, g is as 
 little aspirated as k. 
 
 The term consonant means " sounding along with," and, as 
 Ellis writes, '* is said to be given to these letters because they 
 have no sound of their own, but sound* with vowels." If, 
 however, we consider 5, /, r, &c., to be consonants, all conso- 
 nants do not require the aid of a vowel to enable us to pro- 
 nounce them ; for we can pronounce the nasals, liquids, and 
 sibilants without the help of any vowel. The Sanskrit name 
 for a consonant is vyang'ana (Sav. 5 : 25), from vyang\ to make 
 clear. 
 
 The Arabic grammarians call a vowel, motion, and a con- 
 sonant, a harrier, because in forming vowels the voice is not 
 interrupted, but only modified by the position of the tongue 
 and lips, whereas in forming consonants the voice is stopped 
 at certain fixed positions. Briicke, on the other hand, con- 
 siders the vowel-signs to be properly marks of rest, and 
 the consonantal signs to be marks of motion, because the 
 
 * Ellis remarks (p. 57), that this definition reads very hke a bull. 
 
 b2 
 
4 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 latter signifies both the closing of the barrier and the opening 
 of it. 
 
 The consonantal signs were originally marks for syllables, 
 as the Devanagari and Semitic alphabets prove. 
 
 §. 6. The Vowels. 
 
 Vowels are composed of vocalized breath. The difference 
 between the various vowels is due to the form of the vibra- 
 tions of the air emitted from the lungs, which vibrations de- 
 pend upon the form of the buccal tubes.* 
 
 The three primary vowels are A, 7, and U, pronounced as 
 in German or Italian. 
 
 In forming A the mouth assumes a position gradually wi- 
 dening itself from the guttural point, like a funnel. The lips 
 are in this position wide, and the tongue lies flat in the 
 mouth. 
 
 U is formed by rounding the lips, so as to leave the open- 
 ing between them as narrow as possible, and by drawing down 
 the tongue, so that the cavity of the mouth is enlarged as 
 much as possible. The mouth in this position is like a bottle 
 without a neck. 
 
 / is formed by narrowing the lips and raising the tongue 
 towards the hard palate. Thus a bottle with a narrow neck 
 is formed, the body of which is in the throat, while the neck 
 lies between the hard palate and the upper surface of the 
 tongue. The length of this neck, according to Helmholtz, is 
 six centimetres. 
 
 All the other vowels are formed between these three pri- 
 
 * " In der That sind die Vocale der menschlichen Stimme Tone mem- 
 branoser Zungen, namlich der Stimmebander, deren Ansatzrohr, namlich 
 die Mundhohle, verscbiedene Weite, Lange, und Stiramung erhalten kann, 
 so dass dadurch bald dieser, bald jener Theilton des Klanges verstarkt 
 wird." Helmholtz, p. 163. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 mary ones. The following tabular view of them is that given 
 by Briicke : — 
 
 a" 
 
 In forming o we open the lips wider and elevate the 
 tongue more than informing u In proceeding from a to i we 
 gradually change the buccal tubes from the a to the % posi- 
 tion ; and similarly in proceeding from a to u. In forming w* 
 we give the lips the w, and the tongue the i position ; while 
 in forming i" the lips take the i, and the tongue the u position. 
 In w* the length of the canal, which was six centimetres in i^ 
 is now eight (Helmholtz, p. 170). 
 
 a is long in E. farm^ calm, and short in E. Sam. 
 
 i is long in E. wheel, ravine, and short in E. knit. 
 
 u is long in Y^. flute, fool, and short in E. full. 
 
 a^ is the German a, the French ^. It is short in the 
 Cockney pronunciation of man, fat. 
 
 a" is long in E. nought, water, and short in E. hot, not. 
 
 e° is the German e in echt, the French e. 
 
 a°^ occurs in Fr. veuve, soeur, peur. 
 
 o" is heard in the Fr. encore. 
 
 e is long in G. ewig, E. hai/, and short in G. werden. 
 
 e° is a common sound in the Wallachian language. Briicke 
 says that it is heard in G. zwolf. 
 
 0^ is the G. in Konig, Fr. peu. 
 
 is long in E. ago, and short in G. sonne, 
 
 i" is heard in G. Myrte and Physik. It is the Slavonic 
 hard i. This sound is of Tataric origin, and traces of it are 
 still found in the Dravidic languages of Southern India. 
 
 w* is the G. il, long in Thilr, and short in dilrr. It is 
 
6 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 the Fr. u in sur and sur. It is also the Dutch im and the 
 Scotch ui, 
 
 Lepsius inserts another vowel sound between a^ and a", 
 which, he says, is heard in the E. but, son. 
 
 §.7. The Original Vowel. 
 
 In addition to the vowels noticed in the last section, we 
 have another vowel, called variously, the indefinite, or neutral, 
 or original vowel, Urlaut, Urvocal. This is a sound that exists 
 in all languages, and from it, according to Ellis, all the other 
 vowels are derived. Willis says that it ' seems to be the na- 
 tural vowel of the reed.' All unaccented vowels in our Euro- 
 pean languages have a tendency to return to this sound ; e. g. 
 E. beggar, nation, Paddington (for -town), G. lieben, Fr. tgnir. 
 This vowel sound is formed by leaving the tongue in its most 
 natural position, opening the mouth easily, and emitting vocal 
 breath. Lepsius says that this sound comes among the clear 
 sounding vowels next to a% but that it is capable of various 
 shades, sometimes approaching a, sometimes e, ^, o, u, being 
 distinguished from all these by the absence of that clear reso- 
 nance, which is lost by either partially closing or shutting the 
 mouth. The French e muet and the Welsh y approach this 
 sound very nearly. Briicke considers that Lepsius is wrong 
 in stating, that this vowel is inherent in all soft fricatives and 
 nasal explosives,* for the indistinct vowel sound here is 
 merely the tone of the voice. Moreover, the only actual ex- 
 amples of the amalgamation of a vowel and consonant are uw 
 and iy. 
 
 Max Miiller is wrong in supposing that we hear this sound 
 in E. el-m, marsh ; for, in proceeding from / to w, or r to sli, 
 we do not require to interpose any vowel. 
 
 * These terms will be explained farther on. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 7 
 
 This indistinct vowel, when combined with r and Z, forms 
 the two Sanskrit vowels r and /. This Sanskrit vowel r differs 
 from E. y', as heard in her^ steward^ in this, that it is pronounced 
 at the cerebral,* whereas the E. t' is pronounced at the gut- 
 tural point of the mouth. 
 
 §.8. The Nasal Vowels. 
 
 The nasalization of the vowels is produced by allowing the 
 air to vibrate in the nasal cavities as well as in the mouth. 
 The air need not pass through the nose, for by closing the 
 nose we may increase the nasal twang. 
 
 Nasalization is an alteration solely within the vowel itself, 
 no consonantal element being brought into play. This, as 
 Lepsius points out ('' Standard Alphabet," p. 9), was rightly 
 understood by the Indian grammarians, who express the nasal- 
 ization by a vowel-like sign, viz., a dot over the letter. It is 
 theoretically possible to give all the vowels the nasal twang, 
 but few receive it. Miklosich remarks that in all the languages 
 known to him, only «, a*', o^, and o were nasalized. Ellis says 
 that the Portuguese have both a nasal i and a nasal urvocal. 
 
 §. 9. Diphthongs. 
 
 When two vowels follow each other so rapidly as to melt 
 into one sound, we obtain a diphthong. Now, we know that 
 a is formed at a point in the mouth before i and w, and there- 
 fore it alone of the three primary vowels can form a true 
 diphthongal base. Moreover, as e and o are also formed in 
 the mouth farther back than i and ?/, they may serve as bases. 
 We can make a both long and short. We have, therefore, 
 eight proper diphthongs, which are moreover capable of re- 
 ceiving different shades of pronunciation. 
 
 * These terms will be explained further on. 
 
8 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 We see at once that we cannot form any proper diph- 
 thongs with i and u as bases ; for if we try to pronounce ia and 
 ua very rapidly we do not form diphthongs, but merely the 
 syllables ya and wa. In Welsh we find the improper diph- 
 thongs ia and iia, and in French we find improper u diph- 
 thongs frequently as in om, which is not pronounced as we in 
 English. 
 
 §. 10. The Breathings. 
 
 These are classed by some writers among the consonants, 
 as by Lepsius, who gives them the name Faucal,* and classifies 
 them thus : — 
 
 Explosive fortis, Arabic ^, ain. 
 
 Explosive lenis, Arabic Hamzehy Greek Spiritus Lenis, 
 
 Fricative fortes, Arabic ^, hha, and English A, as in handy 
 which is not as strong an aspiration as hh. 
 
 There can be no nasal breathing, for the canal of the nose 
 is closed during the formation of a Faucal sound. 
 
 Ellis and others separate the breathings from the conso- 
 nants, and form them into a distinct class. 
 
 The pure aspirate, however, as I believe, does not belong 
 to any special organ, though it appears to have some con- 
 nexion with the gutturals. Accordingly, while we find h re- 
 presenting frequently an original gh, we sometimes find it de- 
 veloped from an original dh and hh. 
 
 §.11. The CoNSONANTS.f 
 
 These are produced under the following conditions : — 
 A. No air is allowed to pass into the nasal cavities, and 
 the canal of the mouth is closed at some definite point. Thus 
 are formed the Explosive sounds, both tenues and medicB. 
 
 * See Brucke in K. Z. vol. xi., p. 265. 
 
 t In this section I have followed Brucke very closely. ^ 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. V 
 
 B. The air is still prevented entering the nasal cavities ; 
 but, in place of closing the canal of the mouth at any point, a 
 narrow passage is left, so that the air comes forth with a sound 
 of friction. Thus are formed the Fricatives^ including h, y, v 
 and the Sibilants. The i-sounds are fricatives ; but they 
 differ from the other letters of this class in this, that the 
 passage for the emission of the air does not lie in the centre 
 of the canal of the mouth, but on each side, between the edges 
 of the tongue and the grinders. 
 
 C. The nasal cavities are still closed, but some portion of 
 the canal of the mouth is made to vibrate, thus causing the 
 vibration of the air passing out. Thus arise the i?-sounds. 
 
 D. The mouth is closed, and the nasal cavities are open. 
 Thus we have the Resonants, or Nasals. The nasals and 
 vowels are the sounds easiest to be heard from a distance. 
 Thus words such as Mamma, m,ine, nOy can be heard very far 
 away. 
 
 §. 12. The four classes are divided again under three 
 heads, according to those parts of the canal of the mouth'that 
 approach each other. 
 
 I. The under lip may approach the upper lip or the upper 
 teeth. These sounds are the Labials, They are the most 
 constant sounds in all languages. 
 
 II. The fore part of the tongue may approach the teeth 
 or the palate. These sounds are the Dentals and Cerebrals. 
 Biihler has demonstrated that the existence of the cerebrals in 
 Sanskrit is not due to Dravidian influences, but that they 
 were independently developed in that language. The Arabic 
 Unguals differ from the Sanskrit cerebrals solely in this, that 
 in the latter the tongue is more contracted than in the former. 
 The name cerebral is not quite correct, but its use has become 
 so general that it is better to retain it. The Sanskrit name 
 for these letters is murddhanya, from mwrddhan, which means 
 the highest point in the roof of the palate, and not the brain. 
 
10 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 It is absurd to say that any letter is pronounced in the brain 
 (cerebrum). 
 
 III. The middle or hinder part of the tongue may ap- 
 proach the palate. Thus we have the Palatals and Gutturals 
 (Skr. g'ihvamuliya). The term guttural* is not exactly cor- 
 rect, for these letters are not produced in the guttur^ but by 
 contact between the tongue and the soft palate. By pushing 
 this point of contact forwards to the hard palate, we get the 
 palatals. These palatal sounds have a tendency to assume a 
 shade of y, which frequently becomes independent, and deve- 
 lopes itself into a full y. This is easily accounted for by the 
 fact that in the palatals the tongue is raised very nearly into 
 the y-position. Thus we can explain the fact that original 
 gutturals often become sibilants ; for the guttural k became 
 the palatal ; this again became ky, this ty, this ts, and some- 
 times s. For example, the L. cantus became E. charit (pala- 
 tal tenuis), and Fr. chant (palatal sibilant) ; L. canis^ Fr. 
 chien; L. quatvx)r^ Skr. k'atvdr ; L. que, Skr. k'a; Gr. icoiXov, 
 L. coelum. It. cielo ; L. caseus, E. cheese; L. causa, Fr. 
 chose. 
 
 This tendency of the palatals to develope y after them- 
 selves also explains how an original guttural sometimes 
 becomes a dental; thus tlq has been developed from kiq 
 the groundform of which was kvas, whence Skr. ka-s, Goth. 
 hvas, L. quis; similarly Tecraapeg is derived from an original 
 kvatvdras, whence come L. quatuor, Skr. k'atvdr, Lith. ketur\ 
 &c. 
 
 " Such transitions," writes Lepsius ("Stand.Alph.,"p. 72), 
 " in the history of languages never take place suddenly, but 
 always gradually. It is a very common phenomenon that the 
 explosive letters first produce the corresponding fricative 
 sounds behind them, and afterwards pass entirely into them, 
 
 * Consult a paper by Lepsius in K. Z. vol. xi., p. 442. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 11 
 
 and that at the same time the gutturals advance constantly 
 towards the anterior part of the mouth." 
 
 §. 13. The Labials. 
 
 A. The Explosives. 
 
 The tenuis p (p^) is formed by simple contact of the lips : 
 it is a surd consonant, for the glottis is wide open. The me- 
 dia b {b^) is formed similarly, except that now the glottis is 
 narrowed. In modern Greek, where j3 is pronounced as v, 
 the sound b is expressed by ^tt, where ju merely tells us that 
 the glottis is now contracted ; similarly vt is used to express 
 the sound d. Thus, barber would be written junrapimTrtp, and 
 dreadful i/rpetr^ouA, for vrpevTcpovX. 
 
 We can form a second p (p^) by bringing the upper lip 
 and lower teeth together. 
 
 B. The Fricatives. 
 
 F is formed by bringing the under lip towards the upper 
 teeth (/^) ; or by bringing the lips towards each other (/'). 
 Fis related to /. exactly as b is to p. F^ is the /in life; v"^ 
 is the V in live. Briicke says that we find v^ in G. quelle^ and 
 v'^ in G. wie ; but Ellis separates the sounds of the G. w and 
 E. v from each other. The former he writes, *v^ and thus de- 
 scribes its formation — " the lips are brought into the position 
 for w, and the contact at the edge is slackened, while the 
 inner surfaces are brought close together and flattened." The 
 E. 10^ he says, arose from a cross between this 'n and the 
 Fr. u. No other European language possesses the E. w^ and 
 hence it has been supposed by some that this w is properly 
 the vowel u. But this is wrong ; for we can make this sound 
 surd in wheels which ; and the fact that the words woo and wood 
 are monosyllabic proves that iv is a true consonant. 
 
12 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 C. The R'sound. 
 
 If we place the lips in the p^ position and then let them 
 vibrate, we form two sounds, the one surd, and the other so- 
 nant, which are related to each other as p to b. We find this 
 labial r in the Kretan rpi for tFc = Skr. tvdm^ in ^tdpoiKuyg for 
 ^eSFotKwc, unless dsdpoKtvg, i. e. SeSo/jkwc, be the correct read- 
 ing, in Kr. piya ((ritoTra) for apiya from aFtya, and perhaps in 
 arpiyKTog (a|3poxoc) from riyyit)^ if Goth, thvaha be from same 
 root. This r only appears in Greek in the Kretan dialect. In 
 the following Latin words r has perhaps been developed out 
 of an original v : — L. eras = Skr. s*vas, L. creta beside Skr. sveta 
 (white), L. eresco beside Skr, s'vi (to increase). This inter- 
 change of r and v occurs also in some German dialects (see K. 
 Z., vol. XV., p. 320). 
 
 D. The Resonants. 
 
 If we close the lips as in 5^, and allow the air to vibrate in 
 the nasal cavities, we form m}. M} is not used; The nasals 
 arexlosely connected with the mediae — m with 5, n with J, and 
 71 with g. Hence we find L. flamma for flanma from flagma ; 
 Sp. Inez for Agnes, L. hibernus beside xuix^pivog ; L. puber 
 beside Skr. pumdns. In northern climates the nasals are fre- 
 quently omitted ; as in Ir. coic (quinque), cet (centum), O.N. 
 g^ck for g^nck. 
 
 §. 14. The Dentals and Cerebrals. 
 A. The Explosives. 
 
 By pressing the fore part of the tongue against the palate 
 and teeth we form a <-sound, of which there are four kinds. 
 
 T*. A Iveolar. The sides of tongue touch the upper grinders, 
 and the point of tongue lies on upper internal gums, thus 
 forming an air-tight receptacle. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 13 
 
 T'. Cerebral. The tongue is now convex, and its lower side 
 touches the palate. This t has been called lingual; but I pre- 
 fer the term cerebral, because the other term is applied in 
 Arabic to a different class of letters, and moreover it does not 
 suffice to distinguish this sound, as all ^s are pronounced by 
 means of the tongue. 
 
 T^ Dorsal. The tongue is still convex, but its upper side 
 now touches the palate, and its tip rests on lower teeth. 
 
 T^. Dental. The tongue now merely touches the teeth. 
 
 We have four ds related to these four ^s as h is to p. 
 
 B. The Fricatives. 
 
 We have four ss related to the four <s, as / is to p^ and 
 four zs related to the four ss as v is to /. 
 
 S^ is the Arabic Sad, and is nearly the same as the s in E. 
 sm, seal. 
 
 S^ is a more rushing sound than s^ 
 
 S^ is the sharp hissing 5 in E. sharp, Fr. chose. 
 
 /S* is the E. th in thin, the Mod. Gr. d. This 0has become 
 / in Russian : this change is easily explained, for the edge of 
 the upper teeth, which in Q lies between point of tongue and 
 under lip, now merely has to approach the latter.* 
 
 Z^ is the Arabic za, and is nearly the same as z in E. 
 breeze. 
 
 Z^ is found in E. pleasure, giraffe, Fr. jeune, according to 
 Lepsius. 
 
 ^* is E. th in other, Mod. Gr. 2. In English, when z*' is 
 initial, we generally say ciV ; and when it is final, z'^s'^ instead 
 of it ; thus, for breathe we say breaz'^s'^, and not breaz^. In this 
 respect the Spanish pronunciation of z^ differs from ours ; for 
 final z!^ in Spanish is always pronounced purely. Neither s'^ nor 
 2* exists in Sanskrit. 
 
 * Consult a paper by G. Michaelis, in K. Z., vol xlii., p. 223. n 
 
14 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 If in the four ^positions we allow an opening to be left at 
 each side of the tongue between its edges and the grinders, 
 we form from the four ^s four As, and from the four ds four Is. 
 
 L^ is the common Z in E. leave. 
 
 L2 is the Vedic I. 
 
 L^ occurs in / mouilU. 
 
 U is used by those who lisp. 
 
 L^ often becomes vocal in English, as in apple, double, 
 which Ellis writes ap'l, &c. The surd X^ is unknown in Eng- 
 lish, but is very common in Welsh, where it is written II, 
 as in Llangollen. This surd X^ takes the place of le in con- 
 versational French, in such words as able, possible, which Eng- 
 lishmen pronounce as ah'l, &c. This II is Ellis' whispered I. 
 In his terminology, surd consonants are whispered, and sonant, 
 spoken or voiced. Whisper differs from voice solely in this, 
 that in whispering there is no vibration of the vocal chords, 
 whereas in voice there is. 
 
 C. The R- sound. 
 
 The alveolar r, when sonant, is our common r. When 
 surd, it occurs in Welsh, and in French as in tendre. This 
 surd r is scarcely to be distinguished from s, the only diffe- 
 rence being a small ripple of the whisper. This accounts for 
 the fact that s and r frequently interchange (Ellis, p. 50). 
 
 The Sanskrit grammarians treat r as a cerebral, and there- 
 fore deduce it from d^ ; but they are wrong, for it is impos- 
 sible to make the tongue vibrate from the cerebral position. 
 
 As they did not distinguish the alveolar position, they had 
 to treat r as either a dental or a cerebral ; and they chose the 
 latter, probably on account of the point of the tongue being 
 directed upwards (Briicke, p. 42). 
 
 D. The Resonants. 
 We have four ns, corresponding to the four ds, exactly as 
 m to b. N^ is contained in n mouille. 
 
comparative grammar. 15 
 
 §. 15. The Gutturals and Palatals. 
 
 A. The Explosives, 
 
 In forming k the middle or hinder part of the tongue 
 touches the middle or hinder part of the palate, while in form- 
 ing t the fore part of the tongue touches the fore part of the 
 palate. Hence the articulation of t begins where that of ^ 
 ends ; yet in the cerebral t we may go backwards across the 
 k limit, and still pronounce a t. This, however, cannot be 
 done in the case of the dorsal t. Two ^s may be formed — one 
 on the hard palate {k^ palatale)^ and one on the soft palate 
 (k^ velare). 
 
 The It. ch^ in chiesa^ chiaro, is formed at the front limit of 
 the hard palate ; the Arabic Caf at the hinder limit, and the 
 G. k, in wickeln between these two. The k"^ in G. stock is 
 formed at front limit of soft palate. The Arabic Kaf is formed 
 farther back than any other k sound. 
 
 G^ and g"^ are related to k^ and k^, as h is to p. G^ is the 
 It. gh before i ; the G. g in gehen is formed a little farther back 
 than It. ^, but it is still palatal. 
 
 B, The Fricatives. 
 
 • 
 
 In these the stream of air strikes the palate, as in the s 
 sounds it struck the teeth. They are related to the k sounds 
 as / is to p. 
 
 The palatal flatus, -^^ is the G. ch after e and i, as in Recht, 
 ich, and the Mod. Gr. -^ before i as in x^^P- The initial sound 
 of the E. hew, human very nearly approaches this x^. This 
 is the whispered form of the 3/ in E. yea, year. 
 
 The guttural flatus is the G. ch, after a, 0, u, the Mod. Gr. 
 \ before a, o, v, u). 
 
 Another ^ sound, ^ can be formed so far back that no k 
 sound corresponds to it. This is the Swiss ch in ach, and is 
 common in Arabic. 
 
16 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 There are three ys, related to the three x^ exactly as w is 
 to/ 
 
 F» occurs in E. yea; andy^ is the G. g in Tage^ Lilge^ and 
 the Mod. Gr. y before a, o, w. 
 
 C. The R-sound. 
 
 If we make the uvula vibrate, we form the uvular r. This 
 is distinguished from the dental r by the fact, that in the latter 
 it is the tip of the tongue that vibrates. The I and r sounds 
 are commonly called Trills. They differ in this, that in the 
 rs the stream of air is periodically interrupted^ but in the h 
 there are no interruptions, but merely oscillations produced 
 in the emitted air. 
 
 D. The Resonants. 
 
 We form two its (vS v^), related to g^ and g"^ as m is to h, 
 v^ occurs in G. Bengel ; v^ in G. Wange. 
 
 The French n in wn, en^ is now merely a sign of the na- 
 salization of the preceding vowel, and is therefore no conso- 
 nant at all. From a comparison, however, with Latin and 
 Italian, we see that it has been developed out of an n sound 
 which was neither v^ nor v^, but v'. 
 
 § 16. The Aspirates. 
 
 These are classed by some writers among the fricatives, by 
 others among the explosives. They are, according to Lep- 
 sius, "those explosive sounds whicli are pronounced with a 
 simple but audible breath." Three different methods of pro- 
 nouncing the tenues aspiratce have been proposed : — (1), the 
 tenuis and spiritus asper may be pronounced separately; 
 (2), the spiritus asper may be changed into the corresponding 
 flatus, and then ph, th, kh, become pf, ts and kchj respectively ; 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 17 
 
 (3), the tenuis and the spirltus asper may melt into one sound. 
 The first of these methods is said to prevail at present among 
 the Brahmans ; it is compared to the pronunciation of p/i, iJi^ 
 and khy in the English words haphazard, anthill^ inhhorn ; but 
 this is incorrect — for in these words the tenuis and the spiritus 
 asper belong to different syllables, whereas in Sanskrit they 
 belong always to the same syllable. 
 
 The medice are aspirated by allowing the spiritus lenis to 
 be heard immediately after the explosion. In Sanskrit the 
 mediae aspiratae were always pronounced as one sound ; for 
 we find words beginning with the following combinations, 
 ghn, dhm, ghr^ &c. 
 
 We must carefully remember that the Sanskrit h does not 
 form part of the aspirated tenuis ; for it is a sonant letter, and 
 therefore cannot form part of the aspirated tenuis, which is 
 surd. 
 
 The original aspirates in process of time lost their true 
 character, and gradually changed into other sounds. Thus, in 
 Greek, they became the corresponding fricatives ; e. g. X'* 
 which was originally a tenuis aspirata, became the fricatives, 
 
 and 
 
 §. 17. Concrete Consonants. 
 
 These are those sounds which are formed by the vocal 
 organs being placed at the same time in two different conso- 
 nantal positions. The G. sch and the Fr. j are concrete con- 
 sonants. These concrete sounds are perfectly distinct from 
 groups of consonants, such as x, \p, which Briicke calls com- 
 posites. The G. sch is equivalent to [s'x^l • ^® ^^^^ place the 
 vocal organs in the ^^-position, and then bend the tongue up- 
 wards into the s^-position. The It. c in ciceri is equivalent to 
 t^ [s^xT' while the E. ch in church is more nearly t^ [s^ x^]- 
 The Fr. j in jamais is related to the G. sch as b is to p. It is 
 therefore [-^y]- The E.^in jot/ is similarly related to the 
 
 C 
 
18 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 It. c in cicen. It is therefore d' \z' y^]. Max Muller difiers 
 from these views of Brucke ; he says that ch in church does 
 not consist of two consonants, butmerely of half i and half s/«, 
 and therefore that it is merely equivalent to one whole con- 
 sonant. 
 
JLibrary. 
 
 chIptcrTi. 
 
 The Indo-European Language, 
 
 §. 18. This is the name given to that language from which the 
 whole family of the Indo-European languages are derived, and 
 which therefore stand to it in the same relation as the Romance 
 languages do to the Latin. As we could approximate to 
 the roots and grammatical forms of the Latin language, even 
 if we had no monuments of it, from a comparison of the roots 
 and grammatical forms at present existing in the Romance 
 languages, so analogously we may approximate to the roots 
 and forms of the language of the Indo-Europeans from a com- 
 parison of the languages spoken by their descendants. For 
 example, if we take the case of the numerals, we see at once 
 that the names for the first ten numbers in any Romance lan- 
 guage are not derived from those in any other, but from the 
 Latin. The Sp. ocho^ Port, oito^ It. o^^o. Wall, optu, Fr. huit^ are 
 all formed independently of each other from the L. octo ; and 
 if the L. octo did not exist, we could infer its existence from 
 a comparison of these forms with each other. Similarly the 
 Skr. k'atvdras, Gr. rlcro-apcC) ^o\. Triaavpigy L. quatuor^ Umb. 
 petur^ Ir. ceathair (m.), ceteora (/.), y\^ (A^h. pedwar (m.), pMair 
 (/.), Goth. Jldvor, Lith. keturi^ &c., are all independent of 
 each other, but they all presuppose an Indo-European form 
 kvatvdras, which is nearly the same as the L. quatuor. 
 
 §. 19. The sounds that in all probability existed in this 
 language, immediately before the separation of the Asiatic 
 branch from the European, are given in the following table : — 
 
 c2 
 
20 
 
 COMPARATIVE GRAMxMAR. 
 
 
 MUTES. 
 
 
 SEMIVOWELS. 
 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 
 unasp. 
 
 asp. 
 
 Spirants. 
 
 Nasals. 
 
 R-sound. 
 
 
 
 surd. son. 
 
 son. 
 
 surd. son. 
 
 son. 
 
 son. 
 
 
 Gutt. 
 
 h g 
 
 gh 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 a, a 
 
 Pal. 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 i,i 
 
 Cer. 
 
 
 
 
 
 (r/)? 
 
 
 Dent. 
 
 t d 
 
 dh 
 
 s 
 
 n 
 
 rl 
 
 
 Lab. 
 
 p b 
 
 bh 
 
 V 
 
 m 
 
 
 u,u. 
 
 At an older period the I. E. possessed probably no aspi- 
 rates, and only the single vowel «, i and u being subsequently 
 developed out of this a on the one side, and from the vocali- 
 zation of y and v on the other. 
 
 The representation of an original a by a, e^ and o distin- 
 guishes the European branch of the Indo-European from the 
 Asiatic ; thus we have, in the following cases, a in Sanskrit 
 and Zend, and e or i in Greek, Latin, &c. ; Skr. and Z. das'an, 
 Gr. Sc/ca, L. decern^ 0. H. G. zehan ; Skr. sad, Z. had, Gr. cSoc, 
 L. sedeo, Goth, sita ; Skr. madhya, Z. maidhya, Gr. juco-oc, 
 L. medius, Goth, midjis. This change of a into e and then into i 
 occurred in very early times, while the change into o and then 
 into u is much later. This change is believed by Curtius* to 
 have arisen at a time when the North-European branches had 
 separated from the Southern ones ; for the Greek and Latin 
 frequently agree in representing an original a by o, in cases 
 where the Gothic, Lithuanian, &c., preserve the a, or change 
 it to i ; as in 
 
 Gr. yiyvwcTKU), L. gnosco, 0. H. G. hidit. 
 
 Gr. oig, L. ovis, Goth, avistr. 
 
 Gr. oKTb), L. octo, Goth, ahtau. 
 
 Gr. Sojuoc, L. domus, A. S. timber, 0. H. G. zimhar. 
 
 In this respect the Keltic languages are more akin to the 
 Greek and Latin than to the languages of Northern Europe. 
 When e and o had been developed out of a, the greater num- 
 
 * Curtius, "Grundziige," p. 85. ^ 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 21 
 
 ber of the Greek dialects made no further change ; but the 
 ^olic dialect and the Italic languages frequently change this 
 e and o into i and u. 
 
 §. 20. The Guttural n is an uncommon sound, and only 
 occurs before gutturals. M is an older sound than n : thus, 
 Skr. damam (ace. sing.) andL. domum are older than Gr. ^ofxovi 
 and L. decern than Skr. das' an. The change of m into n is 
 very common: thus G. boden comes from 0. H. G. bodam, 
 Fr. rien from L. rem, It. con from L. cum, Fr. nappe from 
 L. mappa, Wall, furnice from L. formica. 
 
 The converse of this change seldom occurs ; but, as it is 
 sometimes found in modern languages, as in E. ransom from 
 Fr. rangon, we may from analogy infer that a similar inter- 
 change between m and n existed in the Indo-European. 
 
 §. 21. From the number of cases in which /in Sanskrit 
 corresponds to I in the European languages, we infer that I, as 
 well as r, existed, in the Indo-European, although the r-sound 
 vastly predominated. Thus we have, 
 
 Skr. kalya, Gr. KaXog, Goth, hails, E. whole. 
 Skr. sphal, Gr. (r^aXAw, L. fallo, O.H.G.fallan. 
 Skr. mala, Gr. /niXag, L. malus, Goth. mail. 
 Skr. lis', Gr. oXiyoQ, Goth, leihts, 
 Skr. Zw, Gr. Xuw, L. ^'g/wo, Goth, laus (loose). 
 Skr. lubh, Gr. XtVro/xaf, L. Zw&ef, Goth. Z^w55. 
 Skr. lota (loot), Gr. Xfia, L. lucrum, Goth. /awn. 
 Skr. lash, Gr. Xaa>, L. lascivus, Goth, lustus (lust). 
 On the other hand, there are many roots in which the 
 European languages present I where the Sanskrit has /• ; thus, 
 
 Skr. urmi (a wave), Gr. tXuw, L. volvo, Goth, valvjan. 
 Skr. par, Gr. nXrjprjg, L. plenus, Goth. /wZ/s. 
 Skr. rw^', Gr. X^vkoq, L. Zwc^o, Goth, liuhath, 
 Skr. n/;', Gr. Xhttw, L. linquo, Goth. /ai^a. 
 This is one of the facts from which Lottner (K. Z., vol. vii., 
 p. 19), infers that, after the Europeans separated from the 
 
22 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 parent stock, they remained for some time united together as 
 one people. 
 
 B always has had a tendency to become Z, as we see from 
 the Romance languages: thus, It. alhero comes from L. arbor, 
 It. cilebro from L. cerebrum, Fr. autel from L. altare, It. pelle-- 
 grino from h. peregrinus. The reverse change also occurs, but 
 much less frequently : we find it in Fr. rossignol from L. lus- 
 ciniolus, Fr. apotre from L. apostolus, Fr. chapitre from 
 L. capitulum, Fr. esclandre from o-fcav^aXov, Wall, poporu from 
 L. populus, Wall, firu from L. fitum. In some of these cases 
 dissimilation has favoured this change. 
 
 §. 22. The Indo-European B. 
 
 The chief proof that b existed in the Indo-European is the 
 fact that it forms the chief element in the original sound hh. 
 That it must have had a very limited sphere, is proved by the 
 few cases in which it seems to be original. These cases are 
 the following: — Gr./3/oaxvc, ^po^X^Q^ Goth, praggan {to press), 
 the fundamental idea being "narrowness;" Skr. lamb (to fall), 
 L. labi, E. slip (Benfey compares E. limp), Goth, slepan and 
 E. sleep come perhaps from this root, the fundamental idea 
 being that of "sinking down to rest;" Gr. jcavyajS^c, O. H. G. 
 hanf, E. hemp; Skr. Aw^^'a (crooked), Gr. Kvf5og, Goth, hups, 
 O. H. G. huf, L. cubare, E. hip and hump; Gr. pofjijBogj pifx^w, 
 Goth, vairpan, G. werfen* B is original in some imitative 
 words ; but, as Grimm's law does not apply to such words, it 
 remains unchanged: thus we have Gr. ^\r\xh^ L. balare, 
 0. H. G. bldzan, E. bleat ; Skr. barbara, Gr. (5apl5apog, 
 L. balbus, E. babble ; Gr. PoiifivXig, L. bullire, E. bubble. 
 
 Initial b, as Grassmann has pointed out, has generally in 
 Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, been developed from other sounds : 
 in Sanskrit from J9, bh, m, and v, as banig (a merchant) from 
 
 * Consult Bickell in K. Z., vol. xiv., p. 426; and Grassmann in K. Z., 
 vol. xii., p. 122. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 23 
 
 pan (to buy), bal from hhal^ bru from mru, and bat from vat; 
 in Greek and Latin from gv^ as in Gr. ^apvg, jSaiyw = L. vem'o 
 for gvenio ; from c?t?, as in L. bis^ bellum, bonus ; from u, as in 
 Gr. (5ov\ofjiai (Skr. vr, L. volo), (5piZa ; from m, as in Gr. 
 fSpoTog, j3Xa»(Tfctti, ppadvg = Skr. mrdus (mild and slow) = L. 
 blandus for mlandus (E. mild); bucca (Skr. mukha) ; from 5A, as 
 in Gr. ppifiw, L. fremo, (^aaKalvw, L. fascino ; and from ^, as 
 in Gr. j3oo-/cw (?), L. 5z6o, buxus. 
 
 §. 23. Wherever we find fricative sounds corresponding 
 etymologically to explosive, we believe that the latter are ori- 
 ginal, as they require a stronger articulation than the former. 
 We find examples of this in the following changes: — t be- 
 comes 5, in Gr. o-u, Dor. ru, L. tu; (^becomes Z,* in L. la- 
 cruma = Gr. Sajc/ou; L. levir = Gr. Sarip, Skr. devr (a hus- 
 band's brother) ; L. calamitas, from an older cadamitas ; d be- 
 comes r in L. arvorsum = advorsum, L. meridies for medidies, 
 Sp. lampara from ace. sing, of L. lampas ; b becomes v in Fr. 
 avoiV = L. habere ; k becomes a sibilant in Fr. cent from L. cm- 
 ^wm, Skr. das an from I. E. dakam, Skr. s'van from I. E. kvan, 
 Fr. cheval from L. caballus. The modern Greek spirants have 
 been developed from the old aspirates, and the Latin spirants 
 h and / from the old gh and bh. 
 
 There* are some exceptions to this law : thus gv has been 
 developed from v f in It. golpe from L. vulpes, Fr. gdter and 
 It. guastare from L. vastare, Fr. guSpe from L. vespa. Fhas 
 become p on account of the s' in Z. spa = Skr. svd. In the 
 Lesbian dialect we find /3 for F before p ; here either F became 
 /3, or else j^ was pronounced as F. The Romans disliked the 
 group vu, and frequently used bu, as mferbui iiomferveo ; simi- 
 larly the Greeks said jdovXofiai for FouXojuat. D represents 
 
 * In the " Rigveda" the symbol ^ is employed to represent the /-sound, 
 into which an older d is sometimes changed. This sound must have been 
 either dl or Id. 
 
 t See Max Miiller, vol. ii., p. 265, seq. ; and Curtius, " Grundziige," 
 pp. 386, 527. 
 
24 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 an older I and r in some Norwegian dialects ; thus in Sogndal 
 II becomes cZZ, as in kadla for halla^ gudl for gull^ &c. In 
 Danish we have Id for //, as in fuld = E. full; and f aid = E. 
 falL 
 
 §. 24. That the weak aspirates existed in the Indo-Euro- 
 pean, is proved by the fact that the Sanskrit weak aspirates 
 are represented in Zend by the mediae and medias aspiratae ; 
 in Slavic, Lettic, Gothic, and Irish, by the mediae ; and in 
 Latin sometimes by the mediae. Thus, we have Skr. dhd (to 
 place), Z. da J L. do (in condo), Lith. dedic^ E. do, doom; Skr. 
 bhar (to bear), Z. bar, L. fero, Goth, baira, Lith. bSmas (a 
 child), E. burden; Skr. bhu (to be), Z. 6w, L. /m", Lith. buti 
 (to be), E. 5e; Skr. bhrdtar, Z. brdtar, h. /rater, Goth. Z>ro- 
 </iar, Ir. brdthir; Skr. madhya, Z.maidhya, L. medius, Osk.me- 
 jiai (= medice), Ir. meddn, Goth, midjis ; I. E. dnambhas* Skr. 
 nabhas, L. nubes, SI. we5o, Ir. neamh, Lith. debesis. These ex- 
 amples are sufficient to prove the original existence of the 
 mediae aspiratae ; for, if they had been developed from the 
 medise in Sanskrit, after it had become a distinct language, 
 we should find them represented in Gothic, for example, by 
 k, t, and p, and not by g, d, and b; and if they had been de- 
 veloped from the tenues aspiratae, we should not find them re- 
 * presented in the cognate languages by the mediae. 
 
 §. 25. Whether the Indo-European possessed the hard, as 
 well as the soft, aspirates is still a disputed question.! The 
 main argument brought forward in support of the opinion that 
 it did, is the fact that the Greek aspirates, which are hard, 
 correspond in many cases to the hard aspirates in Sanskrit. 
 Now, in all these cases I believe that the tenuis was the ori- 
 ginal sound, and that the aspiration is generally due to the in- 
 fluence of neighbouring sounds, which have sometimes fallen 
 
 * According to Lottner, who compares Gr. ^v6<poQ. 
 f Consult Curtius, " Grundzuge," p. 375; and Grassmann in K. Z., 
 vol. xii., p. 109. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 25 
 
 out. Moreover, in many of these examples we find in Greek 
 side-forms with the simple tenuis, which evidently contain 
 older forms of the roots. Thus, a sibilant has aspirated the 
 tenuis in the following cases : — sphar (caus. to throw), a(paiQay 
 also cTTra/po), aaTraipo) ; sphur (= sphar)^ at^vpa^ (t<^vq6v ; splial 
 (caus. with a, to strike), o-(^aXXw, A. ^. feallan^\A\h.. pulti (to 
 fall), sphurg (to thunder), tr^apayoc, sphant (to split), or^rjv ; 
 phalaka (a bench), a<pi\ag ; k'hid {to cut), axi^w, L. scindo. In 
 Koyxog = s'ahkhas the aspiration is due to the nasal. Khalinas 
 (nom. sing.) is borrowed from ■\a\iv6g. The aspirate in the 
 ending of the 2 sing. perf. -tha - -6a (olaOa = vettha) is due 
 to the falling out of v from the pronominal stem tva. Grass- 
 mann compares jua^*? with makha (a warrior), aOrjp with 
 aihari (the point of a lance), juoOoq with math (to agitate), and 
 asserts that the aspirated tenuis in all these cases is original ; 
 but makha comes from magh, aOrjp is connected with andhas 
 (plant). We find the asp. tenuis developed from the asp. me- 
 dia in ndth (to ask aid) from nddh^ E. need, 0. H. G. not ; in 
 atha (then) from adha ; in kha (aer, coelum), Gr. xaoc> \j.halare ; 
 in phal (to bear fruit), L. flos, Goth, hloma ; in nakha, 6vvx-y 
 L. unguis, ungula, Ir. ionga, O.H. G. nagal, Lith. n'agas. It 
 is much more probable that the Sanskrit hard aspirates and 
 the Greek aspirates arose either from the soft aspirates or the 
 tenues, than that both rows of aspirates existed in the Indo- 
 European, and afterwards coalesced in Greek. 
 
( 26 ) 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Grimm's Law.* 
 
 §. 26. The roots of the Indo-European languages are subject 
 to two distinct classes of changes — irregular or sporadic, and 
 regular. The regular changes permeate all the dialects of a 
 language, while the irregular show themselves chiefly in some 
 one dialect. Thus, in Greek, ^5 9, ^, in all the dialects re- 
 present the original gh, dh, bh ; but 'Ikkoq, kwc, ttokq, okq^ Ba, 
 oScXoc, are sporadic varieties of '/ttttoc* ttwC) Trore, orf, yrjy 
 ojScXoc- The regular changes are threefold : — (1), we have the 
 splitting up of an original sound into several others, as when 
 an I. E. a is represented in Greek and Latin by a, e\ ; (2), we 
 have the loss of an original sound running through an entire 
 language, as in the case of the disappearance of the aspirates 
 in Latin ; (3), we have the remarkable law of the dislocation of 
 the consonants, discovered by Grimm, and called by him 
 Lautverschiebung, which we now proceed to enunciate and 
 illustrate. 
 
 §. 27. This law, stated generally, is as follows : — If the same 
 root exist in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Old High 
 Geftnan, when Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin present the aspi- 
 rate, Gothic presents the corresponding media, and Old High 
 German the corresponding tenuis ; when the first three lan- 
 guages present the media, Gothic has the tenuis, and Old 
 High German the aspirate ; when the first three languages 
 
 ♦ "Deutsche Grammatik von Dr. Jakob Grimm," vol. i., p. 584. 
 Consult also " Gresammelte sprachwissenschaftliche Schriften" von Rudolph 
 von Rauraer, and Max Miiller, vol. ii., p. 198. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 27 
 
 present the tenuis, Gothic has the aspirate, and Old High 
 German the media. This law may be tabularly exhibited 
 thus : — 
 
 Skr. Gr. L. GH DH BH 
 Goth. G D B 
 0. iT. G. K T P 
 
 G D B 
 
 K T P 
 
 GH DH BH 
 
 K T P 
 
 GH DH BH 
 
 G D B 
 
 These letters, of course, are only symbols ; for in Latin we 
 have no real aspirates, but merely the corresponding breath- 
 ings, and moreover the dental breathing is wanting in Latin ; 
 in Greek we have only the hard aspirates ; in Sanskrit H 
 frequently takes the place of an older GH, DH, or BH ; in 
 Gothic the guttural and labial aspirates are replaced by H and 
 F ; and in Old High German for the expected guttural and 
 labial medi« we find H and F. Extending this law to Keltic, 
 Slavic, and Lettic, we may add that these languages, though 
 for the most part they stand on the same line as the Sanskrit, 
 represent the soft aspirates always by the corresponding me- 
 diae. Translating these symbols, then, into the actual conso- 
 nants that represent them in each language, we have the 
 following tables : — 
 
 
 (1). 
 
 (2). 
 
 (3). 
 
 LE. 
 
 gK 
 
 dh 
 
 bh 
 
 Skr. 
 
 gh, h 
 
 dh,h 
 
 hh,h 
 
 Z. 
 
 g, gh g\ z, zh, 
 
 d,dh 
 
 h 
 
 Gr. 
 
 X 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 L. 
 
 h /, g^ 
 
 f, d, h, 
 
 Ab 
 
 Kel 
 
 g 
 
 d 
 
 b 
 
 SI. 
 
 g^ z, z 
 
 d 
 
 b 
 
 Lith. 
 
 g^ ^> 
 
 d 
 
 b 
 
 Goth. 
 
 g 
 
 d 
 
 b 
 
 0. H. G. 
 
 k 
 
 t 
 
 P 
 
28 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 II. 
 
 
 (!)• 
 
 (2). 
 
 (3). 
 
 I.E. 
 
 9 
 
 d 
 
 h 
 
 Skr. 
 
 9^9' 
 
 d 
 
 h 
 
 Z. 
 
 9i 9^^ 9'y ^» ^^* 
 
 d,dh 
 
 h 
 
 Gr. 
 
 7 
 
 d 
 
 P 
 
 L. 
 
 9 
 
 d 
 
 h 
 
 Kel. 
 
 9 
 
 d 
 
 b 
 
 SI. 
 
 9^ ^» ^> 
 
 d 
 
 h 
 
 Lith. 
 
 9.^ 
 
 d 
 
 h 
 
 Goth. 
 
 k 
 
 t 
 
 P 
 
 0. H. G. 
 
 ch 
 
 z, sz 
 
 f^Pf 
 
 
 III. 
 
 
 
 (1). 
 
 (2). 
 
 (3). 
 
 I.E. 
 
 k 
 
 t 
 
 P 
 
 Skr. 
 
 k, kh, k\ s' 
 
 t, th 
 
 p,ph 
 
 Z. 
 
 k, khy k\ s 
 
 t, th 
 
 PJ 
 
 Gr. 
 
 K 
 
 T 
 
 IT 
 
 L. 
 
 c, q, 
 
 t 
 
 P 
 
 Kel. 
 
 c, ch, 
 
 t, th 
 
 ' P 
 
 SI. 
 
 k,c,l,s 
 
 t 
 
 P 
 
 Lith. 
 
 k, sz, 
 
 t 
 
 P 
 
 Goth. 
 
 h,9 
 
 th, d 
 
 /^ 
 
 0. H. G. 
 
 h9 
 
 d 
 
 /, V, b, 
 
 §. 28. Examples of Grimm's Law.* 
 
 I. (1). Skr. dirgha (long), Z.daregha (long), Gr. ^oXixogt 
 L. longus, Goth, laggs. Skr. laghu (light), Gr. lAax^c, L. le- 
 vis for legvis, 0. H. G. Itht, Kel. lugu in Lugudunum, another 
 form of Lugdunum. Skr. gharsh (to rub), Gr. xpitt), L. /no, 
 frico. Skr. ghas (to eat), L. hostis, 0. L. fostis, hospes (qui ci- 
 
 * In these examples I have nearly always omitted the corresponding 
 roots in Slavic, Lithuanian, and Keltic. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 29 
 
 bum petit), Goth, gasts, E. guest, Lith. gaspada (hospitium), 
 and, according to Bopp, Gr. yaGrr]p. Skr. harydmi (I love), 
 Gr. x«'/o^' L- 9^^i^s, Goth, faihu-gairns (greedy of money), 
 E. yearn, 0. H. G. hiri (desire). Skr. Jiyas (yesterday), 
 Gr. x^^C) L. heri, hesternus, Goth, gistra, E. yesterday, 
 0. H. G. kestar. Skr. Aayiscz (a goose), Gr. xn^^ L. awse/*, 
 Goth, gans, E. ^oos6, 0. H. G. kans. Skr. v«7i (to carry), 
 Gr. oxog, L. t^e/io, Goth, vigs (via). 0. H. G. waggan (currus), 
 Gr. -^^oQTog, L. Jiortusy cohors, E. garden, gird, 0. H. G. ^ar^o, 
 Goth. ^arcZs (a house). 
 
 I. (2). Skr. indh (to burn), Gr. aWoj, L. cestus, cedes, 
 A. S. dd, 0. H. G. ez^ (fire). Skr. rudhira (blood), Gr. IpvOpog, ' 
 L. ruber, rufus, E. red, 0. H. G. rot. Skr. cZAe (to drink), 
 Gr. OrjcrOai, driXr], L. Jilius, femina, Goth, daddja (lacto), 
 0. H. G. tdu (lacto). Skr. dharsh (to dare), Z. daresh (to 
 dare), Gr. 0apa-oc, ^.fortis, Goth, gadaursan (to dare), O.H. G. 
 ^ztor. Skr. (i/m (to shake, blow), Z. dunman (vapour), Gr. 
 Qvii), OvtXXa, Ovfxog, L. fumus, suffio, Goth, dauns (odor), E. 
 dust, 0. H. G. tunst (storm). 
 
 I. (3). Skr. hhu (to be), Z. hu (to be), Gr. <^uw, h. fui, 
 E. 6^, 0. H. G. ^m (I am). Skr. hhrdtar, Z. hrdtar, Gr. 
 (jiparpia, L,. f rater, Goth, brothar, O. H. G. pruodar. Z. 5ar 
 (to bore), Gr. (^^apog, ^apaj^, 'L. forare, E. Z>or^, O.H. G.^o- 
 r«w. Skr. bhadra (best), E. better, best. Skr. bhang' (to break), 
 Gr. priyvvfjn, L. frango, Goth, brikan, 0. H. G. prechan. 
 
 II. (1). Skr. /a?i (to beget), Z. ^an (to beget), Gr. yivog, 
 L. genus, Goth, y^wm (race), E. Amr?, c/wYc?, 0. H. G. chind 
 (offspring). Skr. gar (to sound), Z. gar (to sing), Gr. 7f/puc, 
 L. garrio, gallus, E. ca^/. Skr. guru (heavy), Goth, kaurs 
 (heavy), E. care. Skr. bhug' (to enjoy, endure), \j. fruor^fun- 
 gor, Goth, brukjan, E. brook, Skr. ganda and /ia/iw (gena), 
 Gr. yivug, L. ^ewa, Goth, kinnus (chin), 0. H. G. chinni. 
 
 II. (2). Skr. druma (wood), Z. dru (wood), Gr. ^pvg, Bopvi 
 ^ivdpov, Goth, trill (tree). Skr. dam (to tame), Gr. dafxaw, 
 L. domare, dominus, Goth, gatamjan (to tame), 0. H. G. zami 
 
 ^H JLi. aor? 
 
30 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 (tame). Skr. dis (to show), Gr. deUvvfii, L. dico, Goth, teiha 
 (nuntio), 0. H. G. zeigom. Skr. and Z. das'an, Gr. Sejca, 
 L. decern^ Goth, taihuny 0. H. G. zehan. Skr. and Z. c?ua, 
 Gr. Sua), L. duo^ Goth, ^vai, G. -2;i^?ei. Skr. vid (to perceive), 
 o«Sa = Goth. vait= Skr. v^(fa, L. t?zc?^o, 0. H. G. w'z>a?2. Skr, dant 
 (tooth), Z. c^aw^, Gr. b^ovQ, L. c^ens, Goth, tunthus, 0. H. G. 
 ^ranc?. Gr. ^t?a for fpidia, Lesb. jSptVSa, L. rac?i>, Goth, vawr^s 
 (root), 0. H. G. wurza. 
 
 II. (3). Consult § 22. 
 
 III. (1). Skr. svasura (socer), Z. qas'ura, Gr. eKvpoQ, 
 Gr. soc^r, Goth, svaihra, G. schwager. Skr. e/a/'s' (to see), 
 Gr. g||OKw, 0. S. ^or/i« (bright), E. ^lorc/i, 0. H. G. zoraht. Skr. 
 asVw (a tear), Gr. Saicpu, O. L. dacruma^ Goth, ^a^r, 0. H. G. 
 zahar. Skr. s'a/« (house), Gr. icaX^a, L. ceZ/a, domi-dlium^ ce- 
 lare, E. Aci//, helU hole. Skr. Aa/^a (healthy), Gr. jcaXocj Goth. 
 Aai75, E. whole, heol^ G. Aei7. Skr. s'l (to lie), Gr. Kuixai^ L. 
 ^^m'es, am5 = 0sk. Agvs, Goth, haims (village), E. home, hamlet. 
 Gr. jcXfTTTw, L. c/^jpo, Goth, hlifius = KXeTTTijc Skr. sVm (to 
 hear), Gr. kXvw, KXiog = Skr. sravas, L. c/wo, cUens, Goth. 
 hliuma {aKori), 0. H. G. AZil^ (loud), SI. slava (glory). Skr. 
 karsh (to draw), L. accerso, E. hearse, harrow. Skr. Aas (to 
 cough), E. husky t 0. H. G. huosto. 
 
 III. (2). Skr. tri, Z. ^/in, Gr. tquq, L. ^r^s, Goth, threis^ 
 0. H. G. rfn. Skr. tarsh (to thirst), Z. tarshna (thirst), Gr. 
 rapcTOfiai, L. torreo, terra (?), Goth, thaurstei (thirst), G. durst. 
 Skr. toy (to cross), Z. toro (across), Gr. ripua, L. terminus, 
 trans = Umb. ^7'«/, 0. N. ^Arom (margo), E. through, 0. H. G. 
 drum (finis). Skr. paf* (to fly), patra (a wing), Gr. TrlTo/jiai, 
 irrepovy L. pe^o, penna (0. L. pesna), acci-piterf prcepes, O.H.G. 
 fedara (a wing), E. feather. Skr. and Z. tow (to stretch), Gr. 
 Tf/vw, L. ^ewf^o, tenuis, Goth, thanja (extendo), 0. H. G. rfwwra* 
 
 * Benfey deduces Skr. patrin (a mountain) and Gr. TrkrpoQ from this 
 root, remarking that in the old poetical language clouds and rocks are 
 identified, and the clouds considered as wings of the mountains ! 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 31 
 
 (thin). Skr. ta (to be powerful, to increase), Z. tu (to be 
 able), Gr. ruAoc, ravg fiiyag (Hesych.), L. tumeo, tuber, tueor, 
 tofus, Umb. tauta (a city), 0. Pr. tauta (land), Ir. tuaih (people), 
 Goth, thiuda (people), E. thumb, 0. H. G. dumo (thumb). 
 
 III. (3). Skr. apa (away), Z. apa, Gr. aTro, L. ab, Goth. 
 af, 0. H. G. aba. Skr. saptan, Z. haptan, Gr. cTrra, h.septem, 
 Goth. 526mw. Skr. joam (away), Z. para (from), Gr. Trapa, 
 L. joer, Goth. /?^a-, E.from, 0. H. G./ar-, N. H.G. ve^^. Skr. 
 and Z.par (to bring over), Gr. irEpau), L. porta, Goth. /ara?i 
 (to go), E. fare, G. erfahren. Skr. and Z. par (to fill), Gr. 
 nifjLTrXrifn, h. plenus, populv^, E. folk, full. Skr. jon (to please), 
 Z./n (to love), Gr. Trpavcj E. friend. Gr. tti;?, h. pugnus, 
 E.fist. Gv.TrXtvOog, E. flint {?). Gr. 7rau()oc, L. joawcMS, E./ei^. 
 Skr. jomi/z (to extend), Gr. wXarvg, L. Latium, E.flat, 
 
 §. 29. No satisfactory explanation of the origin of the 
 changes expressed by this law has ever been given. It has 
 been suggested* that "this phonetic diversity is due to a pre- 
 vious state of language in which the two or three principal 
 points of consonantal contact were not yet felt as definitely 
 separated from each other." Each of the branches of the Indo- 
 European family, it is maintained, modified this sound in 
 its own way ; hence we have different forms of the ori- 
 ginal vague sound. But, it is extremely unlikelyf that such 
 vague sounds existed in the original Indo-European language 
 contemporaneously with the strong articulation which is pe- 
 culiar to all old languages. If we thus account for the origin 
 of Skr. ap and L. aqna, JEol. Triavpsg, and L. quatuor, &c., 
 we will be forced from analogy to account for the origin of 
 the Wallachian apa, epa, patruX from aqua, equa, quatuor, in 
 
 * By MaxMiiUer, vol. ii., pp. 180, 181. 
 
 t Curtius, " Grundziige," p. 366. 
 
 i Max Miiller suggests, as an explanation of these forms, that the Le- 
 gions which colonized Dacia were raised in the Oscan and Umbrian dis- 
 tricts of Italy, where ^ represented the Latin qu. But, in addition to the 
 obvious improbability of this account, it may be added that it does not 
 
32 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 the same way, and to assert that these Latin words were pro- 
 nounced with a vague and indistinct consonantal sound ; this, 
 however, is too absurd to be maintained for a moment. 
 
 The very example (Skr. gharma, Gr. Oepjuog^ L. formus) 
 given by Max Muller should have been sufficient to demon- 
 strate the incorrectness of this theory ; for what pronounceable 
 sound can be imagined which could approximate to each of 
 these guttural (^/i), dental (0), and labial (/ ) sounds, without 
 being exactly any of them ? Such divergencies arose, not 
 from any vague articulation on the part of the Indo-Europeans, 
 but from other causes. These were (1), the influence of 
 neighbouring sounds ; (2), the springing up of adventitious or 
 parasitic sounds; (3), a psychological principle of differen- 
 tiation, i. e.., a desire to keep up within the limits of the same 
 language a difference between words or sounds that threaten 
 to become identical, or to develope such a difference be- 
 tween words or sounds that are at a given moment identical. 
 We find examples of (1) in the derivation of the Wall, epa^ 
 apa from equa, aqua ; for the u (v) became p through the in- 
 fluence of the tenuis q {k). We find (2) exemplified in such 
 forms as x^£C> Skr. hyas, I. E. ghyas^ where the y developed c? 
 before itself, as it frequently does, and then fell out, this S 
 afterwards becoming on account of the preceding x. 
 
 We find numerous examples of psychological processes in 
 all languages. Thus in Greek we have a^uvuivi judZujVy thvcj^ 
 for a/ifyywv, Xejjwv, tevJio, where the i arises from the 
 throwing back of the original y that once existed in the last 
 syllable, and where this y must have been present to the mind 
 before it was pronounced. This effect — called variously Hy- 
 perthesis. Infection, or Umlaut — appears in its complete form 
 in Zend. We find it also in English, as in the verb tofelljihe 
 
 seem to be borne out by the forms of the Wallachian language. The ex- 
 ample (Osc. pomt{s = L. quinque) adduced by hijnself overthrows this 
 theory ; for the Wallachian for five is quinque^ a word evidently of pure 
 Latin origin, 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 33 
 
 causative of to fall, where the e (ai) arises from a by hyper- 
 thesis. In Latin forms such as scripsi we also see the effect 
 of Psychological influence, for as in the hyperthesis of i we 
 think of the following ?/, so we think of the following s, 
 and change the b of scribo intojo, as 5 is a hard sound. We 
 see a similar cause at work in the origin of the It. buono, 
 nuovo, fuora, fuoco, from L. bomis, novus, foris, focus. The 
 Italians had lost the distinction between the short and the long 
 o, but they still felt that a distinction should be made between 
 the o£ novus and the o ofnonus ; so, while they kept o where- 
 ver it was long, they employed uo to represent o when it was 
 short. 
 
 In the old Norse imperfect indicative we find the a of the 
 singular changed into 6 in the plural, on account of the u of 
 the final syllable, which therefore must have been present to 
 the mind during the pronunciation of the first syllable ; thus, 
 sing. 1. halladha^ 2. kalladhir^ 3. kalladhi; pi. 1. kdlludhurriy 
 2. kolludhuty 3. kolludJiu* 
 
 §. 30. The changes of sounds, noticed in the last section, 
 arise from what has been called by Max Miiller Dialectic 
 Growth ; but there are other changes that manifest themselves 
 not only in some ancient languages, but also much more fre- 
 quently in their modern representatives. These latter arise 
 from what he calls Phonetic Decay ;t and the cause of this de- 
 cay he rightly traces to laziness, or want of muscular energy 
 on the part of the speaker. Thus, as he remarks, nearly all 
 the changes that have taken place in the transition from 
 Anglo-Saxon to modern English belong to this class. We 
 have silly from smlig^ woman from wifman, lord from hldford, 
 king from cyning^ &c. Similarly we have squire from Fr. escuier, 
 
 * Aasen's " Norsk Grammatik," p. 224. 
 
 t Max Miiller, vol. ii., pp. 176-178. Curtius calls this phenomenon 
 Verwitterung^ thus comparing it to the decay caused by the operation of 
 the atmosphere. 
 
34 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 L. scutarius; stranger from. Fr. estrangier, L. extraneus; sexton 
 from Fr. sacristain ; chapter from Fr .chapitre, L. capitulum; dam- 
 sel from Fr. demoiselle^ L. dominicella; Sir from Fr. ^iet^r, L. se- 
 wioT*. In Greek the insertion of the mediae between /x and p, or v 
 and p, is due to the same cause, avEpeg and yajx^pog being more 
 easily pronounced than avpcc and ya/xpog. We find similar in- 
 sertions in English, as to slumber from A. S. slumerian^ cinders 
 from L. cineres, &c. In Goth, hunds^ E. hound (L. canis), d has 
 been added to facilitate the pronunciation. The (7s in ^o/<i 
 and mind have been explained in the same way, but wrongly 
 so, for gold is the Gothic gultk = I. E. ghar-ta from I. E. and 
 Skr. ghar (to shine), whence Skr. hirana, Mr any a (gold), 
 Z. zaranUf zaranya (gold), Gr. y^pvooq = xqvtjoq = I. E. ghar- 
 tyas^ ')(\ovv6g = xp^^^^ (Hesych.), Phryg. yXovpog xpvaog 
 (Hesych.) ; and mind= L. nient in mentis. From this root ghar 
 come also Skr. hriku, hliku (tin), Gr. xoXkoc, and L. glisco. 
 
 §. 31. Apparent Exceptions to Grimm's Law.* 
 
 The first class of these exceptions consists of natural 
 sounds (naturlaute), onomatopoeic, and imitative words ; thus 
 we have as natural sounds, Skr. attd (mother), Gr. aTTa, 
 L. atta, Goth, atta (father) ; ma and pa, the words used 
 by infants for their food and their parents, whence arise 
 Gr. fiafifjLtti oTTTra, L. mamma^ mamilla, papilla, G. amme, 
 E. mamma, papa, paps, pap ; Skr. tdta (dear, used chiefly by 
 parents addressing their children, and children their parents), 
 Gr. ThTTa, TUTa^ rirOri, riOrivri, L. tata, E. tit, teat, 0. H. G. tutto 
 (breast), toio (godfather), Lith. teta (aimt) : as onomatopoeic 
 and imitative words, we have Skr. hrSsh (to neigh), 0. H. G. 
 hross, E. horse ; Skr. hikkd, E. hiccough ; Gr. uAaicrw, E. howl, 
 G. heulen ; Gr. icXayyi^, L. clango, E. clank, clatter, clap, 
 
 * For the materials of sections 31 and 32 I am almost entirely indebted 
 to the instructive articles of Lottner and Grassmann, in K. Z., vol. xi., 
 p. 161 ; and vol. xii., p. 131. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 35 
 
 O. N. klaka ; L. grunnio, E. grunt ; Gr. fxvKCKrOaty furiKaaOai, 
 G. meckern ; Gr. \airrw, L. lambo, labrum, E. lap, lip. 
 
 A second class consists of borrowed words. L. tus is bor- 
 rowed from Gr. Ovog ; if it were genuine Latin, it would begin 
 with /, as the root is Skr. dim. L. scalpo and sculpo, along 
 with the art of sculpture, were borrowed from the Greeks; for 
 these words correspond to Gr. yXo^w and^Xv^w, the p repre- 
 senting the hard r/» ; the words glaber and gluho are genuine 
 Latin words, b being the exact equivalent of the Gr. ^. 
 Scribo also exactly corresponds to ypcKJuo, with the exception 
 of the prefixed s, -which proves either that writing was 
 known to the Greeks and Italians while they still formed one 
 people, or thfit scribo was borrowed from the Greeks in very 
 early times, when (j) was still soft. AYhen a word belonging to 
 any one of the three classes of languages, whose consonants are 
 regulated according to Grimm's law, is similar in meaning and 
 consonants to a word l)elonging to either of the other classes, 
 we may lay down, as a general rule, either that one of these 
 words was borrowed from the other, or else that there is no 
 connexion between them. E. huski/ has nothing to do with 
 Z. huska (dry) ; for hushj is connected with Skr. kds (to 
 cough), and huska = Skr. s'ushka (dry, emaciated), Gr. (tovkoq 
 (dry), L. siccus. E. go is not from same root as Skr. gd, but we 
 find it in Skr. hd (to go), I. E. ghd. E. look is not the Skr. lok 
 (to see), but rather laksh (to see) = lag + s. E. whole is not the 
 same as Gr. oAoc ; for E. h represents an I. E. k, while the 
 Greek aspirate represents an I. E. 5. E. call is not connected 
 with Gr. KoXeiv, nor E. care with L. cura ; for E. c requires g 
 in the corresponding Greek and Latin roots ; E. call corre- 
 sponds to Skr. gar (to praise), gir (a voice), Gr. yripvg, L. gar- 
 rio, g alius f and E. care to Skr. guru (heavy), L. gravis. 
 
 A third class of exceptions arises from sounds having 
 been irregularly changed within the same language : thus h in 
 E. heart appears to represent A in Skr. hrd, but here the Skr. h 
 has been developed from an I. E. k, as we see from the cog- 
 
 d2 
 
36 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 nate forms, Gr. jcapSia, L. cor, Ir. cride. The following cases 
 are easily explained by supposing that the corresponding 
 Indo-European roots began and ended with aspirates. Thus 
 we have, I. E. bhudhna, Skr. hudhna (depth), Gr. ttuOjuijv, 
 h. fundus, 0. H. G. bodam, E. bottom; I.E. bhudh, Skr. budh 
 (to know), Gr. TrvvOavojuLai, Goth, biuda (Lknow); I.E. hhandh, 
 Skr. bandh (to bind), Gr. ntvOepog, iruanai, L. fascis, funis, 
 E. bind; I. E. bUdh, Gr. tte^^w, L. fido, Goth. Mja; I. E. 
 bhddh, Skr. 5acZ^ (to repel), Gr. Tratrxw (for Tra^-o-Kw), Ij. fen- 
 do, 0. N. 5orf (a fight), A. S. beadu; I. E. bhdghu, Skr. 5a/m 
 (arm), Gr. irrixyQj 0. N. bogr, 0. H. G. buoc; I.E. bhaghu, 
 Skr. 5aAw (large), Gr. Trax^c ; I. E. bhugh, Skr. 5awA (to grow), 
 Goth, bagms (tree), E. beam; I. E. bhugh, Skr. bhug' (to 
 bend), Gr. (^evyw, L.fugio, Goth. 5m^a(Ibend) ; I. E, bhargh, 
 Gr. ^paatrw (for ^payyw), Goth, bairga (I guard), baurgs 
 (a town) ; I. E. bhargh, L. flagellum^ Goth, bliggvan (to 
 scourge) ; I. E. dhubh, Skr. c?Awp (to fumigate), Gr. rv^oc 
 (smoke), ru^Xocj Goth. e?a?^6s (deaf), dumbs (dumb), G. tozfJ ; 
 I. E. dhigh, Skr. c?iA (to smear), Gr. Oiyyavio, L. //i^o, 
 Goth, deiga (I form), (Zaz^s (dough), G. teig ; I. E. dhagh, 
 Skr. c?a^ (to burn), Goth, dags (day), O. H. G. tdht, (a lamp- 
 wick), G. tag, docht ; I. E. dhughatar, Skr. duhitar, Goth. c?az(7i- 
 iar*, 0. ^.(j[.tohtar : this word, comes perhaps from the next 
 root, and means the " milker ;" I. E. dhugh, Skr. duh (to 
 milk, to enjoy), Goth, dugan (to be useful), E. dug, Ir, diu- 
 gaim (I drink oflf), Scot, deoghail (mammas sugere) ; I. E. 
 dhrugh, Skr. druh (to hurt), Gr. dk\yw (?) L. frustra^ 
 Goth, driugan, 0. N. draugr (a ghost), Z. (fr?i^' (an evil 
 spirit), O. H. G. triugan (to deceive), Ir. droch (bad) ; I. E. 
 ghabh, Skr. g'abh, (to gape), ^.gape ; I. E.ghardh, Skr. gar dh 
 (to desire), Goth. grMags (hungry), E. greedy, 0. H. G. AiV 
 (desire), G. gier, Ir. ^^^acZ/i (love). D in Skr. cZtjara (a door), 
 represents an I. E. dh; for we have Gr. Ovpa, L. fores, Goth, 
 (iaitr, 0. H. G. tor., Ir. dor (a door). Gr. 76 (Skr. ha, Ved. 
 ^^a), may have arisen on European soil from an older ^f* 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 37 
 
 from same root as x^ in yxh Skr. hi. Bopp, however, connects 
 with ye the k in Goth, mik, thuk^ and the A in 0. H. G. unsih, 
 iwih^ which can only be explained on the supposition of an ori- 
 ginal g. In Skr. aham^ Gr. I'yw, L. ego^ Goth, ik, Skr. mahaty 
 Gr. juieyaQ, L. magnus^ Goth. mikils = fiEjaXog, Skr. hanu (jaw), 
 Gr. yivvg^ L. gena, Goth, kinnus^ Skr. lahgh (to jump), Gr. 
 Xa7c5c, Goth, laikan^ the Gothic and Greek forms point back to 
 an I. E. g^ while the Skr. h represents an I. ^. gh. Hence 
 we may infer either that the Indo-European possessed these 
 roots in a double form before the separation of the Sanskrit 
 from the other languages, or that the Sanskrit subsequently 
 aspirated the original g, and then reduced it to h. 
 
 §. 32. Actual Exceptions to Grimm's Law. 
 
 These exceptions occur in the consonantal groups sk, st^ 
 sp. Thus we have Skr. k'had (to conceal), from I. E. skad^ 
 Gr. (TKOTog, Goth, skadus (shadow), Ir. scath (shade) ; L. pis- 
 cis, Goth. Jisks ; Skr. k'hid (to cut), from I. E. skidj Gr. o-xt?a>, 
 L. scindOf Goth, skaida (separo), Ir. scaithim (I cut off) ; 
 L. hostis, Goth, gasts ; Skr. ifam (star), Gr. a(TTr]Q., L. Stella^ 
 Goth, stairno ; Skr. tud (to strike), from I. E. stud (?), Gr. Tu- 
 ^evg (the striker — compare Charles Martel and Judas Macca- 
 hcBus), L. tundo, tudes (hammer) ; Goth, stauta (I strike) ; Gr. 
 <TTSLX(*>i Goth, steiga (1 ascend) ; Gr. tttuw, L. spito^ pituita^ 
 Goth, speiva (spuo). 
 
 An original tenuis sometimes appears as a media. Thus 
 we have Gr. Sa/c/ou, Goth, tagr ; L. septem, Goth, sibun ; 
 L. quatuoTj Goth. Jidvor ; Gr. Kparvg, Goth, hardus ; L. cen- 
 turrij Goth, hund ; L. pater, Goth, fadar ; L. mater, A. S. mo- 
 dor (Goth, hrothar and ^.father, &c. are regular) ; Gr. kvtoq, 
 A. S. hjd (hide). 
 
 In the present participle we have Goth, -awe? for Skr. -ant, 
 Gr. -ovr, as Goth, hairands (nom. sing, masc.) = Gr. (piptjv, 
 E. friend, fiend. In the past participle we have Goth, -d for 
 
38 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Skr. -ta. This Goth, d must have arisen from an older ih^ of 
 which traces are still found, as in fads and faths = Skr. patis, 
 kunths (known) = Skr. g'mtas = Gr. -yvwroc (whence E. un- 
 couth), bairith and hairid = Skr. hharati. 
 
 We find the medias unchanged in the following cases : — 
 Skr. gar (sonare), E. niyldin-yale ; Skr. garhh (aperire)', Gr. 
 ypcKJKjJi Goth, graha (fodio), E. grave, grub, Ir. grabhaim (I 
 carve), grafaim (I write), grafan (a grubbing axe) ; Skr. gras 
 (vorare), L. gramen, E. grass (unless gra^s be from I. E. and 
 Skr. ghar (to shine) whence harit (green) Gr. ^6r\, L. holus, 
 E. green) ; Skr. Mad (to be glad), Gr. Ki^a^a, E. glad. In 
 many of the cases where a media is retained, this effect is due 
 to the influence of a neighbouring ^, m, n, or r. 
 
 The original tenuis is also unchanged in the following 
 cases : Gr. rsTaywv, L. tango, Goth, i^kan (to touch), E. take; 
 Skr. pathas = Gr. irdrog, A. S. pa6?, E. path. 
 
 In the three following cases a Gothic tenuis corresponds to 
 an I. E. aspirate : I. E. magh, Skr. rnah (to be great), rndmahye 
 (macto), makha (a warrior), Gr. juaxofxai, L. macto, macellum, 
 Goth, meki (a sword) ; I. E. ghrabh, Skr. grah, Ved. grabh 
 (to seize), Gr. ypT<j>og, Goth, greipan (to seize), E. ^n/>, grab, 
 Ir. grabaim (I devour) : Gr. afca0oc, trKaTrrw for aKaipTio, 
 Goth. 5^ip (ship). 
 
( 39 ) 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Sanskrit Alphabet.* 
 §. 33. Tabular View of the Sounds. 
 
 MUTES. 
 
 SEMIVOWELS. 1 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 unasp. 
 
 asp. 
 
 Spirants. 
 
 Nasals. 
 
 r & I'sounds 
 
 
 snrd. son. 
 
 surd. son. 
 
 surd. son. 
 
 
 
 
 Gutt. h g 
 
 kh gh 
 
 h h 
 
 n 
 
 
 «'«(. ..^ 
 
 Pal. k' g' 
 
 k'h gh 
 
 s' y 
 
 n 
 
 
 i,^t'^M 
 
 Cer. t d 
 
 th dh 
 
 sh 
 
 w 
 
 (r, I) ? 
 
 (r,r,/)? >«'«« 
 
 Dent, t d 
 
 th dh 
 
 s 
 
 n 
 
 r, Z 
 
 u, u 
 
 Lab. p b 
 
 ph hh 
 
 V 
 
 m 
 
 
 Sanskrit writing is called by the native grammarians BS- 
 randgariy which means the ndgari of the gods or brahmans. 
 Ndgari is the name applied to the current style of writing 
 used by the Hindus, and is supposed to be derived from na- 
 gara (a city), thus meaning "the art of writing as practised 
 in cities" (M. Muller's " Skr. Gr." p. 1). The names ofthelet- 
 ters are formed by adding kdra (m aking) to each sound ; thus 
 a is ca lled akd ra,_J^^.Jiakdra, as each consonant is supposed 
 to have a short a inherent in it. R forms an exception, and 
 is called repha (burring), from o^ebh (to sound), Gr. poif5Sog. 
 
 * Sariskrta means properly " what is made fit ;" hence it came to 
 mean purified, as being made fit for sacred purposes. This is why this 
 name is applied to the ancient sacred language of the Vedas. The local 
 dialects of India are called Prakrta, i. e. " what has a type, or original" 
 (Benfey's " Skr. Lex."), this type (prdkrti) being Sanskrit. Sanskria is 
 from sam (avv) and skar (to cut), according to Lottner, who thinks that 
 in this compound skar is mixed up with kar (to make). 
 
/ 
 
 40 COM? AKATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 y §.34. Anusvara, Anunasika and Visarga. 
 
 Y Anusvara, n (from anu^ after, and svdra, sound), is a nasal 
 after-sound, and is compared by Bopp to the Fr. n at the end 
 of a syllable. It is, however, properly speaking, not an after- 
 sound, but merely a modification of the preceding vowel 
 (§, 10). Its pronunciation is very weak, for it does not pre- 
 vent the euphonic influence of an i or u upon a following s ; 
 in prosody, however, it and Visarga make a preceding short 
 
 / vowel long, when the next syllable begins with a consonant. 
 
 / It occurs in the middle of words before the sibilants and h, 
 
 ' as dans (to bite), hansa (goose), sinha (lion). Before y, r, 
 and V, in the middle of words it is only found in reduplicated 
 syllables, as yaiiyamyate. Another anusvara is used for the 
 nasals, merely " for the sake of neatness in writing,'' as Cole- 
 brook says. This must always receive the same pronunciation 
 as the nasal in the place of which it stands. In Prakrit a final 
 m always, and, as is never the case in Sanskrit, the dental n 
 become the anusvara (Bopp's " Skr. Gr.," p. 17). 
 
 A / Anunasika (from anu^ after, and ndsikd, the nose), is a 
 still weaker nasal sound than Anusvara ; its weakness is 
 shown from the fact that it can be followed by I and r. It is 
 very nearly equivalent to the Fr. n in gem^e. Such a combi- 
 nation is generally avoided in French by inserting d^ as in 
 viendrai : compare av^pog for avpog. 
 
 Visarga, h, is an euphonic change of final s and r. It may 
 also take the place of s before the loc. pi. ending su. The 
 Visarga that occurs before k and hk is formed by the root of 
 the tongue and is called G'ihvdmuliya ; that occurring before 
 />, p/i, and a pause, by the palate, and is called Upadhmdmya; 
 s therefore before labials, is equivalent to the blowing sound/. 
 We see the same change in other languages : thus the Irish 
 .s- sometimes corresponds to the Welsh/; we have in Greek 
 the two forms ^r)p and 0»7p, and L. rufus^ beside Ipvdpoq. We 
 may explain on this ground the change of final as into 6 in 
 Sanskrit, through the steps as, af, av, au, 6. 
 
comparative grammar. 41 
 
 §. 35. The Vowels. 
 
 Sanskrit had no short e or o, though the short a had both 
 a clear and an obscure sound {Pan. VIII. 4, 68). Short e and 
 o are similarly wanting in Gothic. Skr. a is represented in 
 Greek by a^ e^ o', and Skr. a by a, t/, w ; in some cases Skr. 
 a corresponds to Gr. a^ i^ o^ as in dgas = ayog^ vdstu = Fckttv, 
 the participial suffix -mdnas = -fxevog (L. -minus) and -fxvoq 
 (L. -mnus) in juLiEijivog, fiipi/jiva (L. alumnus, columna)^ dhd- 
 man = Oifia, ddru = ^Ojou, ^'aww = yovv (L. genu)^ g'ag'dna 
 = yiyova, hhdras = ^opog, data = Sorjjp, o in e^^^ojucv, &c. = a in 
 vahdmas, &c. In Bengali a has either become o, or been 
 lost, as in B. opotyo = Skr. apatya; B. ow^or = Skr. antara. It 
 is pronounced as ri in merrily. It is never original, but has 
 always been developed from t", preceded or followed by 
 any vowel ; thus we have trttya (tertius) from tri, strnomi 
 = oTO/ovfjut, s'rinomi (1 hear) from sru, bhrkuti (a frown) from 
 hhru (an eyebrow), prk'h from prak'h (to ask), p^^7• from^^^a/', 
 ddtr from ddtdr, pitar and ^a^a/* being the original forms, as 
 the accusatives pitaram = iraTepa, and ddtdram = doTrjpa prove. 
 The vowel r is pronounced exactly as n; it only occurs in 
 nouns whose stems end in r, and which lengthen this vowel 
 after the analogy of other nouns, whose stems end in other 
 vowels ; thus, pitrn = iraTipag, duhitrs = OvyaTspag, da- 
 trndm = datorum. The vowel I is pronounced as li. It has 
 been developed from an older r, and occurs only in the root 
 kip (to create), which is derived from kr and the causal p, 
 which is connected, perhaps, with the root o^woi^io. Bopp 
 connects E. help, and Benfey L. corpus, with this root. The 
 long I vowel never occurs, and is merely an invention of the 
 grammarians. 
 
 §. 36. Weight of the Vowels. 
 A is heavier than u, and u heavier than i; that is, a occurs 
 in the lightest forms, i in the heaviest, and u in the interme- 
 
42 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 diate. For instance, the terminations -vasj -thas, -tas are 
 heavier than -mi, -si, -ti ; hence we have yundmi (I bind), 
 yundsi, yundti, but yunwas (we two bind), yunithas, yunitas ; 
 similarly we have a weakened to u in kurmas (we make), 
 beside karomi (I make), and in -thus, -tus, the terminations 
 of the 2nd and 3rd dual of the reduplicated perfect, beside 
 -thas and -tas of the present. As e is equal to ai, it is lighter 
 than a, and heavier than i; hence we have 4'mi = tt^i, and 
 imds = 'IfiEv ; similarly we have in Latin, amicus, inimicus ; 
 cano, cecini ; jacio, ahjicio ; tango, tetigi ; lego, colligo. In open 
 syllables a becomes i, while in closed ones it either becomes 
 e or remains a, as in abjectus, inermis, expers, tuhicen beside 
 tubicinis, and contactus, exactus. As u is lighter than a, and 
 heavier than i, we have calco, conculco ; salsus, insulsus ; 
 fructifer beside an older fructufer. As labials prefer u, we 
 find occupo, aucupo, nuncupo, contubernium, &c. The vowel u 
 in Latin frequently maintains its ground, and does not give 
 way, as in tutudi, pupugi. As ae is heavier than ^ (= ii), and 
 au than u (= uu) and 6, we have qucerOy acquire; claudo, con- 
 cludo ; faux, suffoco. Short o in Latin is lighter than u, as we 
 see from corpus, corporis; jecur, jecoris. The oldest forms of 
 words are therefore generally distinguished by the retention 
 of the vowel a ; for example, Skr. k'atvdras and L. quatuor 
 are older than Gr. rlacrapeg, Tricrvpeg, and Goth. Jidvor ; Skr. 
 daddmi than didw/jLi ; Skr. dadhdmi than TiBr}int ; Skr. naktam 
 (by night) than vvKra. Within the limits of the Sanskrit itself 
 a is frequently reduced to i and i, u and u ; thus giri (mons) 
 and guru (heavy) from gar ; stliitas = L. status, Gr. araTog ; 
 stJiitis = Gr. (TTamg; hirana (gold), Z. zarand; pitd = Gr. 
 TraTfjp ; puras = Gr. irapog ; stirna from star (sternere) ; pita 
 (part., praet. pars.) from pd (to drink) ; dirghas = Z. dareghas 
 = Gr. SoXixoe ; purnas = L. plenus, from par (to fill). A often 
 vanishes completely, as in santi = L. sunt, from as (to be) ; 
 g'agmus (3 pi. perf.) from gam (to go). After v and y this 
 frequently occurs, and then these spirants are vocalized into 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 43 
 
 u and ^, respectively, as uMa (part, praet. pass.) from vak (to 
 speak) and islita (part, praet. pass.) from yag' (to sacriBce). 
 
 §. 37. GUNA AND YrDDHI. 
 
 Guna (quality) consists in prefixing a short a to any 
 vowel, and Vrddhi (increase) in prefixing a long a. We have 
 therefore. 
 
 Primitive Vowels, 
 Guna, 
 Vrddhi, 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 u 
 
 d 
 
 , , 
 
 i 
 
 e 
 
 6 
 
 d 
 
 . . 
 
 hi 
 
 di 
 
 du 
 
 u 1 e 
 6 \, . 
 du I at 
 
 du 
 
 f 
 
 r 
 
 ar 
 
 ar 
 
 dr 
 
 dr 
 
 It is only from a comparison of grammatical forms that we 
 can distinguish the guna of a from its vrddhi ; e. g. by com- 
 paring papdta (he fell) from 'pat with vives'a (he entered) from 
 vis\ we see that a in the former is the guna of a, as e in the 
 latter is the guna of i. 
 
 The guna of i is e, as in end = u/uli ; vSda = olda ; vSsas = 
 FoLKog ; sHe = KUTai from 5'^, whence L. civis. The vrddhi of 
 i is m, as in vdis'ya (a man of the third class), from vis (to 
 enter) ; sdiva (a worshipper of Siva) from s'iva, &c. 
 
 The guna of u is o, as in buhodha (he knew) from Jw^^/i ; 
 sunos (gen. sing.) of sw/im (a son), &c. The vrddhi of w is 
 du, as in bduddha (a follower of the Bauddha religion) from 
 hudh; Bdudha, a son of Bud/la^ &c. 
 
 These examples are sufficient to show what we mean, 
 when we speak of the guna or vrddhi of any vowel. 
 
 §.38. The Gutturals. 
 
 Skr. ^ is = I. E. ^ : has = L. quis = Goth, hvas, Gr. kwcj ko- 
 repovj Ir. cia ; kdla (time), Gr. Kaipog, Goth, hveila; Mia 
 (death), Gr. ktjjo, Ir. eeal ; kdrd (a prison), L. career; kan 
 (to shine), L. candela, Goth. €keina(i shine), Ir. can7t (the 
 
44 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 full moon). Bopp, Schleicher, and others have asserted 
 that ^ frequently represents an I. E. ^, and that consequently 
 we find these sounds interchanged in Sanskrit and the cognate 
 languages : thus we have, Skr. kanth (to mourn), Gr. 7riv9og, 
 iriTTovOa ; Skr. kars' (attenuare), L. parco, parens, parvus ; 
 Skr. ka (who), Gr. Tro-repov ; Skr. papa (bad), Gr. icaico?, 
 L. pejor for pepjor ; Skr. pcmUan - L. quinque ; Skr. paid (to 
 cook), Gr. wEiTTd), L. coquo. Now, I am fully convinced that 
 p has never been thus developed from an original k ; but that, 
 wherever these sounds appear to be interchanged, either the 
 original sound was kv, or else the change is due to assimilation, 
 and perhaps in one or two cases to a false analogy. Thus 
 Skr. ka must be derived from an I. E. kva ; for we find 
 Skr. kva (where), kutra (where), L. quis and Goth, hvas, all 
 of which point back to an I. E. kva; Skr. k'atvdras, Gr. wiav' 
 pig, Lith. keturij point back to an I. E. kvatvdras, which we 
 find in L. quatuor; Skr. panMan, may have been a reduplica- 
 tion of kvan, as L. quinque. In some cases an initial p may 
 have been changed into k or kv by the assimilative power of 
 a succeeding k or kv, as some assert to have been the case 
 with L. coquo and quinque : from a comparison, however, of 
 coquo with Lith. kepejas (a baker), and Gr. aproKoirog (a 
 baker), it seems possible that the initial k or kv may be original : 
 compare L. coquina = popina, culina for euclina* 
 
 Ksh (= ks) corresponds frequently to kt in Greek ; here 
 either kt was original, and from it ks arose by weakening the 
 explosive sound to a sibilant, or else ks was original, and 5 
 became t through the assimilating power of the preceding ex- 
 plosive sound. We have rkshas = apKTog ; taks/id = riKTdJv ; 
 kshan (to hurt), Kralvto, Kra-fievai ; kshi (to rule), Kraofiai ; kshi 
 
 * From the fact that this same root, meaning to baJce, is found in Skr., 
 Gr., and L., Mommsen appears to be mistaken in asserting that the Greeks 
 and Latins did not practise baking till after they separated from the 
 parent stock and from each other. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 45 
 
 (to dwell), KTi^io ; ahha (the eye), oktuXXoc. Sometimes also 
 ksh corresponds in Greek to 5? and sometimes to axi as ksJiura 
 (a razor), ^vpov ; kshud (conterere), Svw, ^varog, for ^v^toq ; 
 kshad (to slaughter), a^aZd) ; similarly we have kshal (to wash) 
 beside Lith. skalau (I wash), and kshubh (to agitate) beside 
 A. S. be-scufan (contrudere), G. schiehen. Sh sometimes 
 disappears, and leaves k or kh, as in kshud (conterere), L. 
 cudOf incus ; ksliam (to endure), KOfxiZu) ; kshudra (small), 
 Lith. kudikis (infans), Pers. kudek (small) ; khura (a razor), 
 another form of kshura ; ksMtra (campus), Goth, haiilii (ager), 
 G. heide; kshaya (a house), Ir. cai (a house). K also sometimes 
 disappears, and leaves s, as mkshubh (to agitate), W. hwbiau (to 
 make a sudden push), SI. silbati (to agitate) ; and perhaps in 
 kshvSl (se movere), 0. H. G. suillu (turgeo). Ksh, when not 
 initial, appears often as g in Gothic and English : we have 
 kdhksh (optare), E. hunger ; pakshin^^a, bird), Goth, fugls, 
 'Ei.fowl^ aksha (the eye), Goth, augo, E. eye. Ksh, according 
 to Bopp, also appears as kr in Latin and Greek : we have 
 kshapas (night), L. crepus-culum, ; kshi (to rule), urukshayas 
 = tvpvKpeiwv ; kship (to throw), piiTTU) for KpiTTTu) ; kshipra 
 (celer), Kpanrvoq. 
 
 Kh has generally been developed from an older k, some- 
 times through the aspirating influence of a preceding s, which 
 has afterwards disappeared : thus we have khang (to limp), 
 Gr. cKaSw, O.H.G. hinkan ; L.caligo ; khan (to dig), Gr. -^aivti), 
 L. canalisj cuniculusj O.H.G. ginSm (hio) ; khad (to slay), L.c/a- 
 des, with inserted, as in Goth, hlaha (I laugh), G. lachen, E. 
 laugh, beside Skr. khakkh (to laugh),* khdd (to eat), Ir. caithim 
 (I eat). Kh also represents an I. E. gh in kha (air), Gr. x«oc» 
 L. halare, and nakha (a nail), Gr. ow^, Goth, nagls. 
 
 G f^l.E, g : gar (to sound), Gr. yr}pvio, yAwo-o-a, L. gal- 
 lus, garrire. Wherever Skr. g corresponds to h in Greek or 
 
 * i is perhaps inserted in L. claudus, Skr. khod (to be lame) ; Ir. 
 glun, Skr. g'dnu; Ir. dluimh (smoke), Skr. dhuma. 
 
46 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Latin, the original sound must have been gv: thus we have 
 I. E. gvand, Skr. g'ani (a woman), Gr. yvvi) for -yFai/a, Boeot. 
 j3aya, Ir. bean (a woman), E. quean, queen; I. E. gvam, Skr. 
 gam (to go), Goth, qvima (I come), L. venio for gvenio ; I. E. 
 ^var, Skr. ^<2>' (to devour), Gr. ^pwGKb)^ L. gula, gurges, glutio, 
 voro for gvoro ; I. E. gvaru, Skr. ,^Mn« (heavy), Gr. (5apvg, 
 L. gravis; I. E. ^t7a, Skr. ^o (a cow), Gr. jSovc? 7« ii^ ya-Xa (for 
 7a-AaKr,* which, according to Bopp, meant lac vaccinum, Xokt 
 being the same word as Skr. difgdha,mi\k), L. bos, ceva; I.E. 
 gvd^ Skr. go (the earth), Gr. yva for yFaa, yata for yafia, yrj 
 for yaa. 
 
 Gh = I. E. gh: stigh (to mount up), Gr. ardx^^ A. S. staeger 
 (a stair) ; Skr. gharma (warm), SI. goorti (ardere). 
 
 ^ is a sonant, and therefore cannot have the hard sound 
 generally given to it by Englisli grammarians, perhaps on 
 account of its having a liard sound in Bengali. It never 
 ends a word, and in any other ]30sition only stands before 
 vowels, and semivowels, as in hresh (to neigh), hnu (to 
 hide), hlf2d (to be glad). AVhen it comes before t or th, it 
 changes them into dh or dh, as in dugdha from duh (to milk), 
 L. duco, and lidha from lih (to lick), Gr. \u\w. -fiTrepresents 
 an I. E. gh in hima (snow), Gr. ximv ; hari (green), Gr. xXoij, 
 hyas, Gr. x^^Cj an I. E. dh in hitas = Ostoq; an I. E. bh in 
 grah, Ved. grabh and mahyam (mihi), beside tubhyam (tibi) ; 
 and an I. E. k in the single case of hrd (the heart). 
 
 §. 39. The Palatals. 
 
 The palatal mutes and nasals have all arisen from the cor- 
 responding gutturals ; and the palatal sibilant generally stands 
 for an original k. It is not known how these letters were 
 
 * Max MuUer assents to the first part of this derivation, and compares 
 with it Gr. (iovrvpov, and Ir. bleachd (milk) for bo-leachd, but he con- 
 nects Xaicr with Skr. rag'as (a clear fluid). The Homeric yXayos would 
 then be exactly equivalent to a Skr. goragas. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 47 
 
 pronounced in ancient Sanskrit ; k' may have been sounded 
 either as ty or as ky^ like the cin E. card, which is frequently 
 pronounced as if it were written cyard, 
 
 K' -1. K. k^ kd = 1j. que, pe, in quippe, Goth, uli, h in 
 hvasuh (quisque), nih (neque) ; k'akshus (the eye), Ir. cais 
 (the eye) ; k'ank' (vacillare), L. cunctari, Ir. ceangtha (they 
 go) ; k'durya (furtum), Ir. coire (trespass) ; kfand (to shine), 
 L. candeo, accendo, scintilla^ Goth, skeina (I shine) ; k'al (to 
 move), Gr. fcAo/xaf, KiXrig, L. celer, procella, Ir. caill (a path) ; 
 ^'aZ (nugari), Ir. cal (a joke); k'arman (corium), Gr. \6pLov, 
 L. corium, calceus (?) Ir. croicionn (a skin). In reduplicated 
 syllables k' takes the place of /^, as in k'akdra (feci), from kr. 
 
 K'h = l. E. s/{, k'hid (to cut), Gr. aKiEvrjini, L. scindo, Goth. 
 skaida (I separate), Ir. scaithim (I cut off) ; (jciUUhdmi (I go) 
 for ga-skdmi ; pralch (to ask) from L. precor, I. E. prask. 
 
 G' = I. Fi. p ; g*dnu = Gr. 'yovu ; ^WZ (to burn), Ir. geal 
 (bright), gual (coal), E. coal; g'var (to be sick), L. cs-ger, 
 Ir. ^MT-^ (pain) ; gnd (to know), Gr. iyvtjv (y)vovg, L. 
 (^) nosco, gnarus, i-gnoro, E. know, can, Ir. ^wza (knowledge) ; 
 gush (to desire), L. gustus, Goth, kiusu, E. choose, Ir. ^w* (de- 
 sire) ; ^'«s/i (to kill), Ir. ^tfs (death), and perhaps L. vasto for 
 gvasto, as mwfor j^'mw ; &c. ; g'an (to produce), Gr. yiyvoiiai, 
 L. gigno, genus, E. &, Ir. genim (I beget) ; g'anaka (father), 
 from last root, G. Z^o/ii^, E. king. In reduplicated syllables ^' 
 takes the place of ^, as in g'tgdmi-Gi. ^ifir]iiL, 
 
 S' nearly always represents an I. E. k, and consequently 
 we find corresponding to it k in Greek and Latin, and h in 
 Gothic. The Lettic and Slavic languages, on the other hand, 
 nearly always present the sibilant, although the guttural is 
 sometimes found, as in Lith. ahmen, SI. kamen, Skr. as' man. 
 We have nod (to perish), Gr. vkKvq^ L. nex, nox (the dying 
 away of day) ; S'ri (the deity of plenty), L. Ceres ; s'ravas 
 
 * See Ellis' "Phonetics," p. 56; and Max Miiller, vol. ii., p. 142. 
 
48 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 = K\iog ; svas (to sigh), L. ques-tus^ E. wheeze ; s'vSta 
 (white), Goth, hveits, E. white^ wheat, " the white plant" ; 
 sata (a hundred), Gr. Uarov for kv-Karov, L. centum, 
 Goth, hund, W. ^aw^; s'lVos and s'trsha (the head), Gr. Koparj, 
 Kapa, L. cerebrum; s'roni (the hip), h, clunis : mrs' (to 
 touch), L. mulcere ; sad (to fall), L. cadere ; asman (a stone), 
 aimara (stony), Gr. oKjueuv, 0. N. hamar (saxum, mal- 
 leus), E. hammer ; asvas = Gr. 'iKKog, ittttoc, L. ggwMS, Goth. 
 m'Avs, 0. S. ehu, Ir. gcA ; ds'u (quickly), Gr. wkuc, L. ocius, ac- 
 cipiter, aquila ; vis (a man), E. wight ; s'ai'ik (to doubt), 
 L. cunctari ; hhrs'am (quickly), L. frequens ; s'ana (hemp), 
 O. H. G. hanaf ; sans (to say, praise), L. censeo ; sapha (a 
 hoof), E. hoof ; s'van (a dog), Gr. jcvwv, Lydian KavSauXijc 
 ((TKuXXoTTviJcrTjc)? Median o-Traica, Z. s'pdnem (ace. sing.),L. cam's, 
 Goth, hunds, ^. hound. In some Sanskrit forms we see the ori- 
 ginal k kept as in adikshat = I'Sfi^e from cZzV (to point out) ; dik- 
 shu, loc. pi. of dis' (a region of the sky). S' sometimes takes the 
 place of an original s. This is a change not easily explained, but 
 in all cases I believe that it arises either from assimilation, or 
 from the presence of a neighbouring guttural. The second s' in 
 s'as^a (a hare), from sW (to leap), represents an original s, and 
 has arisen from the assimilative power of the first s ; the I. E, 
 form was kasa, whence G. hase, E. hare; yet we have the follow- 
 ing gloss from Hesychius, KeKrivag Xayioovg KpriTeg, where the 
 second k seems to point back to an I. E. k. In s'vasuras = Gr. 
 iKvpog, Li,socerj the first s' is due to the assimilative power of the 
 second s'. In the following cases s' has sprung from s, through 
 the influence of the neighbouring guttural, s'akrt (dung), 
 Gr. (TKwp, cncaroc, L. stercus ; s'ushka (dry)*, Z. huska, L. sic- 
 cus; s'amhuka, borrowed from Gr. aajxfivKrw k^s'a (hair), 
 
 * Benfey explains the s here by the assimilating influence of the foj- 
 lowing sh ; but then how would he explain s'akrt, &c. ? 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 49 
 
 E. hair; kes'ara (juba leonis),* L. ccesaries. On this prin- 
 ciple L. sacer has been connected with s'ak (to be able), but 
 wrongly, if the 0. N. hagna (prodesse) be from the latter root. 
 The L. saccharum and E. sugar have been borrowed from 
 Skr. s'arkard (gravel, clayed or candied svigar), in which s' 
 = 1. E. k, if L. calculus, calx, Gr. fcjoo/cr?, jcpojcaXTj be connected 
 with it. S' was pronounced either as ch in G. mich, or as ssi 
 in E. session. "No simple s can be pronounced at the pala- 
 tal point. The letter s is formed by the simple friction of the 
 breath between the upper and lower teeth, and is in conse- 
 quence always dental. The rushing sound of the English sh 
 or the German sch is formed in the hollow space left between 
 the teeth and the palatal point, and may thus be regarded 
 both as a dental and as a palatal sound" (Lepsius' " Standard 
 Alphabet," p. 70). 
 
 The palatal nasal was pronounced as gn in Fr. campagne, 
 or as 71 in E. new. 
 
 §.40. The Cerebrals. 
 
 The presence of the mutes and nasal of this class in San- 
 skrit has been generally ascribed to the influence of the Non- 
 Aryan races of India, from whom these letters are supposed 
 to have been borrowed. Biihlerf has, however, completely 
 overthrown this theory, and has pointed out that by far the 
 greater number of these cerebrals is produced either by the 
 direct change ofr, sh, into them, or by the change of dentals 
 into the corresponding cerebrals through the influence of r, 
 r, r, shy and consequently that cerebralization is entirely an 
 Aryan proceeding, rooted in the ancient phonetic system of 
 
 * Bopp derives hair for kes'ara by throwing out the s'. He deduces 
 kes'a from ke, loc. of Aa (the head), which is found in Gr. Ko-ixri, Jj. co-ma, 
 ca-pillus, and s'a for s'aya from si (to lie) ; kes'a would then be '' quod in 
 capite jacet." If this derivation be correct, s' is original here. 
 
 t Consult Appendix A. 
 
 E 
 
50 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 the language. In Prakrit these cerebral sounds have fre- 
 quently supplanted the corresponding dentals, as in hadi 
 = Skr. pr«^i (TTport, Trbrt); padhama (first) = Skr. prathama. 
 In transcribing English words the Hindus at present substi- 
 tute cerebrals for dentals, as in pireHar, Gavarnment, &c. 
 This shows us that the ordinary English pronunciation of 
 these words is more cerebral than dental. 
 
 P has sprung from sd in nida (a nest) from ni (under) and 
 sad (to lie), and therefore means " what lies under ;" L. nidus, 
 E. nest, Ir. nead, W. nyth; pid (to press) = pisd = api-sad, 
 compare TriiZtsj - Ittl-g^'^ju} ; had and vdd (to bathe) = vasd 
 ^ava^sad, from ava (down), and sad. 
 
 /SA = I. E. s ; ush (to burn), L. uro for uso, us-si; tar sJi (to 
 be thirsty), Gr. ripaojuat, L. torreo for torseo, E. thirst. aSA be- 
 fore s becomes k, as in dvekshi (thou hatest). 
 
 §.41. The Dentals. 
 
 7^= I. E. ^ ; ta, Gr. to, L. is-te ; tvam, L. tii; pat (to fly), 
 Gr. TTETOjuai ; bharanti = Gr, ^epovTi, ^spovcri, L. ferunt. 
 
 TA = I. E. if ; sthag (to cover), Gr. ortyw, L. tego ; sthd (to 
 stand), L. sto ; prath (to extend), Gr. irXarvg ; asthi (a bone), 
 Gr. ocFTEov ; ratha (a car), L. rota^ E. rather. 
 
 i> = I. E. cZ ; ^a^ (a foot), Gr. ttouo tto^oc; f?«5 (to lift), 
 E. toss; dar (to tear), Gr. ^ipu), E.4ear ; dam (to tame), Gr. 
 Sttjuaw, L. cZomo, E. tame. 
 
 Dh = I. E. dh; dhuma (smoke), Gr. Ovjlloq, L. fumus; 
 dhar (to support), Gr. Opavog, L.firmus,fortis; dhrdkh (ares- 
 cere), h. /races (lees of oil), Jloces (lees of wine), E. cZre^s, 
 dry ; dhd (to place*), Gr. ridrifxi, L. con-do, E. (io, cfoow ; 
 rac?Aw (a wife), from a root which appears in Zend as vad 
 
 * The late Professor Siegfried derived from this root the Keltic datl 
 (judicium), whence were borrowed, according to I^ottner, E. tattle, 
 G. tadel, the termination -tl being = Gr. -rpov, L. -trum. . 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 51 
 
 (to lead), and which has in Lithuanian the sense of to marry 
 (uxorem ducere), L. vas^ vad-is (a contract, as marriage was 
 perhaps the earliest kind of contract known), E. wedding. 
 JDhis sometimes reduced to A, as in hitas (part. pret. pass, of 
 dhd) = BsTog ; -hi (termination of 2 pers. sing, imper. act.) for 
 -dhi after vowels,* as pdhi (tuere), -dhi is still kept after 
 consonants, as addhi (eat), and in Vedic as s'rudhi = kXvOl. 
 
 /S = I. E. s ; saptan^ L. septem; svid (to sweat), Gr. idpwg, 
 L. sudo, E. sweat ; as (to be), L. esse. S is subject to many 
 changes in Sanskrit ; thus after k, r, and all the vowels, ex- 
 cept a and a, it becomes sh. In certain other cases it is re- 
 presented by h, r, and s; but these need not be noticed here, 
 as they properly belong to the special Sanskrit Grammar. The 
 change of s into r occurs also in other languages. In the La- 
 conian dialect, final o- became p, as rtp, wicrop, for rig, irlOog ; 
 and in Latin s between two vowels became r, as eram for 
 esam, quorum = Skr. keslidm (sh for 5, on account of preceding 
 e), guar am = Skr. Msdm. S has frequently an aspirating in- 
 fluence on a following consonant, as in sthag^ Gr. GrkytM) ; sthd^ 
 L. sto; sphdy (to increase), Gr. o-Traw, L. spatium ; asthi, 
 Gr. oarEoy. 
 
 Ef = I. E. r : mar (to die), L. morL It is sometimes omit- 
 ted in Sanskrit after an initial consonant, as in bhang (to 
 break), L. frango; bhug' (to enjoy and endure), L. fruor, 
 E. brook; g'hilli (a cricket), L. gryllus, G. grilk. We find a 
 similar omission in other languages, as in Pkr. padhama 
 = Skr. prathama ; E, speak - G. sprechen. 
 
 L=l. E. r, lup (to break), L. rumpo ; lok' (to see) from 
 
 * The exceptions are edhi (be), s'adU (rule) g'uhudhi (offer). Lidhi 
 (lick) is for liddhi. 
 
 f Schleicher and others place r and I among the cerebrals ; but, as 
 they appear to be closely connected with the dentals, it is perhaps better 
 to place them among the latter. This question, however, requires a much 
 more complete investigation than it has yet received. 
 
 e2 
 
52 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Tuch (to shine) ; halp (to prosper), from harp. X = I. E. Z; 
 see §. 21.* 
 
 N =\. E. n', nas (to die), vckuc, L- noceo ; nara (a man), 
 av-qp^ L. iVero. .iV is frequently changed into another nasal 
 for phonetic reasons ; thus we have purna (full), where n 
 takes the place of w, on account of the preceding r, and in ge- 
 neral the nasal belongs to the same class as the following con- 
 sonant, as yung'anti = L. jungunt, lumpaii = L. rumpit. 
 
 §.42. The Labials. 
 
 P = I. E. p ; pati (a master), Gr. oectttottjc (lit- * a master 
 of slaves,' Skr. (iasa, a slave) ; pifa/*, Gr. 7rar?)() ; p« (to drink),* 
 Gr. TTtvw, L. j90^ws; pyai (to increase), pwan (fat), Gr. Trt'wi/, 
 TTtap, L. pinguis, E.fat; pis' (to adorn), pes' alas (beautiful) 
 = Gr. TTotKtXoc, p% (to putrefy), Gr. ttuoc, 7r60a>, L. pws, 
 putris, E. /omZ; jon (to love), Gr. ttqclo^, E. friend; pas'u 
 (cattle), Gr. 7rwu(?), L. pecuSj Goth, faihu, A. S. feoh, E.fee. 
 Ph has generally arisen from an I. E. p, perhaps through 
 the influence of a preceding s, as in sphatika (crystal), G. spath; 
 sphut (to burst), E. split ; spliur (to tremble, to strike), Gr. 
 acTiraiQti) ; Skr. pMna (foam), L. spuma, E. foam ; phala 
 (fruit) for spaZa, lit. 'what may be split,' or honoThhala^ L.flos, 
 E. bloom. 
 
 B= I. E. b (§. 22), or = I. E. bh (§. 22). 
 
 BA = I. E. bh ; bhar (to bear), Gr. (jiipu), h.fero; bhid (to 
 cleave), L. fndo^ E. bite; abhi (towards), Gr. afKpX, E. bi/. 
 Bh is in some cases reduced to A, as in grah (to seize), from 
 Ved. grabh, mahyam (to me) = L. mihi^ beside tubhyan = L. tibi, 
 
 * L does not exist in Zend. The Chinese, on the other hand, always 
 use I for r, as Eulopa for Europe., KilUssetu for Christ., Yamelika for 
 America. The New Zealanders have no Z. They say i2o^a for Zo^, Zfo- 
 romona for Solomon. 
 
 t P here may represent an I. E. bh, if L. libo, E. Jee?-, be from this 
 root. AVe have a trace of the b in Skr. pibdmi (I drink;. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 53 
 
 Fallows consonants to stand after it, wliich is hardly ever 
 the case with y. It is frequently interchanged with h. In drapsa 
 (a drop), fi'om drav [dru gunated), the v is changed into p 
 on account of the following hard s, as in Mod. Gr. iKXa^a from 
 iKXavcra. The interchange of ^ and v is ot common occurrence, 
 as L. habere, Fr. avoir, L. cantaham, It. cantava; berher (in Sa- 
 lian Hymn) => fervere ; Vesuvius = BtajStoc ; -ber in Septem- 
 ber, Skr. vara (time) ; Vesontio = Besangon. Bopp considers 
 that V has been hardened into a guttural in the following cases : 
 Skr. g'lv (to live), L. vivo, vixi, E. quick, Skr. bhdyavdmi (I 
 make to be) = L. facio; Skr. devaras = L. Z^yiV, A. S. ^acor, 
 0. H. G. zeihur ; Skr. ?2aws = Gr. vavg, L. wa^z's, A. S. naca, 
 0. H. G. nacho. In this opinion he appears to be mistaken ; 
 and it is far more likely that an original guttural has fallen 
 out in levir and vivo, than that v should have been hardened 
 into one ; as to facio, it is not from bhdvaydmi ; and in the 
 case of A. S. naca, we have a different termination from the 
 va in iidu, which is for snd-va. V, according to Bopp, is some- 
 times changed into /, as in L. -lent = Gr. -Fei/r = Skr. -va?it ; 
 Skr. svadus (sweet) = Lith. saldus (sweet) ; Skv.svapnas (sleep) 
 = Gr. vTTvog = E. sleep* Similarly v becomes r, as in L. eras 
 = Skr. s'vas ; L. ploro = Skr. pldvaydmi; Kr. tqI = Skr. tvdm ; 
 Goth, driusan (to fall)= Skr. dhvans ; 0. H. G, pirumes = Skr. 
 bhavdmas ; 0. PI. G. scrir times = Skr. s'rdvaydmas ; Ir. raidim 
 (I say), Goth, i^asda (speech), Skr. vad (to speak). 
 
 M= I. E. m : manas = Gr. [ikvoq, L. mens ; smar (to re- 
 member, L. memor ; as'vam = L. equum ; sydm = L. siem. 
 
 §. 43. When one consonant follo'ws another, the law that 
 
 * Notwithstanding the parallel case of Lith. saldus = Skr. svddus, the 
 connexion of E. sleep with Skr. svapna is very unlikely, on account both 
 of the long vowel (Goth, slepan O. H. G. sldfan) and the p, which should 
 be /, according to Grimm's law. Moreover, the root svap appears in 
 O. N. svefn (soranus), 0. H. G. swehjan (sopire), A. S. swejinn. Lottner 
 connects E. sleep with O. H. G. slaph (languidus). 
 
54 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 governs them is this, ' sonants follow sonants only, and surds 
 surds only :' thus vdk' (speech), inst. pi. vdghhis, yunag'mi (I 
 join), yunakti (he joins) ; admi (I eat), atsi (thou eatest). 
 Only one consonant is permitted to end a word ; when seve- 
 ral consonants occur together, all but the first are thrown off: 
 thus, vdk\ nom. sing, vdk for vdksh^ and this for vdk-s. Tenues 
 alone are allowed as final consonants, the mediae and aspirates 
 being changed into the corresponding tenuis ; but when this 
 final tenuis comes before a word beginning with a sonant or 
 a vowel, it becomes the corresponding sonant, the tenues being 
 therefore retained only before a pause and a following tenuis ; 
 thus harit (green), mud G^y)? y^d^^ (a fight), become harit, 
 mut, and yut before a pause ; but we have harid hhavati (viri- 
 dus est), mud bhavati (gaudium est), yud asti (pugna est). For 
 further information on this subject, the reader is referred to 
 the special Sanskrit Grammar. 
 
( 55 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 The Greek Alphabet.* 
 §. 44. Tabular View of the Sounds. 
 
 MUTES. 
 
 unasp. 
 
 asp. 
 
 surd. 
 
 son. 
 
 surd. 
 
 Gutt. K 
 
 y 
 
 X 
 
 Pal. 
 
 
 
 Cer. 
 
 
 
 Bent, r 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lab. TT 
 
 /3 
 
 <P 
 
 SEMIVOWELS. 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 Spirants. 
 
 Nasals. 
 
 ;• & l-sounds. 
 
 
 surd. son. 
 
 son. 
 
 son. 
 
 
 a {a) 
 F 
 
 7 
 
 V 
 
 
 (of) / 
 
 Z, ?, and yfj were called avj^irpiova SnrXa ; but ? differs from g 
 and ;// in tliis, that it is a consonantal diphthong, being equiva- 
 lent properly to (iy, while ^and \p are merely signs for Kg andTrc- 
 It is a mistake to suppose that Z is equivalent to So- ; for such 
 a combination is impossible, as 8 is a sonant, and o- a surd. 
 Before the introduction of the symbols S and \p, the Greeks 
 frequently used ^(t and <^(t instead of them. The Romans also 
 must have aspirated the k and tt in their pronunciation of ? 
 and \p ; for Priscian* writes, " multo moUiorem et volubiliorem 
 sonitum habet \p quam^^s vel bs ;" and again, "sicut ergo \p me- 
 lius (mollius ?) sonat quamps vel ^5, sic a; etiamquam gs vel cs." 
 In Zend a similar phenomenon occurs ; thus the nom. sing, of 
 ap (aqua) is dfs, and of vdk' (vox), vdkhs. S seems in some 
 cases to have been soft, as in afdivwfii, aojSoXoc, fiicryu), iKryrj^ 
 and the ^olic SSeuc for Ztvg, crdvyog for ?uyoc> jS/oio-Sa for 
 piZa. Plato placed a among the a(p(ova. He says, to aly^a 
 
 * Bohtlingk (K. Z., vol. xv., p. 148), however, considers that Pris- 
 cian means that ^ sounded as hz^ and x as gz, as in Fr. examen. 
 
56 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 TU)v cKJxLvwv laTij \p6(pog Tig fiovov, olov (TvpiTTOvarjg rijc 
 yXwTTrjg. *'A(p(i)va, however, in Plato's language, included both 
 the semivowels (^wvjjevra julIv ou, 6u jucvrot ye a(pQoyya), and 
 the mutes {a(p9oyya) : consult Plato, Kratyl. 424, C. 
 
 §. 45. Pronunciation of the Vowels. ' 
 
 Y was originally a pure w, but in early times it became u. 
 This was the first beginning of that tendency in Greek to- 
 wards allowing the i- sound to predominate over the other 
 vowels, which so strongly characterizes Modern Greek. When 
 V became w, the pure w-sound was expressed by ov. This 
 pure sound was retained by the Boeotians ; they wrote rou, or 
 rovv for (TV, Kovjua for Kv/ma, yXovKOv for ^^i^ku, &c. In the 
 Laconian dialect we also find roOvri for av, Kapova for jca/ova, 
 juoviai for i^vlaL, &c. In Mod. Gr. uhas the sound of ^ ; but it 
 could not have had this sound in classical Greek, for it was pro- 
 nounced with contracted lips {fivoirreg ra x^tArj), and it is im- 
 possible to pronounce a pure i in that position. The old pure 
 sound of V was kept* in the diphthongs au, tu, and ou ; for 
 these must have arisen in early times, before v had become it ; 
 and in the cases where v represents F, it must have had the 
 sound of the pure u. Moreover, if v in these diphthongs had 
 been pronounced li, the Mod. Gr. pronunciation av, ev, ov, 
 would be inexplicable. We find also on inscriptions cjiEoyeiv, 
 E6epytTr}g, aorovg, &c., for (pEvyeiv, EvEpyirrig, avrovg, &c., 
 which forms teach us the same fact. Ou in a later period lost 
 its diphthongal pronunciation, and became a pure w; this 
 could not have happened, had v in ov been pronounced as w. 
 This is corroborated by the fact that the junction of o and u 
 never forms the diphthong ou, but that they are pronounced 
 separately, as in oXiyovirvog. The old name of o fiiKpov was 
 ou, and at Athens, before 01. 100, o was always written in place 
 
 * Dietrich, in K. Z., vol. xiv., p. 48. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 57 
 
 of the later ou, where this ov arose either from contraction, or 
 from mere lengthening, whether arising from the falling out 
 of a consonant, or from any other cause, wherever, therefore, 
 the Doric had w : on the other hand, ov was written wherever 
 V was original, whether as representing F or for some other 
 reason ; thus we have toq for rov^, from rove? «k to koivo for 
 £K Tov Koivov, &c., but alwajs ovk and ourog, in both of which 
 words the Doric has also ov.* In early times o was used to 
 express both the long and short clear o and the long and 
 short obscure o. The latter sound became u (ou), the former 
 (i) (= oo) . The clear sound prevailed in early times, and hence 
 we have Xitov, Xeywv, &c. for Xeovrg, Xejovrg, &c. ; for o was 
 lengthened to compensate for the throwing out of the conso- 
 nants at a time when it still had the clear sound. The augment 
 £ before o coalesced with this o into w, for this change like- 
 wise occurred at an early period. On the other hand, in 
 roue for Tovg, Xiyovai for XijovTi, the v remained in long ; and 
 when it was thrown out o had become obscure, and therefore 
 the w-sound (ou) took its place. Similarly in Old Latin, o had 
 both a clear and an obscure sound : the obscure o became w, 
 as in legant, vulgus, from 0. L. legont, volgus, while the clear o 
 remained unchanged, as in colo, lionestus. When o was suc- 
 ceeded by a vowel, it in some cases seems to have had the 
 sound o^ w\ thus we have, 6a for the Persian wah,"Oa^og 
 for Fa$oc, oa<7iQ from Ar. wadi^ Soav for ^Ftjv, Ko'lvtloq for 
 Quinctius, and perhaps in olarpogf the gadfly, so called from 
 its whizzing noise. 
 
 As o was written ov before the Archonship of Eukleides, 
 so £ was written for et. Et was however written in full where- 
 ever the i was original, as in 'i-^^siy XeXog, ttoXel (dat. sing.) ; 
 but where ft arose either from contraction or any other cause, 
 € is found, as in noXeg for iroXEig, EpyaoTai for tlpyaarai, kXe- 
 yeveg for KXeiyivrjg, evOevai for evOeXvai. In this latter case 
 the iEolians wrote rj for £d, as in (rvfKpiorjv, X^iPi tQ^I^- We 
 
 * Dietrich, in K. Z., vol. xiv., p. 53. 
 
58 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 find one exception to this rule ; for on inscriptions we find 
 Hirev for uirev and elirelv, though the root Fett contains no t 
 originally ; the ^olians also wrote EiTrrjvfor htthv. E had two 
 sounds in early Greek, the one approaching a (e"), the other 
 approaching i {f) ; g", when lengthened, became t;, and e\ u. 
 The former sound was older than the latter ; and hence, when 
 phonetic changes requiring t to be lengthened occurred in 
 early times, it became ?/, whereas in changes, of later origin 
 e^ became £t. Thus we have riQx^'^^y vOeXov, beside f? x^^ 
 (= ecTtxov)} HTrojuYiv (= eFeTrojurjv), eipyatrimaL (= Fef spy acr/iai), 
 for the consonants in these cases were not thrown out till late ; 
 —rip, — i]v, —r}g (in alOrip, Tepriv, evysvrig), for -spg, -avg, -E(TC» 
 beside -eig (in yapUig, riOeig), for -evrg, as in the former 
 cases the nom. sing, o- was early lost, while in the latter v re- 
 mained in till a later period. 
 
 The Boeotic is a stage in advance of the Attic, for in it we 
 find EL for »/, as in cjS^o/zeiKOvra, where -/jlh- for -jua- must 
 have passed through the stage -ju»j-, iriveig for Trivng, TideijuiL 
 for ridrfiuLL ; Yi for at, as in kyj for koi, rvTcofxr] for rvTrTOfxat ; 
 and I for et, as in Xiyig for Xiyug, tjl for aUt. While sl in 
 Greek, and ei in Latin gradually approached t in pronuncia- 
 tion, the English i conversely is pronounced as ei ; similarly, 
 while ov in Greek and ou in Latin approached u, the N. H. G. 
 au has been developed from the M. H. G. w, as in haus from 
 hus. H in classical Greek never could have had the sound 
 of I, for the bleating of sheep is represented by |3i). The 
 diphthongs av and oi were probably pronounced as E. om and 
 ee ; for in Aristophanes (Vesp. 903), a dog's bark is av,av, and 
 a bird's note is ttoT (Aves, 227), compare E. pewit. 
 
 §. 46 Pronunciation of the Aspirates.* 
 
 The aspirates were originally hard sounds ; for before the 
 introduction of the- signs, 0, x> 0? they were written, TH, 
 
 * Consult Raumer, " Gesammelte sprachwissenschaftliche schrlften," 
 p. 96 ; and Curtius, " Grundzuge," p. 370. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 59 
 
 KH, nn, as in EnEYKHOMENOS, EKDHANTOl, on the 
 
 Columna Naniana ; moreover, we find them reduplicated by 
 the tenues, as in Tidnfii, k^x^ku ; and in addition, when the 
 Ionic dialect separated from the parent stock, they must have 
 been hard, for we frequently find them represented in it by 
 the tenues. These hard aspirates were originally soft, and 
 traces of this fact still manifest themselves, as in ^idaKVYi 
 = UiOaKvrj, TtXxtvEc = QeXyXvsg, (pi^ojJLai for (^t^^LOfiaiy an irre- 
 gularly reduplicated form of the same root as the Skr. hhi 
 (timere). Curtius attempts to account for the origin of these 
 hard aspirates from the I. E. gh^ dh, and hh^ by supposing 
 that the h in these latter was hard, and that it assimilated to 
 itself the preceding medi^, just as j3 in R. j3Aaj3 becomes ir 
 before r in jSAaTrroc This explanation is, however, perfectly 
 untenable. The aspirates were also in classical Greek actu- 
 ally double sounds, as we see (1) from the moveableness of 
 the aspiration in reduplicated syllables, in 9pi\pu) from TpEcJKOj 
 in Ion. BvOavTa = IvravOa, Ion. Ki9d)v = xltwv^ in a^' ov from 
 a7r' ou, &c. ; (2) from the way in which Barbarians pronounced 
 Greek, as atrpiav, ttvXci^l (Thesmoph. 1001, seq.)^ opviro 
 (Aves, 1678) ; (3) from the way in which they were transli- 
 terated in the older Latin, where ^ = ^, c = ;^, ^ or 5 = 0, as 
 in tesaurusy Corintus, tiasus, calx (= xaki^)^ NicomacuSy 
 Aciles, Poinos (= ^oTvtS), Pllemo (= <I>tAr//i(uv), Nicepor (= Ni- 
 Kr]<l>6pog), purpura (= 7ro()^vpa), Burrus (= llvppog)^ Bruges 
 (= ^puyec) ; (4) Dionysius of Halikarnassus states that in the 
 case of the aspirates there was a irpodOfiKt] tov irveiffxarog ; 
 (5) in Modern Greek in some cases the tenuis represents the 
 old aspirate, which could not be accounted for if 0, ^, had 
 been spirants, as Iekw, (rroKaZoiiai, TEKviTtig in Rhodian dialect, 
 riXu) = OiX(o among Asiatic Greeks, and Xevrepovw = eXevOt- 
 oou), in the Peloponnesus. Those who disagree with the 
 preceding view of the aspirates bring forward in support of 
 their opinion, that they were not true aspirates, the fact that 
 we find such combinations as (pX, x^» <A^' X^ ( = ^ anciently). 
 
60 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR, 
 
 and ask how could these be pronounced if 9, x, and ^ were 
 true aspirates. But this is a very unsafe foundation on which 
 to build ; for w^e are not likely to be good judges of what the 
 ancient Greeks could pronounce, and the mere fact that we 
 are unable to pronounce a certain combination of letters does 
 not prove that others could not pronounce it. The statement 
 of Priscian, that the only difference between / and was that 
 was pronounced ^^^s labris, only proves that in his time 
 had become a spirant —not, however, a labiodental like / and 
 Mod. Gr. <p, but rather an interlabial. 
 
 §.47. The Vowels. 
 
 An original a often vanishes, as in jlyvojULaL for yijEvofxai, 
 from K. 7£v, Skr. g'an ; ttitttw for irnT^TU) from K. ttct, Skr. 
 pat (to fall) ; 7rar(>oc = Ho^- TrarigoQ. It is generally retained, 
 when it is initial, as in tafx^v = Skr. smas (we are), L. sumus ; 
 eit]v = Skr. sydm^ L. siem. 
 
 a = 1. E. a: airo = h. ab = Skr. apa (away) ; aicwv, L. acus^ 
 acies ; Sok/ou, Skr. as'ru(si tear) ; ayu), L. ago, Skr. ag (to go). 
 
 a = I. E. am and an : kirTa = Skr. saptan ; Ivvia = Skr.'wa- 
 van; Seku = Skr. das' an ; eS^i^a = Skr. adiksham ; iroSa = Skr. 
 padam, Traripa = Skr. pitaram. 
 
 6 = 1. E. a: EOTTi = Skr. asti; (pipit) = Skr bhardmi; rir-^ 
 rapeg = Skr. k'atvdras ; (pXiyw, L. flagro ; iraTtga = Skr. pi- 
 taram; ex*C) L. anguis. We find c and a standing beside 
 each other in many grammatical forms : Ti/nvu), trafjiov ; Tpiwu), 
 tT^aTTOv ; (TTpi(l)U), iaTpa^r\v ; SspKO), edpaKOv ; Trao-^w, iniao- 
 fiai. In the dialects e and a are frequently interchanged ; 
 (TTpt(l)(i}, Dor. arpdcpa) ; Ttinvu), Dor. ra/biviv ; irUZu}, Dor. 7rm^a> ; 
 "ApTa/nig, Dor. "Apra/utc 5 tepog, Dor, lapoc ; ort, ^ol. ora ; 
 Kparo^, jEoI. KptTog ; Qapaoq, ^ol. Oipaog ; XtyojUf 0a, -iEol. 
 Aeyo/xe^cv; jSapa^pov, Arkad. ZipeOpov, Ion. fSiptOpov/, j3aAAtu, 
 Arkad ^eXXw ; aparjv, Ion. fpo-^jv ; opaw. Ion, Ojoeco. As Dor. 
 a = Att. c, so Doric a = Ion. and Att. 77, wherever this yj re- 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 61 
 
 presents an original a. So also rj = Skr. a, as TiOrifiL = Skr. 
 dadhdmi. 
 
 o = I. E. a: vifog = Skr. wat;a5 (new) ; iraroQ = Skr, pa- 
 thas (a path) ; Trodtc = Skr. patis (a master) ; fiivog = Skr. ma- 
 was (mind). In tKe dialects we find o and a frequently inter- 
 changed : eiKocTi, Dor. Ftfcart ; rpm/cotrtot, Dor. rpiaKUTtoi ; 
 ovEipov, Kret. avatpov ; ricrcFaper, Dor. reropec? where o per- 
 haps represents the original Fa ; utto, JEol. vird ; ava, ^ol. 6v ; 
 jSpa^fwc, ^ol. |3pox£wc; licaroy, Arkad. l/coroi;; KapSta, 
 Kypr. Kop^a ; oppw^fiv, Ion. appw^uv. Similarly we find 
 Xiaiva (= Xsai^ya) beside Xswv, st. Xeovt ; riKraiva (=rffcravya) 
 beside rcKrov ; a^ua beside 6p.6g, &c. As Dor. a=Att. o, so Doric 
 a= Att. (u, as in Dor. Trparog for Trpwrocj Dor. Oeapog for Oeujpog. 
 So also w = Skr. a, as in di^cofii = Skr. daddmi. In some cases 
 £ and o are interchanged o^ovng^ Mo\. I^ovteq ; oSuvr/, ^ol. 
 l^vva ; K£|Ofcvpa, Dor. KooKvpa ; 'AttoXXwv, Dor. 'AttcXXcuv ; 
 o/3oXoc» Dor. oScXoc; 'Opx^M^^^^C? Boeot. 'Epxc^uevdc- 
 
 t = I. E. z: 'i-fiev, R. t, Skr. mas^ (we go) ; Xsittw, R. Xitt, 
 Skr. n'^' (to leave), L. linguo; bfxixuv, R-jU^x* ^^^' ''^'^^ (min- 
 gere). 
 
 i = I. E. a : a then passed through the intermediate stage f, 
 and in many cases we find side-forms containing both e and l : 
 thus we have i'XXoj beside gXutu, Kipvr]fit beside Kepdvvvfiiy 
 KTivyujUt beside kthvm, Krajuevai, TriXva/xai beside TTsXacj Trirvrjiut 
 beside TraTcivvvjuiLi nirvo) beside Tre(Tt7v, ladt beside to-r/ , vlggo- 
 fiai beside Neorrwp, ?2w beside eSoc- In the following cases 
 these side-forms in £ do not exist : "nnrog = Skr. as'vas, L, 
 equus ; Kptvio beside L. cerno ; piZa beside L. radix. I = a in 
 reduplicated present tenses, as TiOriini - Skr. dadhdmi, ttltttu) 
 from R. TTcr, tlktm from R. t^k for rtrjcw. E and i are frequently 
 interchanged in the dialects : Boeot. iwv = ewv, R. £c '•> Eak. o-m 
 = Oid ; Kret. 0(oc = O^og ; Dor. tarta, Ion. LGrir] = laria ; Arkad. 
 ty = £v ; x*p^fy£oc ^nd similar adjectives in -eog end in -log in 
 ^olic. In^ol.rfproc = rptroc, and^ol. I\ippap.og^ox npiajULog, 
 Ahrens considers that i is chano^edinto £ on account of the fol- 
 
Q2 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 lowing p, as in L. tertius, and pronunciation of E. tMrd, 
 Although an I. E. a can thus be weakened to ^, the converse 
 never occurs ; this rule has long been known ; for in the 
 " Etjmologicum Magnum" we are told that ov^e-rroTE to l eIq a 
 TpeirsTai. 
 
 u=I. E. u : (^vw, Skr. bhu (to be) ; wKvg = Skr. ds'us (quick) ; 
 Juydy = Skr. yugam (a yoke) ; kAuw, Skr. s'ru (to hear) ; suffix 
 - TV in fioTjTvg, &c., = Skr. Lith. and L. -tu. 
 
 V = I. E. a : a then passed through the intermediate stage 
 o, and in numerous examples o and v stand beside each other, 
 while the Latin corresponding forms have sometimes not ad- 
 vanced beyond the o-stage, though, as we have already re- 
 marked, the Latin has generally advanced to the w-stage, even 
 in cases where the Greek still keeps o ; Xvkoq, L. lupus, from 
 an I. E. varkasj as may be inferred from Skr. vrka (wolf) ; 
 fxopfjLvpw, L. murmur, Skr. marmara (murmur) ; jxvKr], L. moh, 
 Lith. malunas (a mill), which are all derived by Max Mliller 
 from an L E. mar (to rub down), with which he also connects 
 fiapvafiai, fiwXog "A/otjoc (the toil and moil of Ares), iulu)X<o\[/ 
 (a weal), L. mors, &c. ; vvi, L. nox, Skr. naktam (by night) ; 
 <Tvv, Kvv, L. con, cum, Skr. sam (with) ; 6vv^, Skr. nakha (a 
 nail) ; Travriyvpig beside ayopa ; kvkXoq = Skr. k'akras (a 
 wheel) ; avtovvpog beside ovopa, Skr. ndman (a name) ; the 
 suffix — ri»p in papTvp beside -Top, nom. -Twp, as in L. daturus 
 beside dator ; irpvTaviQ from irpo (irporavLog is found on a 
 Lesbian inscription), the termination being found in cTrr^g - 
 Tavog, and L. diutinus. In yvvrf v represents an older Fa, as 
 we see from Boeot. f5ava. In ^olic v frequently takes the 
 place of o : owpa = ovojua ; vpotog - opoiog ; airv = airb ; 
 ^YSvaaevg =^ 'O^vacyevg ; "YXvpnog = ^'OXvpirog ; vjiKpaXog = 
 o/u0aXoc ; v(Tdog=6Zog ; vpvig = opvig ', pvytg = fioytg ; irvTapog 
 = TTOTapog ; ^evpv = davpo. In ^olic we also find v for 
 w : TiKTvv = TEKTiov ", \eXvvr} = x^^^*^*? (comparc 0w/o = L. 
 fur) : and ot for v in the single case of xpoiaog = xpvaog. 
 We find V for a in iEol. <rvp^ = aapK, and Lak. syKvra = 'iyKa- 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 63 
 
 ra (entrails) ; and v for o in Ion. pu(peu) = po(^€w. The Boeotic 
 dialect often substitutes v for ot, and (j), as in fvKog = Fo7»coc, 
 cojuu = Sr7/x(j> : in these cases the o-sound became u, and then 
 ui became it. The old Latin oitier must similarly have passed 
 through uitier in becoming uti : the only difference being that 
 the Latin u is a true u, while the Greek v is il. It is remark- 
 able that the Boeotic also agrees with the Latin in sometimes 
 representing ot by oe, as in Aiovixroe = Aiovvcn^. We find v for 
 o in the Arkadian genitive in -av (?a/ztau) from -ao, -dog 
 = Skr. -ay as* 
 
 The old M having become i» (w), in some cases advanced a 
 step farther and became i : 0truc (a father), (I)itv(x) from E. 0u ; 
 aiaXoQ (a fat pig), from avg ; vTrspcftiaXog beside V7rsp(l)vrig ; 
 KipKOQ (a ring), beside jcukXocj R- Kup, from which root come 
 also KipKvpa and KipKog (a tail), 8 arising from t through the 
 influence of the following p ; xfjiOvpog (slanderous), from 
 "PvOog (a lie) ; piTvXoc and juvTiXog (curtailed), L. mutilus ; 
 Spiog (copsewood), from ^pvg ; Oiaaog (a band), from K. 0u, 
 with same suffix as in wETafrog ; j3tj3Xoc from j3uj3Xoc (papy- 
 rus) ; 6\i[5p6g (slippery), beside L. luhricus ; poXi^^og beside 
 juoXvjSSo'c ; XinTopai (I am eager), R. X<^, Skr. luhhydmi (I 
 desire), L. Zw6e^ and libet. We also find Mo\. Ixpog^ tTrc-p, 
 iVa/o for v\pog, VTrep, uTrap. 
 
 §. 48. GUNA AND VRDDHI. 
 
 The guna of l is ei, and in a few isolated cases at ; its 
 vrddhi is ot, o here representing a Skr. a. The guna of v is 
 cu and au ; its vrddhi is ov and dv. The I. E. a is represented in 
 Greek by a, e, o; its guna is o, o, and rj ; its vrddhi is a>. 
 
 Primitive vowels e o a t v 
 
 Guna oar/ €i (at) ev (av) , 
 
 Vrddhi w ot ov {dv) 
 
 * CurtiuR, " Grundziige," p. C46. 
 
64 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 The guna of c of the root is o : R. 78V, yevog, yovog; R. (pep, 
 <pEpij), (jiopog = Skr. bhdras (a weight") ; R. tsk. r^Kiadm, tokoq ; 
 R. Tp£<p, rpicpb), Tpo(J)ri ; R. Scpic, ^ipKOfiai, SiSopKa - Skr. 
 dadars'a. In fiijLirjXa beside juaXet, R. fieX, 1] appears to be the 
 guna of £ of the root. 
 
 The guna of a of the root is d or ?j ; R. Xa9, iXaOov^ 
 XiXrjOa ', R. Xaj3, tXajSov, e'/XTj^a ; R. Xaic, tXafcoi/, XfXako, 
 XfXrjKa ; R. icXay, ticXayoy, icE/cXrjya ; R. Saic, I'Sajcov, S£§rj>(^a. 
 
 The guna of o is a or rj : vlog = Skr. navas (new), vea, Ion. 
 vt»; = Skr. navd, and similar cases. 
 
 The vrddhi of a, f , o is w : R. Fpay, priyvv/nL, ippuyya ; 
 R. TrroK, ETrroKOv, Trrrjaoro) = Trrrj^yw (beside Trra in /cara-Trrj)- 
 rrjv), Trrw^ (cowering for fear) ; apT/yw, apojyoc ; R- ay, 
 ayw, ayoiy?) ; R. So, StSo/Z£v, didiofii ; R. oS, oS/i)), oSwSa ; 
 L. tg (to eat), tgwSr}. 
 
 The guna and vrddhi oft are ei and ot] R. ?, t//fi; = Skr. 
 mas, el/uL = Skr. ^m^, o'/^oc (a way) ; L. Pik, e'-Vtc-rov, eiKiov, 
 toiKa ; R. XiTT, 'AfTTov, Xe/ttw, XoiTToc 5 K- FfS, Fi^fxev, FeZSoc? 
 FoZ3a ; R. X<j3, XtjSac (a drop), Att/Bw, Xo/jSi^ ; K- (rrix^ cVrt- 
 ;Yov, (TTf/x^' o'T'oT^oc j R- K'j iceTrai = Skr. sete, koitt} ; R. Su, 
 SiecrOai (to flee, to be afraid), Sa'Sw, Sa'Sot/ca ; R. <rr«j3, cari- 
 j3ov, (TTeij3(i), <TTOij3r} ', R. XtTT, XtVa, a\d(p(ji), aXoicpfj; R. Xt;^, 
 XtXAtaw (I lick), Xetx^. In aWeaOai (to burn), at is the guna 
 of I ; for it is connected with Skr. indh (to burn), L. cestus, 
 O. II. G. eit (fire). The vrddhi of this root may be found in 
 olcfTpoQ (the gadfly), as G. bremse (the horsefly), comes from 
 hrennen (to burn), and L. tabanus is connected with Skr. tap 
 (to burn). 
 
 The guna and vrddhi of u are su and ov^ but £t» nearly always 
 takes the place of ov : R. fXu0, riXu^ov, iXevaopai, uXriXovOa ; 
 KiXevOog, aKoXovOoQ ; R. pu0, fpu^oog, IpEvOu) (I make red), 
 povaioQ (reddish) ; R. Xvk, afK^nXvKr] (the dawn), Xfu/coc, 
 Xouadov (the white pith of the fir tree) ; R. irvv, TrviPio^ 
 TryoF//; R. ^i>y, t<j)vyov, (jttvyu), Trecpevya. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 65 
 
 Schleicher considers av to be the guna of u in avio (I kindle), 
 for avail), beside evcj (1 singe), Skr. ush (to burn), oshami (I 
 burn), L. uro for uso ; in avyri (splendour) beside Skr. ogas 
 (strength and splendour) ; and in av^avit) from R. uy, beside 
 Skr. ug-ra (strong). In the first two of these examples, how- 
 ever, he is probably wrong, and in the last certainly so ; for 
 Skr. ush is from an older vas, which is found in vdsara (a day), 
 og'as is from vag (to strengthen), L. vigere, vegere, and av^dvto 
 from R. Fa?, Skr. vakshdmi (I grow), Goth, valisja (I grow). 
 In the first two cases the old Fa probably became aF by trans- 
 position, and then au, and in the last case we find Horn, ai^io 
 = av^to, which points back to a form aFt^w, where e is merely 
 a help-vowel, and where we find a and F already transposed. 
 If vavg, Ion. vrjvg, comes from R. aw, Skr. snu (to flow), dv 
 is here the vrdhhi of u : on the other hand, if it comes from 
 R. avd, Skr. snd (to bathe), it is formed like ypavg, and dv is 
 therefore not the vrddhi of v* In the following cases w ap- 
 pears to be the vrddhi of v ; ?w/idc (broth) beside Zvfirj 
 (leaven), h. jus ; ZiLvvvjuLi (I gird), from R. ?u ; xwvvvfxi (I 
 heap up) from R. x^- Curtius considers that w arose from u 
 through the intermediate step oF. Schleicher's view is that, 
 as we have Ion. 7rXa»a> for ttXojFw beside ttXIFw, and Dor. jSwc 
 = ^ovQ = Skr. gdus, and Ionic diphthong wv for av, so there 
 once, as vrddhi of v, existed wv = Skr. du, the first element of 
 which gradually assimilated to itself the second, so that finally 
 only the o-sound was heard. 
 
 We must carefully distinguish frjom the diphthongs aris- 
 ing from guna and vrddhi, those which arise from contraction 
 or from compensation for the loss of consonants or from the 
 vocalization and hyperthesis of the original spirants y and v. 
 
 §. 49. When a consonant or consonants are thrown out 
 of a word, the preceding vowel is generally lengthened, to 
 compensate for the loss of the consonants. Thus a becomes 
 
 * Curtius, " Grundziige," pp. 161, 281. 
 F 
 
66 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 o in TTvXdg (ace. pi.) = TrvXavC) &c., iarag - iaravrq^ &c. ; a be- 
 comes ai in the Lesbian ^olic ace. pi. term, -aig = Kret. -avc> 
 as Taig = Kret. ravg, also in Lesb. ^ol. raXaig = raXavg, iraXg 
 = Travg for Travrg, aKOvaaig = aKOvaavg ; v becomes v in BetKVvg 
 = §€ficyuvrc ; £ becomes ij in irarrip = irarepg^ iroifiriv = iroifxevg, 
 Svaiuevrig = dvcrfisvecrg ; £ becomes f i in rt0£tc = Kret. riOivg for 
 Td^cvrc, £ic = Kret. £vc> X^*V = X^VC) which is still found in a 
 fragment of Timocreon, dfii (I am) = I o-^xt, ^ol. e/XjUt , opeivog 
 = opeavog, JEol. opfvvoc, iveijia = lyfjutra, -^ol. IvifxjxaTO ; o 
 becomes w in tvtttcjv = rvTTTOvTg, riyriTOJp (a leader) = riytiropg ; 
 o becomes ou in tTTTrouc = Kret. tTTTrovc, &c., i/Trap xow(Tac= Kret. 
 vTrapxoi'^^^Cj ayovtji = Dor. ayovri ; o becomes ot in the Lesb. 
 JEol. ace. pi. term, -oig = Kret. -ovc) as rote = Kret. Tovg^ also 
 in i^oiaa = Ix^^'^^'y^' ^^•' ^^P^'^'^oktlv = KpvTTTOVTij &c. We 
 have already pointed out that, when a consonant was lost in 
 early times, and compensation was made for it, e became ?/, 
 and o became w ; but that, on the other hand, when the loss 
 did not occur till a later period, t became ei, and o became ov. 
 The examples from the dialects above quoted confirm this 
 account of the matter ; for we find that the consonants are fre- 
 quently kept by them in the latter case, but never in the 
 former. 
 
 §. 50. The vowels i and v, when coming after a semi- 
 vowel, are frequently thrown back by hyperthesis. Thus, 
 (jiipeig = (pepEGL = L E. bharasi ; vireip = virspL = Skr. upari 
 (above), Z. upairi (above) ; fXauyw = tXavvw. In the first 
 stage of hyperthesis, the vowel is not only reflected, but 
 also kept in its original place, as in Zend, wher6 we find 
 upairi (above), bavaiti = Skr. bhavati (he is), &c. In Ion. 
 irovXvg = ttoXucj and Ep. uvi = Ivt, irXalaLOv (a square) = TrXa- 
 Qlov (from R. TrXar, whence comes irXarvg), al(j)vi^iog = cK^tvi- 
 ^log (compare a^vto), we have this stage of hyperthesis. When 
 the original spirants y and v come after v and p, they are ge- 
 nerally vocalized and thrown back. Thus piXaiva = fnXavja ; 
 KHQti) - K£/oyw ; (pOdpu) = (l>9epj(i) ; apdvwv = a/jL^vyovg ; yov- 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 67 
 
 varog = -yovFaroc ; ajuavpog = a^apFoc 5 ravpog = rapFoc? Gallic 
 tarvos ; vevpov = ve/oFov, L. nervus ; yavpoQ (proud) = yaQpog^ 
 Skr. garva (pride) ; Ion. ovXoc (for oKog) = oXFoc = Skr. sar- 
 vas (all), L. salvus, sollus ; iravpog = irapfog, L. parvus ; 
 Kpiv(jj (7) = Kpivju), JEol. Kpivvu) ; ttXi^vw (iji) = TrAvvyw ; t + ( be- 
 coming 7, and ut, v. In one case y after X is vocalized and 
 thrown back, o^dXu) = o^cXyw, Horn. 6<pi\Xu). We have 
 traces of the older hyperthesis in Kpelatruyv = Kpsirjwv for 
 Kperjovg^ New, Ion. Kpiaawv ; juidZajv = fiwyjuyv for fiey-yovg^ 
 New Ion. fxiZwv ; juaXXov = jmaiXjov, Qacraov - Oaixjov, where 
 a becomes a, on account of the loss of /. In Kpalacriov, juft^wv, 
 and Oaaaov, we find hyperthesis of y over mutes. We 
 find I thrown back also in the following cases when a mute 
 precedes : ywaiK- = jvvaKi- = I. E. ganaki ; ai^ (a goat), 
 stem a\y- = 074- Skr. agd (a goat) ; l^ai^vr\Q = t^aTrtvijc ; 
 KpaiirvoQ = fcpaTTtvoc, K. fcapTT, compare icapTraXfjuoc ; ^httvov 
 = ^iTTLvov or SaTTtvoy L. dapinare ; pot^^og = poj^djog (Hesy- 
 chius has the form /oojSSti) ; alxi^Jiri = aKifXYj, R. aK, compare 
 GKtc (a point) ; aiyXri (light) = ayiXri, R. ay, compare Skr. 
 agnis (fire) = L. i^ms, the termination being the same as that 
 of arpojdtXog ; oikXoi (Hesych. al yioviai tov (5tXovg) = aKiXoi, 
 R. ajc, as in aKig ; KpanraXri = KpaniaXr], R. Kpaw as in Kpaiir- 
 vog ; Ep. TTtiKti) (I comb) from TrcKyw beside ttckw. 
 
 §. 51. We frequently find a vowel prefixed to many Greek 
 words, which is absent in the corresponding words in the 
 cognate languages. This phenomenon was called by the 
 old grammarians TrpocrOeaig. Curtius points out that this 
 prosthetic vowel is generally found before double conso- 
 nants, nasals, A, p, and F, seldom before explosives, and never 
 before single tt, r, and <p. Thus we have acrKaipio (I skip) 
 - (TKaipu) ; aara^ig (a raisin) = aracpig ; a(jTa\vg (an ear of 
 corn) = (jTax^g ; aarrip beside GTipoirr]^ and L. steLla ; Lesb. 
 ^ol. a(T0£, aa(pi = <T(pi, <T(l>i'y acnraipu) (I pant) = GTraipto ; aa- 
 TTaXo? (a mole) = airaXa^ ; aor^apayog (the throat), beside 
 <T(^apayog (noise) ; iSarpaTnjc ^vom.^ QX%\2inkshatrapdvan (ruling 
 
 f2 
 
68 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 the kingdom) beside the form ?arpa7rrjc given by Hesychius ; 
 iil^ia (play)=;//ta ; £X^^^~X^^^' t^rtc (^ weasel) =icrtc J OKpvoeic, 
 jDeside Kpvog ; aKpoaofxai beside Skr. s'ru (to hear) ; 60pvc=Skr. 
 hhriis (eyebrow). In some cases one of the two consonants falls 
 out after the prosthetic vowel, as in ovoima, Ion. ovvo/uLa for 6y- 
 vojua, L. nomen for gnomen ; oXiaOavu) for oyXiaOavijJi R. yXiT ; 
 ■fiiravta (want), beside airavLg ; Ipwiw (I flow), beside Skr. sru 
 (to flow) ; o^vcTdafievog (hating), R. odvg for 6SFtc» beside Skr. 
 dvish (to hate). We have ewia beside L. novem; avrip be- 
 side L. iVe^'O ; IvejKHv beside SI. nesti (to bear) ; efie = /xc ; 
 ofiix^u) beside L. mingo ; afxtXyw beside L. mulgeo : ajiidu) be- 
 side E. mow ; eXaxvQ beside Skr. laghu ; "OAu/uttoc from R. 
 Xajiir ; iXavva) from R. \a ; €pf j3oc beside Skr. rag'as (dark- 
 ness) ; IpcTjuoc beside L. remus ; IpvOpog beside L. ruber; 
 ep£iKO(n = FeiKoai ', IFipyeiv = Fipyeiv ; ItFedva = FeSva ; IFcpo-ij 
 = Ft/oo-i) (dew). We have in the case of the explosives, o^ovg 
 beside L. dens ; o'^a^ (mordicus) beside 3a»cva) ; t OeXw = OkXd) ; 
 ojScXoc beside jStXoc ; ayavog (noble) beside yavpog (proud). 
 The opinion that these prosthetic vowels are fragments of pre- 
 positions does not appear to rest on any sufficient ground, 
 for the apokope of dissyllabic prepositions is limited to the 
 jEolic and Epic dialect, and the preposition Iv never loses its 
 final consonant.* Another explanation has been suggested to 
 account for the vowels prefixed to A, ju, v, /o, g. It is this, 
 that, as we pronounce Z, eZ, m, em, &c., so these letters were 
 predisposed to the adoption of prosthetic vowels. In a simi- 
 lar way it is possible to account for the origin of r\vip.6ug, 
 YleipiOoog^ oyXo/uLEvog from avsfxoeig, YlepiOoog^ oXofievog, by 
 supposing them to have passed through the stages a^vEfioeig, 
 Tla'piOoog, o^XofxEvog ; unless the lengthening is due to the exi- 
 gencies of the metre. We find in .^olic the form e^ovreg for 
 6Soi/Tcc»t and consequently some writers derive odovg from the 
 
 * Curtius, "Grundziige," p. 655. 
 
 t Schleicher considers tSuvTtg to be the participle of (Sto, poetically 
 used for dSovrig. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 69 
 
 R. £8(to eat) ; but this is extremely unlikely, as the initial vowel 
 does not appear in any of the sister languages. It is much more 
 probable that o is a prosthetic vowel, as we find aBayfiog (a 
 sting), aSa^lwand oSafw (I bite, sting), beside Bdicvu). 'O^/ouc 
 has been treated by some as equivalent to 6<^+^jOuc=eye+brow, 
 60 appearing in otp-QakfioQ. The initial vowels in Oju^aXo? and 
 ovv^ are not prosthetic, for the corresponding Latin terms are 
 umbilicus and unguis^ and the Latin language is not inclined to 
 prosthesis. From a comparison of the Skr. ndhhi (navel) and 
 nakha (a nail), it is likely that the original forms of the cor- 
 responding roots were ndbh and naghy from which in Grgeco- 
 Italic times were developed the roots dnhh and angh. Pros- 
 thetic vowels are of common occurrence in the Romance lan- 
 guages. Thus we have in French, epSe for espSe, from L. spada^ 
 dchelle for eschelle, from L. scala^ etablir for establir, from L. 
 stabilire, espSrer from L. sperare, escabeau from L. scabellum 
 estame from L. stamen ; in Spanish, estar = L. stare ; in Italian, 
 aringa from G. ring^ whence E. harangue. This tendency of the 
 Romance languages to prefix initial vowels appears to have 
 already begun in the fourth century, for on inscriptions of that 
 date we find such forms as istatuam^ ispirito, Isticho = Sticho. 
 In Welsh, 2/ is prefixed to words borrowed from the Latin 
 which begin with s followed by another consonant, as in ysgol, 
 yspryd, ysgwyd from L. schola^ spiritus, scutum. 
 
 §. 52. The insertion* of a vowel is of frequent occurrence 
 in Greek, and is called avdirrv^ig. This insertion occurs be- 
 fore or after X, p, and the nasals, and, according to Curtius, 
 arises from the tone, perceptibly heard in these sonants, upon 
 which fact also rest the frequent metathesis of these sounds, 
 and the possibility of t* and I being treated as vowels in some 
 languages. The vowels that are inserted are generally a and 
 
 * Consult Curtius, '< Grundzuge," p. 656; and Walter, in "K. Z ," 
 vol. X., p. 428, seq.^ vol. xii. p. 375, seq,, p. 401, seq,, on Vocaleinschie- 
 bung in Griechischen. 
 
70 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 £, less frequently o and i, and very seldom v. We find a 
 vowel inserted before or after X, in the following cases : wXivrj, 
 L. ulna ; xa\aZa, L. grando ; fcaXvTrro) = KQVirTb) ; aXwTrrjS, 
 St. FaXcDTTf/c, L. vulpes (?) ; ak&yuvoQ beside akyog ; aXc^w and 
 apriyio beside apKcw, aXfc??, L. a^'ceo, Skr. T^a^^A (to protect); 
 aXiKivog {^SvvaTog, Hesych.) = aXKifjiog ; doXtxog = Skr. dirghas 
 (long); TiXaKaTTi (spindle) beside apKvg (a net); riXv6ov = 
 ^XOov (?) ; 9dXa(T(Ta for rapaxja from R. r/oax (according to 
 Walter, however, for OXar-jOy connected with L. fret-um) ; 
 KoX^Kavog (long and thin), KoXoaaog (a great statue), O. L. 
 cracentes (graciles), L. gracilis ; juoXvjSSoc, L. plumbum ; fxaXa- 
 Kog beside j3Xa5 (weak) ; irsXayog beside TrXrjcrorw, R. TrXay 
 (to strike), not connected with wXa^ (a plain), as wiXayog de- 
 notes the sea in its dangerous aspect ; iriXeOpov = irXiOpov. 
 In the case of p we have the following examples : rapacrau) = 
 Tapaxjb), R. rpaXi whence the perfect TtTprixct ; opfyw, opo- 
 yvia - opyvid opiyvdojiai (I stretch), R. o/oy, Skr. arg' (to ac- 
 quire), L. rego ; Mo\. (I)ipiva = ^epvri; spwdiog (a heron) 
 L. ardea; x^pac (gravel), St. X£(^«^> E. ^nY; 0opvj3oe beside 
 ^pvXoc (noise) ; 6poj3oc (vetches) and £pi(5iv0og (pulse), L. 
 ervum ; dpdxvr\ (the '• spinner ') beside apKvg ; Makedon. Sa- 
 pvXXog for 8pi)c > dpaf^vXat (Hesych.) = dpfivXai (a kind of 
 shoes) ; Tapix^vw (I embalm), ra/otxoe (a mummy, dried or 
 salted fish), beside rapx^^ (I bury solemnly), perhaps con- 
 nected with R. TEpg (to dry), Skr. tarsh (to thirst), L. torreo 
 for tors-eo. In the case of the nasals we have as jexamples, 
 Kovig, pi. KovidEg (eggs of lice, nits), from R. knid^ as appears 
 from A. S. hnit, Lith. glindas, L. lendes ; ovuS, SI. owx from 
 R.an^A ; 7r£vuroc'(wise) fromR. ttvv, whence ttvew, 7r£7rvujU£voc ; 
 aKTivLTTTw - (TKviirTU) (I pluch) ; a(p£vog beside drpveiog ; ripaxog 
 (a slice), beside T/xr/yw (I cut), from ^.rpayi?) ; To>apoc = T/x5- 
 poe (a mountain in Thesprotia) ; Tw/iwXoc = T/zwXoc (a moun- 
 tain in Lydia). In other languages also we find vowels similarly 
 inserted. Thus, in Zend e is in certain cases inserted between 
 two consonants ; and r when followed by a consonant, or when 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 71 
 
 final, becomes re^ as dademahi (we give) = Skr. dadmasi, da- 
 dares' a (1 sing, perf.) = Skr. dadars'a = StSopKa, ddtare (voc. 
 sing.) from St. ddtar. In 0. H. G. we have puruc = Goth. 
 baurgSj farah = L. porcus, araweiz = L. ervum. In Latin, we 
 have ^SGulapius = 'Ao-jcXijTTioc? Procina = Ilpoicvi], Alcumena 
 = ^AXKfirfvrj, sumus from esumus = I. E. asmas. In Oscan a 
 vowel is frequently inserted, as Alafaternom - L. Alfatemo- 
 rum^ aragetud = L. argento, sakarater - L. sacratur. 
 
 §. 53. The Gutturals. 
 
 K = I. E. A; : jcaXoc? /caXXuyw (I make clean), Skr. X;aZya 
 (healthy), E. heal^ hale; Kapvov (a nut), Skr. karaka (cocoa 
 nut), L. carina (a shell, keel) ; KapKivog (a crab), Skr. karka 
 (a crab), L. cancer; Kdiv, Kla^w, R. (tke or o-fca, Skr. k'hd (to 
 divide), L. descisco, scio ; XvKog = Skr. vrkas (a wolf) ; Sf/jc- 
 vvjui, R. Stic, Skr. c?zV (to show), L. dico ; dUa = Skr. and Z. 
 das'an (ten), L. decern; t/carov for tv-jcarov, Skr. s'atam (an 
 hundred), L. centum. 
 
 r = I. E. ^ : 7?ipvc, Skr. gar (to call), L. garrio ; eyeipu), 
 Skr. ^ar (to awake) ; ariyw, Skr. 5^A<2^ (to cover), L. tego ; 
 aypog = Skr. ag'ras (a level plain), L. ager ; apyiig (bright), 
 apyvpog, apy'iXog (white clay), Skr. arg'una (bright), rag'ata 
 (silver), L. arguo (I make clear), argentum. F is found for 
 an I. E. yb in apriytx) from R. apK ; Hiyavov (a frying pan) from 
 TTiKU) ; filcryu), R. juiy, beside Skr. misra (mixed), L. misceo ; 
 \vyr) (gloom) beside R. Xvk (XivKog, &c.) ; irriyog (firm), 
 TTrtyvvfiif beside L. pac-iscor, Skr. pas' (to bind) ; apTra?, St. 
 apiray = L. rapax^ St. rapac ; jcpavyrj, beside Skr. kros'a (a 
 cry) ; l^payr\v beside (ppacFcrtJ = (ppaK-yu) = L. farcio ; /uiayevg 
 (one who kneads) beside fxaacrd) = juaicyw, L. macerare ; irXrjyri 
 beside TrXrjcrcTa; = TrXrjicyw, Lith. ^ZaM (to beat). We find a 
 tenuis weakened to a media in It. luogo^ from L. hcum, It. 
 pac?re from L. patrem^ Fr. aheille from L. apicidaniy &c. F is 
 lost in a7a = yaTa, opoc = Skr. ^m (a mountain), Boeot. iwv 
 
72 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 « eya)Vj Tarentine oXiog = oXiyog, ^laXia = ^lyaXia (an Ar- 
 cadian city). In the following cases, in which y corresponds 
 to a Sanskrit h orghj either each root existed in two forms, one 
 with g, and another with gh, in the Indo-European, or else 
 the I. E. form had g only, from which by aspiration gh was 
 developed in Sanskrit, and this gh became h : yivvg = Skr. 
 hanus (the chin), L. gena, Goth, kinnus ; ys, Skr. ha, Ved. 
 gha, Goth, k in mi-kf 0. H. G. h in unsi-h ; fxiyag, juLeyaXog 
 *= Goth, mikils, Skr. mahat (great), L. magnus ; lywv = Skr. 
 ahanif Goth, ik. In these cases the Gothic k points back to 
 an I. E. g. In the following examples y = I. E. ^A ; lyyvg^ 
 Skr. anhu (narrow), Goth, aggvus (narrow), the original gh 
 being still retained in ayxi- ; Ovyarrip «= Skr. duhitd ; and per- 
 haps in Xaywc (a hare) beside Skr. lahgh (to jump). 
 
 X = I. E. gh: ^oXl^oq = Skr. dirghas (long) ; IXaxvQ 
 = Skr. laghus (light) ; ote^x^' ^^^' ^%^ 0^ ascend), Goth. 
 steiga (I go up) ; XP*'^> XQ'-^P-^* ^^^* ^^^^ (*^ sprinkle), gharsh 
 (to rub), ^Af^a (clarified butter); xot/>oc. Skr. ghrshti (a 
 pig), 0. N. ^m (a little pig). X, 0, and ^, frequently re- 
 present an I. E. ky t, and p, as we shall see in §. 63, on Aspi- 
 ration. 
 
 The spiritus asper represents a Graeco-Italic initial ?/, r, 
 and s. It is = 2/ in ijTrap, Skr. yakrt, L. ^'ec?/r ; wpa, Z. yar« 
 (a year), E. year ; 6g = Skr. yas (who). It is = v* in IWfjOo?, 
 L. vesper; ivvvfxi = Fco-Wjut, Skr. 'yas(to clothe). It is = sin 
 6, 17, = Skr. sa (he), sd (she), 0. L. ace. sum, sam ; a in a-ira^ 
 = sa in Skr. sa-krt (once), L. simplex ; c = L. se; /ocw, R. /ou for 
 o-pv, Skr. sru (to flow) ; po^itD^ L. sorheo. In etTrofxriv (for co-e- 
 TTOjurjv, R. (tctt), eterrrjKEiv (for £<Te(jT»jK£fv, R. (xra), the initial 
 aspirate perhaps arose from the a lost in the second syllable. 
 Sometimes the original initial o- is retained beside the younger 
 aspirate, as in avg - vg, 'EAXoi = SeXXot. The spiritus asper 
 
 * Similarly in Spanish we have hijo = L. filius, heno = L. fenum, herir 
 e= L. ferire, hacer = L. facer e. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 73 
 
 is preserved between two vowels in rawg = L. pavo^ and in 
 Laconian lirouk for eTrotijo-e. In piv beside Skr. ghrana (the 
 nose), the sp. asp. represents gh. In Attic an initial sp. asp. 
 is frequently added where it does not exist in the other 
 dialects. Hence the Athenians were called 'BaavvTiKoi in op- 
 position to the iEolians, who were called xpiXajriKoi, from their 
 aversion to this sound. Thus we have /Woe beside Lesb. 
 iTTTTtocj Tarent. Ikkoqj Sikil. lirvri {lipiinrig), and the common 
 forms Aeu/ctTTTTOc, FXavKiinrog, L. equus = Skr. as'vas : r\\LOQ 
 = Ep. i]i\LOQ ; 71HUQ = iEol. aiJ-fxeg, Skr. asmdn ; riyeiaOaL be- 
 side ayu) ; £we = Ep. riwg, Mol. avtog. We also find the He- 
 raklean oKTtVf kwia, perhaps from the analogy of 2?, iirra. 
 Initial v in Attic always is aspirated, as in utto, Skr, upa (near) ; 
 viripi Skr. upari (above) ; v^cjp, Skr. udan (water) ; varepog 
 = Skr. uttaras (later). Similarly we find h prefixed in L. hu- 
 merus for umerus, humor for mnor^ Span, hedrar = L. iterarey 
 Fr. haut = L. alius. 
 
 The spiritus asper was frequently changed into the lenis, 
 as in Ep. ^Soc beside y]lvQ ; Ep. ovXoq beside oXog ; i^a^oq 
 and ouSac beside oSo?, E.^ IS = Skr. sad (to go) ; aw (I sa- 
 tiate) only found in inf. pres. afjiEvaL and addrjv beside adrjv, 
 and L. satisj satur ; 'Epivvvg = Skr. Saranyus; eipw (I join), 
 beside asipa, op/xoc, and L. sero ; Irtog = Skr. satyas (true) ; 
 oTToc beside L. sucus ; 6p6g beside L. serum ; a (in aXoxog 
 &c.), for a = Skr. sa ; ijOto = cttj^w (I sift) ; iBlu) (I sweat) ; 
 beside idpwg ; *idiog beside I = o-Fc ; 6(l>pa from pronominal 
 stem 6 = Skr. ya. In Ionic we also see a tendency to weaken 
 the spiritus asper in the fact that after elision a preceding te- 
 nuis was not aspirated by a following aspirate, as in ott' ou, 
 KCLTodog. In ^olic the initial aspirate was kept, according to 
 Ahrens, whenever it represented an original s or y, except in 
 vfjifieg beside Skr. yushman^ and KortSpuo-Et beside L. sedeo, 
 Goth, sita (I sit), but it was lost whenever it had arisen from 
 any other cause. Thus we find the aspirate kept in ayvog 
 beside Skr. yag' (venerari), 6d6g in t(fto^og beside Skr. sad (to 
 
74 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 go), &c. ; and it is absent in ctjUjUEc beside rifieig and Skr. 
 asmduj Ipog = hpog) lirip = virip^ ^Ixpog = v\pog, &c. This view 
 of the case does not appear to be exactly correct ; for we find 
 in Alkasus KadvirepOevj irptLTiaO' viro, where the aspiration be- 
 fore V is retained, though it is not original, as we see from the 
 Skr. forms upari and upa ; and moreover in a^vg = Skr. sva- 
 duSi and ^Yppadrit^ (Alk. 73), beside L. spurius, the aspiration 
 is lost, though the words originally began with sv. This ten- 
 dency of the ^olic to -ipiXtvmg refutes the old-fashioned idea 
 that Latin was closely connected with it, for the sibilant is re- 
 tained in Latin, from which the aspiration in Greek was de- 
 veloped. The spiritus asper is entirely lost in Modern Greek. 
 
 §. 54. The Dentals. 
 
 T = I. E. t: avTiy Skr. anti (before) ; irkoiiaL^ R. Trer, 
 Skr. pat (to fly) ; crrevw, R. orev, Skr. stan (to groan) ; arop- 
 vvfit. Skr. star (to strew) ; retvw, R. rev or Tav^ Skr. tan (to 
 stretch) ; &c. 
 
 T == 1. E. kv : Tig = L. quis = Osc. pis, Skr. kirn (quid), Z. 
 k'isk'a (quisquis), Osc. pitpit = L. quidquid; ri = L. que^ Skr. 
 k'a, Goth, h in nih = L. neque ; irivrs = L. quinque, Mo\. wifx- 
 TTs ; aWore = Dor. aXXoKa ; rawc = L. paw. T appears to 
 correspond to k in ri(o (I honour), rtv(u (I punish), Skr. k'i 
 (to distribute), Z. A'i (to punish), and in aKivayfiog = rivay- 
 fxog (Kivricxig). Here A became f, through the stages % and 
 ty. In Latin, c and t are frequently interchanged before i as 
 in patricius - patritiuSj Mucins = Mutius. 
 
 A = I. E. (Z ; da/uLau), R. ^a/z, Skr. c?am (to tame), L. f/o- 
 Tnar^, Goth, ga-tamjan (Sa/iav), 0. H. G. zamon (to tame) ; 
 ^pvg = Skr. c?7*Ms, Goth, triu (tree) ; tSw, R. 13, Skr. «c? (to 
 eat), L. edo^ Goth. zVa (I eat) ; l^ojua/, R. tS, Skr. sad (to sit), 
 L. sedeo, Goth. 52Ya (I sit) ; &c. 
 
 A = I. E. t : SaTTtc (a carpet), beside rair-ng and raTrtc ; 
 "Aprejufc? ^ AprifjLi^-og^ beside Dor. ^ApTajunTog, whence 'Apra- 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 75 
 
 fxiTiog (name of a Spartan month), and 'Aprajutrtov ; Oifitg, Bi- 
 fiiS-OQ beside QiniTog, in Pindar ; I'jSSojUoc from tirra ; oy^oog 
 from oKTii) ; veVo^cc (= airoyovoL in Alexandrian Poets), be- 
 side L. nepotes. 
 
 A = I. E. c?A in wvvda^ (the bottom) beside irvOfiriv, Skr. 
 budhna (the bottom), I. E. 5Ai«c?A being the root ; and per- 
 haps in aX^aivd) (1 increase) beside aXOaivu) (I heal) and Skr. 
 ardh (to increase). 
 
 A = I. E. g: ^eX^uc (the womb) = Skr. garhhas (the 
 womb) ; Lakon. ^Kjiovpa = yicjivpa ; Ariiny^Trip = rT^-/XTjr»;(). 
 Conversely we find yXukvc foi^ SXvkvC) L. dulcis, and yvoipog 
 for and beside dv6(pog. We also find S for j3 in Dor. odeXog 
 - 6[5eX6gt and Kret. oSoXkoi = 6(5oXoi. 
 
 Q = 1.E, dh: avOog, Skr. andhas (plant), L. a^oT'; BriaQai 
 (Hom. to milk), dr\Xvgi R. 0a, 0tj, Skr. cZ^a (to drink), dhenu 
 (a cow), h.JiliuSjfeminajfelare (to snck) ; 6pa(Tvg, Ski. dharsh 
 (to dare), Goth, ga-daursan (Oappelv) ; ^uyar^p, I. E. dhugh- 
 atar, Skr. diihitar, Goth, dauhtar ; Ovpa, Skr. dhvdra (door) 
 L.fores^ Goth, ^awy* (door); &c. 
 
 = I. E. ^A in OspjULogy R. 0£/o, Skr. gharma (heat), lu.for- 
 7nus (hot), fornax^ forceps, Goth, varmjan (OaXireiv). We 
 find and ;^ interchanged in opvi^oc = Boeot. opvixog^ Mod. 
 Gr. At^aSo-vrjora = Aixadeg, and ^|0x« t)eside riXOov, unless it 
 be derived from ip^pp-ai. This change is not easily accounted 
 for : it has been suggested that Q developed a hard aspirate 
 after it, before which it afterwards fell out, and that this as- 
 pirate afterwards developed x before it, and then fell out. 
 This explanation is, however, very improbable. We also find 
 interchanged with in Kret. oBpvg (a mountain) = otppvg 
 (brow of a hill), oOpvoev (iC|OrjjuvwS£c)j ^OOpvadag (supercilio- 
 sus) ; OvXXa {KXadovg rj (jtvXXa fj wpri) ' Afppo^irrjg, Hesych.) 
 ^ ^vXXa ; and perhaps in OvXXig, OaXXig, OvXaKog, all mean- 
 ing a bag, if these words are connected with Goth, balgs (a 
 bag). 
 
 P = I. E. ?^ : evpvg = Skr. urus (wide), from I. E. varus ; 
 
76 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 oupavog - Skr. Varunas (the god of the water) ; opoc, Skr. 
 giri (a mountain), Ch. SI. gora (a mountain) ; opvu^f, R. 6/o, 
 Skr. a/* (to move), L. orior ; jof w, R. |0u, o-pu, Skr. srw (to flow) ; 
 avgiy^i Skr. svar (to sound), &c. 
 
 P is lost in iroTi = Trport, ttjoo?. n(>OTi became Troprt, which 
 is found in the Kretan dialect, and then ttoti : similarly we 
 have ^piarog^ v^aroQ^ crKarog for (jtpeapTog, v^apTog, c/ca/oroc, 
 L. pedo = TTcpSw, &c. Leo Meyer asserts that p is lost in 
 Treravvujut beside Skv.prath(to extend), and ^^770? beside Skr. 
 bhrdg' (to shine) : but Treravvu/xi is connected with L. pateo^ 
 pando, 0. H. G. fadam (filum), E. fathom, oxid prath is found 
 in TrXarvc ; bhrdg' is connected with ^Xtyo), L. fulgeo, flagro, 
 Goth, bairhts (S^Xoc), and, according to Curtius, (jtiyyog (for 
 0£77Foc) is related to <j)aFog (Mo\. (pavogj Pamphyl. 0aj3oc), 
 exactly as fievBog is to ^aOog. 
 
 The Laconians frequently changed a, especially when final, 
 into p : thus they used aKKop, tt/cto/o, mop, ajdwp, tto/o, |3ia>p, 
 ixipyafiwp, &c. for ao-KOC, iriOog, Oeog, 7]c5cj irouc, tcrwe, jU/d- 
 777(ue, &c. The only other example of the same change in 
 any other Doric dialect is the Kret. reop ((tov) for riog. 
 This change is also found in a few cases in the ^olic dialects 
 of Elis and Eretria. In no case does a appear to have been 
 changed into p, when it comes between two vowels : thus we 
 find in the Elean treaty roXp faXri'Lotg, but roig 'Up Fat{)oig. 
 
 Initial p is always aspirated, except in ^Faptov Trediov and 
 ^apog (a child untimely born). 
 
 A = I. E. y : aAXojuat, R. aX, Skr. sar (to go) ; aXg, Skr. 
 sara (salt) ; jSouXojuat, Skr. and Z. var (to choose) ; 6\og 
 = Skr, sarvas (all), O. L. sollus (all), &c. 
 A«I. E. Z: see §.21. 
 
 A represents an older v in Xlrpov beside virpov, from Heb. 
 neter ; ttXeujuwv beside wvevfiwv ; o-KoXoTra? (a large bird, of 
 snipe kind), beside G. schnepfe, E. snipe ; and perhaps in aWog 
 - Skr. anyas (alius). Conversely the Dorians often changed 
 X before r and into v, as in PivritTTog, (ftivrarog, i'ivBev, &c. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 77 
 
 We find n and I interchanged in other languages, as in Skr. 
 skandha (shoulder), Med. L. spalda^ E. shoulder ; Skr. kanyd 
 (a girl), Ir. caile (a woman) ; Kovihc (eggs of lice, nits), 
 L. lendeSf Lith. glindas ; It. Bologna^ Bononia^ veleno= L. ve- 
 nenum ; Prov. namela (a blade) = L. lamella. 
 
 A is vocalized in Kret. avKavt avfia, avyeivj &c., for aAjcav, 
 aAjuij, aXytiv, &c., as in E. talk, calm, and Umbr. muta, vutu 
 for multa, vultum. 
 
 S = I. E. 5 : R. Ic, £fjut (^ol. lEfx/ii) = £(T/ii = Skr. asmi (I 
 am), £OTi = Skr. asti (he is), L. sum, est, Lith. gswi, esti, Goth, 
 im, zs^; R. kg from Fee? £vvv/xt for kg-wiui^ ladrig, Skr. ras (to 
 clothe), L. ?;es^2S ; R. -qg, rjcTTaL = Skr. as^^ ; 7o"oc, Skr. m^w 
 (aeque) ; R. <tv, Kaaavu) (from Kara and avio), Skr. sw (to 
 sow), L. suo, Goth, siu-ja {Ittipqcltttw). 
 
 S is generally omitted between two vowels, as in fiivovq 
 for jneveaog = Skr. manasas (gen. sing.) ; 0£py for (pepecrai ; 
 Floq (poison), = Skr. and Z. vishas (poison), L. virus ; &c. S 
 in these cases probably first became the spiritus asper, and 
 then fell out. S is, however, frequently retained, especially 
 when it represents an original t, as in (pricri, Dot, (^tari ; iviav- 
 crtog. Dor. IviavTLog, from IviavTog ; irXovatog, Dor. irXovTiog, 
 from rrXouroc ; irXriaLog beside airXriTog, Dor. TrAartoc ; Smico- 
 (Tfot, Dor. StaKarfot ; eiKoai, Dor. FetKart ; nipvai, Dor. iripv 
 Ti, Skr. parut ; tireaov, Dor. tTrcrov, from TriVrcu = Trt-Trcrw ; 
 flocTEtSwv, Dor. floTEtSav. 
 
 The Laconians generally changed into or : in the Lysis- 
 trata of Aristophanes we find such forms as o-cXct, (riru), aya- 
 (Toc, (Tiog {Oeog), 'Aaava, &c., and yet in other cases, with- 
 out any apparent reason, is retained, as in Oelk^Xoi, &c. ; in 
 Thucydides, in the Lakonian decree (v. 77), we find tw aito 
 avfjLarog for rov Otov OvfxaTog, &c. In every case they used 
 o- for 6, except where the law of euphony would be violated 
 by the change ; as in Biaaog, on account of the following a ; 
 taOog, not i(TCfog ; aOpoog not acrpoog, as no Greek used the 
 conjunction of crp, &c. This change did not set in till late ; 
 
78 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 for we find that it was unknown to the Spartan Colonists who 
 founded Tarentum and Heraklea. The Dorians once possessed 
 another sibilant, which they called San, and of which traces 
 are found in the double a in such Dorian forms as 'AjOtcroTO- 
 
 N = I. E. n: K. av. av£jUOc» Skr. an (to breathe), anila 
 (wind), L. animus^ anus ; avrjpf Skr. nara (a man), Sabin. nero 
 (brave) ; evvia, Skr. and Z. navan (nine) ; K. fjisv, juav, juiivog, 
 furivtCi Mhrwpy ^vr]fir\, Skr. and Z. man (to think), L. maneo, 
 meminij moneo, Goth, muns (voT?jua), 0. H. G. miiina (love) ; 
 vavQ = Skr. ndus (a ship) ; L. navis, &c. 
 
 N = I. E. w : icftepov = Skr. ahharam ; ttoSwi; = Skr. pa- 
 dam, L. pedum ; Ic^ig^rov = ahharatam ; rov = Skr. tarn, L. is- 
 tum ; raiov (tljv) = Skr. tdsdm^ L. istarum ; and similar ter- 
 minations. Curtius also compares rivia (the reins), with Skr. 
 yam (to bind) ; R. 0av, Wavov^ with Skr. dham (to blow) ; 
 ^aivtx) == j3av-yw, with Skr. gam ; Kvavog (dark blue steel), 
 with Skr. s'ydma (dark) ; xddyv with xajmai, L. humus ; xitLv 
 with Skr. him (frost), hima (snow), L. hiems. These are, 
 however, doubtful cases ; and it is quite possible that v may 
 have originally been part of the pronominal suffix na, as is 
 certainly the case with (5aivw, the root of which is /3a = Skr. 
 ^a(togo). 
 
 §.55. The Labials. 
 
 n = I. E.^: aTTo, Skr. apa (away) Z. apa (from) L. ab; 
 fTTi, Skr. api (to), Z. aipi (after) ; tirra = Skr. saptan, Z. hap- 
 tan ; E. XtTr, Xiira (oil), Skr. lip (to anoint), &c. 
 
 Whenever tt corresponds to a Skr. k^ k\ s\ either the ori- 
 ginal sound must have been kv^ or, if k was the original sound, 
 it must have passed through the stage kv in becoming tt. Thus 
 we have '/ttttoc = Skr. as'vas, L. equus, 0. S. ehu; R. Itt, Itto- 
 fxaiy Skr. sak' (to follow), L. sequor ; R. XtTr, XetVo;, Skr. rik' 
 (to leave), L. linquo ; irevre, Skr. pank'an, L, quinque ; R. TTfTr, 
 TTfTrrw, Skr. joa^' (to cook), L. coquo ; ttou, ;rwc? Ion, kov, km^, 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 79 
 
 Skr. ka (who), kva (where), L. quis^ Goth, hvas (who) ; in all 
 which cases the I. E. forms had kv^ where the Greek has tt. 
 Stt and (tk are interchanged in some cases ; thus we have 
 <T7raAa? (a mole) = aKoXoxp, airaXaOpov (a poker) = (TKoXevBpov ; 
 similarly we have (nrivOrjp beside L. scmtilla, Goth, skeinan ; 
 (jKvXov, L. spolia ; K. ctkett, (TKeirTOfiat, L. specio ; E. <T<paX, 
 (T(pa\\(o ; Skr. sphal and skhal (to totter). Stt and ar are also 
 interchanged : oraStov, ^ol. cnradiov, h. spatium ; ^ol. aTroXa 
 for gtoXt} ; similarly we have (rirevdw beside L. sfudeo and 
 (TTpovOog beside Goth, sparva, E. sparrow. 
 
 n appears to represent an I. E. bh in the two following 
 cases : R. tti, ttw, ttivu), JEol. irwvio, Skr. p^, pd, pibdmi (I 
 drink), where we find a trace of the I. E. hJi in h, h.potus, hiho, 
 E. beer; irvog (beestings), Skr. piyuslia (beestings), 0. H. G. 
 Most, N. H. G. hiest, E. beestings. 
 
 B = I. E. 6 : see §. 22. 
 
 B = I. E. 5A : (dpijuj^og (ifif^pvoVi Hesych.) beside fiptcpog ; 
 Bafifioq which is related to Hom. Ta(^og as (5iv9og to j5d9og ; 
 (^i^ofxai for (pEf^iofxai, a reduplication of E. 0t = Skr. Mz, 6^- 
 M^Twi (I fear) ; (5p£xi^^^ (^^® ^^P ^^ *^® head), A. S. bregen 
 (the brain), which Grassman connects with (ppacrao) (E. (^pay) 
 = Goth, bairga (E. bare), just as Goth, hvairnei (the skull), is 
 derived from a root signifying ^o cot^e^'; /3^1/iw, Skr. bhram (to 
 whirl),* L. fremo, 0. N. ^nm (the surge), (^ioppiy^ may be 
 derived from this root, as (^pijueaOai is used of the lyre in 
 Pindar (Nem. xi. 7); Opofi^og (a clot of blood), beside r/ot^w 
 (to curdle), rpofpaXig (fresh cheese) ; Kopu/xjSoc (the top), be- 
 side Kopv(j){i ; Kpapj3og (dry) beside Kap(l)U) (to dry) ; jcuyujSoc 
 (a cup) = Skr. kumbhas (a jug) ; opfi^og beside Skr. ambhaa 
 (water) ; orf/^jSw, art]3apoc beside aarep^rig (unmoved), <rri- 
 0OC, Skr. stambh (to prop) ; orpdjujSoc (a whirlwind, a top), 
 beside arpicpu) ; (SXuw = ^Xuw (to bubble) ; Xapfiavw, E. Xa/3, 
 
 * Max Muller (li. p. 217), opposes this view, and connects Skr. bhram 
 with Gr. ippinaaativ. 
 
80 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 beside £t-X?/0-o, Skr. lahh (to seize). In addition to these 
 examples, Grassman (" K. Z.," vol. xii., pp. 91, 93), adduces 
 o^QijjLoq beside Skr. ambhrna (powerful), jSao-Kat'yw beside L. 
 fascinOj and /3a2w (I speak), beside ^]^,a??, R. 0rj, Skr. &M, but 
 6j5piiixoQ is rather connected with R. ]3|0f, J5pi0io, and the other 
 two cases are extremely doubtful. 
 
 B = I. E. v: (5ovXofxai, Skr. var (to choose), L. voZo; 
 j5Xd(TTr} (a shoot), Skr. va^<^7i (to grow). Similarly we find 
 Lakon. j5ipyov, ^idav, fiuKarL for Fipyov, FtSttv, Phkogi ; here, 
 however, j3 may have been pronounced as F. 
 
 B = I. E. p : ajSpoc (luxurious), beside airaXog (tender), 
 perhaps connected with L. sapor ; ^AfijdpaKLa beside the older 
 WfjLTrpaKia, ir becoming j3 on account of the preceding ^, just 
 as in Modern Greek fxir is written for the sound of the old/3 ; 
 mfijdoQ beside i'aTrrtu *, KaXujSn (a hut), beside jcaXvTrrw, L. 
 clupeus ; Kapj^aTivri (a shoe) = KapiraTivr] ; Kf j3Xrj and icc/BaXij 
 (the head), fcuj3fo-raa> (I jump headlong), beside Skr. kapdla 
 (the skull), fc£^aX?7, and KvirpoQ {K^^dXaiov apiO/xov) ; k€k- 
 Xel5wg (found on an inscription of Andania) = k£kXo«^wc, from 
 R. kXstt ; KOfifdaKivarai (kojuttouc Xiyet, Hesych).) and KpEpj^a- 
 Xov (a clapper) beside L. o^epare, owe their j3c to the influence 
 of ju ; Xejdrjpig (a skin) and Xoj56g (a pod) beside Xiwu) ; 
 aTiX(5(t) beside cTTiXirvog (glittering), perhaps connected with 
 (TTEpoirriy cLdTpdiTTb) ; aToi^i] (stuffing) beside otuttocj Skr. 
 stupd (a heap), L. stipa^ stupa ; vj5ptg from virip ; jSarsTv and 
 fiiKpog were used at Delphi for TrareTv and iriKpog ; (56(tku) is 
 connected with L. ^^asco by Leo Meyer, but this comparison 
 is very doubtful, as there are no analogous cases save the last- 
 mentioned Delphic forms. In the Kret. a(BXoTrig for aj3Xaj3£C> 
 TT appears to represent an older /3 ; but Curtius suggests that 
 TT may be original, and that the root is not j3Xa/3, but jSXott 
 for juXaTT, a causative formed from pXa = Skr. mid (to fade), 
 which is the root of juaXaKog, jSXa'S. 
 
 Whenever j3 corresponds to a Skr. g or g, either the ori- 
 ginal sound was ^v, or, if ^ was the original sound, it must 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 81 
 
 have passed through the stage gv in becoming j3. Thus we 
 have R. j3a, Skr. gd (to go), agdm = 'ijirjVi Lat. betere, venioy 
 Osc. hen (to come), Goth, quhnan (to come) ; R. j3aX, j3aAAw, 
 Skr. gal (to drop), O. H. G. quillu, (scaturio) ; jSapuc = Skr, 
 gurus = Goth, kaurs ; j5ia, Skr. /i (to conquer) ; j3toc, Skr. 
 giv (to live), L. utVo, E. quick ; j3o77, 700c, Skr. gu (to sound), 
 L. hoere, bovare; R. j3op, j3opa, Skr. gar (to devour), L. vo- 
 rare ; j3ovg = Skr. gdus ; Boeot. fiava = yvvri ; TrptorjSuc 
 = Kret.7rjO£T7uc,Dor,7rp£o-7i;c, from irpeg (L. pris in pris-cus, pris- 
 tinus) = irapog = Skr. puras (before), andR. yv =7a, yev, from 
 v^hich also comes UEXaayoi (the ancients) ; epejdog beside Skr. 
 rag'as (darkness), Goth, riquis (darkness) ; Tapjdog beside 
 Skr. targ' (to threaten). When j3 represents an older gv we 
 occasionally find instead of it the dialectic variety ?, as in Ar- 
 kad. tTTiZapi'iv = £7nj3ajOav, Arkad. Z^paOpov = ^apaOpov, from 
 same root as j3opa, Skr. gar (to devour), L. vorare ; Arkad. 
 Z,iW(jj = j3aXXw ; Hom. 7rf(^u2or£c = 7r£(^u7For£C' We fiind j3 
 for 8 in Thess. BwSwv = AcuSwvjj for AFojStuvij from R. ^^F, 
 Skr. div (to shine), whence come Zfuc? ^toc) ^JiXoc, L- divus^ 
 as L. ^15 and ^owws arise from duis and duonus ; Mo\. (^aXcpig 
 = Be\<j)ig, connected with Skr. graJi for grabh (concipere), 
 Skr. garbhas (nom. sing. masc. a child), Z. garewa (foetus), 
 Gr. j5pi^og, SfX^uc? ^oX(l>6g (17 jui'tTpa, Hesych.), ^eXcjiig thus 
 meaning "the fish with the belly;"* ^ol. BsX^ot = AfX^ot, 
 from last root, and perhaps so called from its position in a 
 deep ravine ;t ^ol. o-a/xjSaXoi/ = cravdaXov, borrowed from 
 Pers. sandal (a shoe) ;t ^ol. (iXrjp = diXeap, connected with 
 ^oXog, L. doluSy 0. N. <aZ (fraud). We have also Dor. odeXog 
 = dl5tX6g, where S and j3 represent an original gi\ if this word 
 belong to the same root as jSlXoc, fieXovr}, jSaXXoj, Skr. gal (to 
 fall). 
 
 * Or SeXipig may be the " voracious fish," as Skr. ^rah means " to 
 seize." 
 
 t Curtius, " Grundzugc," p. 420. t Ibid. p. 425. 
 
 G 
 
82 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 = I. E. 6A: R. <l)ip, (pipu), Skr. hhar (to bear), 1^. fero, 
 Goth, haira (0f/o^) » (pparr^p (member of a <ppaTpia)^ Skr. 
 bhrdtd (nom. sing, brother), L. frater, Goth, hrothar; R. 0u, 
 0ua>, Skr. Mm (to be), h. fui; R. ^ap, ^apoc (a plough), 0ap- 
 07? (a ravine), Z. ^a^* (to bore), L. forare. In vt(^a (ace. 
 snow), represents an I. E. ghv, L. ningu-it, nix, St. mv for 
 W2^u. We find ^ and ^ interchanged in (jiXiapog beside ;^Xt- 
 apog (Hesych.), ^ol. aixpriv = avx^v, dd(l)vr} = Thess. ^avxvr], 
 where x is perhaps original, if the root be Skr. dah for dagh 
 (to burn).* Similarly in Latin we find/= I. E. gh in fri-are 
 = \gi -eiv, &c. 
 
 4> sometimes takes the place of 0, especially in the ^olic 
 dialect; thus we have ^ol. (ppovog = Opovog in TroiKiXd(ppov 
 (Sappho I. l)t; ^ol. 0^p = Orip'j Mo\. (fiOLva = Ooivri (a 
 feast) ; (jtapvfiog (bold, Hesych.), beside Opaavg with ji for pp, 
 pg ; 0Xa(u, (p\i(5(i) beside OXda), 0Xtj3a> (I crush) ; Kocptvog be- 
 side Skr. kathina (vas fictile). Similarly L. / = I. E. dh, in L. 
 fertty Gr. Ortp^ L. fumus = Skr. dhumas (smoke) ; L. famulus, 
 Skr. dhdman{si house), Gr. tWyiiuii, R. Oe, Skr. dhd (to place). 
 Grassmann suggests that in such cases the initial sound origi- 
 nally was dhv ; but, though this in some cases may be true, it 
 is very unlikely that it is so in all. We can explain the in- 
 terchange of/ and dh much more easily ; for we know that if, 
 in pronouncing dh or tli, we move the lower lip very slightly 
 towards the upper teeth, Ave change them into /. 
 
 $ = I. E. p in some cases : KtcftaXr}, Skr. kapdla (cranium) ; 
 pXi(l>apov from /SXIttw. In tvcjxjj, R. ru^ for 0u(/> (to smoke), 
 beside Skr. dhup (suffire), dhupaydmi, and ote^w, R. cmcj), 
 Skr. sihapdydmi (I place), has arisen from an older ^, which 
 was employed to form causatives from the roots dhu (to move), 
 and sihd (to stand.) 
 
 M = I. E. m: ap.a, Skr. samd (together), L. simul ; R. l^, 
 (fxioj, Skr. vam (to vomit), L. vomo ; riiui-, ripicrvg, Skr. sdmi-^ 
 
 * See Max Muller, vol. ii., p. 502. 
 
 t Ahrens " Do Dial. iEol," pp. 42, 256. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 83 
 
 L. semi- ; ripifia, Skr. 7'am (to rejoice), Goth, rimis (peace) ; 
 jue, Skr. and Z. ma, L. me ; juiatro^ = Skr. madhyas = L. me- 
 dius. We find fi used for tt in Kret. afiaKig = Hwa^ ; Lak. So- 
 Xofidv = ^oXoira (a spy), Lac. Mepo-f^dva = nepcretjiova ; and ju 
 for j3 in Lak. ajAvaaoq = aj^vacrog, and Lak. afxaKiov = aj3aZ' 
 
 §. 56. The Spirant Y. 
 
 Although the Greek alphabet contained no special sign 
 for the palatal spirant, traces of its presence are found even 
 more extensively than of that of the Digamma. Y must 
 have existed in Graeco-Italic times, and even in Greek till after 
 the separation of the dialects from each other. In Homer we 
 find traces of y in the frequent lengthening of short syllables 
 before log (= yu)g), as opviOsg wg, 7ri\£Kvg log, &c. Yis both 
 a spirant and a semivowel, and hence is easily vocalized. 
 
 Y = l: l^iu) = SkT.svidydmi (sudo) ; e((ryir]v= Skr. {a)-sy- 
 dm = L. {e)siem ; ~olo (gen. sing. term, of o-declension) 
 = Skr. -asya, as in ^i-mroLO = Skv. as'vasya ; -(no/msg (first plural 
 of Doric future) = Skr. -sydmas, as in Dor. irpa^ion^g, ^v\aE,L- 
 Ojutcj beside Skr. totsydfuas, &c. ; -iiov (term, of comparative) 
 = LE. -yanSf Skr. -lyans, as in ii^iiov = Skr. svddiyans, &c. ; 
 TTCLTpiog = Skr. pitryas, &c. ; (pdeipu) = (pOepyu), &c. Accord- 
 ing to Curtius, we find initial t for y only in proper names like 
 'Idoveg = Yavanas* and in iivai beside Skr. yd. 
 
 F= £ : in the Doric future i is kept only before o-sounds, 
 as in Trpa^tw, irpa^ioimeg, &c. ; but before e-sounds it becomes 
 f, as in Ipya^rjTai ; in milder Doric l always becomes f, as in 
 TT/oa^w, irpa^ovfxeg, &c. ; Ion. ri^), rlottn = Lesb. rttj;, rioiat, 
 from TL + o; Argive lo^ea (eggs) = wfya, I. E. dvyam, accord- 
 ing to Benfey, being a neuter adjective, meaning, "what 
 comes from a bird," from 1. E. avi- (a bird) ; Aivwcrog = Aio- 
 vv(Tog; r]vopir\ beside avrivopir}; Bopirjg for Bopyag (whence 
 
 * Curtius is wrong here, for Yavmias is a borrowed word, 'laovtg, 
 Jiowever, may be equivalent to Skr. yuvdnas. 
 
 (J 2 
 
84 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Boppag^hy assimilation), which is a spondee in Iliad I. 5, ^ 195; 
 arepsog, Att. aTeppog, for arept/og, feminine arilpa for arepi/a ; 
 Keve6g,Mo\.Kivvog, Ep.icctvoc, for K^vyog = Skr.s wwyas (empty) 
 i= I. E. kvanyas; heog = Skr. satyas (true) ; uvanpig beside 
 L. janitrices, ya becoming 6£, and this again u ; cvre = lort 
 for yore ; ^oKkiiiy ya/mitOi &c., for Soicyw, yafxt/iv, &c* In such 
 forms as TroXfwC) £ does not stand for y, but ttoXcwc = iroXeog 
 for TToXfyocj £5/ being the guna of t. Curtius considers that 
 t in §wp£a, (TUKta, fcpavea, &c., beside Ewpid (Hesych.), avKiaj 
 Kpavia^ &c., represents ey, and not 3/ ; these words being 
 originally collectives in -yd; dwpEUy from an older dtopsiay 
 means, therefore, "a collection of gifts ;" auKta, "a collection 
 of figs ;" and hence " the fig tree" itself, &c. Similarly 
 rsXsog = riXetog for TsXsaryog, yevea = yeveia for yeveaya. In 
 Modern Greek we sometimes find the old g represented by y ; 
 and even in ancient times e before vowels must have had a 
 peculiar pronunciation, since we find Oeoi, via, &c., frequently 
 treated as monosyllables. The Modern Greeks also frequently 
 represent the y of other languages by c, as Beatra = Skr. Vydsa 
 ('IvStKoi iiaTacppcKTBig of Galanus). 
 
 Y= V in Kvavog (a dark blue substance) = Skr. sydmas 
 (dark), v here being equivalent to u\ 
 
 Y = Spiritus asper : ^ttojo, Skr. yakrt (liver) ; L. jecur ; 
 vfiBigi Skr. yushmat (abl. pi.) ; a>/oa, Z. ydre (a year) ; vafilvt}, 
 K. v6 = Skr. yudh (to fight) ; ayiog = Skr. yag'yas (to be 
 honoured by sacrifice). 
 
 y has disappeared in ^ol. v/utfisg ; fut. term, -crto = Dor. 
 aiw, from I. E. -sydmi ; term. s. -cw, -aw, -dw, as rcXew for 
 reXeayu), (^opiu) = Skr. hharaydmi^ &c. ; gen. term, ov for 00 
 = OLO = o(xio = Skr. asya, as in 'lttttov = tTTTrodo, &c. ; irXiov beside 
 irXiiov ; ^ol. iraXaog, aXaBaaj XaxorfVi beside iraXaiogj 
 uXr]9eLay Xaxoiriv ; Ep. wkeo = WKua ; icaw = (catw, &C. 
 
 ]f= 7 : a7oupoc = atjjpog, ayovpov being read by Aristo- 
 
 * Consult Curtius, " Grundziige," p. 538 ; and "Temporaund Modi," 
 pp. 92, 93. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 85 
 
 phanes in place of a/covpov in Od. rj 64 ; Kyprian Oiayov 
 (sulphur) = Ion. Oeriiov ; Kyprian anoyefJLe (a^tXice, Hesych.) 
 and oyye/xog (<TuAXaj3ri, Hesych.) from root ya/m = Skr. yam (to 
 take), L. em-o ; whence comes yivro. In Boeot. iu)v = iyiov^ 
 Tarent. oAtoc =6X170^ maXoQ (fat) beside (tl^oXouq (shining, 
 ^laXia = ^lyaXia, y appears to have been lost from its ap- 
 proximating to the sound of y. In L. spargo = airupu) for 
 airepyd), g = y- In Modern Greek y (pronounced y) has 
 arisen from and beside the old t, as in ^wQya = x^P*"' fivlya 
 = juvTa, K\aiyM = icXatw, auyov (an Qgg) = I. E. dvyam. Cur- 
 tins remarks that the Doric future term. -Sa> of verbs in -^w, 
 as StKa^w, Dor. fut. St/caSw, is a proof that the old y was not 
 far removed from the gutturals. 
 
 Y = 2 : ^£a (spelt), Skr. yava (barley) ; R. Zeq, Zeio, f^to-- 
 jLtat (to gush, boil), Skr. yas (to strive), niryas (to perspire) ; 
 Kr}iJ,ta, (:^riTp6g (a hangman) ; Skr. yam (to restrain) ; ^jjrtw, 
 Skr. ya^ (to strive), which is connected with yd (to go) ; 
 ZiKv(poVi a tree, the fruit of which is called jujubes; Zvyov 
 = Skr. yugam, L. jugum ; Zc^imog (soup), Skr. yusha (pease 
 porridge), L. jus; ?wv)7, ^wvvvjuli, ^ovaOu) (= ZwvvikjOu), 
 Heysch.), Skr. yu (to bind) ; in the verbal terminations -aZatt 
 -i^M, beside Skr. -aydmi, which became in Greek either 
 -a^w, or, by the falling out of y, -aw, -oto, -ew, -w. In these 
 cases the original y produced d before it, and this dy became 
 dz and then z. We find a similar phenomenon in other lan- 
 guages ; thus we have Ital. diacere, diacinto, maggiore, from 
 Li. jacere, hyacinthus, major; Middle Lat.mac?m5, from L. ma- 
 jus ; Mod. Gr. ^toKt, from olaKiov (the tiller) ; Goth, daddja 
 (lacto) = 0. H. G. tdju^ Skr. dhaydmi ; Goth. tvaddjS, for tvajS, 
 gen. of tvai ; Goth, iddja (I went) = Skr. iydya, Gr. rj'ia. This 
 assumption by 3/ of a parasitic d is similar to that by v of a 
 parasitic g, in Ital. guadar, from L. vastare, &c. When y had 
 assumed this parasitic d, it frequently became St instead of ^, 
 as in the suffix -Sioc, in ^LxOdSiog, piiSiog, &c., and the 
 ^Eolic patronymics in -adiog, from A-stems, as 'YppaStogt 
 
86 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Tivadiog. The corresponding patronymics in Skr. end in 
 -ei/as (nom. sing, masc), dds^yas (the son of a slave), from 
 ddsa (a slave) ; and in Latin in -ejus^ plehejus, Pompejus, 
 &c. The termination of ^lEiog (Dor. Fi^iog) is explained in 
 the same way by Curtius ; the root is k for afe, Skr. sva, 
 L. se, whence we have tSf oc through the steps gFei/oq, afedt/og, 
 afeSioQi fediog, whence finally 'Idiog. Such patronymic forms, 
 as Tvppaiog (Ahrens, " De Dial, ^ol.," p. 158), are related to 
 'Yppa^iog, as the verbal term, -au) to -a?(o. As «/ becomes c in 
 some cases, so St becomes Sc, as in the term -diog, Att. Eovg, 
 adiX<pid£og, Att. aSe\(l)idovg. We frequently find y, after it has 
 produced before it the parasitic S, vanishing and S alone remain- 
 ing ; Boeot. ^vyov = Z^yov ; Boeot. ^wjuLog = ^wjuoc j Dor. dariv 
 = ZriTeTv ; x^^C - X^^^ 0^7 assimilation) = x^2/^? = X2^^^ = ^' ■^• 
 ghyas, whence Skr. hyas^ L. heri^hes-ternus ; poTJ5^og (a rushing 
 noise) = poif^yog = poifyog (from poFyog by umlaut), connect- 
 ed by Curtius either with L. rumor, or with K. pv (to flow), 
 'PoTSoc, another form of /ootjSSoc, is from poi^yog. Curtius 
 connects ^ri witli L. jam, Goth. Jm (already) ; he treats dv 
 as an instrumental, and Jam as a locative of the same pronomi- 
 nal root ja. Beside Hom. ajmipSu) (I rob), Pindar has afxeipu), 
 both being from afxepi/b), R. fxep. "Exi^va is perhaps for kxiv^a 
 by metathesis, which is for l^ivya, a feminine form of i^ig ; 
 this feminine termination -vya is found directly in irorvia, as 
 -iva by umlaut in Sto-Trotva, Oeaiva, XvKaiva, which correspond 
 to the Latin forms gallina, regina, Diana for Deana, and this 
 again for Deaina^ Deania, and as -vva by assimilation in the 
 JEolic forms KojOtvva, f^aGiXivva. MoXujSSoc is for fxoXv^yog, 
 which is related to the older form fioXvfiog, as \Qvaiov to 
 \pva6g. 'PajSSocis for pafi^yog^ pair^yog = pairyog, which is 
 related to panig, as ^afcpuov to Sa/cpv. AajS^aKOc is for 
 AaFtafcoc from Aaiog (popular) from \aP6g (the people).* 
 
 * For additional examples consult Curtius, " Grundziige," p. 559, seq., 
 to whom I am chiefly indebted for the materials of this and the following 
 section. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 87 
 
 §.57. The Digamma. 
 
 The sound of F was very nearly the same as that of the 
 E. w. Dionysius of Halikarnassus defines it as ov avXXajdrj 
 hi (TTOLx^iti) jpa(j)oiuivr}. It is both a spirant and a semivowel ; 
 and, as a semivowel, is easily vocalized. 
 
 F = V : We have six cases where initial F becomes i; : 
 vaXr) (a worm, Hesych.) vaXirai (it breeds worms, Hesych.), 
 from R. FeX (to twist), whence svXri (a worm), iX-juivQ ; 'YiXri 
 (Herod. L, 167), the Italian town commonly called Elea or 
 Velia ; vi^aig {gtoXt] Yla^ioi)^ veardKa (clothing), perhaps from 
 a nom. ve(TTaZ, from R. Peg (to clothe), L. vestis ; viri (the 
 vine), vlov (the wild vine), connected with L. viere, vitisy with 
 which Curtius also connects olvog and L. vinum ; viXr] (a host, 
 Hesych.), beside Lacon. jSeiXr? = i'Aij (a host), from R. FeA, 
 Skr. var (to surround) ; vpnyaXiov (a cleft), beside Hom. 
 pwyaXiov The change of F into v is very common in the 
 middle of words : kikov = Skr. s'vd (a dog) ; kuccu (I am preg- 
 nant), Skr. s'vaydmi (I swell) ; uXvwy L. volvo ; (5i^voL (or 
 jSt^eot, certain Spartan magistrates), meaning (ruviaropec, juap- 
 Tvp£g, from R. FtS, and suffix -Fo, -Fa = Skr. -m, and L. -vo, 
 -va, fdidvog (Att. Idvog or l^vXog). When F is vocalized, 
 it is frequently throwm back into the preceding syllable, as 
 in Tavpog through ravpfog, from rapFog = Gall, tarvos ; Ion. 
 ovXog = oXog from oAFoc = Skr. sarvas (all) ; yovvog, yovva 
 from yovfog, yovFa, gen. sing, and nom. pi. of yoi^u ; dovpog 
 from dopfog, gen. sing, of ^6pv ; ovXai (Att. 6Xai, L. mola)j 
 from oXFat, as the Syracusan word oXj^axoiov (a bread bas- 
 ket) proves. In the Lesbian-^olic F between two vowels 
 became v, and thus formed a diphthong with the preceding 
 vowel, as in avwg (Lak. dj5u)p), (l>avog (Pamph. (pdj5og) 
 (Ahrens, "De Dial, ^ol.," p. 36, seq.). 
 
 F = o : dodv in Alkman = By)v from Sfriv = ^iFav, ace. of 
 St. ^iFa (a day) ; dodcrtraTo (it seemed) from R. ^iF, Skr. div 
 
88 COMPARATIVE GRAItlMAR. 
 
 (to shine), for SFao-aaro ; Zoaaov = a^icTOv (Hesych.), F be- 
 coming in the one case o, and in the other j3, the root being 
 (jf^g = I. E. svas, connected with G. sausen (to whistle), and 
 O. S. svistu (sibilus), not connected with Skr. s'vas (to breathe), 
 Avhich is = I. E. kvas, L. queri, E. ques, E. whistle, wheeze^ 
 the F is entirely lost in Ziiwiusv = crjStvvu/ifv (Hesych.) ; Soiot 
 (two) for hfioL from St. SFt, Slg, L. bis ; jcoa? (the croaking of 
 frogs) = G. quak, E. quack ; kolZ^lv (to squeak like a young 
 pig) from /cot, G. quiek, E. squeak ; "Oa^og (the Kretan town 
 "ASoc) the inhabitants of which are called FaSmt upon coins, 
 and the district is called Ola^ig by Apollonius Khodius, where 
 Of (= vj^) very nearly has the sound of v ; Otav0*j, or Olavdeia 
 (a Lokrian town), called in Plutarch 'YavBeia, from Ft-av0i? 
 (violet blossoms) ; 'OAcuc = ^iXtuc, from FtXr? (a host) ; 
 oQo^afivoQ (a sprout) = joaSajuvoc, beside ^ol. fdpiada = fpi^ia, 
 piZa ; OtVuAoc (a Laconian town), also called BftrwXoc (Bt- 
 rouAa by Ptolemy) from FfruXoc ; 'OXtco-rjv (a Kretan town), 
 called by the later Kretans BXfo-o-ijv ; oltrva, ottroc (osier), 
 beside true, -^ol- ^tVu^ foi* Ftruc> L. i;i>o, vme?i. The Sicilian 
 river"Avtc was sometimes called "Qai'tc? where to represents 
 F. This change of F into o is similar to that of ?/ into f ; for, 
 as y became first i and then e, so F became first v and then o. 
 In 0. H. G. we find o for v, as in sn^o = Goth, snaivs. It is 
 not probable that F ever became i ; for then it must have 
 passed through the three stages, m, u\ i, which is not likely ; 
 and in nearly all the cases adduced in proof of this change, i 
 is susceptible of another explanation. Thus in w'iov = L. 
 ovum, F was present along with i, as is proved by the Argive 
 w/Stoi/, from uiFiov ; vXeUiv = irXeFi/eiv, while wXieiv = TrXeFetv, 
 ya being a common verbal sufi&x ; aBeX(j)£i6g = oSfX^eFtoc from 
 St. aSsX^cF = aSfX^u and suffix ya; lapeiov (7r^oj3arov, (^ovg, 
 Hesych.) is from hpog, Dor. iapog, and not from St. Fapv 
 (a sheep), &c. 
 
 After a prosthetic vowel F vanishes, as in Kret. aapGu, 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 89 
 
 Horn. Up(Tr) = fpo-r] (dew), Skr. varsJia (rain) ; aXo? (a furrow), 
 Horn. avAa£, Dor. wXaE, for aFXa^, from K. FeXk (to drag) ; 
 aeOXov (a prize), for aFt^Xov, beside L. vas, St. vad (Leo 
 Meyer, however, connects this with L. ai?ere, avidus, and treats 
 0Ao as a suffix, the same as rpo) ; hiKOGi = tFfficoo-t ; Horn. 
 f'eSva = £^va from K. aFa^, whence ri^vg, &c., Skr. s??a(^ (to 
 please), svddu (sweet) = 17SU, &c. 
 
 F = spir. asp. : cWepoc, L. vesper ; evvvfjii for tcrvvjun, R. 
 FfC) L. vestire ; "kttujq from R. FtS ; 60<C) foi^ ott* c = oTrFtc ; 
 'Evfrot = Veneti ; 'Earia beside Vesta. We find a similar 
 change in Fr. Iiors = L. foras, in Sp. Aa6a, harina, heno, hijo^ 
 herir = L. faha^ farina, fcenum, filius, ferire. 
 
 F = j3 : PovXoiuLai, R. j3oX = Skr. var (to choose), L. volo ; 
 tjSuS (the name of an opveiov Kpaicrtfcov), beside tuyr) (shriek- 
 ing), St. IFvy ; opojSo^ beside L. ervum ; 6Xf5og beside oXoog 
 = L. salvus, &c. We find this change frequently in the dialects : 
 in Lesbian we find j3 for F before p, as in j3po3ov, f^phda, Bpa- 
 ^a/jiavOvg, &c. ; in Lak. we have jSci/cart = ctKoat, jScicac = £*cac, 
 a/3/}jO = a{]p, a>j3a beside 6717 (fcw/xr?) and ouat (0uXat) ; &c. 
 We find a similar change in L. ferbui for fervui, huhile for 
 hovile ; and in G. Schivalbe, Farbe, Erbse, &c., from 0. H. G. 
 swalawdf farawd, araweiz, &c. 
 
 F = fi : ajxvoQ = aFtvoc beside ot'c = Skr. avis, Lith. avinas 
 (mutton) ; ajuivog, therefore, is equivalent in meaning to ovilis, 
 and then easily comes to mean lamb ; jmaXXog (shaggy hair) 
 beside L. villus, vellus, from same root as ovXog (crisp), tpiov 
 (wool), Skr. wm (a sheep), urna (wool) ; E. wool; peXSofievog 
 (eiriOviuLiov, Hesych.) beside tXSojuat and siXSoimai {IttiOviulu)) 
 from R. FfX^, as is proved by the last form with the pros- 
 thetic £ ; juLoXwig = kXwig from R. FcXtt, whence toXira, UXirero ; 
 afjKprfv =_^ol. av(l>riv = avxhv (^the neck). Conversely we 
 find V in place of m in Lith. vidui = ixiaaoi, Ch. SI. )iruvX (a 
 worm) = Skr. krniis, prtlvy = L. py^imus, Skr. vayam (we), 
 Goth, veis (we), beside Skr. rndm (me), &c. 
 
 The change of F into y is very doubtful : we find ayar>j- 
 
90 , COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 fjiai (jSejSXa/ijuat) from aFara = cltt]^ Pindaric avara ; (f)iyyog for 
 0£vFoc which is related to (jtaoc, ^ol. (ftavog, Pamphyl. 0a/3oc, 
 as ^ivOog to jdaOog, and nevOog to iraOog. The other cases in 
 which this change is said to occur are words of very uncer- 
 tain origin. 
 
 We find ^ = F in a^e = Skr. sva, and or(j)6yyog beside 
 Goth, svamms (a sponge), E. swim ; p = F in Kret. rpt, 
 ^eSpotKwc, for rFe, SeSFoucw?; tt is said to be = F in Ua^oq 
 found in Skylax for "Oa?oc, but the reading is doubtful ; in 
 Kret. iroXxoq = oyXog^ but these words may be of different 
 origin, the root of ttoXxoc? perhaps, being ttcX found in 
 TToXvcj L- populus ; Lac. ajULTrinai = afi(j)i£Gai, which Ahrens de- 
 rives from aju - Fcaat, a/x being for aiui(l)i : Curtius, however, 
 considers the tt to be due to the influence of the ^ of a/Kftt ; 
 Lac. airiXXa = aFcXXa, according to Ahrens, from a= a (to- 
 gether) and R. FcX found in eiXetv (to press), aoXXrjg (crowded 
 together) ; but, as we have the forms aTrttXXw, -^ol. awiXXio 
 (aTToicXfia), Hesych.), it is possible that the tt may be due to 
 the preposition airo, and not to the F. 'AireiXr] (threatening) 
 maybe from this root, and mean literally "shutting out," 
 " excommunication." 
 
 The existence of F is in many cases shown by its effects 
 on a preceding consonant, as in iroaog (Ion. Koaog) for 
 Kpoaog, or on a following vowel, as in oxog for Pexog, Dor. 
 TETopEg for reTpapegy JEol. opavog = Skr. Varunas, beside 
 oupavog, JEol. lopavog, Dor. wpavog, F becoming o, and oo 
 then ou, JEol. and Dor. w. This effect of F or v on a follow- 
 ing vowel is found also in KodpavTr^g = L. quadrans, L. socer 
 Skr. svas'uras, L. socrus = Skr. svas'rus, L. soror, beside Skr. 
 svdsar (sister), &c.; and in the pronunciation of a in E. water^ 
 what, &c. 
 
comparative grammar. 91 
 
 §. 58. Assimilation. 
 
 I. When two consonants come together, the first is often 
 made the same as the second. Thus vv = av in evvvfii = Fea- 
 viffxh R- Fee ; ^wvvujut = ?wo--vu/xf, Skr. t/u (to bind) ; ^ol. 
 ^aevvoc = 0a£rTvoc from ^aoc, St. 0a£c? found in ^aeor^opoc ; 
 ^ol. opevvog = bphavoq, from Ojooc, St. opf c found in 6p€o-K(j)oc ; 
 IpifdevvoQ = fp£j3fo-voc, from £pfj3oc, St. IpcjScc? found in Ips- 
 /3£o-(/)i ; £vv£oi^ (they swam, II. xxi. 11) = laveov, R. vv for 
 orvu, Skr. snu (to flow). Nv = rv in Kavv£U(7av (Od. xv. 464) 
 = KaT-vEV(Tav. Mfx = vfi in Kafifxovir} = Kar—jULOVLri ', KOjUjuopot 
 (in Od., but never in II.) = Kar-mopog. M/x = ap. in ^ol. 
 eppL - eafxi ; ^ol. 'ippsvoQ, eppa = ta-pevog, Icr-pa, R. Fec ; 
 ^ol. ')(pippa = XQiapa ; Lesb. appeg, vppsg, beside Skr. as- 
 maw, yushman ; ((uXoppu^rig = (pLXo-apudrjg, Skr. smi (to 
 laugh), E. smile. M/x = 7/x in Dor. irovppa {1) rfjc X^^P^^ 
 TTvyprj, Hesych.). Mp = ^/x, irp, (f)p, in Koppog (a striking) 
 from R. KOTT (as L. summus = sup-mus), rirpippai from R. 
 r/ozj3, ypappa from R. 7pa^, &c. AX = ttX in Lak. aXXav?)? 
 (safe) = arrXavfig. AX = vX in crvWsyeLv = auv— XfyEtv, &c. 
 AX = tX in KaXXfTTCffv (Od. xvi. 296) = KaT-XnrEsiv- Ttt = pir 
 in Boeot. 'iirTracFig = ipwacTtg (h/KTYjcng) ; rXviriria (the name 
 of a Lakonian village) = rXvpiria; Aainra (the name of a 
 town in Krete) = Aapira. Utt = ttt in jcaTTTTfo-ov = Kar-Trfo-of. 
 Bj3 = 7rj3 in {^jS/BaXXftv (II. xix. 80) = ii7r-/3aXX£tv. Bj3 
 «= rj3 in Ka]3/3aX£ = Kar-jSaXf. AS = rS in Kad §£ = jcar de. 
 Vy = ry in Kay yovv = icar yoyu. Kk = tk in kqk: Kopvfpriv 
 = Kar jc. and kcik fC£0aXf/c= fcar jc. Kjc = ctk in Lak. a/cfcop = aa- 
 Kop, EidaKKEi = didacTKei (in Deer, in Timoth.), Lak. (?) k-okkoc 
 (6 piKpbg ^cLKTvXog, Hesych.) = KatTKog. Tr = ar in BcBOt. 
 \ttu), errf, ema, iTTaaav = 'icTTd)} £ot£, iGTia, iaTTjaav ; Lak. 
 jSfrrov (a garment) beside jSfo-rov = earov ; Lak. Kirrop = fcftr- 
 roc; Lak. aTTaat for avaTa9i= ava(TTr}9L. Tr = Sr in Tar. "A ^par- 
 roc (17 EKarrj Tropa TapavTivoig) = cKppaSrog. Tr = kt in Awrroc 
 (a Kretan town) beside Auktoc- Pp = o'p ii^ tppfov = £ap£oy, 
 
92 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 rrepippvTOQ = irepKrpvTog, beside ajjKpipvTog, yjEifiappooQ-) Kok- 
 Xippoog beside KoXXipoog, all from R. pv for (jpv = Skr. sru (to 
 flow). Pp = vp in ayappoog from ayav and E. /^u ; (Tvppdv 
 = ffuv-^Eiv, &c. Pp = Tp in KapV£^ov<Ta (H. v. 424) = Kar-pe- 
 Zovcra. Pp = Fp in Bppi\pe = lFpi\ps; avrippoTTog from R. Fp£7r ; 
 TTpoppi^og from Fpit^a, with which root may be connected ttc- 
 pippr}d{]g (headlong) ; appriKTog, Mo\. avprjKTog from li. Fpay, 
 L. frango ; &c. 2c = vg in avaGiTiov = o-uva-triov, and other 
 compounds of (tuv, except when ^ or o- followed by a conso- 
 nant come after, in which cases v is dropped, as in avZ,vyog, 
 (TvarrjiuLa. The v in kv is always kept, and the v in ttov and 
 TTaXfv is either kept or assimilated to the following o-. So- 
 = dg in Hom. iroaai = TroS-o-t. 2c = kc in ^icraogy rpiGaog 
 beside St^oc* rptjoc) S becoming (T(t through the steps y^g, hg. 
 This is Ebel's view, who compares L. nisu s= nixus. Ch. SI. 
 desinu (dexter), Ir. des (dexter), Ir. ass and ess = L. ex beside 
 echtar (extra), Umb. testru = L. dextro, &c. Curtius considers 
 ^LtTGog to have arisen from ^firyog = Skr. dvitiyas for dvityas. 
 II. When two consonants come together, the second is often 
 made the same as the first. This is very common in ^olic, 
 especially when a liquid is followed by F, y, or o-. Thus vv 
 - va in JEol. fir\vvog (a month) beside L. mensis ; Mo\. lyyiv- 
 varo, Krivvai = eyav<jaTOi KTsvcrai ; twETTc = £V(T£7rc, L. insece. 
 Nv = vF in ^ol. yovvog = yovvog from -yovFoc. Nv = vy in 
 ^ol. /crlvvw = KTeivio from jcreyyw ; JEol. fcptvvw = fcptvo) from 
 Kpivyu) ; JEol. kcvvoc = Skr. sunyas (empty), Ion. Kuvog^ ke- 
 VBOg, Att. KBvog. Mp, = pa in Ivipparo = tvepaaro. AX = Av 
 in oXXujLit = oXvvpi, as E. ell = eln, L. w/na, and ¥,, full=fubi, 
 Skr. purTWL (full), L. pZe/iMs. ^X = Xa in ^ol. ferreXXa = £(T- 
 TfXo-a. AX = XF in ttoXXt) = TroXFr? from ttoXv ; kuXXo'c 
 (crooked) = kuXFoc L. curvus. AX = X.y in aXXoc = aXyoc, L- 
 alius ; ^vXXov = (pvXyoVf Li. folium ; paXXov = paXiov ; ctXXo- 
 paL = aXyopai, L. saZzo ; icaXXoc, KaXXvvw, Dor. fcaXXa (kc- 
 X(oc), beside Skr. AaZya (sound) ; ariXXw = GTsXyu) ; Hom. 
 6(piXXu} = 6(j)eiX(jj from 6(I)eXi/io. Utt = irp and «^^ in ^ol. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 93 
 
 oTTTrara, aXiinra for o/uLiuara, aXeijufjia from the roots ott and 
 aAt0. AS = Sy in the Boeotic forms jmadda = ^a^a = ^la^ya for 
 fxay-'ya ; (T^aoSo) = a^a^yit) for (T(j)ayyii) ; craATrtSSw = (TaXTridyto 
 for aaXiTiyyiD ; pi^^u) = piZ^, Att. e^So/ = pe^yu) for fpey-ytvt 
 K. F/o£y and Ffpy ; the same change is found in Lakonic, as is 
 proved by the examples in the Lysistrata, yvfivadEojuLm (82) 
 luLVdiBSii) for fivOiZd) (94), TToroS^Et for TrpoaoZei (206), &c. 
 When ^y is initial, we sometimes find it represented by S in- 
 stead of Sdi as in Boeot. Aeyg = Z^vg, Adv = Z»>, Svyov = ?u- 
 yov ; Lak. dwjuog = ^w/xoc J Set- = ?«- from Sid in Sacjtoivog, 
 bdcFKiog. Kk = KjO in Boeot. jmiKKog = /uiiKpoc. Kk = kF in ^ol. 
 '/kkoc = L. eguus ; yXvKKOv {yXvKv^ Hesych.) = yXvKJrov ; TreXtK- 
 icay = TTf AeicFai* from TrtAtKUc* Tr = re in jcarruefv = KaTavuv. 
 Tr = rF in rirTaQ^g = rerFapEc* Tr = ry in the Attic forms, 
 /miXiTTa = jmeXirya ', Kpdrrwv = KpEirywv ; TrspiTTog = irspiTyog ; 
 vEorroc = vsoryog. Vp= per in dppr]v- apar]v, dppi\og (a basket) 
 = ap(T(;!(^oc» Odppog = 0ap(TOc, TT6pp(jj = Trop(Tio beside irpoaw, oppog 
 perhaps from ogaog^ wvppog = wvpaog, Att. xippog (dry land) 
 = x^'po-oc, Att. Kopprj = KOpar). Pp = pv in pvppa = ajuvpva. 
 P/o = py in the ^olic forms (j)9ippu) = (l)6epyio, Trippoxog = tte- 
 pio)(^og, TTi^ppixHv - inpiax^tvi T^^pp dirdXw (in Theokr. 29, 
 26^ for TTfpi QTraAw, HipPajiog = IlpiajULogf pereppog = imirpiog, 
 &c. 2o- = aF in Hom. noSsaaL = TroSeaF* from St. ttoSe for 
 TToS (in later Greek this aF becomes o-, as in '/roAso-/, &c., which, 
 however, does not fall out, as it represents the old ao-) ; ^ol. 
 'lacTog = FiaFog, Taoc, Skr. vishu (aeque) ; traces of the initial F 
 being found in Hom. liar} and Lak. [5i(jjp = 'icrtog. Sc = (^y in 
 taaojiaL = layopai ; viacrofiai — viayopai from R. veg, found in 
 viopai, voGTog, Niartvp, Skr. 7ias (to come) ; wriaaio = TrriaytOj 
 L. pinsOj Skr. j9zs7i (to pound). 
 
 III. When two consonants come together, the first is gene- 
 rally made like the second. Thus, when labials or gutturals 
 precede mute dentals, they must be of the same order as the 
 following dental ; hence the only combinations allowed are 
 KT, 7rr, yd, /3S, x^, (pB, as in Acicrocfor Xe'^rog, K. Xiy, ypairrog 
 
94 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 for ypa(l>Tog, and ypa/3Sijv for yjoa^^rjv, R. ypacf), XexOijvat for 
 XeyOtivai, R. Xty, ru^Ofivat for TvirOrivai, R. ru7r. Before <7, y 
 and ^ become <c, and j3 and (p become tt, as in a£w, R. ay, 
 rpiipu), R. rptj3, ypaipijj, R. ypa^. Before /x a guttural becomes 
 y , and a dental becomes o-, as in Stwyjuoc from Stwjcw, jSejSjOtyjuat 
 from j3/i£X^' rjvuo-juat from avurw, TrtTTEto-juai from ireLOu), t(T/x€v 
 beside otSa ; sometimes this change does not occur, as in ajcjUTj, 
 S/oaxjur), pvOjuogy apiOiiiog, arjuiog, and in compounds with pre- 
 position Ifc, also in the Ionic form? oS/xi? = Att. oo-jur}, t^juev = 
 Att. to-jU£i', KtKopvOfxevog = Att. »c£/copuarjufvoc» Vkjuevoc (favour- 
 able), ajcaxjufvoc from R. aK (to sharpen), avrjurj (breath). N 
 becomes p, before labials, and nasal y before gutturals, as 
 in EfjLTreipoQ from ev, irdpa, (TvyKoXio) from o-uv, icaXew, &c. 
 Labials become fx before v, as in aefivog from R. o-€j3, cref^opai ; 
 but we find uttvoc beside L. somnus. T frequently becomes a 
 before u and (, as in av = Dor. ru, suffix -(rvvrt for -ruvjj* 
 ^»](Ti = Dor. (paTi, (paaig = Hom. (pang, irXovaiog from ttXou- 
 Tog, eiKoai = Dor. FiKaTi, (pipovaL = Dor. (jyipovri, &c. 
 
 IV. When two consonants come together, the second is 
 often made like the first. Thus initial Sy becomes dz, written 
 ?, as in Zevg = Skr. dydus, Osk. Aiovfei (dat.), 0. L. Diovis ; 
 ?a = Sm in Hom. ^a^foc, SaKorocj &c., also in the ^olic forms 
 ?aj3aAX€iv, ?a i^ujcroc, Zovvv^og = Atoi/uaoc, &c. Medial §y 
 very frequently becomes ^, as in tZopai, R. tS ; o^o), R. 6S ; 
 a^tSw? R- orx*^ ' X^^^' ■^' X^^' '^pcLTTiZa for rcrpaTreSya, com- 
 pare L. acupedius ; xaXa?a from St. ^^aXaS, T. E. ghrdd, Skr. 
 hrdduni (bad weather), L. grando ; pi^a = FptSya, ttc^oc = ttc- 
 ^yoc ; -^ol. Kap^a = Kap^ia ; -$oc in ^OiZog and 7rp(t>(?oc> 
 from R. StF, whence come ?taXoc, S^cXoc, SrAoc, &c. ; apf^ijXoc 
 = apidyriXog from R. ^tF. 
 
 V. Mutual approximation of two united consonants to 
 each other. Thus yy becomes Z through the step Sy in pi^oj 
 = peyy(M) beside *ipyov ; jut^^wv - ptyyu)v ; aZopat = ayyopai 
 beside ayiog ; Hom. vTroXiZ^wv = viroXiyywv ; /ua^a beside pd- 
 yupog'y (pOZa = (pvyya, R. ^uy ; ?a(t> = y^atu, I. E. ^»*, Skr. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 95 
 
 g'tv (to live), beside SiaiTa = yyaira ; K\aZ,u) beside Kkayyi] ; 
 piZ^ijj (I dye) beside pY}'y^vg (a dyer) ; and some other verbs in 
 -Sw. Z = (5t/ in XdZofxai beside R. Aaj3, cXajSov. In vt^w 
 beside x£p-v^j3-oc, vt7rra> for vfj3rw, ^ may represent yy, as 
 the Skr. nig' (to wash), proves that the root once contained 
 y. 2(T = r«/ in Xtcraoiiiai, R. Xlt ; jUbiXiacTa from St. jueX^r ; 
 Kpf)(T<Ta = Kpr}Tya ; IpctTfra; = Iparyu) beside Iparfiog ; Kpticrtrwv 
 = KQUTyiM)v beside KpariGTOQ ; vrjao-a = vr}Tya, L. mias. So- 
 = By in Horn, piaoog = Skr. madhyas ; (daaawv = j3a- 
 %wv beside (5a0vQ ; Kopvaaix) = Kopvdyo) beside KSKopvO- 
 fxm. 2(T = Ky in riaaiov = -qKytJv beside -qKicTTog ; Qpriaaa = 
 Qpi]Kya ; paXd(T(T(D = /uiaXaKyii) beside juaXaicoc 5 otrac (the eyes) 
 «= 6k?/£ beside Boeot. oKToXXog (the eye), and okkoq (the eye, 
 Hesych.) ; oo-tra (a voice) ~ OKj/a, L. voa' ; c vto-crw (I attack, 
 = eviTTTio) = IvLKyWf L. ^co. So-= ;)(y ^^ tXaacwv = tXax^/^v be- 
 side eXaxvQ ; jSpao-crcuv = j^paxVwv beside I3pa\vg, (^poacrovog 
 f3paxvTipov, Hesych. (Ahrens, " De Dial. Dor.," p. 505). So- 
 = (5y in (lidaaa (the ring dove) = (l^aifiya, beside 0ai// (a smaller 
 species of ring dove). So- = iry in Koacrog (a slap in the face) 
 Koiryog from R. kott. 2o-= ^y in ^ol. irhcrov = ire^iov ; -^ol. 
 io-oroc = tStoc ; Tar. (})pd<y(Tia = ^joa^w from R. (j)paS (whence 
 dpi(l>padY}g, TTE^paSov), which Curtius deduces from an older 
 form irpar = L. pret in interpretari, beside Lith. prat (to un- 
 derstand), Goth, fraths (understanding). '2<t = yy in irriaau) 
 - Trr]yyu) beside irijyvvpi ; (ppaoato = (ppayycD beside l^pdyr\v ; 
 p>7(T(Tw = pYiyyix) beside prjyvvfjit ; d(y<j(jj = dyyu) beside dyvvpi ; 
 (ppv(T(T(i) (I parch) = (ppvyyu) beside (ppvyo) ; ttXt^cto'w = TrXrtyyu) 
 beside lirXdyriv ', bpvaaio - opvyyu) (beside opvyi]) or opv^ydi ; 
 ludaau) = payyu) beside fxaytvg (a baker) ; TaGaii) = rayyio be- 
 side Tayog (a ruler) ; and perhaps in a few other cases. In all 
 those, however, which are enumerated here, with the excep- 
 tion of daaw (which does not appear till after Augustus), 
 (ppvaaMi and rdaaio, older forms of the roots occur with k in- 
 stead of -y, so that in these cases aa may represent icy, and 
 not yy. 
 
96 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 §. 59. Dissimilation. 
 
 Mute dentals before mute dentals become o-, as in awarog 
 = avvTTog from avvTio; aariov = qdrtov from aSw ; ireiaOi^vai 
 = TrudOnvai from TnWto. The ending Oi of the 2 sing, impera- 
 tive, first aorist passive, becomes tl when an aspirate oc- 
 curs in the preceding syllable, as o-w^rjrt beside kXvOl : we find, 
 however, (paOi or (paOi from ^r?/xt. We have also arvOriv 
 = Wv9r}v, from R. 0i; and hi9r]v = WeOrjv from R. Oc ; yet we 
 find l(j)V(l)ri (the woof) from R. v(f). When two consonants be- 
 gin a root, the first is only kept in reduplicated syllables ; 
 hence aspirates are reduplicated by the corresponding tenues. 
 Thus we have yiypa(^a = ypeypa(lta, KL\priiii = XpiXQW-^ "iaTr\- 
 fii = aL(TTr]fiL = aTiaTYijuif iri^vKU = c^t^^vKa : similarly in San- 
 skrit we have bahhuva = iricpvKa, dadrdma = di^pofxa* Roots 
 which originally began with one aspirate, and ended with 
 another, replaced the first aspirate by the corresponding te- 
 nuis. Thus we have -rrrixvc (the arm) = (prixvg = I. E. bhdghus 
 = Skr. bdhus (the arm), beside O. N. bogr, O. H. G. buoc ; 
 TTvO/jLTiv beside PvOjulvv, Hesych. (the bottom) = (jtvOiuLrtv, Skr. 
 budhna (the bottom) = I. E. bhudhna, beside O. H. G. bodam, 
 L. fundus ; &c.f We see the ejffects of Dissimilation in other 
 languages as in L. Parilia beside Palilia from Pales, L, meri- 
 dies from medidies, L. popularis for populalis beside regalis, 
 &c. ; It. veleno = L. venenmn ; E. cinnamon for cinnamom, &c. 
 
 * Curtius has pointed out that Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin had not, 
 before their separation from each other, already fixed their peculiar laws 
 of reduplication, from the different ways in which they treat groups of 
 consonants of which the first is a sibilant. Thus we have the Latin steti 
 = stesti^ spopondi = spospondi, while conversely the Sanskrit has only kept 
 the sibilant in the second syllable, as tishtami (I stand). We find some 
 traces of this latter kind of reduplication in Greek and Latin, as in quis- 
 quilice = (coo-KvX/xarta (parings of leather) beside ckvWhv (to flay) and 
 KaaKaXi^eiv (to tickle) beside (ncaWnv (to stir up). A third form of redu- 
 plication is found in L. sisto = stisto, as 'laTijfii = (maTtjfii. 
 
 t For other examples consult Grassmann in K. Z., vol. xvi., p. 114. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMxMAR. U LUtf^Tti 
 
 _i^ CaUfotnV*; 
 
 §. 60. The Rejection of a Consonant. 
 
 Dentals, when standing before or, are generally dropped 
 without compensation, as in avvtrig = avvrmg, T^crofiai = -nSao- 
 fiai, Kopvai = Kopv9<n, ^aijuLocri = Saijuovcn. N also disappears 
 before Z, as in (rv^vyog = awZvyog. N in ev is never lost; v 
 in wav andTraXtvis either kept, or assimilated to the following 
 o- ; v in aw is dropped before Z and a with a consonant fol- 
 lowing, but before a single trit is assimilated, as in ovaaiTiov. 
 In some cases the loss of v is compensated for by lengthening 
 the preceding vowel, as in fiiXag = iiAavq, TaXag = ra- 
 Aavc, &c. Nr, v0, vS, are also omitted before o-, but are nearly 
 always compensated for, as rSug = riBevrg^ Truaojiai = irevOao- 
 juai, (T7rsi(Tio = (tttevSctw. N is also sometimes omitted between 
 two vowels, as in judZovg = jutt^ovf c- K is lost in (rvXaw from 
 aKvXov (plunder), as in Skr. savyas (left) = aKaiog, L. sccbvus ; 
 avv = ^vv ; Kypr. ceoaXa = ^vijXr} (a carpenter's plane), from 
 ^v(jj. n is lost in Dor. aanKTog {ayaOog napa 'PivOwvt 
 TapavTivii)) = ciipSKTog from \piy(i} ; aiTTaKog = ^iTTaKog (a 
 parrot) ; Ion. (twxsiv = ipu)xsiv (to scrape) ; afjifiog = \pafifjiog 
 through aafxiuog. T is lost in Kepojg = Keparog, from St. 
 *c£par (a horn) ; ^tpEi = ^epert, &c. The rejection of 2/ and F 
 has been already noticed ; we may add that F is lost in cro/i- 
 (l)6g (spongy), beside Goth, svamms (a sponge): (7oj3ij (a 
 horse's tail), beside 0. N. svipa (a tail) ; cnyri beside G. 
 schweigen (silence) ; ai^r\oog beside Skr. svidita (molten) ; 
 aaXog (swell of the sea) beside E. swell; ^upiog^ aiXag be- 
 side Skr. svar (heaven), Z. hvare (the sun). S, as we have 
 already seen, is generally rejected between two vowels ; also 
 between two consonants, as in yeypa(l)dai = yeypacjxjOai, Tirv- 
 (J)9e = TSTvcpaOe, &c. ; also before another cr, as in yXvKicji = yXv- 
 Kiacn for yXvKEafi^ &c. Initial <t is always lost before v, as in 
 v'Kjta beside Z. s'nizh (to snow), Goth, snaivs (snow) ; vevpovt 
 Jj.nej'vusheside O.H. G. 5m«or (laqueus) ; vcw (I swim) = o-t'£ Feu, 
 Horn, tvv^ov = IfTViov, vevaig (swimming), beside Skr. snu (to 
 
 II 
 
98 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 flow) ; vatjj (I flow) = avaFw, ^ol. vavu), beside Skr. Sfiu (to 
 flow), and not snd (to flow) as the ^olic form shows ; wog 
 (daughter-in-law) = ctvuo-oc, beside Skr. snushd, and L. nurus. 
 It is sometimes lost before ju, as in /neidiaio beside 0fXojUjU£t8r)c> 
 Skr. smi (to smile), E. smile; jueXSw (I melt), E. smelt; fxip- 
 fxepog (care-laden), L. memor, beside Skr. smxir (to remember) ; 
 fiv^oQ (damp, foulness), Skr. mid (to be clammy), Goth, hi- 
 smeitan (tTrixP^fv), 0. H. G. smiz (n^vus), and E. smut. 
 S is lost before »c in Kap<pog (a twig) = aKapi^og ; KifX^^avTig 
 {EpeicravTsg, Hesych.), beside aKifiTTTSiv (to prop), L. scipio 
 (staff) ; Kvi\p (a small insect) = gkvi-^ ; KapOfxoi (^KtvYjoreig, He- 
 sych.), beside (TKaipuv (to hop) ; KaTreroQ (a grave) = (tkcltts- 
 roc» beside GKairTSiv (to dig) ; KidvaaOai = (TKidvacrOaL (to be 
 scattered) ; (TKVTog (skin) = KVTog, Skr. skii (to cover). S is 
 lost before w in irhoiiai (I work, am poor), from E. o-ttev, be- 
 side airavig (want), G. spinnen (to spin, to do) ; irivog (dirt), 
 beside o-ttTXoc (stain) ; and before ^ in (priXog (deceitful), be- 
 side <j(f)aX\(i). S is lost before r in ravpog Goth, stiur* (bull) ; 
 riyog = (TTtyog, Skr. sthagdmi = ariyw, L. tego, Lith. stogas 
 (roof), 0. N. ^Ae^ (roof), 0. H. G. dahju (I cover) ; TvSeuc, 
 from R. ru8 = Skr. tud{io strike), L. tundo, tudes (a hammer), 
 beside Goth, stauta (I strike) ; tvtttu} beside aTviraZu (ujOeT, 
 Hesych.), O.H. G. stumbalon (obtundere); rvpfiaZuv = arvp- 
 ^aZuv (to trouble), G. sturm, stilrzen (to rush). 
 
 §.61. The Insertion of a Consonant. 
 
 The groups vp, jup, juX, become vSp, jujSp, juj3X : thus av^pog 
 - avQog ; fxearifijBpia - p^<jr\}xpia ; jUfjUjSXojfca = pEfiXayKa^ and 
 j3XwarK(t> = pf5Xio<jK(jj for juXwo-jcw, beside juoXav (to go) ; j3po- 
 roc = jujSporoc (found in afi^porog) for ijpOTog = Skr. martas 
 (mortal) ; ya/ijSpoc = yafxpog, L. gener ; (^Xlttio (I take the 
 
 * The Vedic sthuras (nom. sing, masc.) is an adj. meaning strong ; it 
 never means a &?</?. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 99 
 
 honey) = fxj5XiTrw for juXlti/iv from ju^Xi ; j3Aa$ (lazy), beside 
 liiaXaKog ; riimf^poTov = iifxaprov. In these cases j3 and ^ were 
 inserted to facilitate the pronunciation ; consult §. 30. N is 
 inserted in the root syllable of the present tenses of many 
 verbs, as in Xajxavu), mavOdvo), &c., beside Xa\Hv, jULaOeiv, &c. 
 This V was originally the sign of the present tense, and is 
 found in its full form w in deiKwimij &c. Similarly we have 
 Skr. saknomi (I can), s'ahmimas (we can), from R. s'ak, yun^ 
 g'anti) they bind), from R. yng\ &c., and in L. jungimt from 
 B^.jtig, tu7ido, from R. tud, &c. F frequently assumed before it 
 the sound of S, which when initial became ?, and when pre- 
 ceded by a tenuis became r, while the y was dropped. Thus 
 Zevyvv/uLt = ^ijwyvvfiL = Skr. yunagmi (I join), L. jungo, &c. ; 
 similarly in Italian we have giacere for diacet^e = L. jacere, gio- 
 condo for diocondo = L. jucundus, &c. ; consult §. 56. We have 
 XaXsTTTU)* from ;^aX£7rocj through the steps ;;^aXf7rSyw, \aXe7r^(t) ; 
 similarly we may derive tutttw from R. tutt, kXeVtw from R. 
 kXctt, &c. In j3Xa7rrw from R. j3Xa/3 we might expect j3S in 
 place of TTT ; but, as the verbs in -tttu) were so numerous, this 
 case was assimilated to the others ; unless, indeed, the root be 
 jSXaTT, found in Kret. af^Xoireg = aj3Xaj3lc' NiVrw from R. 
 vtfi, Skr. nig does not occur till very late. Perhaps we may 
 in this way explain the forms nroXigy TTToXsfiog, &c, ; tttoXiq 
 = TryoXig ; iTToXefiog = TryoXifxog ; ittlctgu) beside Skr. pish (to 
 pound), h. pinso ; irripva (the heel), beside Skv. pdrshni (the 
 heel) ; tttuw beside Goth, speiva (I spit), L. spuo ; kteIvio be- 
 side Kaivii) ; TTratw (I make to fall), beside vratw (I strike) ; 
 jSSfw = j3yca> beside L. visium (jSSto-jua), Lith. bezdu (jSStw) ; 
 ;)(0lc = I'l^. ghyas, whence Skr. hyas (yesterday), L. Am; 
 xOafxaXog beside X"/^«*- 
 
 * Lottner considers r in these cases to be the signof apresentialform, 
 lost in Skr. but kept in Gr., Lat., and Lith. 
 
 h2 
 
100 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 §. 62. Aspiration. 
 
 Although most of the Greek aspirates represent the I. E, 
 soft aspirates, yet under certain circumstances we find an as- 
 pirate developed from an original tenuis, after the Greek 
 had separated from the other cognate languages. The two 
 chief conditions for this development of an aspirate from the 
 corresponding tenuis are, firstly, the influence of a preceding 
 <T ; and, secondly, that of a following A, ju, v, or p. In the fol- 
 lowing cases we find the aspirate due to the influence of a pre- 
 ceding (T : axiZ,(i}, Skr. Ichid (to cut), L. scindo, Goth, skaida 
 (I separate) ; Att. axj^\iQ = (tkeXiq (the ham) ; a(T(pa\a^ = aa- 
 naXa^ (mole) ; Att. (T(pvpiQ = cnrvpLg (basket) ; Att. crcjiov^vXrj 
 = GTTovdvXr} (insect), &c. This influence of a- is very com- 
 mon in Attic. S sometimes was dropped after it had aspi- 
 rated the following consonant, as in rpi»xw (I wear out) 
 = rpvcFKd) (Hesych.) ; v/7^(u = <Tvrj(TK:w ; yXixofuLai (I long for), be- 
 side y\i(TXoog (sticky) ; irTtvxog, beside Trrwo-Ko^w (I crouch) ; 
 epxoiiiaL = ^pGKOjmai, &c. A, fi, v, p aspirate the preceding 
 consonants in av^paxXr] (a coal pan), from St. avOpuK 
 (coal) ; vavrrOXou) (I carry by sea) = vavaroXiu) ; suffix -dXo 
 {Oi/us-OXov) = -Opo, -rpo ; aicpXog (crippled) = miraXog ; 
 alxfJiri = cLKfiii ; \wxp.6q (pursuit), beside Iiokt] ; Xaxiiog (kick- 
 ing) beside XaKnafioc ; Xv^yog from R. Auk ; l^ai(pvYig = k^a- 
 irivrig ; (dXrjXpog (sluggish), beside j3AaS ; suffix -9po (kAci- 
 Opov) = -rpo (apoTpov), &c. ; rtcppa (ashes), beside Skr. tap 
 (to be warm) L. tepidus ; Opiva^ (a three-pronged fork) 
 = Tpiva^ ; (ppoifxiov from older Trpooipiov, &c. Sometimes the 
 same effect is due to a preceding nasal, as in 'ijxog beside 
 aK(i)v ; pijX"*^ = piyKii) (I snore) ; (nrivBijp (spark), beside 
 L. scintilla; 6p(j>r] (voice) fromE. Fctt ; Boeot. ax(j^v6i= 'ixovm, 
 from exovTif &c. We have also a few isolated examples 
 where a Greek aspirate represents an older tenuis, without 
 being influenced by A, ju, r, p or a, as in rax^C = Skr. takm 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 101 
 
 (quick) ; £vvvxiog from St. vuk ; aXet^w beside A/ttoc (fi^t), 
 Skr. lip (to anoint) ; KEcpaXi) beside Ktf3a\r} (Hesych.), Skr. 
 kapdla (skull) ; KiKa(^ml)Q (gasping), beside Ka-rrvo) (I gasp), and 
 a few other cases. 
 
 §. 63. Final Consonants. 
 
 N, p, and c are the only consonants allowed to end a word. 
 The only exceptions to this rule are Ik (from 15), ovk (from 
 *ovkl), and the interjections woV, ott, lo^. A final r and S are 
 dropped, or r is changed into g, as in ro = Skr. tad; £0u 
 = Skr. abhut ; e(J)Spov = Skr. abharant ; ri^ag for rfiQar^ &c. 
 Final becomes g, as in 3oc for So0 from ^o0<, 0£c foi' ^^^t, 
 (Tx^Q foi* <'"X^^^- ^ ^s ^^^^ ^^ """^j "^^^- °^ Tratf, St. TratS ; also 
 jc in yvvaiy voc. of yvvriy St. yui/aijc ; also kt in ai^a, voc. of 
 ava^, St. ayofcr, &c. When several consonants, the last of 
 which is g, come together, only one is generally retained, and 
 the preceding vowel is lengthened in compensation, as in 
 (jiipwv = (})£povTg ; iroiniiv = TroijuiBvg ; EVfxeviig = iVfieveg ; aKwp 
 = GKaprg ; yiydg = yiyavrg ; fxaXdg = jueXavg j T£TV(l>(jL)g =» reru- 
 0orc ; TiOdg = TiOavrg] diSovg = SiBovTg, &c. We sometimes 
 find, as final sounds, the combinations y^, p^, \p, as in ^op- 
 /utyS, Xdpuy^, (TcipK, ^o/o?, (gazelle), uxp, w\p, a\p, &c. We 
 have \g in the single case a\g ; pg in ^ol. forms, as jmaKapg ; 
 i/f only in e'Ajutvc (worm), Trciptyc (wicker basket), but more 
 frequently in the Argive and Kretan dialects, as Tipwg, hg 
 = elg, Tovg = rovg, aypovg - aypovg, &c. Final p. is dropped or 
 changed into v, as in ttotzv = Skr. patirn; viov = Skr. navam; 
 t(pepov (1 sing.) = Skr. abharam ; ^ka = L. decern; Traripa 
 = L. patrem; idsiZa = Skr. adiksham; (^ipw = Skr. hhardmi. 
 The V IcptXKVdTtKOv in ^(pspev = Skr. abharat, iroaaiv, &c., is 
 peculiar to the Greek language. Schleicher is wrong in treat- 
 ing V in (j)ipopev (1 pi.) &c., as this v ; for the Dor. (pepopeg 
 and the common (pipopav both point back to an older 0£^o- 
 l^ivg. 
 
( 102 ) 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Latin Alphabet. 
 
 §. 64. Tabular View of the Sounds. 
 
 MUTES. 
 
 
 SEMIVOWELS. 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 unasp. 
 surd. son. 
 Gutt. c, q a 
 PaL 
 Cer. 
 
 Dent, t d 
 Lab. p h 
 
 Spirants. 
 Burd. son. 
 h 
 J 
 
 s 
 
 f V 
 
 Nasals. 
 
 son. 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 m 
 
 r & l-sounds. 
 son. 
 
 r,l 
 
 > 0,0 
 u, u J 
 
 The Romans borrowed their alphabet from the Dorians of 
 Cumae, omitting the three aspirates, 0, 0, ;^, as they did not 
 possess the corresponding sounds. Their alphabet consisted, 
 therefore, of the following letters, in the given order : a, 5, c, 
 cZ, «, /, s, h^ iy A, I, m, w, 0, p, q^ r, s, f , v, or.. Z is still found 
 in a fragment of the Carmen Saliare ; but it was soon lost, and 
 was not employed again by the Romans till it was reintro- 
 duced in Cicero's time to represent Gr. 2 in borrowed words, 
 at which period also Y was introduced, as well as the custom 
 of marking the Greek aspirates, 0, 0, y^.^ by tli., pli^ ch, Q is 
 the Doric Koppa. -X appears at the end of the alphabet, be- 
 cause it was not introduced as early as the other letters, cs or 
 gs being used for it. It must have been adopted, however, 
 before the archonship of Eukleides, for after his time the 
 Greeks used the sign ^. The oldest document in which X 
 is found is the Senatus Consultum de Baccanalibus. Some 
 time after the introduction of the Doric Alphabet at Rome the 
 distinction between the guttural tenuis and media was lost 
 there, as well as in Etruria and Umbria, and C and K repre- 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 103 
 
 sented the same sound.* Thus on the Columna Rostrata 
 c = g in such forms as leciones, pucnandod, &c. This force of 
 c was still retained in the abbreviations C and Cn. for Gains 
 and Gnosus. K at last was only used in certain cases, as when 
 the words Kosso, Kalendce, Kalumnia, Kaput, were marked by 
 the first letter merely. After k had thus been almost lost, 
 the Romans felt that a distinction should be made between 
 the guttural tenuis and media ; and, to represent the latter, G 
 was introduced by Sp. Carvilius, a freedman of Sp. Carvi- 
 lius Ruga, and was placed by him between /and A, in the 
 place of the old z. The Emperor Claudius attempted to in- 
 troduce three new signs — the inverted Digamma j forv, Anti- 
 sigma D for bs or ps, and the sign of the Greek spiritus asper 
 h for il. This attempt, however, failed, for after his death 
 these signs at once were given up. The sounds of the Latin 
 language are not so far removed as those of the Greek from 
 those of the Indo-European; for, while Greek has changed u 
 into it, altered the three aspirates from mediae to tenues, lost 
 y entirely, v nearly entirely, and nearly always lost or changed s 
 into the spiritus asper before vowels, Latin, on the other hand, 
 has kept the pure w, y, v, s, although y and v sometimes disap- 
 pear, and s between two vowels becomes r, but represents the 
 three original aspirates by /, or when medial by b, and also 
 the I. E. gh by h. The vowel-system is, however, very far 
 removed from the LE. ; for the distinctions of guna and vrddhi 
 have been almost lost; the effects of assimilation and dissimi- 
 lation are very great ; nearly all the old diphthongs have dis- 
 appeared in classical Latin and Umbrian, and non-original 
 lengthenings and shortenings of vowels continually occur. 
 The old diphthongs are found in old Latin and Oscan, but 
 these have been handed down in too fragmentary a state to be 
 of much assistance. The substitution of monophthongs for 
 
 * This is Corssen's view, but it appears to be only a theory invented 
 to account for the fact that the third letter of the Latin Alphabet has a 
 A-sound. 
 
104 COMPARATIVE GRAMSIAR. 
 
 diphthongs is easily explained, from the assimilation of one 
 sound to the other, ^i becoming i, &c. ; or from the mutual ap- 
 proximation of both to each other, ai becoming cb, &c. 
 
 §. 65. Pronunciation of the Vowels. 
 
 A had in classical Latin the full clear sound of the Italian 
 a. Long and short e had each two different sounds : ^ in 
 inUr^ patSr^ &c., sounded like e in E./a^Aer; SmtempestatShus, 
 mer^tOy &c., had an z-sound,* and was supplanted by i in the 
 language of the educated classes, but finally returned to e in the 
 language of the common people ; e had an a?-sound, as we see 
 from the 0. L. forms questores, Victorie, &c., and the ordinary 
 ihims fecundus, fenum, &c. ; e had an I-sound, which was an- 
 ciently written^/, and which Quintilian notices (L 4, 18, " in 
 here neque e plane neque i auditur"). Short i had a thin 
 i-sound ; but in vulgar Latin in early times it was generally 
 pronounced e, to which sound it also returned in the later 
 Empire. The Oscan had an ^-sound, for which they used the 
 sign h, and which was probably the same as the Fr. e fermS. 
 ]jOng i had a thin 2-sound, and a broad 6-sound, which was 
 written ei. In Latin there also existed a sound between i 
 and zi, equivalent to the Gr. v, for which Claudius introduced 
 the sign h. This sound was generally found before labials, as 
 in maxumus, volumus, &c. It approached nearer to u than 
 to i, inasmuch as the oldest inscriptions generally present u. 
 The Claudian h is only found on inscriptions, in place of Gr. v, 
 as in^e^hti, Chcnus, &c., except once for Gr. i, in bhb (liotheca), 
 and once in L. ghhernator^ on account of its relationship to 
 Gr. Kvf3epv{}Tng. This sound generally became i in Italian, 
 as massimOy &c. ; yet we find it kept as u in It. dociimento and 
 monumento. had a clear sound in colo, honestus, &c., and an 
 obscure one in termination -05, later -us, plosfrum, &c. ^fhe 
 L. w is a true w, and not the same as the Gr. v ; for the Greeks 
 
 * Of course I mean the Italian, and not the English L 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 105 
 
 generally transcribed it by ou, as in KopjSouAwv, Nou/iac, &c., 
 and in some few cases by o and v, as in UoirXtKoXaQ, ^av- 
 aTvXog, &c. This proves that the L. u was equivalent to 
 neither Gr. o nor v, but that it lay between these sounds. 
 That the Gr. v had not the same sound as the L. u is also shown 
 by the fact, that on inscriptions before the time of Augustus 
 Gr. V is represented by L. 2, as in Stigio for Sruyttj), and Sisi- 
 pus for S<(Tu0oc, and that they naturalized Gr. Y in their 
 transcription of Greek words. In later Latin also Gr. v was 
 pronounced as t ; thus we have simbolo, gimnasio, &c., whence 
 come It. simbolo, ginnasio, &c. 
 
 §. (-.6. Pronunciation of the Semivowels. 
 
 // is a soft spirant, though traces of a hard h are found in 
 vexi and traxi from veho and traho. It seems to be hard be- 
 fore ty in the Umbrian forms ahtu beside L. acto, rehte = L. 
 rede, screihtor = L. scripti, beside Osc. scr'iftas = L. scriptce, &c., 
 though even in these it may scarcely have been heard in 
 pronunciation; for we find Umb. subator = h. subacti, and a is 
 represented in Umb. by aha, or ah. In Latin h had a very 
 weak sound between two vowels, for we find vemens = vehemens, 
 Ala = Aliala, prendo = prehendo, &c. Initial A in early times 
 seems scarcely to have been pronounced ; for we find, in the 
 Senatus Consultum de Baccanalibus abuisse for habuisse, and 
 harenam for arenam. It at last entirely disappeared about the 
 end of the fourth Century A. D. Final h is found only in 
 ah I and va?L I 
 
 J, when initial in simple words, or in the second part of 
 compounds, had the sound of the E. y. Hence we see that 
 it is often lost in the latter case, as in abicit, obicit, eicit, coi- 
 cit,&c. When it occurred between two vowels in simple words, 
 j had a sound much nearer a vowel, and was frequently 
 written IL This sound is also sometimes lost, as in pious 
 (Sc. de Bac.) for ploius. It finally became z^ (p. 13), as in 
 
106 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Fr. jeune, juge, joint, It. giovane, giogo, giunto, from L. juvenem, 
 jugum, junctum. This change had already appeared in late 
 Latin ; for on a very late inscription congiunta is found for 
 conjuncta ; cujus is also found written fco?ov, and Jesu Zesu, 
 where z is z^. 
 
 S, when initial, or when medial, before and after any con- 
 sonant, except after w, was always sharp. Initial s only occurs 
 before consonants in the groups sp, sc, st, and consequently 
 must have been sharp. Initial s before a vowel was also 
 sharp, for it has this sound in the Romance languages. When 
 medial, it was also sharp before and after other consonants, 
 as is proved by the forms nupsi, lapsus, &c. It generally va- 
 nishes before m, n, Z, and d, as in Camena for Casmena, cena 
 (Umb. gesna), corpulentus, idem, &c., while in a few cases it be- 
 comes r, as in carmen, &c. On account of its sharp sound, 
 s was lost before /, as in fallo beside (7(l)aX\(i}, &c. Between 
 two vowels s was soft, as in the Romance languages ; con- 
 sequently in this position it generally became r, as in the ter- 
 mination of the gen. pi. -arum = Osc. -azum = Skr. -dsdm (so 
 Goth, -izo led to 0. H. G. -iro, &c.), generis = I. E. gana- 
 sas, &c. S between two vowels was lost in spei for spesi, 
 as we see from the old nom. pi. speres for speses. S had this 
 soft sound after n, as in consul, censor, &c., beside cosol, 
 cesor, &c. So we find jurj^ec on an inscription for menses, 
 and in Umb. menzaru = L. mensarum. Final s had in old 
 Latin a very faint sound, as we see from its loss in such nomi- 
 natives singular, as vigil, &c., in the nominatives plural of 
 the a- and o- stems, in the verbal forms of 2 sing, delectare, 
 loquerere, &c., beside delectaris, loquereris, &c., and in the ad- 
 verbs mage, pote, for magis, potis. On inscriptions of the time 
 of the Punic Wars, we find the s of the nom. sing, of the 
 o-stems sometimes not written, and on inscriptions of the later 
 Empire we find the same s also omitted. Cicero calls the 
 omission of a final s before an initial consonant subtmsticum, 
 which is a proof that in his time this s had a very faint sound 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 107 
 
 in the language of the common people. Z^ as we have al- 
 ready pointed out, was lost in early times, and s was employed 
 to represent it, when initial, and ss, when medial, as in sona^ 
 Saguntum^ badisso, malacisso, &c. ; hence, to the old Komans, 
 the Gr. ? must have had a sound like a sharp sibilant. In 
 the later Empire z must have had a sound between d and a 
 sibilant; for we find such forms as zabolus, zaconus, &c., for 
 diaboluSj diacomis, &c. In old Umbrian z had perhaps, two 
 sounds — a hard one, as in pihaz [ovpihats = h.piatus ; and a soft 
 one, as in menzaru = L. mensarum. In Oscan perhaps also, z 
 had two sounds : it was soft in the gen. pi. term -azum = L. 
 -arum, in censazet for censasent (censebunt), and it was hard 
 in hurz for hurts = L. hortus, &c. In the pronunciation of .r 
 the sibilant predominated, for we also find it written xs from 
 the time of the Gracchi ; hence we find it represented by s 
 in sescenti, Sestius, &c. This s has also disappeared before d, w, 
 m, I?, in sedeGim, se7ii, semestris, sevir. In later Latin x and s 
 were pronounced alike ; for we find visit, bisit, and bissit for 
 vixit, coius for conjux, &c., and conversely xancto for sancto, 
 milex for miles, &c. In Italian x has become s or ss, as in 
 straneo, esempio, vissi, sasso, from L. extrmieum, exemplmn, 
 vixi, saxum. Similarly in Greek we find ^ interchanged with 
 (T or (T(7, as in Bi(7(j6g = ^i^og. 
 
 Fis a peculiar Italian spirant, the symbol of which the 
 Romans borrowed from the JEolic F, while the Etruscans, 
 Umbrians, and scans used for it the symbol J. From its 
 standing beside the digamma in such forms as /Quango, Gr. 
 fpriyvvfii, frigus, Gr. fpXyog, &c., it is supposed / and F had 
 the same sound, but this is absurd ; for it might similarly be 
 argued that / and (j) had the same sound, from the parallel 
 forms fama = (pr}fir], fero = 0£|ow, &c. Now, though the Greeks 
 used (ji for/, as in ^aj5iog = Fabius, &c., we know that their 
 sounds were perfectly distinct from the fact that Cicero ri- 
 diculed a Greek witness for his mispronunciation of Funda- 
 
108 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 nius.* Eaumer accordingly considers to have been equi- 
 valent at a certain period to bhv ; otherwise, he says, no one 
 could say in trying to say/. Priscian asserts that the only 
 difference between and / is, that the latter is pronounced 
 nonfixis lahris ; thus there would be produced a strong aspira- 
 tion. This agrees with Quintilian's description of the sound, 
 that it was formed inter discrimina dentium. The labial ele- 
 ment in /was very weak; for we find confero^ infero, Umb. 
 anferener, and not comfero, &c. 
 
 V, when initial, or when medial after a consonant, had 
 the same sound as the E. v ; but when medial between two 
 vowels, it had the sound of E. w ; and consequently in this latter 
 position frequently vanished, as in bourn, petii, Gnceus for Gnce- 
 vus, &c. This loss of v became very common under the Em- 
 pire, when we meet Faonius for Favoniiis, Flaus for Flavus, &c. 
 Fin the perfect of the a-conjugation was omitted by the com- 
 mon people, as laborait for laboravit, &c., which is identical 
 with the Italian form of the perfect, as in It. lavora% amai, &c. 
 In Greek v was represented by ov or jS, as in Ovappisjv beside 
 Ba/OjJ(i)v, &c., and once on an inscription by ouj3 in MrjoujSm- 
 voQ for Mevianus. This shows that Latin v had a sound 
 between ov and j3. 
 
 Initial n had the strong sound of E. ?2, as is shown by 
 the fact that it never in this position interchanges with any 
 other sound within the limits of the Latin language. When 
 medial, it was also strong between two vowels, as we see 
 from its being frequently doubled, as in Porsenna, beside 
 Porsenay &c. It was also strong before dental mutes. N 
 (adulterinum) had a guttural sound before c, g, and g. Final 
 n had the sound of French nasal w, as. we see from its vanish- 
 
 * " Nam contra Grseci aspirare solent, ut pro Fundanio Cicero tes- 
 tem qui primam ejus Hteram dicerc non posset, irridet." Quint. "Ins. 
 Or.," I., 4, 14. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 109 
 
 ing in nominatives singular in -on, as ordo, homo, &c.,* and in 
 ceteroqui, alioqui, and also from the fact that in the old dra- 
 matists it sometimes did not make position with a following 
 consonant. Medial n was also weakf before s, j, v, f. 
 
 il[f had the sound of E. m. When final, it was very weak, 
 and frequently disappeared. In compounds of circum and 
 com it always was lost before a vowel, except in comitium. 
 Final m was sometimes pronounced as n before ?i, d, t, as in 
 cun nobis (" Cic. Orat.," 45, 145) for cum nobis, an terminum 
 for am (= ambi) terminum (Orig. Macrob., Sat. I., 14), &c., and 
 before an initial guttural sometimes as n adulterinum. On 
 inscriptions of the times of the Punic Wars, final m of case 
 term, s is sometimes written, and sometimes not ; but after the 
 time of the Sen. Cons, de Bac. it was nearly always written. 
 In the first century A. D. final m was scarcely pronounced in 
 vulgar Latin, and was at last entirely lost. 
 
 L had a strong sound when it ended a word or syllable, 
 or when it had another consonant before it in the same syl- 
 lable, as in sol, silva, clarus. It had a weaker sound when it 
 began a word or syllable, as in lectuni, talis ; and it was 
 weaker still when it succeeded another /, as in ille. L was 
 probably strong in such words as lac, latus (for tlatus), lis (for 
 stUs)i &c., where a preceding consonant has been lost. On 
 account of I having this strong sound when following a mute, 
 it w^as frequently separated from this mute by a vowel, as in 
 
 * I have here assumed that in the Graeco-Italic period these nomina- 
 tives ended in -on. This assumption is supported by the fact that we 
 find corresponding nominatives in Greek ending in -wj/; but, notwith- 
 standing this, the existence of such nominatives is still very doubtful. As 
 regards ceteroqui and aliofui, they may have originally ended in i, as other 
 locatives, domi, &c. 
 
 t Priscian asserts that n was weak when it came after m^ as in dam- 
 num, columna, autummis, scamnum, alumnus, &c., but this is very unhkely ; 
 for the corresponding Italian words danno, colonna, autunno, scanno, 
 alunno, &c., show that n here was at least a stronger sound than m, other- 
 wise it could not have assimilated to itself the preceding m. 
 
110 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 dulcis beside yXvKvg, pulmo* beside nvevfxijjv, scalpo beside 
 yXacfxt), sculpo beside yXvcjiw. This I had a w-sound inherent 
 in it, hence periclum became periculum, &c. In French this 
 t<-sound overpowered Z, as in chevaux from cahallos^ cheveux 
 from capillos, &c. L, beginning a syllable, was easily inter- 
 changed with r, as in ruralis, floralis^ beside Solaris, &c. LI 
 was pronounced nearly as /, as we see from the fact that II 
 and I are frequently interchanged on inscriptions and in ma- 
 nuscripts. 
 
 R was a dental sound, formed by the vibration of the tip 
 of the tongue, as is shown by its being interchanged with d 
 and 5. 
 
 §.67. Pronunciation of the Mutes. 
 
 C was originally pronounced in all positions as E. k. That 
 it was = k before e and z, is shown by inscriptions, where 
 we find JEcetice for jEquitice, dekem for decern^ and by its being 
 interchanged with q, g, and ch, in quercetum beside Querquetu- 
 lanus, vicies beside viginti, pidcer beside pulcher. C, however, 
 finally became a surd palatal spirant before e and i, as in 
 Italian. Traces of this change are found in the interchange 
 of ci and ti, in the suffix -icius or -itius, where the Skr. -ika 
 shows that the former is original, as in concio beside contio, 
 where the latter is original, as being contracted from con- 
 vention &c. 
 
 It appears that c before i and e was still pronounced as k 
 in the sixth and seventh centuries, A. D. ; for we then find ^eKi/j, 
 for decern, (jteKir ior fecit, KpovKeg for cruces, &c. Besides. Gothic 
 k, was used for L. c as in aikeits, lukarn, &c., beside L. acetum, 
 lucerna, &c. Now, if c at this period had become the palatal 
 spirant, neither Gr. k nor Goth, k would have been used for 
 
 it.t 
 
 * Pulmo is not borrowed from the Gr. TTVtvfiMv, for, if it were, its ge- 
 nitive sing, would hepulminis (= irvtviiovog), and not pulmonis. 
 
 t Consult, however, " Gesammelte sprachwissenschaftliche Schriften," 
 by Rudolph von Raumer, p. 93. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. Ill 
 
 In Umbrian we find c weakened not only to the pal. 
 splr. f , for which the Umbrians employed the peculiar sym- 
 bol d, but also to the dent, spir., as in Volscian : thus we 
 have gesna = L. cena^ isegetes =Ij. insectis, desenduf= L. duodecim, 
 pase = L, pace, fagia = Volsc. fasia = L. facial, &c. 
 
 Qu was perhaps nearly equivalent in sound to the E. qu, 
 but the u assumed various shades of pronunciation according 
 to the vowel that followed : thus before a and o it was a pure 
 M, before gb, e, and ^, it was u^, and it finally coalesced with a 
 following u, so that at last cu supplanted the older quu. In 
 early times quu was frequently written qu^ for on inscriptions 
 we find such forms as qum, pequniam, &c. During the Em- 
 pire qu was also written q before other vowels than w, as in 
 qintcB, qa, qe, &c. The Umbrian and Oscan expressed qu in 
 words borrowed from the Latin by kv, as Umb. kvestur, Osc. 
 kvaisstur for L. qucestor. In later Umbrian q is used without 
 Uy as in New Umb. dequrier = Old Umb. tekuries = L. decuriis, 
 New Umb. peiqu - L. pico. In Greek qu is expressed by 
 Kou and ko, and qui generally by kv, as Gr. v-u^: thus we 
 have such forms as Kovadoi, lioviplvoQ, KoivTog, Koadoi, 
 KvpLvog, &c. 
 
 G was pronounced as E.^. In Latin an older k was fre- 
 quently replaced by g, while conversely in Old Umbrian g 
 was hardened into k, at least in writing, if not in pronunciation, 
 as in antakres beside L. integris, vestikatu beside L. vesti- 
 gium, &c. 
 
 Twas pronounced as E. t. When medial, it had a sharp 
 sound, for it was frequently doubled on inscriptions, and in 
 manuscripts, where we find such forms as Attilia beside Ati- 
 lius, quattuor beside quatuor, &c. Final t was very weak ; for 
 we find it changed into d in quid, quod, id,* &c., and in the old 
 termination of abl. sing., as pucnandod, altod, marid (Col. 
 Rostr.) ; and it was so weak, that it was sometimes entirely lost 
 
 * In these cases d was perhaps the original sound ; for iSnal t in 
 E. what, it, &c., points back to a Skr., Gr., and L. d. 
 
112 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 in old Latin, as in dede^ dedro, &c. In classical Latin t was 
 restored, except in 3 pi. perf. as censuere, &c., but in later 
 Latin it was again lost. In Umbrian, final t in the 3 sing, of 
 the verb was lost, as in hahe = L. habet, portaia = L. portet, &c. ; 
 and also in the 3 pL, as in benuso = L. venerunt, &c. In Yol- 
 scian t in 3 sing, was lost, as in fasia = L. facial. 
 
 D was pronounced as E. tZ. Final d is sometimes inter- 
 changed with t, as in the forms aput, at^ for apud, ad, found 
 on inscriptions. 
 
 P was pronounced as E. ^. Final p was weakened to b, 
 after the falling away of a vowel, as in ab = Skr. apa, sub 
 = Skr. upa, ob = Umb. up, but the original j9 was restored be- 
 fore s and t. Final j9 was also aspirated in old Latin, for we 
 find af (Sen. Cons, de Tiburt.) for ab. Flautus, however, re- 
 tains final jt? in volup for volupe. 
 
 ^ was pronounced as E. 6. jB could not have had the 
 sound of V in early times ; for we find Burrus for U.vppoq^ 
 Boblicola an old form of Poplicola, hapeat beside abuisse, &c. 
 In the later Empire, however, b was sounded as v, as we find 
 on inscriptions such forms as deviium for debitum, ve?'va for 
 verba, acerva for acerba, bixit for vixit, laborabit and laborait 
 for laboravit, &c. 
 
 §. 68. The Vowels. 
 
 An original a is lost in sum for esum = Skr. asmi, gigno 
 for gigeno from I.E. gan, patris = I. ^. pataras, &c. 
 
 J. = I. E. a, especially before c and g; acus, Skr. as (to 
 be sharp) ; ago = Skr. ag'dmi; lacrima, Skr. as'im (a tear) ; ab 
 = Skr. apa (from) ; animus, anus, Skr. anila (wind) ; &c. In 
 Umbrian and Oscan an original a is retained more frequently 
 than in Latin, as in 0. U and O. 0. ante?' = L. inter, Anter- 
 statai* (dat. sing.) = L. Interstitce (the name of a goddess), 
 N. 0. amprufid = L. improbe. 
 
 * The vowel i was perhaps equivalent to the Fr. e ferme. It is written 
 i on the Bantine Table, but in the National Oscan Alphabet its sign is |>. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 113 
 
 E. = l. E. a : equus = Skr. as'vas (a horse) ; decern ~ Skr. 
 das'an (ten) ; ferentem = Skr. bharantam (ace. sing.), &c. 
 This e has in some cases passed through o : verto = 0. L. vortOf 
 Skr. vart (to turn) ; vester = 0. L. vaster ^ Skr. vas (vos), &c. 
 In Umbrian and Oscan g = I. E. a : N. U. c?^se?i = Skr. das'an ; 
 N. U. ^e^M^ = L. quatuor ; 0. 0. sei (sunt) = Skr. santi ; 
 0. 0. mejiai (dat. sing.) = L. inedioe, Skr. madhya (medius), 
 &c. Short e was developed in some cases in Grseco-Italic 
 times, as we see from a comparison o^fero, decern, sex^ ego, &c., 
 with 0£^(u, ^eica, f's, cyw, &c. In other cases, however, a 
 existed then, from which in after times e was developed in one 
 language, while a was kept in the other, as in maneo beside 
 jxivw, egenus beside axt]v (needy), aiiguis = evigj centum = %Ka- 
 Tov, &c. Long e was also developed in Graeco-ltalic times, 
 as in semi- = rifjLt -, her= xnQ (hedgehog), siem = cajv, &c. 
 
 I = I. E. a: ignis = Skr. agnis (fire) ; quinque = Skr. pank'an 
 (five); inter = Skr. antar (within), &c. So also in Umbrian 
 and Oscan, as in N. U. dirsans (3 pi. pres. conj.) from dirs^ 
 O. U. ter,* for did, a reduplicated form of da; 0. 0. ist 
 = Skr. asti (est), &c. A, in becoming iy passed through an 
 ^-stage, as we see from assideo beside sedeo, Skr. sad (to sit) ; 
 nominis, gen. ofnomen = I. E. gndman ; artificis, gen. of artifex^ 
 from facio, &c. i in some cases may represent an older o, 
 as in levis = Aetoc, -lis (in similis^ &c.) = -Aoc (in 6/zaXoC) &c.) 
 -aris (in popularis, &c.) = -r}pog (in Xuttjjjdocj &c.), imJ^T* be- 
 side 6fx(5f}og, ille beside ollus, illico beside locusy inquilinus be- 
 side incolo, &c. 
 
 = I. E. a : vomOf Skr. vam (to vomit) ; vos = Skr. vas 
 (ye) ; oms = Skr. avis (a sheep) ; morior, Skr. war (to die), &c. 
 So represents sva in somnus - Skr. svapnas (sleep) ; soror, 
 Skr. svasdr (sister) ; sonus = Skr. svanas (sound) ; socer = Skr., 
 
 * jR, represented in the Old Umbrian Alphabet by q, and in the New 
 Umbrian by rs, marks a peculiar change of c?, and was probably a strong 
 hissing r. 
 
 I 
 
114 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 svasuras (father in-law) ; socrus = Skr. s'vasrus (mother-in- 
 law). In Old Latin o is kept, where in later Latin wis found, 
 before s and m, in the terminations -tos (nom. sing, masc.) and 
 -torn (ace. sing. masc. and neut.), in neuters in -os, as genos 
 = Skr. ganas, and Venos (fern.), in dat. pi. term. - bos = Skr. 
 bhyas. In New Umbrian, ^= I. E. d. This N. U. o is repre- 
 sented in Old Umbrian by w, and is consequently a return to 
 that older stage through which the Old Umbrian u must have 
 passed, just as the old o has been restored in Italian. Thus 
 we have O. JJ.puplum, N. U. poplom= h.populum, from I. E. 
 and Skr. par (to fill) ; N. U. ortom'= L. ortum ; 0. U. numeric 
 N. U. nomen = L. nomen; N. U. erom (infinitive of verb es^ to 
 be), an accusative of an o-stem ; N. U. aferom (ambiferre), &c. 
 In Oscan, 0= I. E. a : O. O. puturm* (nom. pi.) =1. E. kva- 
 tards = Gr. Trorspot, L. utri ; 0. 0. piid^ N. 0. pot = L. quod 
 = I. E. kvad; 0.0. viii = L. via (but a is kept in ace. viam, via, 
 = L. viam, pam = L. quam, &c.) ; in 0. 0. abl. sing, sakaraklud 
 (sacello), although the usual term is -iid. This = I E. a 
 was developed in some cases in Graeco-Italic times, as in sol- 
 lus = oAoc ; pro-= TT/oo- ; odor beside oZelv ; fero = ^tptu ; duo 
 {dudf however, is more usual) = Bvw ; amho = afi<p<jj. In many 
 other cases, however, a existed then, as we see from the fact 
 that the original a is kept in one of these languages, and in 
 the other, or it becomes e in one language, and in the other : 
 thus we have beside a in domare, beside ^afxav, arduus be- 
 side opOog, dare beside didovai, cornus beside jcpavov, lancea 
 beside X07X*?) &c., and e beside in novus = viFog = Skr. navas 
 (new), vomo beside sfitu), Skr. vam (to vomit), vox beside tVoc, 
 Skr. vak' (voice), &c. 
 
 Z7= I. E. a, which had previously passed through : genus 
 = 0. L. genos = Skr. g'anas, Gr. yivog ; opus = Skr. apas (work) ; 
 ferunt = 0. L. feront = Gr. (l)ipovTL = Skr. bharanti (they bear) ; 
 navibus from navibos = Skr. ndubhyas ; datus = Gr. ^orog ; 
 
 * U", in the Oscan Alphabet represented by V? was pronounced as 
 Latin o. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 115 
 
 quum= 0. L. quom = l. E. kvam, &c. In Umbrian ?l = I. E. 
 a; 0. U. puplimi = populum ; N. U. dupursus (^tTrocrt) = Skr. 
 dvipadhhyas (bipedibus) ; 0. U. and N. U. vinu = vino = O. L. 
 veinod = I. E. vaindt ; N. U. kvestur = 0. L. quaistor. InOscan 
 w = I. E. « : -iicZ (term, of abl. sing.) = I. E. -at, as in 0. 0. 
 aragetud = L. argento ; N. 0. kenstur = L. censor ; -um, the 
 termination of the infinitive, which was an old ace. of an 
 o-stem, and therefore was = L E. -am, as in deicum (dicere), 
 ezum [esse, U. erom'] , moltaum (moltare), &c. Traces of this 
 infinitive are found in Latin, in venum-ire and venum-dare. It 
 is possible that this u may have been developed in Graeco- 
 Italic times, but such Graeco-Italic examples are rare ; per- 
 haps XvKOQ = liqms, from I. E. varkas, is one. Z7= I. E. a in 
 some cases passed through the upstage, and became i ; this 
 w^-sound was represented by h by Claudius. Thus we have 
 optimus = 0. L.,optumus ; mancupium (in Plautus) = mancipium; 
 occupare beside incipere from capio, &c. 
 
 / = 1. E. { : imus = 'Ifuiev = Skr. imas (we go) ; scindo, (tx''2w, 
 Skr. k'hinadmi (I split) ; linquo, Xdiro), Skr. rik' (to leave) ; 
 quid = Ti, Skr. kirn (what) ; ovis = 6ig = Skr. avis (a 
 sheep), &c. 
 
 ^ = 1. E. i: index, ifidicis, from K. dic= Skr. dis' (to point 
 out) ; ignem = Skr. agnim (fire) ; navem beside navim ; mare for 
 mari, as is shown by maria; navehos (Col. Rostr.) tempestatehus 
 (t. Scipion, B. f.) from the stems navi- tempestati-. In 
 these cases e is younger than i, whereas in the cases where 
 t = I. E. a, e must have passed through an older e-stage. 
 
 Z7= I. E. w : duo = kXuiu, Skr. s'ru (to hear) ; jugum = Zvyov 
 e Skr. yugam (par) ; rumpo = Skr. lumpdmi (I break) ; wro 
 for ?/so, Skr. ush (to burn) ; ^wn^o, tutiidi, Skr. tuddmi (I strike) ; 
 super =vTTep, Ski. upari (over), &c. Long w sometimes ap- 
 pears to arise from a non-original lengthening of an older ii, 
 as in tu, Skr. tvam (thou), Gr. tv, Goth, thu, and perhaps in 
 slis = vg, mus = fxvg, &c. Z7 = I. E. u also in Umbrian and 
 
 i2 
 
116 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Oscan ; 0. U. fuia (sit) = Skr. hhuydt, and fiitu (esto) from 
 R. fu = Skr. hhu (to be) ; N. U. rufrer (nom. pi.) = L. rubri, 
 Skr. rudhira (blood), N. 0.fuid(oipt. perf.) and/ws^ (3 sing, 
 fut.) from U.fu. 
 
 = I. E. w, only in fore from R. fu. 
 
 i = I. E. i« : Zi3^f beside /w6e^, Skr. lubh (to desire) ; cliens 
 from c/?/o ; lacrima = lacruma, Skr. «sVm (a tear) ; tihi^ Skr. 
 tuhhyam (to thee); manihus for manuhus ; fructifer, arcite- 
 nens, corniger, &c., £oy fmctufer^ arcutenens, cormiger, &c. So 
 also in Umbrian we find 0. U. sim (ace. sing.), 5?/ (ace. pi.) 
 from a stem s« (a pig), L. sus ; 0. U. and N. U. mani (abl. 
 sing.) = L. manu ; 0. U. fm, N. U. tiom^ tio (ace. sing) = Skr. 
 tvam. 
 
 §. 69. GUNA AND YRDDHI. 
 
 The I. E. a is represented in Latin by ^, o, a; its guna is 
 0, ^, a, as in Greek ; its vrddhi is perhaps o and u. The guna 
 of i was in 0. L. ei, later I and ^, and az, later ae ; its vrddhi 
 was in 0. L. o?*, later oe, w, z. The guna of w was in 0. L. eu, 
 and later a?<, o ; its vrddhi was in 0. L. ow, later i^. In Latin 
 eu^ the old guna of w, was supplanted by the vrddhi ow, while 
 conversely in Greek the vrddhi ov was supplanted by the guna 
 cu. In the following table* the 0. L. diphthongs are placed 
 in brackets. 
 Primitive Vowels ^, o, a, i u 
 
 Guna 0, ^, a, (ei) i e, (ai) ae {eu), au o 
 Vrddhi o u (oi) w u, I (pu) u 
 
 * In this table I have followed Schleicher, except that in some cases 
 I consider i to be a vrddhi of i. Many of the examples given by him to 
 illustrate this table are very doubtful. Indeed, it is almost impossible to 
 separate from each other the spheres of guna and vrddhi in Latin, on ac- 
 count of the almost universal reduction of the old diphthongs to monoph- 
 thongs. This is also the case with Umbrian. In Old Latin and Oscan these 
 diphthongs have been kept, but then here we labour under a want of ma- 
 terials. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAxMMAR. 117 
 
 A is the guna of a in the following examples : pax, pads 
 beside pacisci; Idtema beside Idteo ; vagina beside vdco ; suf-- 
 frdgtum beside frdgor^ from R. frag (to break) ; sdgire^ sdgus 
 beside sdgax ; Idhi beside Idho^re ; amb-dges beside ago, amb- 
 igere; frdter^ Skr. bhrdtar, from E. bhdr, &c. The feminine 
 of the a-stems also ended in d originally ; 7iovd = Gr. vePd 
 = Skr. navd (new) ; coctd = Gr. 7r£7rrr) = I. E. kvaktdj &c. So 
 in Umbrian d (written aha, ah) is guna of ^, as in 0. U./m- 
 trum^ N. U. frdtrom (fratrum), &c. So also in Oscan, as in 
 Staatiis - L. Stdtius, beside status j from R. std. 
 
 E is guna of ^: tegula beside t^go; lex, legis, collegaheside 
 ISgo; rex, regis beside rego; sedes beside sMeo ; semen beside 
 sdtus from R. sd ; and perhaps a few other cases. 1 may be 
 guna of S in sica beside sSco. 
 
 is guna of S : proem beside precor; fors, fordus (preg- 
 nant) beside fero ; toga beside tSgo, Skr. sthagdmi (I cover) ; 
 moneo beside mens, memini, Skr. man (to think) ; noceo beside 
 n^co, Gr. vtKvg, Skr. nas (to kill) ; modus beside mederi ; also 
 before two consonants in pondus beside pendere, extorris be- 
 side terra, &c. is guna of a in portio beside pars, scobina 
 beside scdbo, &c. 
 
 7J is considered by Schleicher to be the vrddhi of a, espe- 
 cially when an original a in a root is represented by o : per- 
 sona beside sdnus, Skr. svan (to sound) ; vomer beside vomo, 
 Skr. vam (to vomit) ; sopio beside sopor, Skr. svap (to sleep) ; 
 sodes beside sddalis ; vox, vocis beside v^co; ocior beside 
 Gr. wKwc = Skr. ds'us (quick), from R. as (to be sharp) ; do- 
 num, dos, dotis beside ddtus from R. da; gnotus = Gr. yvwrog, 
 gnomen beside nota, cognitus ; datorem = Gr. ^oTrjpa = Skr. dd- 
 tdram, &c. U is found beside o in -turns beside -tor (datft- 
 rus beside dator, &c.) ; term, of gen. pi. -um, -rum, for -um, 
 -rum = Skr. -dm, sdm. In Umbrian we find 0. U. il, N. U. o, 
 as vrddhi of a: 0. U. numen, N. U. nomen = L. nomen ; term, 
 of gen. pi. 0. U. -um, N. U. -om, as in 0. U.frdtrum, N. U. 
 frdtrom ; N. U. kcestur = 0. L. quaistor, &c. In Oscan u is 
 
118 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 vrddhi of a in N. 0. kenstur = L. censor ; 0. 0. Fluiisai == L. 
 Fierce from R. fia. 
 
 (Ei), I, e is tlie guna of i in the following examples : dlvus 
 [deivcBf deivinam, &c., are found on inscriptions) from R. div 
 (to shine) ; dlco, O. L. deicOf beside causidwus from E. die 
 - Skr. dis (to point out) ; idus^ 0. L. eidus (the days of full 
 moon, and therefore the brightest days), beside Skr. idh (to 
 bum) ; is, it, itur (from eo^ I go) , beside m, eit, eitur ; difei- 
 dens, confido beside perfldus ; leibertinus beside Itbido, &c. In 
 Oscan we find 0. 0. ei, N. O. ei as guna of i in N. 0. deicum 
 (infin.) from R. die ; N. 0. deivaum* (infin. to swear), 0. O. 
 deivai (dat. sing.) beside L. dlvus from R. div. 
 
 {Ai), ae is the guna of z in aidilis, aedes, aestas (for cedtas) 
 beside Skr. idh (to burn), Gr. m^w, aSr]o ; aevo7n, O. L. aivom, 
 from R. i (to go) ; aemulus beside imitari ; mcestus beside miser; 
 and perhaps a few other cases. In Oscan we find at as guna 
 of i in 0. 0. aidilis = L. cediles, and in Umbrian e, as in 0. U. 
 Jcvestur = 0. 0. kvaistur = 0. L. quaistor. 
 
 (Oi), OS, u is the vrddhi of i, as in foedus beside /Vc^es ; 
 0. L. loebesum (= liberum) beside Ithet ;t oitile, oetier, utier; 
 loidos, loedos, Indus ; moiros, moeros, murus ; ploirume, ploera, 
 jplures ; coiravit, coeravit, curavit ; moinicipium, comoinem (So. 
 de Bacc), inmcenis, comunis ; oinvorsei (Sc. de Bacc), wnns, 
 unus, &c. In Oscan wc find 0. 0. in, N. O. oi, as vrddhi of 
 i, as in 0. 0. mmniks (nom. sing, masc.) beside 0. L. comoi- 
 nem ; iiittiuf beside oitile, Utier. 
 
 I appears to be the vrddhi of Hn a few cases : mitis for 
 
 * As deivaum in Oscan means ' to swear,' from St. deiva (a god), so 
 in Lettic we find the infin. devatees, also meaning- ' to swear,' from St. 
 deeva (a god), devs (nom. sing.) = L. divus. 
 
 t The roots lih and^d are the only two roots in Latin that appear as 
 well in their simple as in their guna- and vrddhi-forms : thus we have 
 R. lih, Itbet, leiberiinus, loebesum ; "R, fid, fides, difeidens, foidus. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 119 
 
 moitisj 0. Jr. moith and moeth (tender) ; vinum* for voinum, 
 beside Gr. olvog ; vlcus for voicus, beside Gr. oiKog. Schleiclier 
 considers vinum and vicus to be examples of guna and not 
 vrddhi ; but it is better to suppose that the vrddhi-forms 
 existed in Graeco-Italic times. In Sanskrit the guna-forms 
 occur, vSs'as = oIkoq and vena (pleasant). 
 
 JEu, the old guna of u, is found only in the proper name 
 Leucesius (Carm. Saliar.), beside lucerna from R. luc. In some 
 other words eu is found, where it is not a guna ; thus we have 
 neuter for ne-uter, neutiquam for ne-utiquam, neu for neve^ seu 
 for seve, ceit, heu, eheu, in which cases eu is not the guna of m. 
 The vrddhi ou has in other cases been substituted for eu, as in 
 duco, 0. L. douco; uro for ouso, and this again for euso = Gr. 
 evit) = Skr. oshdmi (1 burn), from E. ush = I. E. us ; jus, 0. L. 
 joiis, is for jovos, and this again is for jevos, which is formed 
 by guna from R. ju (to join), as kXsFoc is formed from E. k\v 
 and Skr. s'ravas (nom. sing, neut.) from E. s'ru ; jus (sauce) 
 is also formed in the same way from E. ju, which is found in 
 Gr. Z,vfxr] (leaven), and SI. jucha (sauce) ; pus = povos = pevos 
 beside Skr. 'puy (to be foul), Z. pu (to stink) ; pluont = plovont 
 = plevont = Gr. TrXcFovrt, whence irXiovai, from R. plu ; fluont 
 = flovont=flewnt, from R.flu, and similar present forms ; trudo 
 ■■= troudo = treudo, beside trUdis, &c. In Oscan also the vrddhi 
 of u appears to have taken the place of the guna, as in 0. O. 
 tuvttks (urbanus), N. 0. touto (a city) from E. tu = Skr. tu 
 (valere). 
 
 Au may be the guna ohi in raudus (unpolished brass), from 
 E. rud (to be red) = Gr. pvO. 
 
 Curtius and Schleicher consider also that aurora and augeo 
 are cases of au as guna of u : aurora and Gr. avcjg pointing 
 
 * The connexion of vena (pleasant), an adjective applied in Sanskrit to 
 the drink Soma, with olvog is very doubtful. I have already connected the 
 latter with the root vi (to bind), whence came virj (the vine), andL. vieo, 
 vitis. Others treat olvog as a borrowed word, and connect it with Heb. 
 yaiii, iEthiop. wain, (wine). 
 
120 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 back to a Grasco-It. ausos, from R. us = Skr. ush (to burn), 
 this root appearing in its guna-form in the European languages 
 as 0. N. austur (oriens), Lith. auszra (morning), while it ap- 
 pears in its simple form in Sanskrit and Zend as Skr. ushdsd 
 (morning), ushd (early), Z. usha (morning); augeo beside 
 Gr. auSw, Lith. dugu (I grow), from R. 7ig, I have already 
 (p. 65) pointed out that these words are susceptible of a dif- 
 ferent explanation. Au frequently becomes o, by passing 
 through the step ao, which is found in Aorelius^ which 
 occurs on an old inscription. Thus we have rodiis for raudiis, 
 coda for cauda, &c. Au frequently arises from av, as in cautus 
 from caveo, fautor from faveo^ &c. 
 
 (Om), u is the vrddhi of w, as in O. L. Loucina, loumen^ 
 Loucetios from R. luc ; rufus from R. rudli^ &c. In pouhlicosj 
 ou appears to be the vrddhi of an u that represents an origi- 
 nal a. In Umbrian, 0. U. u, N. U. o is also the vrddhi of w, 
 as in N. U. rofu = L. rufos, &c. (Ou) u in Latin arises also 
 from the rejection of the spirant j, and from the vocalization 
 of V, as in cuncti = cojuncti, pious for plojus, noundinum (Sc. 
 de Bacc.) for novendinum^ nountios for noviventios, &c. 
 
 §. 70. Assimilation of the Vowels. 
 
 One vowel is often assimilated to a preceding one, as in 
 luteolus from St. luteu-, vinolentus from St. vinu-^ beside hor- 
 tulus, truculentus ; tristities beside tristitia ; stem = Skr. si/dm ; 
 -iens (in totiens, &c.) beside Skr. -iydns ; o being nearer than 
 u to I and ^, and e being nearer than a to i. 
 
 One vowel is assimilated to a following one, as in exilium 
 beside exul; nihil, nisi, nimis, nimirum beside we, nefas ; fa- 
 milia beside famulus ; bene beside bonus ; illecebroe beside il- 
 licio ; soboles for suboles ; socors for secors ; qmam beside 
 quire; 0. L. filea =Jilia; mihi, tibi beside me, te, U. nfiehe, 
 tefe; nausea = Gr. vavaia'., &c. 
 
 Vowels are frequently influenced by neighbouring conso- 
 
COMPARATIVE GEAMMAR. 121 
 
 nants. Thus the labials and /prefer ii^ as in Hecuba = 'EKdjSr] ; 
 occupo^ aucupivm, beside capio ; contuhernium beside taherna ; 
 0. L. pocolom becomes poculum ; epistula = liriaToki] ; monu- 
 meyitum beside mcnimentum ; puis beside ttoXtoq ; sepuUus from 
 sepelto ; insulsus from salsus, &c. R frequently prefers e 
 before it, as in operis, cineris, beside nominis ; camera from 
 Kafxapa, &c. In some cases r takes before it o, where other- 
 wise we should have expected w, as in ancora = ajKvpa ; /oris 
 beside 9vpa; fore from ^.fu; corporis^ gen. sing, oi corpus ; 
 par (in Marcipor) = piier. The dental n prefers i in cecini 
 from R. can; machina from firix^vrj ; nominis^ liominis, &c. 
 Final ??, however, changed this i into e, as in cornicen, no- 
 men, &c. 
 
 §.71. Dissimilation of the Vowels. 
 
 The Latin language does not allow one vowel to be fol- 
 lowed by the same without the intervention of a consonant, 
 but always changes the first or second of these vowels into 
 another, as i into e, and'u into o. Thus we have pietas, ehrietas, 
 sociefas, for piitas, &c., beside levitas, caritas ; arietis, parietis, 
 for ariitis, &c., beside militis ; aliemis, Avienus, &c., beside 
 peregrinus, &c. ; liietare beside clamitare ; vanegare beside 
 levigare ; laniena beside carnificina ; meio for miio, and this 
 for migjo, beside mingo^ Gr. op.ix'^ / pcior for piior ; ei, eis, 
 dei, &c., are older and more classical forms that ^^, iis, dii, &c., 
 which were also sometimes written z, is, dl, &c. ; petiei, ostiei, 
 Jidiei, vieis, &c., beside the later forms, petii, ostii, Julii, viis, &c. 
 Up to the period of Augustus we never find uu or vu, but 
 always uo and vo, as in equos, servos, novom, cequom, volpes, 
 volt, &c. 
 
 §.72. Vowels lengthened in Compensation. 
 
 When a consonant is lost, the preceding vowel is fre- 
 quently lengthened in compensation ; or, if two vow^els are 
 thus brought together, they are contracted into one. Thus 
 
122 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 we have in the first case pes for peds ; aries for ariets ; pono 
 for posno, R. pos, found in pos-ui ; comp. term, -ior, -{oris 
 = I. E. -yanSj -yansas ; ace. pi. term, -os = I. E. -ans^ &c. 
 In many cases, however, this vowel is again shortened, as in 
 pedes for pedes = ped^ts, patSr = Gr. Trarfjp, for paters, &c. 
 Again, we find contraction in feci for fiftci, R. fac ; fregi 
 - fr^fr^9h ^- fr^9 / fid'^ ^^^ fifi^h ^- f^^ / mom for momdviy 
 R. mov ; fdvi iox fdfdvi^ R, /au, &c. Similarly we have nemo 
 for neemo = ne-homo ; vemens = vehemens ; amo = amao, and 
 other verbs of the first conjugation, &c. 
 
 §.73. Weakening of the Vowels. 
 
 Vowels are generally weakened in words whose weight is 
 increased either by reduplication, or by composition, or by 
 being formed from other stems by means of suffixes. Thus a 
 becomes e, as in fallo, fefelli; parco, peperci ; barba, imberbis; 
 farcio, refercio ; f actus, perfectus, &c, 
 
 A becomes i, as in tango, contingo ; capio, accipio ; fateor, 
 conjiteor ; manus, eminus ; nam, enim ; pater, Jupiter ; cano, 
 cecini, &c. This i of course passed through the stage 6, and e 
 is still kept in cases where i might have been expected, as in 
 peperi (pario), tubicen (cano), where the retention of e is due 
 to r and final n. 
 
 A becomes u, as in capio, occupo ; datus = I. E. datas, Gr. 
 ^oTog ; taberna, contubernium, &c. This u passed through the 
 stage ; thus L. datus, and Gr. ^orog, point back to a Grseco- 
 Italic datos. 
 
 A becomes e, as in halo, anhelo, 
 
 E becomes i, as in lego, colligo ; emo, redimo ; teneo, reti- 
 neo, &c. In reduplicated syllables e is unchanged, as in te- 
 tendi, pependi. .^becomes z, as mlenis, delinire ; tela, subtllis ; 
 it becomes ^in the reduplicated perfect /?^ec?z. 
 
 Ae becomes i, as in aequus, iniquus ; ccedo, cecldi, &c. 
 
 Au becomes and u, as in/awces, suffoco ; plaudo, explodo ; 
 causa, accuso ; claudo, includo, &c. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 123 
 
 Long vowels and diphthongs are even weakened to short 
 vowels, as in agnitus, cogmtus, beside notus ; dejero, pej^ro, he- 
 side jitro, O. L. jowo. 
 
 and u are also weakened to ^, as in duritas from St. 
 duro- ; corni-ger from St. cornu^ &c. In reduplicated syl- 
 lables, however, o and u remain generally unchanged, as in 
 poposci, spopondi, totondi, momordi, pupugi, tutudi, cucurri. In 
 Old Latin these forms were sometimes lightened, as we find 
 0. L. spespondi, peposci, memordi, tetuli, pepugi, cecurri. 
 
 In Umbrian and Oscan the original vowel is not weakened, 
 as in Latin, in compounds, &c. Thus we have 0. U. arkani 
 from E. kan (canere), and ar (ad) ; N. U. procanurent from 
 same root as last; 0. U. arhahas = L. adhiheas ; N. U. Jupater 
 = L. Jupiter ; O. 0. Anter statu = L. Inter stita ; 0. 0. anter 
 = L. ifiter; N. O. amp7mfid = L. improbe ; N. 0. fefacid (3 
 sing. opt. perf.), fefacust (3 sing. fut. exacti) from fefac^ a re- 
 duplicated form of K. fac. If hipid (3 sing. opt. perf), pru- 
 hipust (3 sing. fut. ex.) be from the same root as L. haheOy we 
 have here a case of a being weakened to ^, in Oscan ; hip being 
 for Jiihip, and this for hihap, and therefore having been hip 
 originally. 
 
 §. 74. Shortening of the Vowels. 
 
 Vowels in unaccented final syllables are very generally 
 shortened in Latin, and hence a a few examples will sufiice. 
 The final a of the feminine a-stems was long in Indo-Euro- 
 pean, and is still long in Sanskrit. In Old Latin it was 
 also long, but in classical Latin it has been shortened. Final 
 a in trigmta, &c., was once long, but in the later poets it is 
 short. Final e of the ablative of the z-stems w^as also long, as 
 representing an I. E. ait or aid ; patre is still found in Gnaivod 
 patrS progndtus, fortis vir sapiSnsque (tit. Scip. Barb.). We 
 find cavS, juheheside cave,juhe ; mihi, tibi for mihei, tibei ; dud, 
 ambo, octd, ego, beside Gr. Suw, aptpu), oktw, lyw ; homd, &c., 
 for homo ; final o of the first pers. sing. pres. and fut. active 
 
124 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 is either long or short, representing an I. E. a, as - o (in ago^ 
 Gr. ayd)) = -a = -ami, &c. 
 
 Vowels are shortened always before final t, as in amdt for 
 amdt, &c. : traces of the original a are still found in the Poets, 
 as in Plautus, Terence, &c. The same is the case with the 
 verbal terminations -et, it, and is. We find also mater for 
 mater, Gr. /maTiip ; praetor for prcetor, &c. 
 
 Medial vowels are also frequently shortened, as in doceo 
 for doceo ;'laudto for audio; rSi for rei; sp^i for spei; d^us 
 for deus, and this for deivos ; Diana for DXana ; urvtus beside 
 unius ; &c. 
 
 §. 75. Total Loss of the Vowels. 
 
 Final e is lost in the imperatives die, due, fac, fer, inger 
 (CatuU. 27, 2); in hie, hcBc, hoc for hice, &c. ; in yoq. fili for 
 filie, &c. ; in imper. audi fov audie, &c. ; in amor (1 sing. pres. 
 pass.) for amose ; &c. 
 
 Final i is lost in est = Gr. tcrrl ; ferit = Skr. bharati; ferunt 
 = Skr. bharanti (tremonti is still found in Carm. Saliar. ; feris 
 - Skr. bharasi, &c. / is lost in pulvinar beside pulvinare for 
 pulvinari, and similar nouns in -ar = -ari ; piper = Gr. TrsTTEpi ; 
 facul, dijfficul, simul = facile, &c., for faoili, &c. ; tot= Skr. tati; 
 quot = Skr. kati ; ut beside uti, U. ote, 0. auti ; ob = Gr. Itti 
 = Skr. a6Ai (ad) ; ad - Skr. aJ/ii (super, ad), &c. 
 
 Final o is lost in ab = Gr. airo = Skr. apa (ab) ; sub = Gr. 
 vTTo = Skr. wpa (ad) ; for, as the o-stems in Greek and Latin 
 correspond to the a-stems in Sanskrit, the Graeco-Italic forms 
 of ab and sub must have ended in o. 
 
 Medial vowels are lost before either vowels or conso- 
 nants : thus before a vowel i is lost in minus for minius, sema- 
 nimus for semi-animus ; e is lost in nullus for ne-ullus, nusquam 
 for ne-usqvum ; o is lost in undculos for uno - oculus. 
 
 Medial a is lost before a consonant in palma = Gr. iraXaiurj 
 through paluma ; cypressus = Gr. KviraQiacTog through cuperes- 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 125 
 
 sus ; cervos = Gr. KepaFog (horned) ; domui* for domdvi, and 
 similar perfects, a being first weakened to i, and then this i 
 falling out, &c. 
 
 Medial e is lost between b and r in the suffixes -bra, -bins, 
 -brum, from R. /er = Skr. bhar; between pand^in capri, 
 supra beside supera (in Lucr.), infra beside infera, &c. ; be- 
 tween t and r in intra, contra, dextra beside dexter a {-tra being 
 the comparative suffix, Skr. -tara, Gr. -repo, Osc. -toro, 
 U. -tro); patris for pateris; habui for Jiabevi, and similar per- 
 fects, e having first passed through i, as in habitum ; repperi 
 for repeperi ; rettuli for retetuli, &c. 
 
 Medial i is lost in caldus = calidus (warm) ; soldus = so^i- 
 dus ; valde = valide ; cante (Carm. Saliar.) = canite ; nauta 
 = navita ; calx = Gr. xaXiS ; term, —mnus (in alumnus, ver- 
 tumnus) = -minus (in terminus, amamini) = Gr. -fizvog = Skr. 
 -mdnas ; fertis = feritis, fertf = /er^f, volt = voZi^, and similar 
 verbal forms ; dixti for dixisti, &c. Under the later Empire 
 we find such forms as feet, vixt, expensavt, &c. 1 is often lost 
 in the z-stems : thus we have primas for 0. L. primatis ; sors 
 beside sortis ; plebs for plebis, whence plebes ; scobs beside 
 scobis, &c. In consequence of this loss of i, the consonantal 
 and the e-stems coincide in the form of nom. sing. Medial i, 
 is lost before a consonant sometimes in Umbrian and Oscan, 
 as in U. nomne = L. nomini, &c. ; 0. cevs - civis; U. fus = O. 
 fust = L. fuerit ; U. habus = . Jiipust = L. habuerit ; U. con- 
 vortust = L. converterit, &c. Comparing U. habus, 0. hipust 
 with L. habessit, we see that the Umbrian and Oscan forms 
 have lost two is, the^ of the perfect, and the conjunctive mark 
 i. The perfect -vi has completely disappeared in L. habessit ; 
 and the only trace of it is found in the sharp s, written ss, 
 while habuerint stands nearest to the original form habe-vi- 
 sint. 
 
 * In Latin the accent was originally placed as far back as possible. 
 Consult Appendix B. 
 
 t Fert may be the older form, as we find Ved. bharti (fert). 
 
126 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 In nouns of the o-stem, o or w (= I. E. a), is frequently lost 
 before s of the nom. sing. Thus we have puer for puers 
 = puerus ; vir for virs = virus ; famul (Enn. Ann.) beside /a- 
 mulus ; damnas for damnats beside damnatus ; Sallustis, Clodis, 
 &c. (on inscriptions), for Sallustius, &c. Similarly we have 
 0. U. pihaz = L. piatus ; 0. U. katel = L. catulus ; N. U. 
 termnas = L. terminatus ; N. U. tertis = tertius, tertim = tertium, 
 just as in Old Latin a?i5, a^ic?, = aliuSj aliud. We have also 
 0. 0. tuvtiks = L. tuticus, Pumpaiians = L. Pompeianus, hitrz 
 = L. hortus, Heirennis - L. Herennius, &c. ; N. 0. Bantins = 
 L. Bantinus. 
 
 Medial u is also lost in stella for sterula ; ampulla for ampo- 
 rula from ampora ; corolla for coronula from corona ; misellus 
 for miserulus ; lapillus for lapidulus from St. ^opz^Z ; viiiclum 
 beside vinculum^ &c. Similarly we have in Umbrian 7Ve- 
 blaneir = L. Trebulanis, vesclir - L. vascuUs, pihaclu = L. piacu- 
 lum, &c., unless these be the original forms. 
 
 In Gothic we find z and w frequently omitted before a final 
 5; thus we have vulfs (nom. sing, wolf) = Skr. vrkas, and 
 similar nominatives; brothrs (gen. sing.) = 1. E. hhrdtras^ 
 namins (gen. sing.) = L. nominis, &c. 
 
 §.76. Insertion of a Vowel. 
 
 We find a vowel inserted in the following cases : drachuma 
 (Plant.) = dpaxi^rii sumus for esumus = Skr. smas, volumus for 
 volmus, Tecumessa = Tecmessa, Hercules, ^sculapius, Patricoles, 
 where the neighbourhood of Z or m determines the inserted 
 vowel to be w or ; techina (Plant.) = rixvri, Procina, Ariadine, 
 &c., where the inserted vowel is i, on account of the neigh- 
 bouring n ; umerus = Graec.-It. omsos beside Gr. w/^oc, and Skr. 
 amsa (the shoulder), ruber for rubros = Gr. epvOpog = Skr. rud- 
 hira (blood, also with an inserted ^), gener for genres =-- Gr. ya/x- 
 fipoQ^ caper = Gr. Ka-n-pog, &c., in all which forms r determines 
 the inserted vowel to be e. I is inserted in moritwus beside 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 127 
 
 mortuus, oriturus beside ortus^ &c. Similarly in Oscan we 
 find between a liquid and a following consonant the vowel of 
 the preceding syllable inserted, as in aragetud (abl. sing.) = L. 
 argentOy teremnus = L. terminus, &c., just as in 0. H. G. puruc 
 for pure, Goth, haurgs, waram for wa7in, Goth, varms ; and 
 between a liquid and a preceding consonant the vowel of the 
 following syllable is inserted, as in puturumpid gen. pi., utro- 
 rumque), puturuspid (nom. pi. mas. utrique), piitereiptd (loc. 
 sing. masc. 
 
 §.77. The Gutturals. 
 
 C and g = I. E k: acus, acer, acupedius, ocior, Skr. as'ri 
 (the edge of a sword), as'w (quick), Z. a^M(apoint) Gr. aKWK>/, 
 uKpig (a mountain-top), oKpig (a point), umcvq ; calo, Gr. /caXlw, 
 E. halloo; cella, celo, domi-cilium, Skr. said (a house), Gr. kw 
 kid (a hut), E. hell, hole ; cedo, Gr. kcfc/jSet {vTriK^\wQ7]KHy 
 Hesych.), keko^ovto (II. 15, 574), a redupl. aor. 2 of xa^oftat 
 from R. ^a^ = <tx«S = I. E. shad; castus, Skr. sudh (to purify), 
 Gr. KaQaQog, Oh. SI. cistil (clean) ; cor, Skr. hrd (heart), Gr. 
 KO/oSta ; cerebrum, crista (in capite stans), Skr. s'h^as (head), 
 Gr. KaQa, Kpavtov ; carpo, Gr. Kapwog, E. harvest; civis = Osc. 
 kevs, Skr. s'z (to lie), Gr. KUfxat, Goth. Amms (KiLfiri), heiva (do- 
 mus), &c. 
 
 Qz« = I. E. kv : quinque =1. E. kvankvan, whence Ski, pan- 
 k'an (five), Gr. irivr^, Mo\. irijuLTre, h. coic, W. pump ; quod 
 = I. E. kvad or kvat, whence Skr. kat, Gr. ttov. Ion. kov, 
 E. what, &c. In a few cases in Latin k may have had u de- 
 veloped after it, as in quies beside Skr. si (to lie), squalor be- 
 side Skr. kdla (black), and Gr. K^Xaivog, &c. ; but in nearly 
 all the cases where this development of w is supposed to have 
 taken place, it is much more probable that kv had originally 
 existed in Indo-European. In Old Umbrian we find k, and 
 in New Umbrian c and g = I. E. k, except in the pronouns 
 and numerals where j> takes the place of I. E. kv: 0. U. ka- 
 pres = L. capri ; N. U. pequo = L. pecua, &c. This k is 
 
128 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 weakened to g and s before e and i* as in N. U. curnage (abl. 
 sing, of a noun corresponding to L. comix) beside N. U. cur- 
 naco (ace. sing.) ; N. U. page and pase = L. pace, &c. In Old 
 Oscan k, and in New Oscan c = I. E. ^, except that j? = I. E. 
 kv in the same cases as in«Umbrian : 0. 0. hkitud = licitud 
 = L. liceto ; 0. O. sakarakliid {ohl. sing.) beside L. sacellum, &c. 
 C = I. E. ^ in N. 0. acum (inf.) beside L. ago. In Old Um- 
 brian, as has been already remarked, k represents L. g. 
 
 6r = I. E. ^: ago, igitur for agitur, Skr. ag'dmi (I go), Gr. 
 ayw, 0. N. aka (ago) ; genus,'\ gigno {g)natura, Skr. g'an (to 
 be born), g'anitd (nom. sing, of St. g'anitar) = L. genitor, Gr. 
 yevog, yiyvofjiai, yuvofiai for yev^o/iai, Goth, keinan (to ger- 
 minate), 0. H. G. cAiW (oiFspring) ; grus, yi^avoq, E. crane ; 
 gnosco, (g)notus, gnarus, {g)narrare, 0. L. gnarigare, Skr. ^'/la 
 (to know), Gr. yiyvMCTKU), yvijjrog, 0. H. G. hidu (I know), 
 Goth, kann (I know), kunths (yvwarrog) whence E. uncouth ; 
 urgeo, Skr. var^ (arcere), Gr. elpyu), AvKoopyog, Goth, vrika 
 (^iwKw), A. S. vringan (stringere), E. wring, wrong ; genu 
 = Skr. g'dnu, Gr. yovv, E. ^y^ee, &c. In New Umbrian and 
 Oscan, ^ = I. E. g. 
 
 G = I. E. ^ in a few words : digitus, Gr. SaicruXoc? Goth. 
 taiho (toe) ; viginti beside vicies, Skr. vins'ati, Gr. eiKOfri, Boeot. 
 FiKaTL ; triginta, Gr. rpta/coyra ; gracilis beside 0. L. cracentes 
 (graciles), Skr. krsa (thin), Gr. KoX^Kavog (long, lank), koXoo- 
 
 * X is retained in O. U. akeruniamem, N. U. acermniem, O. U. ft<9j»i 
 (cibo), and a few other cases; also in nominal stems of the o-declension 
 that end in -Z;o, as N. U. iVa^arce (dat.), Tesenocir, (abl. pi.), except 
 that we find O. U. puprige beside puprike (pubUco), and pnpriges beside 
 puprikes (publici). We find g sometimes before Z, as in O. U. tiglu, 
 ereglu, &c. Was this the beginning of that change which we see in 
 Italian chiamare = L. clamare, chiaro = L. clarus, occhio = L. oculm, 
 piano = L. planus, piangere = L. plangere, &c. ? iT is also found un- 
 altered before I in O. U. ehvelklu.fiklas, &c. 
 
 t There probably existed, in I. E. times, as a side form of R. gan, gvan, 
 as we find Gr. ywrt, Boeot. Pavd for yFava, Goth, gvens (eri\v£),E. quean, 
 queen, and perhaps L. venter for gventer. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 129 
 
 aog for koXok^oq ; guhernator beside Gr. Kvf5epvriTr]g ; Agri- 
 gentum* from Gr. 'Afc/oayac; negotium - necotium; pingo, Skr. 
 pis' (to adorn), ph'alas = Gr. ttoiklXoq ; imgulus, angulus be- 
 side wwcws, ancus (qui aduncum brachium habet), Skr. aii^os 
 (nom. sing. masc. the part above the hip), ankus'a (stimuhis 
 quo elephanti impelluntur), Gr. oyKog (a curve), ajKoXr) (the 
 (bent arm), ajKivv ; cygnus = Gr. kvkvoq ; gurgulio = curculio ; 
 ilignus from St. zYec ; salignus from St. saZic, Gr. tAtK?? (the 
 willow, in Arkadia) ; dignus connected bj Curtius with decet, 
 decuSf Skr. das' as (glory), Gr. doKtco, but by others with Skr. 
 dis' {to point out), Gr. Set'Kw/it ; larignus from St. laric; langula 
 (a little dish), from St. lane; pango^pignus, hQ^idiQ pacisG07\ pas', 
 Skr. and Z. pas' (to bind), Gr. rirri-yog (fast), 7rnyvvfjii, iraaaaXog 
 = TrajcyaXoc, Goth, falian (to seize), /a^?'s (euOaroc) ; gloria 
 from St. clovos- = clevos- = Gr. /cAtFoc- = Skr. s'ravas- (glory) 
 from sru = Gr. kXv ; gummi = Gr. Kojujut ; gohius = Kwj3i6g ; 
 and a few other cases.f In all these cases where k is softened 
 to g, it either begins a syllable or is in close proximity to /, 
 w, ?i, or 7*. 
 
 (7 = I. E. ^A : /w^/o, I. E. bhugh, Skr. 6Am/ (flectere) Gr. 
 ^fuyw, Goth. &m^a (KctinirTO)) ; rz^o, Gr. jSpc'x^' Groth. rz^n 
 (rain) ; unguis, Skr. nakha (a nail), Gr. cvuS? from St. ovv^ ; 
 yiw^o, figura^ I. E. cZAi^/i, Skr. c^zA (to smear), d^ha (the body), 
 Gr. OLyyavu), Goth. Jez^a (TrXatro-w), 0. H. G. teig (dough) ; 
 angOj angustus, Skr. aiihu (close), Gr. ajxu), axog, Goth, agg- 
 vus (close) ; lingo, ligurio, Skr. lih and rih (to lick), Gr. Xeix^j 
 Goth, bilaigon (liriXEixeiv) ; mingo, mejo, Skr. m/A (mingere), 
 Gr. 6/ifx^^5 grando, suggrunda (eaves), Skr. hrdduni (bad 
 weather), hrddird (lightning), Gr. ^aXa^a for x«XaS?/a, Ch. 
 SI. ^/"ac/^ (hail) ; gratus, 0. and U. root Aer (to wish), Skr. 
 
 * Agrigentum is the accusative of 'AKpayae, and therefore must have 
 been introduced at a time when the intercourse between Rome and Sicily 
 was carried on without the use of writing. 
 
 t Consult Corssen iiber Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der 
 Lateinischen Sprache, p. 39, seq. 
 
 K 
 
130 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 harydmi (I love), Gr. xapig^ xaipw, Goth., faihu-gairns (greedy 
 of money) ; &c. In no case does an initial I. E. gh become 
 L. g, except when succeeded by r, as in gratus, &c., and per- 
 haps by Z, if Grassman be correct in deducing initial g in 
 glisco, glaher^ and gluho^ from an I. E. gh. In two cases fr 
 appears to represent an I. E. ghr : /no, frico, Skr. ghar (to 
 sprinkle), gharsh (to rub), Gr. x;ptw ; fragro a reduplicated 
 form of R. gra - Skr. ghrd (odorari). 
 
 Schleicher considers that in some cases u was developed 
 after ^, generally when a nasal, and sometimes when r pre- 
 ceded, as in langueo beside Skr. lang'd (a whore), Gr. Xaya^og 
 (slack), \ayvoQ (lustful), and urgueo beside urgeo, Skr. varg' (to 
 exclude), so that gu = l. E. g or gh, and afterwards through 
 assimilation of g to v, v alone remained, as in nivis for nigvis 
 from nix. Now this development of u after g is extremely 
 doubtful. In many cases gu most probably existed in Indo- 
 European times, in others u is merely a suffix, while in others 
 it seems to be inserted from a false analogy. Thus u was 
 a suffix, to which afterwards a secondary suffix i was added, 
 in pinguis beside Gr. iraxvg, brevis for bregvis, beside Gr. /3/oa- 
 Xvgy levis for legvis^ beside Gr. IXaxvQ = Skr. laghus (light), &c. 
 In the following cases we infer the existence of an I. E. gu or 
 ghu from the related words : voro for gvoro^ I. K.gvar, whence 
 gar (to devour), Gr. f5opa ; vivus for gvigvus, a reduplication of 
 I. E. gvi whence Skr. g'tv (to live), Gr. /3ioc, E. quick. Again w 
 may have arisen from a false analogy in ninguit beside ningit and 
 nivis for nigvis^ gen. sing, o^nix^ from I. E. snigh^ whence Gr. 
 vL<^a, ayavvKJiog for aya<Tvi^og, Lith. snigti (to snow), Goth. 
 snaivs (snow) ; urgueo = urgeo ; anguis beside Skr. ahis 
 (nom. sing, masc, a serpent), Gr. ix'^g^ cyx^^'^Cj Lith angis (a 
 snake). 
 
 H =l.E.gh: hospeSf hostis, 0. h.fostis, Ch. SI. ^os^^ (guest), 
 Goth, gasts for gastis (a guest), Lith. gaspada (hospitium) ; 
 h^rusj AerfcS, 0. L. hir (the hand), Skr. /<a^ (to seize), Gr. x^^'p* 
 Am, hes-ternus, Skr. hyas (yesterday), Gr. x^«C» 0. H. G.gester 
 (yesterday) ; hirundo, Gr. xeXidutv ; hiems, hibernus, Skr. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 131 
 
 hima (snow), Gr. xtwv, xei/uLijjv ; helitSf helvus* Skr. hari 
 (green), Gr. ^6r), 0. H. G. groni (green) ; haruspex^ hariolus, 
 hira and hilla (entrails), Skr. hird (entrails), Gr. ^o^a^sc. 
 Xop^ri; hortus = Gr. xoprog; haedus, Gr. yoira (Hesjch. ofc)» 
 Mod. Gr. 7tSa, Goth, gaits (a goat) ; humus^ Gr. xafiai (a lo- 
 cative from X'^l^^ = I. E. ghamd) ; Jiomo (connected with hu- 
 mus)^ 0. L. hemones (nom, pL), Goth, guma from St. guman^ 
 whence -gam in G. Brdutigam (bridegroom) ; Jdo, Gr. x'^'^^^y 
 X'^oQy x^*" (^ hole), 0. N. gin (I gape) ; prehendo for praehendo, 
 hedera, praeda, perhaps for prcehida^ hasta^ Skr. liasta (the 
 hand) (?), Gr. xai^^avtu, E.^6^ ; veAo, Skr.tja/i (to carry), Gr. oxoq 
 from E. F€x> Goth, vigs (via) ; traho, perhaps connected with 
 Skr. drdgh (adnitij and dhrdgh (posse), E. drag^ which pre- 
 suppose an I. E. dhragh. In the two last cases we have traces 
 of the guttural in the perfects vexi and traxi for vegsi and tragsi. 
 Gh passed through / in becoming A, as we see from the Old 
 Latin forms folus, fostis, fordus, &c., for holus, hostisj hor- 
 duSy &c. Similarly in Spanish, h represents L./, as in hijo = 
 JiliuSf hahlar =fahulari^ liierro = ferrum, 
 
 H =\.Ya. ghvoi Oscan and Umbrian, as 0. herest^ U. he- 
 riest (volet) beside Skr. harydmi (amo), and Gr. x«*'/o^* 
 
 H = 1. E. bh in mihi, U. mehe^ Skr. mahyam^ beside tibij 
 Skr. tubhyam, and in horda beside forda (pregnant), from K. 
 /(?^= Skr. bhar. Schleicher suggests that amavi for amafui^ &c., 
 passed through the stage amahvi, &c., and that the dat. pi. of 
 the a-stems in -Is for -ais passed through the stage -ihis 
 = I. E. -abhyams, but these cases are extremely doubtful. 
 Grassman considers that h = bh in herctum or horctum, Festus 
 tells us that horctum or forctum meant bonum ; and Grass- 
 mann considering that it meant originally " what is heaped 
 up," connects it with Skr. bhrs'am (multum, valde), with 
 
 * Grassmann is mistaken in connecting L. gilvus with this root, for an 
 initial I. E. gh followed by a vowel never becomes g in Latin, but always 
 h through 0. L./. Lottner agrees with Grassmann, and connects L. 
 germen also with the same root. 
 
 k2 
 
132 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 which he also connects L. farcio^ frequens. Curtius, on the 
 other hand derives herctum, hercisco, from a root her lengthened 
 by k, connected with Skr. har (to take), Gr. x^^P^ X^P*??' ^• 
 hir, herus. 
 
 H appears to represent an I. E. ^ in hicy from St. hi- = 
 Goth, hi- = I. E. H-, and in haheo - Goth. haba{I have). Hie 
 (for hice) may be a reduplicated form of ki-, the original k 
 perhaps appearing in the second syllable ; compare citra, 
 which may come from this root. Schleicher treats R. hah in 
 haheo as a side form of R. cap in capio^ and compares 0. hipust 
 (habuerit) and hajiest (habebit). He considers that p is 
 weakened to b in haheo, just as in hiho, which he deduces from 
 an I. ^.pipdmi; this latter comparison is, however, extremely 
 doubtful, as it is much more likely that the I. E. root began 
 with hhy of which we still find a trace in Skr. pihdmi. H = 
 I. E. ^ in Skr. hrd (heart) beside Gr. Kupdia, E. heart. 
 
 IT in Umbrian and Oscan not only corresponds to L. h, 
 as in 0. 0. hitrz = L. hortus, &c., but it also takes the place of 
 c and p before t, as in 0. U. screhto = L. scriptum, rehte - L. 
 recte, suhahtu for suhactu, and this again for suhagtu = L. su- 
 higitOf 0. 0. ehtrad = L. extra, saahtum - L. sanctum, N. 0. 
 Ohtavis = L. Octavius, &o. The long vowels in Umbrian are 
 written, aha or ah, &c. 
 
 Corssen considers that h has sprung from y in L. ahenus, 
 beside Skr. ayas (iron); in Mahestinus (found on inscriptions) 
 = Majestinus ; and in 0. U. pihaz, N. U. pihos = L. piatus, 
 Volscianjt9iAom= L. pmm,* beside Skr. priya (carus). ITora 
 is borrowed from Gr. wpa, which is connected with Z. ydre 
 (year), E. year. If Pott is correct in treating homus as = ho-jor- 
 nm, as higa= hijuga, we find in it the original Latin form corre- 
 sponding to Z. ydre, and E. year, Hercules (O.Hereklo-) is also 
 
 * L. pius has been also connected with Skr. piy (conviciari in dial. 
 vM.), Goth, fijan (to hate), 'Ei. fiend; L. piare is then explained to mean 
 " to reconcile an enemy." 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 133 
 
 borrowed from Gr. 'HpaKX^c; it has nothing to do with a 
 Latin verb hercere, which cannot be = Gr. cpicctv, for Greek 
 spiritus asper = I. E. s; Mommsen erroneously connects the 
 Greek and Latin verbs, and considers Hercules to be a Ztvq 
 
 epKHOQ, 
 
 An inorganic h is added to humerus for umerus, Gr. ujjuiog 
 e= Skr. ahsas (nom. sing, masc), Goth, amsa, all of which 
 forms point back to an L E. amsas, whence came a Graeco-It. 
 omsos or omesos, of which latter form we find a trace in Gr. 
 a/uiau) (Hesych., the shoulder blades). Also humor = umor, 
 connected by Curtius with Gr. vypog Skr. uksh (humectare). 
 Similarly we find h added in Sp. hedrar = L. iterare^ Fr. haut 
 = L. alius. 
 
 §. 78. Tiffi Palatal J. 
 
 J" = L E. y : jecur^ Skr. yakrt^ and in the weak cases yakan 
 (the liver), Gr. riirap from St. r]irapT ; jugum, Skr. yugam (par), 
 Goth, juk^ 0. H. G. joch ; jus, Skr. yusha (pease soup), Gr. 
 Zw/iiog (soup); juvenis, Skr. yuvan (young), E. young; jam, 
 Goth.^M (now). Lith.^'aM (now) ; &c. 
 
 I. E. y is often vocalised in Latin: medius = Skr. mad^ 
 hyas ; stem - Skr. sydm, Gr. elrjv from L E. asydm ; &c. 
 
 §.79. The Dentals. 
 
 jr= L E. ^ : ante (for anted, an ablative form found inan- 
 tidea), Skr. anti (before), Gr. avrl; Stella (for sterula), Skr. 
 staras (the stars, in dial.Yed.), tdrd (a star), Gr. aarrip, raipea ; 
 et, at, in at-avus, Skr. ati- (ultra), Gr. iVt ; vetus, Skr. vatsara 
 (a year), Gr. croc ; peto, petina, 0. L. pesna for petna, Skr, pat 
 (to fly), Gr. TTiTOfAat ; sto, Skr, sthd, Gr. "crrrjiuii ; sterno, torus 
 for storus, Skr. sfar* (sternere), Gr. aTopwpi ; ^gwc?o, ^^neo, 
 ifenws, Skr. to?i (to stretch), Gr. ravvjuiai, teIvoi), Goth, thanya 
 (I extendi : tu, Skr. <vam (thou), Z. turn (thou). Dor. ru, 
 Boeot. rouv, Goth. <Aw (thou) ; tuli, 0. L. ^w7o, tetuli, Skr. i^i/Z 
 (to lift), Gr. rKrivai, TiXafiivv^taXag, Goth. ^Aw/a (I endure); 
 
134 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 termen, in-tra-re, trans, U. traf = L. trans, Skr. ^a^* (to cross), 
 Gr. ripfxa, E. through, &c. 
 
 St = I. E. sk in stercus, Skr. s'ahrt* (stercus),Gr.<rKa)|ofrom 
 St.o-Ka/or, (TTf/oyavoc (Hesych. fcoTrpwv), o-TranXTj (excrement), 
 A.S. skearn (dung) ; sturnus, Gr.xpap for o-Trap, aarpaXog (Hesy ch. 
 
 V V 
 
 6 \papog vTTo QerraXiov), A. S. steam, Bohem. skorec (a star- 
 ling), where Curtius believes sk to be original, talpa for stalpa, 
 Gr. (TiraXaK, (TKaXo\p (a mole) ; talla (caepae putamen) is, ac- 
 cording to Curtius, for stalla, and comes from an I. E. R. 
 skal, whence G. schale (husk, rind), &c. 
 
 /S^ = I. E. sp in studium, Gr. o-ttouSi), E. speed ; turgeo£oT 
 sturgeo, Gr. (nrapyau), a(l)piyait) (I swell, burst), perhaps con- 
 nected with ac^apayoQ (a noise), Skr. spurg (to make a noise) ; 
 and perhaps one or two other doubtful cases. 
 
 T never = I. E. dh (except in the case of the initial group 
 tr, as in traho). All the examples brought forward to prove 
 the contrary can be easily explained without such a suppo- 
 sition. Thus, rutilus is for rudt'dus, from R. rud = Skr. rudh, 
 and -tilus is the same termination as is found in futilis, mu- 
 tiluSf &G. ; pati and Gr. iraOdv^ are both independent forma- 
 tions from a root pa, ira, which bears the same [relation to 
 TTf V (in Trivofiaii) and wov (in Troytw) as ya (in yeyatjg) does 
 to yev (in l-yEvojurjy) and yov (in yt'yova) and ra (in 
 ravvfxai) to rev (in rdvct)) ; putdre is not connected with 
 TTvO^aOai, for the latter comes from I. E. bhudh, whence Skr. 
 budh (to know), and the former from L. putus (clean), be- 
 side Skr. pu (to clean), putare therefore signifying "to make 
 clean" (compare amputare, lanam putare), and then " to make 
 clear ;" putere and wvdeaOaL are independent formations from 
 
 * Bopp considers, that s' in s'aJtrt represents an original k, and con- 
 nects it with Gr. KOTrpoQ for Koicpof, L. caco, &c. Curtius connects KoirpoQ 
 with KUTrvo), Karrvog, &c. All the comparisons in this section and the suc- 
 ceeding one are extremely doubtful. 
 
 * Lottner and others, however, identify t in lateo, patiur, with 9 in 
 XaQCiv^ iraOhv, and consequently infer the existence of the hard aspirates 
 in Indo-European. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 135 
 
 R. puy connected with Skr. puy6 (putresco), Z. pu (to stink), 
 and Goth, fuls (foul) ; the connexion of lateo with \aQuv is 
 not so easily explained as the last examples, for we find Skr. 
 rah (to leave), and rahas (a secret, or secretly), which point 
 back to an 1. E. radh^ but it is likely that latere is formed 
 from a R. Za, as pUtere is from E. pU, 
 
 D = l.E. d\ do, dare, Skr. da (to give), Gr. SiSwjui; dex- 
 ter, Skr. daksliina (dexter), Gr. Sf ^toc, Goth, taihsvo (dt^id) ; 
 duo, ^kr, dva, Gr. Svwy Goth, tvai ; domus, Gr. ^ofiog^ A. S. 
 timber ; suadeo, suavis for suddvis, Skr. svac? (to please), svddus 
 = Gr. i^Sug- ; 5gc?€0, Skr. sad (to sit), Gr. c ?o/xat for cSyojuae, &c. 
 
 i> = I. E. ^ in quadraginta from quatuor. 
 
 D = I. E. (iA ; medius = Skr. madhyas, Gr. fiiaaoQ for 
 fxSyoQi Goth, midjis (medius) ; aecZes, aes^ws for aedtus, Skr. twc/7i 
 (to burn), Gr. ai'Ow, i0i] (Hesych. eu^potruv?]), perhaps Atrvrj 
 and "H^-ato-roc ; do in condo, credo, abdo is connected with 
 Skr. dhd (to place) ^Z. da, Gr. ri0»?^t ; mc?Ma* = Skr. vidhavd 
 from vi- (without), and dhava (vir) ; &c. 
 
 i? may be = I. E. y in tendo = Gr. reivijj for rtvyw, Goth. 
 thanja (I stretch) ; in fendo = Gr, 0£iva> for Q^vyu) ; and per- 
 haps in the part. term, -endus or -undus = I. E. -any as 
 - Skr. -aniyas. In Zend we find the corresponding termina- 
 tion -enya in verezenya (working), from R. i^ere-e = Gr. Ffpy. 
 In Oscan ny perhaps became nn, as in 0. 0. upsannam = L. 
 operandam : in Umbrian also ny became nn or n, as double 
 consonants are generally not both written in Umbrian, as in 
 N. U. pihaner = L. piandi (gen. sing.), &c. 
 
 D = Gr. X and p in the two borrowed words, adeps and 
 caduceus, from Gr. aXsLtpa and KapvKiov. We also find cZ for / 
 in Capitodium, a side-form of CapitoUum, for Capitdlium, 
 a becoming o as in ignoro beside gndrus, &c. Cadamitas^ a 
 side-form of calamitas, is generally supposed to be original, 
 but it is much more likely that calamitas is the older form. 
 Calamitas means "destruction of the calami;'' thus we are 
 
 * It is better, however, to derive vidua from the R. vid (to separate). 
 
136 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 told (Serv. Verg. Georg. I. 151), Robigo, genus est vitii, quo 
 culmi pereunt, quod a rusticanis calamitas dicitur. Calamitas 
 is formed from St. calamo by means of the suffix -tat-, just as 
 civitas is from St. civi, &c. If on the other hand d is original 
 in this word, we would first have to form from cado, from 
 which it is derived, the St. cadamo, but as the Romans never 
 kept a before the suffix -mo, but always changed it into u or 
 if this supposed stem is foreign to the Latin, and most pro- 
 bably never existed. That I sometimes became d in vulgar 
 Latin is shown by vodeha on an inscription at Pompeii for vo- 
 leham. 
 
 D in Old Umbrian, when initial, was represented by t^ and 
 in New Umbrian by d ; when medial or final it was in Old 
 Umbrian changed into a sonant hissing sound, represented by 
 q (r), which in New Umbrian became ts. Thus we have N. U. 
 dur = L. duo ; N. U. dupiirsus (bipedibus) from purs- - L. 
 ped- ; 0. U. asam-ar - L. aram-ad (ad aram) ; O. U. arveitu 
 = L. advehito ; N. U. virseto = L. visus from R. vid ; 0. U. 
 pere, piri, N. U. perse, pirsi = L. quid^ with the same I attached 
 as is found in Gr. -t {ovToai) compare Lith. -ai (tas-ai) ; 0. U. 
 tera, N. U. dersa = didat (det), a reduplicated form of R. da, 
 &c. We find r for initial d in 0. U. rere = L. dedit (3 sing, 
 perf.) and runum = L. donum, but these forms may be, as 
 Schleicher suggests, only dialectic. 
 
 In Oscan d = h, d; it is also retained in some cases where 
 I is found in Latin. Thus we have 0.0. pud, N. 0. pod = 
 L. quod, 0. 0. pid = L. quid ; N. 0. deicans (3 pi conj. pres.) 
 = L. dicant ; 0. O. dedet = L. dedit ; 0. 0. Akudunniad = L. 
 Aquilonid{d). 
 
 R = \. E. r: aro, Gr. apou), Goth, arjan (to plough); 
 orior, Skr. ar (to move), clrta = Gr. (Lpro, Gr. opvvimi ; rivus, 
 Bumo, (the old name of the Tiber), Skr. sru (to flow), Gr. 
 piw ; fero, Skr. hhar, Gr. (^ipw ; ruher^ Skr. radhiram (nom. 
 neut. blood) ; -tor, -ter, = Skr. -tdr -tar, as dator = Skr. data 
 for ddtdrs, pater - Skr. p'^a for paiars ; res = Skr. rds (divi- 
 tiac) from St. rdi ; &c. , 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 137 
 
 E = I.E. d in arbiter for ad-hiter and arcesso. In Old 
 Latin r is frequently found for d, as in arvenas (Prise. I. 45), 
 for advenas, arvorsum (Sc. de Bacc.) for advorsum, arfuisse 
 (Sc. de Bacc.) for adfuisse, &c. Even apor and ar were used 
 for apud and ad. This is similar to the change of d into r in 
 Old Umbrian. 
 
 The Latin language, however, afterwards recovered itself 
 from this weakening of d to r, and restored cZ, except in ar- 
 cesso, arbiter, and meridies where r = d = J. E, dh as medius = 
 Skr. madhyas, R in mirus is not developed from d, as is 
 asserted by those who look upon r as belonging to the root, 
 and compare it with Gr. juetSaw, but -to is a suffix, found 
 also in clarus, &c., and d does not belong to the root in 
 jUEtSao) ; these words are probably independent formations 
 from the L E. K. smi = Skr. smi (to laugh), whence also 
 O. H. Gr. smielen, smieren, (to laugh), E. smile, Lett, smeet 
 (to laugh). 
 
 jR = an older n in crepusculum, creperus (dubius), beside 
 Gr. Kvi(pag ; groma borrowed from Gr. yvwfjiwv. Leo Meyer 
 also derives germen from R. gen, and carmen from R. can; 
 but in both cases he is entirely wrong. Curtius connects 
 germen with Skr. garbha (uterus, foetus), Z. garewa (foetus), 
 Gr. ^ek^vg (uterus) ; ^pi(pog, from I. E. grabh (concipere), 
 whence Skr. grah (capere) ; germen would therefore be for 
 gerbmen. Carmen is for casmen, compare Casmenae. We 
 find r representing an older n in Fr. diacre (= diaconus), 
 Londres, ordre (= ordinem) ; Sp. liombre (= hominem), fembra 
 (= femina), &c. Conversely in Wall, suspina = suspirare we 
 find n for r. It is a mistake to identify the n- with the r- 
 suffixes in uSwp beside Skr. udan (water) ; in L. jecur, Gr. 
 ^Tra^o, Skr. yakrt beside Skr. ydkan (from which the weak 
 cases o{ yakrt are formed), Lett, ate's (the liver); in Skr. 
 dakrt, Gr. o-kwjo, L. stercus, stercor-is beside Skr. s'akan 
 (from which the weak cases of sakrt are formed), for we fre- 
 quently find these suffixes coexisting in the same language, 
 
138 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 and sometimes in the same word : thus, we have Gr. vSvr}Q 
 (watery) beside u^wp, the former word being formed from 
 R. vdhy means of the suffix -va ; in L. jecinoris, gen. sing, of 
 jecuvy we find both suffixes coexistent ; and similarly we find 
 both in A. S. skearn (dung) = aKtlyp and A. S. steam = L. sturnus. 
 
 L = 1. E. r : loquor, Skr. lap (to speak), Gr. a'Aaicov, Ch. 
 SI. reha (to speak) ; linguo Skr. rik' (to separate), Gr. Xuirio ; 
 luceo, Skr. ruU (to shine), Gr. X^vkoq^Xvxvoq ; sollus = Skr. 
 sarvas (all) ; culter, cultus, Skr. kartari (shears), Gr. jcctpcu ; 
 plenus = Skr. purnas (full) ; lacero^ Gr. Xa/coc, /oajcoc, -^ol. 
 jSpoKOc from R. F/oaK = Skr. vras'k' (scindere) ; latus for platus 
 beside Skr. prath (extendere) ; gallus for garlus beside garrio, 
 Skr. gar (to call), Gr. yripvq ; ^wZa, gur-gul-io beside gurges, 
 (g)vorOf Skr. ^ar (to swallow) ; volo, Skr. var (to choose) ; 
 vulgus, Skr. vargas (nom. sing. masc. a multitude) ; velluSf 
 Skr. wrwa (wool), Gr. cpfov, Ion. elpog, &c. 
 
 X='l. E. Z: see §21. 
 
 i = I. E. 6?: lacrima, 0. L. dacruma, Gr. ^aicpu, Goth, 
 fa^r, 0. H. G. ^^aAaT* ; Zmr, Skr. devar (husband's brother), 
 Gr. ^ariQf A. S. tdcor, 0. H. G. zeihhur; lingua^ O. L. dinguay 
 Goth. ^M^^o, O. H. G zunga ; impelimenta (in Festus) = im- 
 pedimenta ; ol-facio, oleo beside odor^ Gr. 6^w = oSyw, 
 6Sa>Sa ; lautia (entertainment) beside dautia^ which Aufrecht 
 connects with Skr. duta (nuntius) ; UUxes ^'O^vacjivg', lig- 
 num connected by Bopp with dah (to burn), Gr. Xiyvvq 
 (thick smoke mixed with flame) ; but Curtius prefers to 
 follow Jos. Scaliger in deriving it from legere (to gather), 
 whence legumen, &c., lignum would then mean ^'a bundle 
 of sticks ;" limpidus connected by Bopp with Skr. dtp (to 
 shine), but by Curtius with Gr. Aa/xTrw, "OXv/umog ; lacero 
 connected by Bopp with Skr. dans' (to bite), Gr. ^a/cv<u, 
 but much more probably from R. lac = Gr. FpuK ; pol-lingo^ 
 lino beside Skr. dih (to smear) ; larva (a mask) connected 
 with Skr. dars' (to see), Gr. 3fp/cw ; laurus for daurus, Skr. 
 druma (a tree), ddru (wood), Gr. Spvc> ^opv ; -ilius (in Fopi- 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 139 
 
 /^ws, &c.) = idius'* (in Popidius, &c.) ; delicare beside dedicare, 
 -sul (in consul, &c.) is generally connected with R. sed^ 
 whence sSdeo, sellafor sedla, sedes, solium^ butMommsen con- 
 nects it with salute, and Corrsen with Skr. sar (to go). In 
 Oscan we find d kept between vowels, where in Latin I is 
 found, as in 0. 0. Akudunniad = L. Aquilonid (d), 0. U. 
 Akeruniam-em, N. U. Acersoniam-e (in Aquiloniam), the 
 modern Acedogna. 
 
 L appears to represent an I. E. n in a few cases : lendes for 
 clendes beside Gr. KovtSec (eggs of lice, nits), A. S. hnit, Lith. 
 glmdaSj for no word in Latin can begin with en ; pulmo beside 
 7ry£u/i(i>y. For a similar change in other languages consult 
 § 54. Although L. alius, Gr. aAXocj Goth, alls {aWog) are 
 generally connected with Skr. anya (another), it is more 
 likely that there were originally two independent pronominal 
 stems, al and an ; from the former of which came L. alius, &c. ; 
 and from the latter Skr. anya, Gr. tvioi, Goth, anthar (aAXoc), 
 Ch. SI. intt (alius). Pulmo and lendes appear therefore to be 
 the only Latin words where Z = I. E. w. The opposite change 
 never occurs in Latin, though it does sometimes in Greek, as 
 Dor. (5ivTi(TTog, &c., = jSsArttxroc, &c., vapva^ (Hesych. a 
 chest) = Aapva?. 
 
 aS = I. E. s : sum, est, Skr. asmi (sum), asti (est), Gr. 
 eljui, Mo\. lEfxfjiL = iafii, iari, Goth, im, ist, Lith. esmi, Ssti, Ch. 
 S\. jesmi, jesti; uro, ustus from R. us = Skr. ush (to burn), 
 Gr. tvu) ; septem = Skr. saptan, Gr. tTrra ; sto, R. sta = Skr. 
 stJid (to stand), from I. E. sto; -s (term, of nom. sing.) = L 
 E. -5, as in equus = Skr. as'vas = Gr. 'iinrog, &c. ; 0. L. sum 
 
 * As we find O. U. famerias, karitu, Pumperias beside L. familia, 
 calare, Pompilia, it hasbeen suggested (Die Umbrischen Sparchdenk- 
 maler von S. Th. Aufrecht und A. Kirchhoff, p. 84) that the original 
 forms of these words had d in place of r and I, as O. U. r = I. E. d. I 
 cannot assent to this view as far as relates to familia and calare, ioY fa- 
 milia is from famulus, which is formed from a St. fama, SiS humilis, from St. 
 humo, and calare is connected with Gr. /caXlw, G. hallen. R was, per- 
 haps, written for r by a mistake of the stone-cutter in these two cases. 
 
140 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 (him), «am (her), Skr. sa, sd = G^r. 6, 17, &c. aS is retained in 
 Umbrian and Oscan, where it is found in the corresponding 
 Latin words, and also in other cases where it is either lost or 
 changed into r in Latin. Thus we have 0. U. tutas Ijuvinas 
 (gen. sing.) = L. totce Iguvince, kapres^ hatles = L. capri, catuli, 
 O. . pumpaiianets := pompeiani, N. 0. eituds (gen. sing, pg- 
 cunice). The a-stems in Oscan and Old Umbrian still retain 
 the final s in the nom. pi. : 0. 0. JVuvlanus = L. Nolaniy 
 N. 0. paSt scriftas = L. quce^ scriptce, 0. U. urtas = L. ortce. 
 In New Umbrian this final s has generally become r j sereihtor 
 (nom. pi.) = L. sc7'ipti, totcor (nom. pi.) = L. tutici, motar 
 (nom. pi.) = L. multcB (poense), totar (gen. sing.) = L. totcBy 
 popler (gen. sing.) = L. populi. In New Umbrian final s is 
 still kept in the dat. and abl. pi. of the z-stems, as in aveis 
 = L. avibus. In Old Umbrian and Old Oscan the change of 
 final s into r had already begun in the passive voice, as 0. U. 
 emantur = K. emantur, 0. 0. sakarater = L. sacratur, &c. S is 
 generally kept between two vowels in Oscan and Umbrian, 
 as in U. asa = L. ara, 0. 0. aasas = L. arcs. In Oscan s be- 
 came a sonant s, represented by s, between two vowels in 
 certain cases, as in -azum (term, of gen. pi.) = L. -arum = I. E. 
 -dsdrriy censazet for censasent (censebunt), &c. Final ts was 
 represented by z in Old Umbrian and Old Oscan, and by s in 
 New Umbrian, as 0. U. pihaz = N. U. pihos = L. piatus, 0. O. 
 hiirz = L. hortuSf &c. In Umbrian an original k is generally 
 weakened to "a sibilant before e and i, as in pase = L. pace, de- 
 senduf = L. duodecem, gesna = L. cena, &c. 
 
 iV"= I. E. 71 : in- (neg. prefix), Skr. and Z. an-, a- Gr. 
 av-, a-, 0. and U. an-, a- ; inter, indu, Skr. antar (within), 
 Gr. £vSov, tvTEpov, 0. U. aiiter, N. U. ander ; mens, maneo, 
 Skr. and Z. man (to think), Gr. julvw, //Ivoc ; navis, Skr. 
 waws = Gr. vavQ ; noi?w5, Skr. navas = Gr. vfFoc, O. 0. Nuvla; 
 ne, non, Skr. and Z. na (not), Gr. vt)- = Yed. na ; term, no- 
 (in plenus, somnus, &c.) = Skr. wa- (in purna, &c.) ; term, 
 wen (in nomen), &c.) = Skr. man (in ndman, &c.) ; &c. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 141 
 
 iV= I. E. m in a few cases : nonus for novimus from novem^ 
 as decimus from decern^ &c. ; gener for gemer beside Gr. yafi- 
 /3poc, although it may come directly from R. gen (to pro- 
 duce); tenehrcB beside Skr. tamisra (darkness), 0. S. tUm 
 (dim), O. H. G. demar (crepusculum), Ir. temel (dark). 
 Some writers consider that n = min venio beside Skr. gam (to 
 go), janitrix beside Skr. ^dmdtar and ydmdtar (gener), and 
 aeneus = Skr. ayasmayas (ferreus), but these comparisons are 
 extremely unlikely : consult §. 54. 
 
 §. 80. The Labials. 
 
 P = I. E.j9: super^ Skr. i<p«W (above), Gr. uTrs'p, Goth. 
 ufar (over) ; plus^ plerique, Skr. puru (much), Gr. ttoXvc, 
 Goth. Jilu {iroXvo) ; po^is, potior, potens, Skr. pa^i (a master), 
 Gr. TTOo-fc; pluit,pluvia, Skr. joZm (to swim), Gr. TrXaw, ttAuvw, 
 0. ll.G.fliozan (to flow) ; pons, Bkv.patha (a way),Gr. Traroc, 
 O. l^,fatt (ibam) ; per, 0. perum (outside), Skr. ^am (away, 
 7j. para (outside), Gr. irapa, Goth. fra^\ porta, ex-per-ior, 
 Skr. par (to cross), Z. par (to bring over), Gr. 7ro|0oc, TTBpaiOj 
 Goth, faran (to go) ; s^rpo, Skr. 5a?;p (to creep), Gr. 
 fjOTTO) ; &c. 
 
 P perhaps represents an I. E. bh in potus; consult §. bb. 
 
 Sp in Latin has in no case been developed from an older st, 
 Spica and spiculum are not connected with Gr. (jtclxvq, but 
 rather with O. N. spiot (hasta), G. spies (a spear), spitze (a 
 point) ; perhaps Gr. -rriKpog and ^x^irevKrig (pointed) belong to 
 the same root. Spatium = ^ol. (nra^iovis connected with Gr. 
 (Tirdw, 0. H. G. spannan, and Gr. aTadiov is a later form. 
 Spuo is connected with Gr. irrvu), h.pituita, Goth, spma(spuo), 
 Lith. spjavju (spuo). We find o-tt = an original trr in -^ol. 
 o-TToXa = GToXri, Ka(T7ro\iu) = Karao-rtXa;, where ar is original, 
 as we see from L. praestolor, 0. H. G. stellan (to place), E. 
 stall. We also find Goth, sparva, 0. H. G. spa^o beside Gr. 
 
142 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 cFTpovOog. We find sp beside Gr. gk in spolium beside Gr. 
 (TKvAov, where gk is original. We also find specio, specto be- 
 side Gr. (TKiTTTOjULaL for airsKrofJiat from I. E. spak, whence Z. 
 s'pas (to behold), Skr. pas' (to see), E. spy. 
 
 In Umbrian and Oscan^ = I. E. kv and L. qu in the pro- 
 nouns and numerals and words derived from them, and 
 perhaps, in some other cases. Thus we have 0. U. and 
 N. U. pis = L. quis, 0. 0. piid, N. 0. pod, = L. quod, N. 0. 
 pomtis = quinque, N. U. peturpursus = L. quadrupedihus^ 
 N. U. |>a7zto = L. quanta, &c. Hence when we find^ = I. E. 
 kv in any Latin word, we may infer that that word is borrowed 
 from either Umbrian, Oscan, or Sabine. Corssen* believes 
 that p has been developed from an I. E. kv within the limits 
 of the Latin language ; but the examples by which he sup- 
 ports this view are either extremely doubtful or susceptible of 
 another explanation. Curtiusf also asserts that L. p has 
 arisen from an Older k in sapio, lupus, Epona, trepit^ and scepio, 
 comparing these words with sucus, Gr. Xvkoq, equus, torqueo, 
 and Gr. ar^Kog. Now sapio has nothing to say to sucus, but 
 is connected with 0. H. G. sab (to understand), whence ant- 
 seffan (Praet. ant-suoh), and Gr. aoipog and aa(l>i]g, where ^ re- 
 presents an older ir ; lupus is most probably a Sabine word, 
 but Schleicher connects it with Z. urupis, raopis (a kind of 
 dog), and derives it from R. rup or lup (to tear) ; saepio does 
 not agree with o-tjkoc in the vowel of the root for Gr. ij = I. E. 
 a and L. ae = L E. ai; Epona is a Keltic term ; trepit (vertit) 
 and Gr. Tptirb) are, perhaps, formed from a root tar by the 
 suffix p, and torqueo from same root by the addition of a diflfe- 
 rent suffix. Corssen adds to these examples popina, palum- 
 bus, opinariy comparing them with coquina, columba, and Gr. 
 6(Tata0aL for oKyeaOau ^ow popina and palumbus are most 
 likely borrowed words, as we have beside them the genuine 
 Latin form, coquina and columba, just as we have Osc. IJojutt- 
 
 * Kritische Nachtrage zur Lateinischen formenlehre, p. 29. 
 t Grundziige der Griechischen Etymologie, p. 408. 
 
COMPARATIVE GKAMMAK. 143 
 
 Ttog - L. Quinctius beside L. Pompejus (borrowed from 
 Oscan) and Petrejus from Osc. petora (four). The connex- 
 ion of opinari with oaGeaOai is very doubtful ; Curtius assents 
 to Grain's suggestion that an initial kv has been lost, and that 
 it comes from the same root as Gr. Kairvw, L. vapor for hvapor, 
 Lith. kvapas (smoke). Limpidus is considered by Schleicher 
 to be a dialectic form of liquidus; Bopp, however, connects the 
 former with Skr. dtp (to shine), Gr. Xa/ixwio, and the latter with 
 Skr. li (liquefacere). Curtius connects liquere, liquidus with 
 Skr. rik' (to separate), Z. ric (to leave, to pour out), L. lin- 
 quo, &c. 
 
 B = 1.^. b in brevis for bregvis beside Gr. jSpaxvc", and 
 labi beside Skr. lamb (to fall), and a few imitative words : 
 consult §.22. 
 
 B = \. E. gv: be-tere, ar-bi-ter, venio for gvenio, N. U. 
 benust = 0. U. benus (3 sing. fut. ex.) from K. ben (to come), 
 Skr. gd (to go), Goth, quiman (to come) ; bos^ Skr. gdus (nom. 
 sing, bos), Gr. j3ouc, ^aXog (6 l/oyarrjc /3ovc, Hesych.) O.H.G. 
 chuo (cow) ; bovare, re-boare, Skr. gu (to sound), Gr. j3o?/, 
 /3oaw, yoog, yoaw, y6r}g ; super-bus, Skr. g'i (to conquer), Gr. 
 viripfdiog, from I. E. gvi, whence, perhaps, also come Gr. Ft'c, 
 laxyc, Eac. jdiaxvg, L. vis for gvis; bullio connected by Bopp 
 with Skr. gval (flammare). 
 
 J5 = I. E. 6A* (when medial) : amb-, Skr. abhi (towards), 
 Gr. aju^t, 0. S. umbi, 0. H. G. umpi; ambo, Skr. ubhdu (both), 
 Gr. afi(l>(i), Goth, bai (both) ; nubes, nebula, Skr. nabhas (aer, 
 coelum), Gr. vc^o^ ; umbilicus, Skr. wa^Az (the navel), Gr. 
 Oju^aXog ; orbus, Gr. op^avog ; labor, Skr. ra5A (desiderare), 
 Gr. ^X^ov (I acquired), aX(l>r}(JTrig, Goth, arbaiths (toil) ; -brum 
 (in candelabrum, &c.) from I. E. Z^Aa^* = Skr. Mar (to carry) ; 
 imber, Skr. ambhas (water), aMra (clouds), Gr. op^pog ; -5ws 
 
 * Benary connects L. ebur with Skr. i6Aa (an elephant), from which he 
 also derived Gr. IX-l^ag by prefixing the Semitic article. Others derive 
 \\s<paQ from Heb. eleph (an ox), as, in Old Latin, the elephant was 
 called hos Lucas. 
 
144 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 (term, of dat. pi.) = Skr. -bhyas; -bam, -bo (in amabam, 
 €t,mabo, &c.) for -fvxim, -fuo from I. E. bhu (to be) ; &c. 
 
 B is never = 1. E. bh (when initial), except in bibo, re- 
 specting which consult §. bh. Bopp indeed connects bacca * 
 with Skr. bhaksh (to eat), and suggests that bucca comes from 
 the same root, unless it belongs to Skr. mukha (the face) ! 
 He also connects bracMum with Skr. bdhu (the arm),Gr. irrixvQ, 
 I. E. bhdgJiu. These examples are, however, so doubtful that 
 we cannot conclude that L. 6 is ever= I. E. bh, except in bibo. 
 B -1.^. dh (when medial) : ruber, robigo, Skr. rudhira 
 (blood) ; uberfoT ouber, Skr. udhas (uber), Grr. ovOap, 0. H.Gr. 
 utqr, A. S. uder ; uber (rich) for oiber, Skr. edkaU (he in- 
 creases), from R. idh; verbum, U. verfale (= verbale), Groth. 
 vaurd (a word), Gr. wort, Lith. vardas (a name) ; barba, Gr. 
 bart, E. beard; rohur, connected by some with Skr. rddh 
 (perficere), but by Bopp with Skr. ruh (crescere) for rudh. 
 Other examples of this change have been adduced, but in 
 each case a better explanation of the L. b can be given: 
 liber has nothing to say to Gr. iXevBepog, for we find 0. L. 
 loebesom = liberum, which is connected with Skr. luhh (to de- 
 sire), Gr.AtY (£7ri0u/iia,Hesych.), Xi7rroMat,Groth. Hubs (loved), 
 while the old derivation of iXBvOepog, irapa to IXtvOeiv onov 
 Ip^, is probably correct ; plebes and Gr. ttX^Ooc are inde- 
 pendent formations from the root par (to fill), and L. i is not 
 Gr. here ; urbs is not connected with Skr. ardha^ for the 
 latter meant originally half, and then it came to mean side, 
 as G. halbe means both half and side ; the term, -brum should 
 
 • Corssen (Kritische Nachtrage zur Lat. Form. p. 33) connects hacca 
 with Skr. pdk' (coquere, maturescere), and considers hacca, therefore, to 
 be ioT pacca. In no case, however, except in a few words borrowed from 
 the Greek, does initial h in Latin represent an I. E. jd ; besides, Skr. pah' 
 is connected with L. coquo, Gr. TrkirTio, apro-KoTr-oc, Ch. SI. peka (I cook), 
 Lith. kepH, and all these forms seem to point back to an I. E. kvahv. 
 Bucca is also connected by Corssen with Skr. hukk (latrare, loqui) ; this 
 is explaining obscurttm per obscurius. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 145 
 
 not be identified with Gr.|-0pov, for the latter was originally 
 -Tpov and the former belongs to Skr. bhar (to bear). Lib7'a 
 is, perhaps, borrowed from XtVpa (for rXirpa beside rAao;, as 
 L. latus for tlatus) through \iOpa, or else Atrpa is borrowed 
 from libra, the term -bra being connected with Skr. Ma^ (to 
 bear). 
 
 B is never = I. E. gh. The only example adduced in 
 proof of this change is bilis, which is wrongly connected with 
 G-r. x«^0Cj X^^^ (g^^^' anger), 0. H. Gr. galla (gall). L. fel, 
 fell-is^ is the true Latin representative of \6\oq. 
 
 B =. I. E. dv : bini, bis, Skr. dva (two), dvf's (twice), Z. 
 dva (two), bi- (two, in composition), Gr. Svo, dig, Sfurtpoc 
 by metathesis from dvataras, L. duo, dis-; bi- occurs several 
 times in composition, as in bivira (noticed by Varro in the 
 sense o£ widow), bipes, St. biped = Skr. dvipad (a man), bunus 
 = bi-himus (according to Aufrecht) from bi- and himo- - Z. 
 hima (a year) connected with Skr. hima (snow), L. hiems, but 
 = bi-smus (according to Bopp) from bi- and smo- connected 
 with Skr. samd (a year) ; bellum = duellum ; Bellius = Duellius^ 
 bonus beside duonoro (t. Scip. Barb, f.) = bonorum. 
 
 ^ = I. E. 7n in blandus for mlandus, a participial form of a 
 R. mid, the original form of which was probably marl, which 
 is found in Skr. mrd (exhilarare), Gr. utiXta (propitiatory 
 gifts), E. mil-d. This is the only example of this change 
 that has been adduced. It is better, however, to suppose 
 that blandus came from mlandus through the step mblandus, as 
 Gr. jSporoc = iui(3poTog = fxpoTog, than to suppose that b imme- 
 diately represented m. 
 
 B (according to Bopp) represents Skr. v in -ber (Septem- 
 ber, &c.) beside Skr. vara (time), and in balneum beside Skr. 
 bad (lavare). This latter comparison is certainly wrong, for 
 balneum is borrowed from Gr. jSaXayaov, which was derived 
 from PaXavoQ (an acorn), on account of the similarity of 
 their shapes, and the Skr. bad is a very obscure word. 
 
 B = I. E. ^ (when final) : ab, Skr. apa (away), Gr. awo, 
 
 L 
 
146 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Goth, a/, O. H. G. aba; oh (which originally meant the same 
 as ad, as in ohviam, ohire, opportunus), Skr. apt (used as an 
 adverb = also, and as a prefix = afte7% as in apigas = liriyovog), 
 Gr. fTTt, cTTci ; sub, Skr. and Z. upa (to), Gr. vno, Goth. w/. 
 (sub), 0. H. G. oba (super). B = Gr. tt in some borrowed 
 words, as Burrus = Uvppog, carhasus = Kapirarrog, buxus - ttv^oq 
 Buxentum from liv^ovg. 
 
 F =1.Yj. bh : fari, fatum, fax, fades, favilla, Skr. bhd 
 (to shine), bhdsh (to speak), Gr. (prif^ii, cpaivd), (paog ; forare, 
 Z. bar (to bore), Gr. (j)apog (a plough), (papay^ (a ravine). 
 0. H. G. poran (to bore), E. bore ; fero, fordus, far, Skr. bhar (to 
 bear), Z. ^at* (to bear), Gr. (l)ip tj^'E. bear ; flare, flos,(jT. £K(j)\aivii) 
 (I flow out), ^\a-(jfi6g (bubbling, boasting), 0. H. G. bldan, 
 (to blow), blatara (pustule), bluojan (florere), Goth, bloma 
 (bloom), bloth (blood) ; fui, Skr. bhu (to be), Gr. ^uw, E. be; 
 fugio, I. E. bhugh, Skr. bhug (to bend), Gr. (J>£vyu), Goth. 
 biuga (I bend) ; /a^ws, Gr. ^r\y6g, E. beech ; fulgeo, fulvus, 
 Skr. blirdg (to shine), Gr. (pXiyu), E. bright'; fremere, frStum, 
 Frentani, Skr. bhram (to whirl), Gr. fipifiu), f^povrri, O. N. 
 Z>Wm (the surge) ; furvus, and fuscus, perhaps foi fur- sens , as 
 Tuscus for Turscus, Skr. babhru (red, and the ichneumon), Gr. 
 (/)pvvr} (the toad, from its colour), E. brown; findere, Skr. 
 6/i26^ (to cleave), E. J/^e, &c. A medial/(=I. E. ^/i) between 
 two vowels is only found in such compounds as signifer, &c. ; 
 and in scrofa (a sow), Gr. ypofx^ag (a sow), so called from 
 its rooting, connected with ypa^w, ypo^ug (Swypa^ot, 
 Hesych.), Goth, graba (I dig), L. scrobs; &c. In Oscan and 
 Umbrian we not only find/= initial / in Latin, but also/ 
 = medial h. h : 0. U. tefe, ife = L. tibi, ibi ; 0. U. trifor = L. 
 irihus ; O. U. prufe - L. probe, Skr. prabhdva (excelsus) (?) ; 
 0. 0. puf = L. ubi; 0. 0. sifei = 1j. sibi ; N. 0. amprufid 
 = L. improbe, &c. 
 
 i^ = 1. E. cZ/i .• offendo, Gr. 0£ivw ; /ss^ws, /mae, Gr. 
 Oi<j(TE<jOai {lkbtevhv, Hesych.), perhaps Oeog for Ostr-og, Oia^ 
 (j>aTog; famulus, Skv.dhd (to place), Gr. Tidr)fii', femina, filius 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 147 
 
 Skr. dh6 (to drink), Gr. OriaOai (to milk) ; fumus = Skr. dhu- 
 mas (smoke), Gr. Ovfxog, &c. A medial/ (= I. E. dh) between 
 two vowels is only found in ri(fus, Gr. IpvOpog. In Oscan 
 and Umbrian medial /, as well as initial /, = I. E, dh, as in 
 O. U. mefa for mefia^ 0. 0. mefiat= L. mediae, 0. U. verfale 
 = L. verbale, &c. This interchange between / and dh is easily 
 explained ; consult §. 55. We frequently hear children saying 
 fum for thumb, &c. ; also fyrst is a dialectic form of thirst, 
 
 F= I. E. gh: formus, (hot) fornax, Skr. ghartna (warm), 
 Gr. OtpiJLog, E. warm; frio, frico, 0. JJ.frehtu = L. frictum, 
 Skr. ghar (to sprinkle), gharsh (to rub), Gr. ;^|Ota) ; fons,futis 
 (vas aquarium), /undo, Gr. ;>^£w for x^P^^j ^^^m E. ^v, Goth. 
 giuta (I pour) ; 0. L. fostis* = hostis = Goth, ^as^s (a guest), 
 Skr. ghas (to eat) ; 0. L. foliis = AaZws, o^its, helvus, flavus 
 {flava is applied to Ceres, as xXoi] is to Demeter), Skr. hari 
 (green), Gr. xXor}, E. green: 0. h. fariolus = hariolus, harus- 
 pex, Skr. (Ved.) Aim (entrails), L. AzVa, hilla (entrails), 0. N. 
 garnir (intestines) ; 0. 1j. fcedus - hcedus, E. goat; fra-gra-re 
 is said to be a re-duplicated form of an I. E. ghrd = Skr. ghrd 
 (to smell), &c. In the same way gh'is pronounced as /in E. 
 laugh, cough, tough, &c. 
 
 i^ never represents an I. E.p, except when s originally 
 preceded, as in fallo = Gr. (x^aXXoj, fungus = Gr. (T0oyyoc, 
 funda beside o-^fySovr/, fides (catgut) beside Gr. a^t^rj (cat- 
 gut). We hear children frequently saying funge for spunge, 
 foon for spoon, &c. Aufrecht connects N. U.frite (ritu) with 
 Skr. pri (to love), and ascribes / to the aspirating influence 
 of the following r, as in Gr. Ti({)pa (ashes) beside Skr. tap (to 
 burn), A. S. thefian (aestuare), G. dampf (steam). Fluo has 
 nothing to do with Gr. ttXcw from K. ttXu, but is probably con- 
 nected with Gr. ^Xvw ; pluit is the true Latin representative 
 
 * As/in O. L. fostis, &c., became A, so L. /becomes h in Spanish, as 
 hijo =Jilius, &c. Similarly in Irish initial p is lost, as in atfdr = L. pater, 
 Idtt = plenus, &c. ; p in Irish probably became ph, then h, and finally 
 disappeared. 
 
 l2 
 
148 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 of R. ttXu. In Oscan t aspirates a preceding/?, as in N. 0. 
 scriftas = L. scriptae (nom. pi. fern.) ; in Umbrian this /be- 
 came h, as in O. U. screhto = L. scriptvm. 
 
 Medial / between vowels occurs in scrofa, rufiis, com- 
 pounds of R. fer, as signifer, sifilus beside sibilus, Afer^ vafer^ 
 and tofus, and the derivatives of these words. 
 
 F= I. E. v. aevum, Skr. ^va (course), Gr. alig, Goth. 
 aivs (alcjv) ; ventus, Skr. vd (to breathe), Gr. aw, arip, avpa, 
 from R. aF, Goth, vinds (wind) ; ver, Skr. vasanta (ver), Gr. 
 eapf Lith. vasara (summer) ; virus = Skr. vishas (poison), Gr. 
 log ; vitex, vimen, vitta, vitis, vinum, Skr. vitikd (a band), 
 v^tra (a reed), Gr. hvg, E. withe; ovis = Skr, am (a sheep), 
 Gr. otQi Lith. ams (a sheep), E. ewe; novus = Skr. wauas 
 (new), Gr. viog^ Ch. SI. novU (new)'; venum, veneo, vendo, 
 Skr. vasnas (nom. sing. masc. prime cost), vasnam (nom. sing, 
 neut. hire), Gr. a»i/oc, Ch. SI. veniti (to sell) ; verna^ vesti- 
 hulum* (according to Bopp), Skr. vas (to dwell), Gr. aaru ; 
 VestOj Skr. 7ish (to burn) = I. E. vas, Gr. iaria; Bopp, how- 
 ever, connects Vesta and earta with Skr. ras (to dwell), &c. 
 
 Fis vocalised frequently in Latin : quatuor, Skr. k'atvdraSy 
 Goth, fidvor; vacuos for vacvos, contiguos for contigvos, inge- 
 nuos for ingenvos, &c., where term, -mo = -vo, as found in 
 alvos, arvoniy &c. ; swtZo (according to Schleicher) for suido, 
 as senatus for sejiatuis, Skr. svic? (to sweat), Gr. tS/w. 
 
 Fis retained in Old Latin, Old Umbrian, and Old Oscan, 
 after o, u, and w, where, in later times, it disappeared, as 
 O. L. sovos = suusy Jlovont = fluunt ; O. U. tuves = N. U. duir 
 = L. duohus, O. O. suveis, suvad = O. L. sovi, sovad = L. sui, 
 sua, &c. In Old Oscan we find v retained before consonants, 
 as in tuotiks = L. tuticus beside N. O. toiitady from St. tuvta,- 
 = 0. U. tuta- (a city). 
 
 * Mommsen explains vestihulum as meaning dressing-room, from vestis^ 
 so called from the fact that the Romans only wore the tunic in the house, 
 and put on the toga when they were going out. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 149 
 
 M = 1. E. m: morior, Skr. mar (to die), Gr. a-^j3/oo-roc, 
 from R. juo/o, fuiapaivu), Goth, maurthr (murder) ; memory Skr. 
 smar (to remember), Gr. jmipijuva, juaprvpy fiipfXEpa epja ; 
 
 mensis = I. E. mamas = Skr. mdsas (a month), Z. mdonha (a 
 month), Gr. ^r^y, Ion. juac? fJiVvih -^ol. /ufivvoc for fxr]v<yoQ ; 
 wg, Skr. ma/n, and ma (me), Gr. jul, Goth, mik (me); -m 
 (sign of ace. sing.) = Skr. -m, as equum= Skr. asvam; -m (in 
 5wm) - Skr. -mi = Gr. -ju(, as swrn = Skr. asmi - Gr. eijui ; 
 mergo, perhaps for mesgo connected by Bopp with Skr. magg' 
 (mergi), Lith. mazgoju (lavo), &c. 
 
 iyr represents a Skr. v, according to Bopp, in clamo = Skr. 
 s'rdvaydmi, a causal of sru (to hear), and mare = Skr. vdt^i 
 (water). In both these cases Bopp appears to be wrong, for 
 cld-mo is much more easily. connected with Gr, KoXfw, icXi7o-fCj 
 L. calare, nomen-cld-tor, than with Skr. sVw, and mare pro- 
 bably meant originally a desert, connected with Skr. maru, 
 (a desert), mar (to die), Ir. muir, E. moor, mere, Gr. ^Afxcpi- 
 imap-og (a son of Poseidon). Other examples of this inter- 
 change of V and m have been brought forward, but all of them 
 are- even more doubtful than clamo and tnare. Thus Bopp 
 considers Gr. Spifiw = Skr. dravdmi from dru (to run), though 
 it is much simpler to connect it directly with Skr. dram, (to go). 
 
 ilf represents a Skr. hh, according to Bopp, in maxilla 
 beside Skr. hhaksh (to eat), and multus beside Skr. hhuri 
 (multus). These comparisons are just as doubtful as those 
 between v and m. Curtius is inclined to assent to the opinion 
 that maxilla is connected with Gr. jmacraio, juLayevg (a baker), 
 and, consequently, means the organ " quod cibos depsit ac 
 subigit." Bopp had his own misgivings about the connex- 
 ion of multus with hhuri, for he also suggests that it may be 
 related to Skr. puru (multus). Multus, though apparently 
 connected with Gr. fxvpiog, has never yet been satisfactorily 
 explained.* M is = bh in the Umbrian sing. loc. term. 
 
 * Multus may have originally meant " pounded," "• ground into many 
 small fragments ;" and from this its ordinary meaning may have been de-- 
 
150 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 -mem ; if this be = Skr. -hhyam (in tuhhyam) or -hliydm. Si- 
 milarly in Lith. dual dat. wilkam, -m = Skr. -hhydm. 
 
 §. 81. Assimilation. 
 
 I. When two consonants come together, the first is 
 often made the same as the second. After long vowels 
 only one of these double consonants could be heard in 
 pronunciation, and consequently only one was written ; it 
 is therefore impossible to distinguish such cases from those 
 where a consonant has disappeared with or without com- 
 pensation. Schleicher reduces all the latter cases to those 
 of assimilation, and considers that a consonant, before it 
 vanished, was first assimilated to the following one. After 
 short vowels the double consonants are generally written. Cc 
 (cq) = dc in accurro, quicquid, quicquam, iccirco. Cc = be in 
 succurrOf occurro. Cc perhaps = gc in saccus and soccus* be- 
 side Skr. sag (to cover), and Gr. (rayri ; saccus is however most 
 likely borrowed. Cc = sc in siccus = Skr. sushkas (dry). Gg 
 = dg in aggero. J = jj = gj in major = mdgjor beside m<ignus; 
 ajo - agjo beside ad-dg-ium ; me jo for mijo = migjo beside 
 mingo, Gr. K. juix = Skr. mih ; pulejum for puUgjum. We 
 find j = dj^ rj^ sj, nsj in sejungo, pejero, dijudico, trdjicio respec- 
 tively, &c. Pejor is connected by Benfey with Skr. papa 
 (bad), and if this view be correct, it must stand for pepjor ; 
 Bopp, however, connects it with Skr, piy (conviciari), Goth. 
 fijan (to hate), ^. fiend. Tt = dt in attraho. Tt = kt in lit- 
 ter a for lictera, beside Skr. likh (to write) ; Schweitzer con- 
 
 veloped. There existed, most probably, in Indo-European a root mai^ 
 (to pound) fi:om which were derived L. mola, E. mill^ meal, Gr. fj,v\oe, 
 fivXrjf &c. ; for a full discussion of this root, consult Max Miiller, Lectures 
 XL, p. 315, seq. 
 
 * Spiegel connects soccus with Z. hakha (the sole of the foot) connected 
 with Skr. sak' (to follow, to cling to), whence Skr. sakhi (a friend) sak'iva 
 (a friend) beside L. sequor^ socius. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 151 
 
 neets this^word with Skr. lip (oblinere), and therefore consi- 
 ders it to have arisen from liptera; hut pt remains unchanged 
 in Latin, as in aptus^ ruptus, &c. In Vitorius (on an inscrip- 
 tion belonging to times of First Punic War, and also on very 
 late inscriptions), and the late forms autor^ Adauta for auctor, 
 Adaucta, c was probably first assimilated to t, and then fell out, 
 just as in late Latin we find such forms as otto, praefetto, and 
 in Italian benedetto, maledetto. Autumnus is also for Auctum- 
 nicSj from aug-eo ; Corssen appears to be mistaken in connect- 
 ing it with Gr. aw for aFw, which is found only in infin. pres. 
 afxevat (to satiate). T = Tt = nt in N. 0. set = L. sunt. Si- 
 milarly in Old Irish we find -t = -nt in the term, s of the 
 3 pi. of the verb, as -at, -et = \u.-unt, -etar = L. -untur ; we also 
 find etar = L. inter, cSt = L. centum. Dd (and then d) = sd in 
 judex ^oxjusdex, idem for Xsdem, dlduco for disduco. Ss (and then 
 s) = cs (x), as in Sestius = Sextius ; praetestati = praetextati; 
 frassinus = fraxinus ; trissago (the herb germander) = trixago 
 (Cels. 8. 3) ; cossim (on both the hips), from coxa, connected 
 with Skr. kukshi (the belly), and Gr. Kox^vrj for koSwi^jj ; O. 
 U. esuk for eksuk ; 0. 0. meddeis beside fxi^^ul,. Similarly we 
 have 0. I. dess, des beside dexter, Ch. SI. desinu (dexter) Skr. 
 dakshina (dexter) ; 0. I. ass-, ess- = L. ^.2?. Ss= ds in ass- 
 uesco, assimido, cessi for cedsi, pes for p^ds, esse (to eat) for 
 edse. Ss = ts in possum for potsum, concussi for concutsi, fons 
 for fonts, &c. Ss = ns in Oscan ace. pi. viass = L. vias for 
 vians, &c. ; similarly in 0- and i- stems the Oscan ace. pi. 
 ends in -iiss and -iss. We find s ^ ss ^ ns in formosus for 
 formonsus, the suffix of which is perhaps the same as Skr. 
 -vant; also in cosul, cesor, quoties, &c, beside consul, censor, 
 quotiens, &c. Ss = 7-'s in russum, sussum, retrossum, beside 
 rursum, sursum, retrorsum, also written rusum, &c. ; prossum 
 and prosa beside pr-orswrn ; dossuarius (bearing a burden), from 
 dorsum ; possideo from porsideo. Ss = hs in jussi ; - ms in 
 pressi ; = vs in locassim, amasso, &c. Nn = dn in annuere, an- 
 nare, annectere. Benfey connects L. annona with Skr. anna 
 
152 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 (food) for adna, from K. ad (to eat), but it much more probably 
 belongs to L. annus, Nn=mn in annus for amnus^ whence comes 
 solemnis, from am = ambi (round), meaning a ' complete revolu- 
 tion of the sun' ; Viiunnus beside Vitumnus, Neptunus beside 
 Neptumnus^ PortUnus beside Portumnus, Nn = mn in conniti. 
 Nn = sn in penna for pesna^ and this for petna from R.pet (to fly). 
 Rr = dr in arridere; = br in surripere ; - nr in irrumpere ; 
 = mr in corripere ; &c. Rr = cr in serra from R. sec (to cut) 
 and = tr in parricida for patricida (?). H = dl in alligare; = w^ 
 in miner e ; = wZ in coUocare ; rl in intelligere, pellucere ; &c. 
 XZ = cZZ also in seZZa for sec?^ ; lapillus for lapidlus ; Aufellim 
 beside Aiifidus, &c. Z^ = rZ in ^aZZws = garlus, Skr. ^ar (to 
 call), Gr. yripvg, rrjpvu)v, E. mZZ; olla = orwZa from a R. var 
 (to seethe), which is found in Gr. (dpaaaio and fdpaZu} (I boil) 
 from R. ppa = Fpa, Lith. virti (to boil), Ch. SI. vr^ti (fervere), 
 O. H. G. wdli (heat); puella = puerla for puerula ; ampulla 
 beside ampora ; stella beside aaHjp ; Tihullus from Tibur, &c. 
 LI = nZ in asellus beside asinus ; corolla beside corona ; ho- 
 mullus beside St. homon-; Messalla from Messana ; illico (in 
 Plautus ilico) = in loco, LI = cl in paullus for pauculus (?). 
 P/? = (fp in appello ; = bp in oppono. Ff - hf m. officium^ 
 suffoco; == dfm afferre ; cfmefferre; = sf m diffugere. When 
 a preceding consonant is assimilated to u, it disappears some- 
 times with and sometimes without compensation. Thus we 
 have no compensation in Uvis for legvis, Gr. iXaxyg ; brSvis for 
 bregvis, Gr. (ipaxvQ ; m'vts for nigvis, beside nix for m^5, nin- 
 guo : in vwere and connivere, on the other hand, we find com- 
 pensation for the V thrown out. Mm = pm in summus; = gm 
 in flagma ; - hm in summittere ; = wm in immittere^ &c. 
 
 II. When two consonants come together, the second is 
 often made the same as the first. Tt perhaps = ty in mitto for 
 mityo. 8s = st in superl. term, -issimus, as in longissimus^ -is- 
 being the remains of the old compar. term yans ; os, St. ossi 
 = osti, Skr. asthi (a bone), Gr. oariov ; censor = cens-tor =N. O. 
 censtur, censum = N. 0. censtum. When t is preceded by t or 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 153 
 
 (Z, the first dental generally becomes s, and then the second is 
 assimilated to it, so that dt and tt become ss^ or s after long 
 vowels and consonants : thus we have fessus for fettus, beside 
 fatigo^ adfatim; esum for edtum, from edo (I eat), beside est 
 (he eats) = edit ; fossa = fodta^ fodio ; missus = mittus, mitto; 
 usus and ussus (on inscriptions) = uttus, uti ; clausus = claudtus 
 claudo ; jissus = jidtus^ findo ; versus = vert-tus, verto, &c. So 
 in Irish we find 55 for st in borrowed words, Sisfess = Tj.festum ; 
 also in words not borrowed the same law holds as in Latin ; 
 thus we find j^55 (scientia) hrjldtis^ from 'R.Jid= I. E. vid (to 
 know), &c. In Oscan tt is kept, and does not become ss as in 
 Latin: we find 0. 0. iiittiuf beside L. usus from uti. Nn = 
 nd : dispennite hominem divorsum et distennite (Miles Gloriosus, 
 1407), /o^- dispendite, distendite; grunnio for grundiOf E. grunt; 
 O. 0. upsannam = L. operandam; N. U. pihaner = L. piandi 
 (gen. sing.) ; N. U. panupei = L. quandcque ; but when nd in 
 Umbrian represents an older nt^ it does not become nn. Br 
 = ry in curro, Skr. k'ar (to go), 0. H. G. Iwrsc (quick), E. 
 horse. Rr = rs : torreo for torseo beside tostus for torstus, Skr. 
 tarsh (to thirst), Gr. ripaofxai ; terra (dry land) for tersa from 
 same root as last ; ferrem for fersem; porro for porso^Grr.irpoau); 
 far for far s- and this perhaps for fart- ^ compare Skr. hhrti 
 (nourishment) from hhar (to bear), N. \].farsio = lu.farreum; 
 terreo = terseo, Skr. ^ra^ (to tremble), Gr. rpiu) from R. rptgy 
 erepcTEv (60oj3rj(T£v, Hesych.), Hom. Tpiaaa (1. aor.) ; e/'ro = erso^ 
 Goth, airzjan (to wander) ; verres (a boar) = verses beside Skr. 
 ra/'^/i (to sprinkle), vrsha (a bull) ; garrio* = garsio beside Lith. 
 garsas (the voice) ; horreo = horseo, Skr. hrsh (horrere). Rr 
 = 7't in pulcerrimuSy celerrimus; here r^ probably passed 
 through the stage rs. LI perhaps = Ik in follis (a bag) be- 
 
 * Leo Meyer suggests that garrio is for ganiio, from which latter he 
 explains gannio (I yelp). Bopp considers garrio to be for gargio^ beside 
 Skr. garg' (clamare), but this is most improbable. 
 
154 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 side Gr. OvXaKog (a bag), BvXXig (a bag), Goth, balgs. Ll = 
 ly in pelloy fallo^ percello^ tollo ; cella for celia beside L. celo^ 
 domicilium, Skr. khala (a threshing-floor), s'dld (a house) Gr. 
 KoXta (a hut), unless cella be for celula ; procella for procelia, 
 beside Skr. kal (to impell), Gr. jccXrjc, |3oukoXoc (a cow-herd), 
 L. cello, celox, celer ; 0. alio (nora. sing, fern.) = L. alia^ Gr. 
 aXAoc, 0. H. G. alles (otherwise). Ll = It in super term. -27- 
 limu,'^ = -iltimus, as facilUmus, &c. ; /^Z, fell-is (gen. sing.) = 
 feltis(?)', mel, mell-is (gen. sing.) for melt-is = Gr. fxiXiT-og, 
 fxeXicrcTa = fx^XiTj/a, Goth..milith (honey). Bopp wrongly con- 
 siders mellis to be for melvis, connecting it with Skr. madhu 
 (honey). Lt in becoming ll probably passed through the 
 stage Zs, a.s pulsus is iox pultus. Ll=^ Id in Pollux = Gr. Ilo- 
 XuSevKrjCj and, according to Bopp, in malleus for maldeus, be- 
 side Skr. mard (to pound). XZ = Is in vellem = velsem, velle = 
 re/se ; collum - colsum, G. 7ia?s (the neck). XZ = Z/i in vellus 
 villus beside Skr. urna (wool), Lith. vilna (wool), Ch. SI. 
 vluna (wool), Goth, nulla (wool) ; collis (according to Curtius) 
 = colnis beside Gr. KoXwvog, Lith. kdlnas (height), A. S. holm 
 (a hill). Ll = Iv in pallor, pallidus beside 0. H. Q. falo^fal- 
 wer, G. falhj Lith.^a^ya*, (pale), Ch. ^l.plavu (white) ;* pellis 
 = pelvis, beside pulvinar, G. fell (a hide), Gr. jrlAXa (a hide), 
 vallis perhaps for valvis, Gr. tXog, *EXia, "^HXtc ; sollus (solli- 
 ferreus, solli-citus, soll-ers) = Skr. sarvas, (omnis), Gr. oXog, 
 Ion. ovXog = oXfog ; mollis = molvis, beside Gr. jUMXvg (slug- 
 gish). Pp = pt in quippe, ipsippe (ipsi neque alii, Fest. p. 
 105), beside mepte, mihipte (Gato pro ' mihi ipsi,' Fest. p. 152, 
 154.), vopte (vos ipsi, Fest. p. 379) : -pte = -pate, (compare 
 ut-pote), -potis. 
 
 III. When two consonants come together, the first is ge- 
 nerally made like the second, or affected by it in some way, 
 
 * Gr. TreXXoQ (dusky) is for TrtKyog, compare iroXiog (grey), mXidvoQ, 
 TTiXioQy TreXoc, Skr. palita (grey). Now, if ll (in pallor) = Iv, we have a 
 trace of a more intimate connexion between Latin, Lith. O. H. G. &c., 
 than between Lat. and Gr. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 155 
 
 the second consonant still remaining unchanged. Thus, so- 
 nant consonants become surd before surd consonants : actus 
 = agtus, R. ag ; scriptus = scribttiSf R. scrib, connected per- 
 haps with Gr. 7pa«^ai ; ructo = rugtOy beside L. erugo, Gr. kpevyw ; 
 fictor^ fictilis beside L. fingo^ Jigura, Skr. dlh (to smear), Gr. 
 e-Oiy-ov ; luctus beside L. lugeo, Skr. rug (vexare), Gr. Xvypog ; 
 mulctus beside L. mulgeo^ Skr. marg* (mulcere), Gr. afiiXyd) ; 
 vectus heside veho^ Skr. va^ (vehere), Gr. oxog; lectus, lectica 
 beside Gr. Xi^og^ Goth, liga (I lie down) ; &c. There are 
 some apparent exceptions to this rule : thus, we find ahsens, 
 suhter, obtego, obtineo* &c., where b is still retained ; but 
 these words were pronounced as apsens, &c., for Quintilian 
 (I. 7, 7) writes " cum dico obtinuit secundam b litteram ratio 
 poscit, aures magis audiunt p," and consequently we find them 
 frequently written according to the pronunciation, as apsens, 
 optineo, &c., on inscriptions and in manuscripts. Before r 
 and I surds frequently become sonants, as publicus = 0. L. 
 poplicos ; negligo from nee and lego ; quadrupes and quadra- 
 ginta beside quatriduo, from quatuor ; 0. U. abruf- L. apros. 
 We also find surds becoming sonants before other sonants, as 
 in segmentum from seco ; salignus from St. salic ; dignus from 
 11. die ; ilignus from St. ilec ; cygnus = Gr. kvkvoq, M before 
 gutturals becomes guttural n^ and before dentals, dental n, as 
 in anceps = ambiceps ; concors = comcors ; nunquam = num- 
 quam ; contero = comtero ; tandem = tamdem ; &c. Initial 
 gutturals and dentals influence a preceding m, as in con quo 
 = com quo (on late inscriptions) ; an terminum = am t. = ambi 
 t. ; &c. N before labials becomes w, as in impleoy &c. Labial 
 mutes before n become m, as somnus - sopnus, beside L. sopio, 
 Skr. svapnas = Gr. vttvoq ; Samnium = Sabnium, beside Sabini ; 
 scamnum beside scabellum. In Old Latin t before n became 5, 
 
 * The junction of two mutes is sometimes avoided by inserting 5, as in 
 abstineo, abscondo^ ostendo for ohstendo, asporto for adsporto. 
 
156 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 as in pesna (penna) = petna^ resmus (remus) beside Gr. Iptr- 
 fxoQ. In these cases t became th through the aspirating in- 
 fluence of the nasal, and then th became s. This aspirating 
 influence of a nasal upon a preceding surd mute is very 
 common in Greek. 0, L. cesna (cena) is perhaps = cedna 
 beside Skr. khad (to eat), khddana (food). Tr appears also 
 in some cases to have become br, through the steps tr^ thr, 
 dhr, brj the dental being aspirated by the following r : conso- 
 hrinus, from con and sostor = I. E. svastdr (sister), passed 
 throuo'h the stages consostorinuSy consostrinus, consosthrinuSf 
 consosdhrinus, and then dh became b, as in ruber, &c. : salu- 
 bris passed through stages saluttris (from St. salut), salustris, 
 salusthris, salusdhriSy saludhris, compare palustris from St. 
 palud; muliebris = midiestris, through a similar series of steps ; 
 tenebrae* = tenesthrae = tenestrae, perhaps from an 1. E. ta- 
 mastra, whence Skr. tamisra, beside Skr. tamas (darkness), 
 Z. temanh (darkness), Lith. tamsa (darkness), 0. H. G. demar 
 (crepusculum), 0. S. thim (dim), Ir. teim and temel (dark), W". 
 tywyll{di2ixk). 
 
 T exercised an aspirating influence upon the preceding 
 tenuis in Umbrian and Oscan : thus in Umbrian ct and pt be- 
 came ht, as 0. U. screhto = L. scriptum, 0. U. 7^ehte = L. recte, 
 0. U. subaJitu for subactu = L. subigito : in Oscan pt became 
 ft and ct, ht, as N. 0. serif tas = L. scriptae, N. 0. Ohtavis = 
 L. Octavius, 0. 0. ehtrad = L. extra, 0. 0. saahtum = L. sanc- 
 tum. This aspirating force of t upon a preceding tenuis ma- 
 nifested itself also in late Latin, as in jachtivus. Such Italian 
 forms, as oggetto, otto, perfetto, ottare, ottuso, &c., from L. ob- 
 jectus, octo, perfectus, optare, obtusus, &c., most probably 
 passed through the intermediate forms objechtus, ochto, per- 
 
 * Consult Ebel, K. Z. XVI. 77, seq. ; Ascoli, K. Z. XVI. 196, seq. ; 
 Bopp, Skr. Gl. under tamas, who considers that tenebrce is for tembrcB, h 
 being inserted for euphony (as in dfji(3poaia) in temra beside Skr. timira 
 (obscuritas) and tamisra. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 157 
 
 fechtufi, of tare, oftusus, &c. In Irish* c and p before t become 
 ch, as ocht = L. octo, recht (lex) for red, lacht (milk) for lact, 
 secht = L. septem, necht = L. neptis, &c. In Welsh this ch has 
 disappeared, and we find W. wyth (eight) = Ir. ochto, W. 
 noith = Ir. nocht (night), W. reith = Ir. recht (lex), W. taith = 
 Ir. techt (iter), &c., the palatal vowel (i) making its appear- 
 ance on account of the palatalization of the original guttural. 
 A change similar to this last is found m E. night, might, eight 
 beside G. nacht, macht, acht ; and in the Romance languages 
 as Port, oito, Prov. oit, Fr. huit from L. octo ; Port, noite, 
 Prov. noit, Fr. nuit from L. noctem; Port, feito, Fr. fait from 
 L. factom. 
 
 In Gothic we find a mute before a dental changed into the 
 corresponding spirant, after which the dental always is or be- 
 comes t: sauhts (sickness) for ^WiC'^/iw beside siw^5 (sick); mahts 
 (might) for magthis from R. mag ; ga-shafts (creation) beside 
 ga-skap-jan ; fra-gifts (lending) beside gihan (to give, ^in 
 these Gothic forms, sauhts, nahts (night) = Lith. naktis, raihts 
 = L. rectus, &c,, was very guttural ; and the corresponding 
 gh in English once had a strong guttural sound, as it still has 
 in lowland Scotch, as in eneugh (enough), sheugh (a ditch), 
 which are pronounced as enUch, shuch would be in English, 
 or in the notation of the general alphabet as l^nti)^^^, s^ilx^. The 
 guttural spirant prefers as neighbouring vowels, o and u, and 
 hence in Portuguese we find auto from L. actom, Outuhro 
 (October), doutor (doctor), &c. : compare the English pro- 
 nunciation of enough, laugh, thought. We can account for the 
 remarkable substitution of pt in Wallachian for L. ct from this 
 
 * Aspiration is of common occurrence in the Keltic languages. In Welsh 
 r and I aspirate a succeeding consonant as in march (a horse) = Ir. marc. 
 In Irish c, t and p are aspirated between two vowels, as ech (a horse) for 
 ecu, and this for ecus = L. equos, O. S. ehu, &c. Similarly initial p dis- 
 appeared, as in athir = L. pater, iasc = piscis, Idn = L. plenus, &c. ; p here 
 passed through the stages ph, /, h, and then vanished as in L. faedus 
 = haedus = aedus, &c. 
 
158 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 aspirating force of t. Ct passed through the stages cht, ght, 
 ft in becoming pt, and in a few cases remained at the ft stage. 
 Thus we have doftor = L. doctor^ leftice = L. lectica, where ct 
 becomes ft and copt = L. coctiis, fript = L. frictus, pept = L. 
 pectus, &c., where ct advances to pt. 
 
 In Modern Greek we also see the aspirating force of t in 
 6\7w (eight), K\i(^T7]Q from KXtTrrr?^, X''^^* from KrivLov. 
 
 IV. When two consonants come together, the second is 
 sometimes made like the first, or affected by it in some way. 
 Thus t often become s after r, l^ c and the nasals : noxa for 
 nocta from noceo ; fixus for figtus from flgo ; maximus for 
 magtimus ; beside actus from ago ; fetus from fngo ; &c. ; 
 sparsus for spargtus from spar go beside tortus for torctus and 
 sartws ; pulsus for pultus from pello ; perculsus for percuUus from 
 percello ; excelsus for exceltus from excello ; &c., beside sepul- 
 tus from sepelio ; mansum for mantum from maneo ; tensus and 
 ifeTz^i^ from ^encZo ; &c. When the group 72^ belongs to the 
 same element of a word it is unchanged as in ferunt, aman- 
 tem, &c. T after p is unchanged except in lapsus for laptus 
 from R. /a6. In Sanskrit we also frequently find ksh (= hs) 
 representing an older kt, as taksJid (a carpenter = Gr. rl/crwv, 
 nakshatra (a star) from nakta (night) ; consult §.38. 
 
 V. Mutual influence of two consonants upon and approxi- 
 mation to each other, both consonants being changed. Thus 
 suggillatio comes from suh and cilium : it is a translation of 
 vTTWTriov (a blow under the eyes), whence was derived vwu)- 
 ntaZeiv (to beat black and blue, to mortify), Appulu^ for Ak- 
 vulus (as tWoc from t»cFoc) from aqua connected with Skr. 
 dpas (nom. pi. water), Goth, aliva, A. S. eice. This root is 
 found in yi^Gct-cuK-ioi (the people between to two seas, com- 
 pare such formations as M£<T07rora/^ta, Me^uSpiov, Interamna), 
 jri 'ATTia (the Peloponnesus, now called Morea from SI. more 
 = L. mare), eS aTrtijc yairig (from the land across the sea), and 
 perhaps the Volscian town Apiola. 
 
COMPARATIVE GBAMMAR. 159 
 
 §. 82. Dissimilation. 
 
 A dental before a following t becomes s : thus we have 
 equester for equet-ter from St. equet ; pedester ioi pedetter from 
 St. pedet; claustrum from E. claud ; est (he eats) beside edit 
 (in Plautus and Lucilius), &c. We find a similar change in 
 Zeud, Grreek, Irish, Slavic, Lithuanian and Gothic, but not in 
 Sanskrit. Thus in Skr. we have atti (he eats) from E. ad^ &c., 
 while in Zeud* we find has'ta (part, praet. pass.) from hand 
 (to bind), &c. : for Grreek examples consult §. 59 : in Irish we 
 have rofestar (he knows) for rofedtar from E. vid, estar (he 
 eats) from E. ed : in Slavic we have daste (2 pi. pres.) for 
 dadte = I. E. dadatasi from E. da (to give), dasti (he gives) 
 for dadti=I.^.dadati, &c. : in Lithuanian we have se$'Czas (sit- 
 ting) for sed-tjas beside s'edeti (to sit), inesti (to throw) beside 
 metu (I throw), &c. : in (xothic we have vaist (thou knewest) 
 for vaitt beside vait (he knew), &c. 
 
 The termination -alis is used for -aris when the stem to 
 which it is added does not contain I in the syllable preceding 
 this termination ; thus we have mortalis beside popularis, &c. 
 Similarly we find caeruleus for caeluleus from coelum and Pa- 
 rilia from Pales. When two consonants, the same or similar, 
 follow each other, only separated by a vowel, this vowel is 
 thrown out, and only one of the consonants retained : thus 
 we have venejicus for venenificm ; semestris for semimestris ; 
 semodius for semimodim ; stipendium for stipipendium ; nutrioc 
 for niitritrix from nutrire ; consuetudo for consuetitudo ; aestas 
 for aestitas from aestus ; antesta?^ for antetestari, &c.t Simi- 
 larly in Greek we have TpdiraZa for reTpaireZa ; TiTpa)(juiov 
 for TETpadpaxfxov ; afxtpopeijg for am(l)i(l)OpEvg ; KeXaiv£(j>rig for 
 KfXaivove^rjc I &c. 
 
 * Consult Schleicher, Compendium, «S;c., pp. 203, 235, 289, 308, 321, 
 335. 
 
 t Consult Leo Meyer, Comp. Gram. I. 281. 
 
160 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 The following words may also be cases of dissimilation : 
 dulcis for gulcis beside Gr. yXvKvc^ the gutt. g becoming d on 
 account of the next syllable beginning with gutt. c ; in te- 
 nehrae beside Skr. tamisra and mihi beside tibi = Skr. tub- 
 hymn^ m may have been changed into n in the first case and 
 hh into h in the second, to prevent two labials immediately 
 following each other ; in a few words «, when followed or 
 preceded by o or w, became 6* as in ferhui for fervui and bu- 
 bile for bovile ; proximus for propsimus beside prope ; tamen 
 is for tamem, and it bears the same relation to tarn that item 
 does to ita. 
 
 §. 83. Change of S into R. 
 
 /S, when it comes between two vowels, or between a vowel 
 and a sonant consonant, or when final after a vowel, generally 
 becomes r. Thus we have gero for geso beside ges-si; uro 
 beside us-si; eram from K. es (to be) ; queri beside questus, 
 R. ques = Skr. s'vas (to sigh) ; auris for ausis beside aus-culto^ 
 Gr. ovg Horn, ovara (pi.) ; haurio beside Jiaus-tus; dirimo and 
 diribeo for disimo and dishiheo ; heri beside hes-ternus ; sero, 
 for seso, a reduplication of R. sa (to sow) ; iiurus, Skr. snuslid 
 (a daughter-in-law) ; virus^ Skr. visha (poison) ; soror, Skr. 
 svasdr ; haereo beside haesito ; aurora, Skr. ushas (the dawn) ; 
 maero beside maestus; generis = Gr. yivwg = Graeco-It. genesos ; 
 oris, maris, muris, Liguris, &c., from os, mas, mus, Ligus, &c., 
 beside masculus, musculus (a little mouse), Ligusticus, &c. ; 
 -rum (term, of gen. pi.) for -sum as {is-) tarum = Skr. tdsdn ; 
 veternus for vetesnus from vetus ; diurnv^, hodie7mus beside 
 Diespiter ; jurgo beside jus, Justus; carmen beside Casmenae, 
 connected with Skr. s'ans to praise) ; &c. Final s becomes r 
 
 * Curtius compares to this change the substitution of /3 in Greek for a 
 Graeco-It. v, as in ^ovXo/xat beside L. volo, &c. Consult his Grundziige 
 der Gr. Etym., p. 516. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 161 
 
 in those cases where a vowel originally followed it, and per- 
 haps in some other cases from the influence of analogy : amor 
 (I am loved) is for amose^ &c. ; amatur (he is loved) is for 
 dmatise, &c. ;* major is for majos, r probably arising from the 
 influence of the oblique cases, beside majus, &c. ; similarly 
 we have honor for honos, &c. 8 is often retained, as in ve- 
 sica, casa, vasa (pi. of vas), pusillus, casus = cassus for cadtus, 
 and whenever s represents ss, quaeso beside quaero^ nasus be- 
 side naresy miser beside maereo, posui, nisi^ and compounds 
 with de as desino, &c. In Old Latin we find such forms as 
 Lases for Lares^ fasena = harena, Fusius, esit = erit, &c. L. 
 Papirius Crassus (Consul B. C. 366) changed his name from 
 Papisius to Papirim ; from this we see that the substitution 
 of r for s had already shown itself early in the fourth century 
 B. c. In Umbrian and Oscan s is often retained between 
 two vowels : 0. U. asa = 0. L. asa (ara), 0.0. aasas^ aasai 
 - 0. L. asas, asai (araSf arae). We find, however, O.U. eru, 
 N. U. erom as the infin. of R. es (to be). In Oscan the term, 
 of gen. pi. becomes -azum and in Umbrian -aru - L. -arum 
 I. E. -dsdm. 
 
 § 84. The Rejection of a Consonant. 
 
 The rejection of one of two medial consonants belongs 
 perhaps properly to the province of assimilation, as has been 
 already pointed out in § 81. The vanishing of a consonant 
 between two vowels is also treated by Schleicher as a kind 
 of assimilation ; when a surd in this position vanishes, it must 
 
 * This is the ordinary account given of the origin of the Latin passive, 
 but there are several objections to it which render it somewhat doubtful. 
 In the first place, the form of the second pers. pi. (amamini^ &c.) is evi- 
 dently a participle in -menus = Gr, -fiivoQ = Skr. -mdnas, and if in the 
 1st and 3rd pers. pi. final r represents the reflexive pronouns, how can 
 we account for the 2nd pers. being formed so differently from them ? In 
 the second place, the passive in Irish ended in r, which never represented 
 an older s ; e. g. Ir. bertar = L. feruntury Ir. herthar = L. fertur^ &c. 
 
 M 
 
162 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 have first become a sonant. The disappearance of initial 
 consonants is quite a distinct phenomenon, and cannot be 
 ascribed to the influence of assimilation. 
 
 Initial c has very rarely vanished ; it may have done so in 
 the following examples : — uhi^ unde, uter, ut beside ali-cubiy 
 ali-cunde, from I. E. St. kva (who), whence Skr. kas (who) = 
 L. quis = Goth, hvas, Skr. kataras - Gr. Trorfpoc (Ion. icorc/ooc) 
 = L. uter^ E. whether ; ut = quod : Weber however connects 
 uhi^ uti, &c., with a pronominal stem that is found in Skr. u 
 (utrum), uta (vel, aut), but the preceding view is far more 
 probable. Curtius connects Gr. v£va>, L. nuo, co-niveo (co- 
 nixi)i nico, nictus, nictor with Goth, hneiva (I bend), O. H. G. 
 hnlga (I bend), and accordingly assumes that the original root 
 was knu from which by gunation we form knav, whence we 
 have Goth, hniv; the form co-niveo points back also to an ini- 
 tial guttural, for, if the root began with w, we would have 
 found con-niveo : he supposes also that we find the lost k in 
 Kvu)(T<y(jj (I nod, slumber) = KvwKyw from kvwk (as tttwo-o-w from 
 TTTwic) = KvoaK = Kvof-ttK. Ziudus, 0. L. loidos, may be con- 
 nected with Skr. krid (to play). Lihum may be for klihum 
 beside Gr. KptjSavTj, Goth, hlaifs, E. loaf, &c. Jurmann de- 
 rives lustrum (for clustrum = cludtrum) from klud, a secondary 
 form of R. klu whence 0. L. cluere, (* cluere antiqui purgare 
 dicebant.' Plin. xxv. 29, 36), cloaca^ Gr. icXu^w (I wash), Goth. 
 hlutrs (pure), 0. H. G. hlutar. Corssen derives luscinia from 
 duos or clovos (= Skr. s'ravas and Gr. KXeog) and cano^ ex- 
 plaining the name accordingly as " the sweet songstress ;" 
 others derive it from luscus* and explain it as meaning " the 
 twilight songstress." K was similarly lost in Gr. Xa? for kXq^ 
 beside L. cabs^ E. heel. Vapor and vappa are for cvapor and 
 cvappa beside Kairvoj (I breathe out), Kcnrog (^vx*?» TrvtvjLca, 
 Hesych.), Kairvog, &c., Lith. kvdpas (breath) : Grain connects 
 
 * iMscM5 properly means " blind of an eye,'' hence " dimsighted,'^ and 
 luscum never means " twilight,'' consequently the proper translation of the 
 word would be "the dimsighted songstress." 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 163 
 
 opinor with this root, but Corssen prefers to connect it with 
 Gr. oaaojiai for oKt/ofxai. Vermis is for kvermis = Skr. krmis 
 (a worm) according to Corssen, but Curtius considers that 
 Skr. krmis (nom. sing.) Lith. kirmis (a worm), Ch. SI. crXvX {21. 
 worm) are quite unconnected with vermis, Gr. cXjutvC) Goth. 
 vaurms, which belong to I. E. root var (to roll), whence Gr. 
 IXuw, tXXw, L. volvo, &c. 
 
 Medial c is lost before a vowel in sirpea^ sirpicus beside 
 scirpus, scirpeus, 0. H. G. scilaf (sedge) ; sipo, dis-sipo beside 
 Skr. kship (to throw) for skip, G. schupfen (to push) ; sarmen- 
 tum, sarpio for scarmentum, scarpio beside 0. H. G. scarfs G. 
 scAar/ (sharp), from a root scar +^, scar being found in Gr. 
 KEipio, Kvpovj E. sheers, plough-share, &c. Medial c is lost be- 
 fore t in Sestius beside Sextius, mistus beside mixtus ; sescenti 
 for sexcerdi; mulsus for mulctus from mulceo; fartus {ox fare- 
 tus; sartus for sarctus ; Quintius = Quinctius; ultor for ulctor 
 beside ulcisci ; tortus for torctus from torqueo ; vito for vic{i)to 
 beside Skr. vik' (to separate), Gr. eiku) from K. Fik ; in-vitus* 
 for in-vic(i)tus beside Skr. vas' (to desire), Gr. kwv from E,. 
 Ff K ; in-vito for in-vic(i)to beside Skr. vak' (to speak), Gr. ettoc, 
 L. voco. C is lost before d in quifidecim for quincdecim ; se- 
 decim for sexdecim. C is lost before 5 in ^orsz for torcsi ; sarsi 
 for sarcsi; disco for dicsco beside c?ic?ici ; ursus for urcsus, 
 Skr. r/isAa (a bear), Gr. apKTog ; parsim^nia for parcsimonia ; 
 musca for mwc^caf beside Skr. makshikd (a fly), Z. makshi, Gr. 
 juuta for fuLvcna, 0. H. G. mucca (culex), A. S. micge. C is lost 
 before w in quernus for quercnus ; vdnus for vacuus beside va- 
 
 * Benfey connects invitus and intito with Skr. r« (to desire), and 
 Corssen (Kritische Nachtrage zur Lateinischen Formenlehre, p. 52, seq.) 
 supports the same view. Corssen connects vito with Skr. vi (to throw), 
 whence a participial stem vita- may be formed meaning " removed, placed 
 at a distance," beside which he also places O. H. G. wit (far ofi), G. weit^ 
 the ^ of suffix, Skr fa-, L. to-, being unchanged in German, an exception 
 to Grimm's law. 
 
 t Perhaps musca has merely arisen from mucsa by transposition. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 cuus ; deni for dScni; plnus £ot ptcnus beside ptc-is ; quini for 
 quincni ; luna for lilcna from R. luc = Skr. ruk' (to shine); 
 seni for sexni; ex becomes e- in enarro, enato ; pants for pdc- 
 nis, according to Bopp, beside Skr. pa^' (to bake), but accord- 
 ing to Curtius connected with Skr. pa (sustentare), L. pa-bu- 
 lum, pa-scor, pas-tor, Pd-les, pe-nus (omne quo vescimur, 
 Cic), pe-nates, penes, Lith. pSnas (fodder), penu (pasco), &c. 
 C is lost before I in dla for ac-la beside axilla, Gr. aK\6Q (the 
 shoulder), 0. H. G. ahsala (the shoulder) ; tela for texla be- 
 side texo ; culina for cuclina beside coquo, coquina. C is lost 
 before v in sevir for sexvir; coniveo for conicveo beside conixi, 
 nico, nidus ; obliviscor perhaps for oblicviscor beside linquo, 
 but Corssen prefers to connect it with the same root as livor, 
 llvidus, comparing Horace's expression lividas obliviones. C 
 is lost before m in tormentum for torcmentum from torqueo ; 
 semestris for sexmestris ; lumen for liccmen from R. luc; pomum 
 for pocmum (lit. " what is ripe ") beside Skr. pak! (coquere), 
 but, according to Curtius, for povmum (lit. *^ what has grown") 
 from an I. E. root pu (to grow), whence Skr. pu-mdns (a 
 man), pu-tra (a son), Gr. iroia for TroFm, ttwAoc for ttoFAoc, 
 Tratc and iraig for 7raF-tSc, L. pa-pav-er, prce-pu-tium ; omen for 
 ocmen beside Gr. ocraofiaL for oKyofxai, Goth, ahman (spirit), 
 amnis for acmenis from I. E. R. ak or akv (to be quick) whence 
 aqua, &c., but Bopp connects it directly with Yedic apnas 
 (aqua) ; temo for texmo, beside Skr. taksh (to form, to cut), 
 Gr. TiK-Tit), TEX-vii, T£v)(^-tj, 0. H, G. dehsa (an axe). 
 
 Initial g was lost before n in nosco, notus, nomen, narro be- 
 side co-gnosco, co-gnomen, 0. L. gnarigo (narro), gnarus from 
 I. E. gna (toknow), whence Skr. gnd, Gr. t-yvwv, 0. H. G. 
 kndu (I know), &c. ; norma (= Gr. yvwfxujv in meaning), is 
 for gnorima from last root, according to Benfey ; natus beside 
 cognatus, nitor, nixus beside gnitor, gnixus, 0. H. G. hnegenti 
 (nitens), ana-hnekenti (innitentes), Goth, ana-hnaiv-jan (to 
 place upon something). G was lost before Z in lucuns from 
 Gr. -yAuKovc ; lact- beside Gr. yaXafcr- ; and according to 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 165 
 
 Bopp, in lassus for glassus beside Skr. gldsnu (weary). G is 
 lost before v in venio, vddum, vddo from I. E. gva (to go), 
 when Skr. gd (to go), Gr. J3a('vw, £j3»jv from R. j3a, Goth, g'wi- 
 man (to come) ; t76>ro from I. E. gvar, whence Skr. gar (to 
 devour), Gr. j3opa ; vivuSy vita, victus beside Skr. g'w (to live), 
 Gr. (3toc, Goth, qvius (living), E. quick; volo beside Skr. gal 
 (to fall), Gr. j3aXXa> (as Skr. pat means both to fly and to 
 fall) ; venter perhaps for gventer, from R. gen = 1. E.gvan, but 
 connected by Curtius and Benfey with Skr. gathara (venter), 
 Gr. yaarrip, Goth, quithus (the belly), laus-quitJir-s (inanem 
 ventrem habens) ; vescor, according to Bopp, for gvescor^he- 
 side Skr. ghas (to eat), to which he also joins Gr. ya(TTrip ; 
 Bopp connects vasto with Skr. gas (laedere), Goth, fra-qvistja 
 (deleo), considering the original form to have been gvasto; he 
 also connects vigilo for gvigilo with the Skr. gdgar (vigilare), 
 0. H. G, wachar (vigil). These comparisons of Bopp are, 
 however, extremely doubtful : as to vigil, Curtius is probably 
 correct in connecting it with L. vigeo, vegeo. 
 
 Medial g is lost before a following y, after having been as- 
 similated to it, and then the preceding vowel, if short, is length- 
 ened in compensation : • thus we have mejo for mXgjo, major for 
 mdigjor, &c. G is lost before t in indultus for indulgtus, spar- 
 sus = spartus for spargtus, mulsus for mulgtus, tersus for tergtus, 
 &c. 6^ is lost before 5 in fulsi, ursi, versi, indulsi, tersi, &c , 
 from fulgeOj &c. ; compesco for compegsco, from R. pag (or pak) 
 beside pignus, pango, pac-iscor, pax^ Skr. pag'-ra (firm), Gr. 
 TTTjyvviuiii &c. G is lost before I in sttlits for stiglus beside 
 Gr. (TTiZu), L. distinguo ; pdlus for paglus from the root pag, 
 and perhaps in fllum (a string) for figlum beside figo. G is 
 lost before v in vivus for gvigvus ; hrSvis for bregvis, Gr. /3pa- 
 Xvg ; l^ots for legvis, Gr. l\a\vQ ; nivis for nigvis beside nin- 
 guo, nix; malo for mavolo from magevolo; malva beside Gr. fia- 
 Xaxn', uvea, uvidus for ugveo, ugvidus from I. E. w^ whence 
 Skr. uksh (conspergere, humectare) = ug -{■ s, Gr. vypog, &c. ; 
 
166 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 fruor iox frugvor beside frugi* (useful), fruges^ Skr. hhug' 
 (edere, frui), Goth, brukjan, 0. H. G. pruchan, briichan, G. 
 hrauchen (to use), E. brook; torvus for torgvus beside Skr. 
 targ (to threaten), Gr. Tapyaivw (rapacTau)), rap^og, perhaps 
 Tpaxvgi A. S. tJireagan (to chide), 0. H. G. drawa for drahwa^ 
 Gr.drohen (to menace) ; fulvusforfulgvushesidefulgeojjlagro, 
 &c. ; lites for lugves, if it be connected with Skr. rug (vexare), 
 Gr. Xvypog, Xoiyog, L. lugeo, luctus, &c. ; faveo and foveo are 
 for fagveo and fogveo, according to Corssen, who connects them 
 with Skr. bha^ (colere, amare, coquere?), which he supposes 
 to Rave originally meant **to heat." Curtius connects /au^o 
 with Skr. bhd (to shine), bhdsh (to speak), Gr. ^a-nc* fi>n'V^h 
 (jialvu), (^ia-oQ.) \^. fa-ma^ fa-ri^ fa-teoryfa-cies^ fav-illa^ &c. G 
 is lost before m in fulmen ioic fulgmen,fldmen iox fiagmen be- 
 side Skr. bhrdg' (to shine), Gr. (pXeyiD, ^XoE, \^. flagro, fulgeo, 
 fulvus {^orjulgvus), &c. ; frumentum heside fricges ; rumino for 
 rugmino beside Gr. Ipvyri (a vomiting), L. ructo, erugo^ used 
 by Ennius in the line contempsit f antes quibu sese erugit aquae 
 vis ; stimulus for stigmulus beside Skr. tig' (to be sharp), Z. 
 tighri (an arrow), Gr. crriZo), (jTiyfxa, L. distinguo, instigo ; umor, 
 umecto for ugmor, ugmecta from I. E. ug, whence Skr. uksh, 
 Gr. uypoc; fameSf according to Bopp, i or fagmes beside Skr. 
 bhaksh (to eat), Gr. £-0ay-ov, h.faba {£ox fagva f), but Curtius 
 rejects this account of fames on the ground that a nominal 
 suffix cannot signify desire ; exdmen from exago; contamino 
 beside tango, R. tag. 
 
 Initial h is lost in olus = holus = folus; aedus = haedus = 
 faedus ; ircus = hircus = fircus ; er = her (a hedgehog) = Gr. 
 
 * Frugi meant utilis ; Qui /rw^i homines xp»7<r«)Mot>c appellant, id est 
 tantummodo utiles ; at illud est latius (Cic. Tusc. III. 8, 16). Ulfilas 
 translates Gr. o)fkXifjioc, fvxpriaroghy Goth, bruks. In the expression homo 
 frugi, frugi can be only a genitive like nihili^ nauci^flocci^pensi^ &c., but 
 whether it be the gen. of a noun in -um or -ium cannot be decided. Con- 
 sult Corssen, Nachtrage, &c., p. 83. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 167 
 
 Xnp (a hedgehog) ; anser beside Skr. hansa (a goose), Gr. ^vv, 
 O. H. G. gam; arvina (lard) beside Skr. (Ved.) hird (intes- 
 tines), Gr. xoXa^Ec, X^X^S' X^P^^' L- ^«^w-spg^, har-iolus, hira 
 (entrails), hilla for hirula ; &c.* ZTis lost before Z in lutum 
 whence litteus (yellow), hlu being = ^Xw in Gr. -^^w-pog (yel- 
 low) ; the root of this word was probably an I. E. ghar (to 
 shine) whence on one side came Skr. hirana, hiranya (gold), 
 Z. zaranu, zaranya (gold), Gr. ^pvo-oc? XQVdiov^ Goth, gulth^ 
 Ch. SI. zlato^ and on another, Skr. hari (green, yellow), Z. 
 zairi (yellow), Gr. yXori, x\6oq, yXwpoq^ L. helm^ holus,fla- 
 vus, helvus, O. H. G. groni, croni (green), Ch. SI. zelije (olera), 
 Lith. zeliu (viresco), Ir. glas (green) : Bopp connects viridis 
 with Skr. harit^ supposing that gviridis was the original form, 
 but all the forms in the cognate languages point back to a 
 root ghar and not ghvar. 
 
 Medial h is lost in mi = mihi ; nemo for nehemo ; nil = ni- 
 hil ; vemens = vehemens ; Ala = Ahala; cors = cohors ; debeo 
 - dehibeo ; praebeo = praehibeo ; aenum = ahenum; pius be- 
 side Volsc. pihom (pium), U. pihaclu (piaculum) ; via, vea for 
 veha from reho ; prendo = prehendo for praehendo^ praeda for 
 prae-hid-a, both from R. hed = I. E. ghad whence Skr. hasta 
 (manus) for had-ta(?), Gr. x<^^^^^*^i £-xaS-ov, L. hasta for 
 had-ta, hSd-era (the " clinging" shrub), Goth, hi-git-an (to 
 find), E. get ; blmus for bihimusf (so trlmus, qimdrlmus, &c.) 
 beside Skr. hima (snow) Z. hima (a year), zima (winter), Gr. 
 Xe'/uwv, xt(x)v, L. hiems, Ch. SI. zima (hiems) ; lana perhaps 
 for lahna = Gr. Xaxvrj ; aranea for arahnea beside Gr. aQaxvt] 
 from I. E. ark (to spin) whence Gr. apKvg, apKuvrj (a thread, 
 seam), riXaKarrj ; velum for vehlum beside vexillum from veho. 
 
 Initial j is lost in uxor beside conjux from jungo. Some 
 connect uxor^ with Skr. vas' (to wish for), vasd (a woman), Gr. 
 
 * Consult Corssen iiber Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der 
 Lateinischen Sprache, p. 49. 
 
 f Bhnus may be for bi-amnus, c. f. sol-emnis. 
 
 % Uxor has also been connected with Skr. uksh (to sprinkle), whence 
 Skr. ukshan (a bull). 
 
168 COMPARATIVE GKAMMAR. 
 
 EKU)v. Pott has suggested two explanations of the word, both 
 equally wrong, (1) uxor = '' she who is carried off" from vah 
 (to carry) and suffix -tor, but a passive sense never coexists 
 with this suffix, (2) uxor = " ducta femina" from Skr. vah + 
 stri (a woman). 
 
 Medial j (j/) is lost in domo for domayo = Skr. damaydmi, 
 amo for amayo, &c. ; doceo for doceyo, &c. ; audio for audiyo, 
 &c. ; doceam, doceyam, &c. ; audiam = audiyam, &c. ; ferreus 
 = ferreyus, aureus = aureyus, &c. ; liga, quadriga for hijuga, 
 quadrijuga ; cuncti for cojuncti ; hornus for hoyomus^ yor- cor- 
 responding to Z. ydre (a year), Gr. w/oa, E. year ; minor for 
 minyor^ minus for minyus, the comparative terminations -lor, 
 -IMS being = I. E. -ydns, -yas, Skr. -lydns, -iyas ; 0. L. pZoi^ 
 (plus) for ployus, pleores (plures, Carm. Arv.) for pleyores ; 
 pris- (in pris-tinus, pris-cu^) = prius for proyos ; ero for esyo 
 beside Gr. iaaofiaL = ecr^ofiai; obex for objex ; ahicio = abjicio; 
 -bus (term, of dat. pi.) = Skr. -bhyas. 
 
 Initial t is lost in Idtus for tlatus beside tollo, 0. L. tulo, &c. 
 
 Medial t is lost in ac for ate = a^^'w^ ; misi for ?7^^fe^ from 
 miif^o / lens for /ew^s = lentis, mens for men^s = mentis, sors for 
 sor^s = sortis, &c. ; primas = 0. L. primatis, optimas = 0. L. 
 optimatiSf Samnis =» 0. L. Samnitis, Tiburs = 0. L. Tiburtis, 
 &c. ; miles for milets, beside milit-em ; quartus for quat(u)rtus. 
 
 Initial cZis lost in Juppiter, Jovis, U. Jupater beside 0. L. 
 Diovis, 0. AtovFft (dat.), &c. ; viginti for dviginti. 
 
 Medial c? is lost in hoc for hodc ; corculum for cordculum ; 
 pes for p^cfe ; sudsi for suddsi ; frons = frondis ; concors - con- 
 cordis ; glans for glands ; mdno for madno beside Gr. fiaEavj 
 (madeo), L. mad-idu^, &c. ; mercenarius for mercednariv^ ; finis 
 for fidnis beside ^/itZo from K. fid = Skr. Mz<? (findere), E. bite ; 
 scalae for scadlae beside scando, Skr. skand (scandere) ; sudvis 
 for suddviSy Gr. i5^uc, &c. ; squdma for squddmahom. I. E. s^ac? 
 (to cover) beside Skr. k'had (tegere), k'hadman{ocQ,\x\.tdXio, 
 alienae formae assumptio), perhaps sku (tegere), Gr. aKOToqy 
 (TKta, <TKr?v»i, Goth, skildus (a shield), s^a{;a (tegula), Ir. scath 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 169 
 
 (shade), &c. ; caementum beside caedo ; ramentum beside rado. 
 The prefixes s^d- (sed-itio), rSd- {red-eo, red-igo, redi-vivus),* 
 prod- (prod-esse, prod-eOj prod-igus) lose their final d before a 
 consonant, as in segrego, sejugo, seduco^ sevoco, r^ducor, rSponOt 
 r^moveo, produco, promitto, &c. 
 
 Initial s is lost in cutis for scutis beside Skr. sku (to cover), 
 Gr. (TKVTog^ KVTog, L. oh-scu-rus^ scu-tum, Lith. skura (skin), 
 A. S. hud (a hide) ; caveo, cautus from E. skav beside Skr. 
 kavi (wise, a poet), Gr. Ovo-aKoo-g, koew, Kovvito (I perceive) 
 = KofvBUJ, Ko^ (aKovei, Hesjch.), okouco for a-KoF-w, i-KO-iJ.ev 
 {yaOofxeOa, Hesych.), Goth, us-skav-jan (to be cautious), skaus 
 (cautious), skaum (beautiful), 0. H. G. scawon (to look), G. 
 schaiien, schon ; caedo for scaedo beside Skr. k'hid (to tear, cut) 
 Z. sk'id (to tear asunder), Gr. o-jci^w, (TKiSri, (jxiv^akiiog (a 
 splinter), L. scindo, Goth, skaida (I separate), 0. H. G. sceit 
 (discissio), O.N. skid (lignum fissum) ; cena for cesna = ced-na 
 for sced-na from I. E. skad (to eat, lit. to cut, cleave) whence 
 Skr. khdd (to eat) ; cedo may be also connected with last root 
 beside Gr. cicficijSct {virexfj^p^h Hesych.), KEKaS^crai {(5\a\pai, 
 Hesych.), Kridog, &c., the idea of cutting asunder being closely 
 connected with that of separation, and then with that of sor- 
 row ; capis (a vessel) from St. capid = 0. U. kapir, capulum 
 (the hilt of a sword, a bier), capedo, capisterium, &c., if Froehde, 
 Corssen,f and others be correct in connecting these words 
 with Gr. oKa^igy (TKCKJit} (a basin, skiff), o-fcaTrrw, KaireTog (a 
 trench), Ch. SI. kopati (fodere), Lith. kdpas (a grave), Goth. 
 skip (a ship), ga-skap-jan (to make), G. schoppen (a scoop), 
 schaufel (a shovel), &c. ; but it is much preferable to connect 
 capis, &c., with L. capio, capax, Gr. jcwTrr? whence was borrowed 
 L. cupa, Goth, hafja (I lift), M. H. G. haft (vinculum), E. 
 heave, haft, &c. ; tego, tegula, &c., for stego, &c., beside Skr. 
 sthag (to cover), Gr. ariya), aTsyog, riyog, L. istega (a cover) 
 
 * Re-div-ivus is explained by some as meaning " shining again^'' from 
 R. div. 
 
 f Consult Corssen's Nachtrage, &c., p. 293, and K. Z. xiii. 452. 
 
170 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 for instega, Lith. stogas (a roof), 0. N. thek (a roof), 0. H. G. 
 dakju (I cover), E. thatch^ deck; tundo, tudes (a hammer), &c., 
 for stundoj &c., beside Skr. tud (to strike), Gr. TvBevg, Goth. 
 stauta (I strike), 0. H. G. stozu ; torus for storus beside Skr. 
 star (sternere), Gr. aTopwiii, arparog, &c., L. sterno, stramen^ 
 &c., Goth, strauja ((rrpcuvvvjuO? 0. H. G. strdo (straw), Ch. 
 SI. strati (extendere) ; Corssen supposes that initial s is also lost 
 in littera, linear limus, lino beside 0. H. G. slim, G. schleim 
 (slime) ; nurus for snurus, beside Skr. snushd, Gr. woe 
 0. H. G. snur, A. S. snor, Ch. SI. snochd ; na-re, na-ta-re, nd-sus 
 for sna-ref &c., beside Skr. snd (lavare), Gr. vriaog, Na^oc ; 
 nix for snix beside Z. s'nizh (to snow), Gr. ayavvitpog for 
 ayaavKpog, Goth, snaivs (snow), Lith. smgti (to snow), Ch. SI. 
 sn^gu (snow); nutria; beside Skr. snu (to flow), according to 
 Corssen who explains it to mean " the person who makes to 
 flow," viz. " milk," as stator signifies " the person who causes 
 to stand ;" repo for srepo beside L. serpo^ Skr. sarpa (a ser- 
 pent) ; rete for srete from sero beside Skr. sarit (a thread), Gr. 
 (Tftpa, sLpu), epfia, Lith. seris (a thread) ; rivus, Rumo (an old 
 name of the Tiber), rumen (the udder), Rumina beside Skr. sru 
 (to flow), Gr. po-oc, p^v-fia^ Qv-O-fxog, &c., 0. H. G. stroum (a 
 stream), Lith. sravju (I flow) ; palea (chaff"), pulvis, pollen 
 from I. E. R. spar (to move quickly), when Skr. sphurdmi 
 (vibror), paldla (straw), Z. s'par (to go), Gr. (nraipw, acrTratow, 
 airdpd), airapdcrcTw, Tra-diraX-y] (fine meal) = TraL'iraX-r\, ira- 
 Xuy(u, TraXAo), TraXr; (pollen), &c., 0. H. G. sprua (chaff"), spor 
 (vestigium), sporon (calcitrare), spurnan{offendeYe),^, spurn, 
 L. sperno, Lith. splrti (to push), &c. ; pituita for spituita be- 
 side spuo, spu-tum from I. E. spyu beside Skr. shtiv (spuere), 
 iTTVis) for oTrpvii), ipvTT-u), TTVT-lZu) for TrTVTTTi'Zu), a frequenta- 
 tive form, Goth, speiva (spuo), 0. H. G. spiuvan, spihan (to spit), 
 Lith. spidu'ju (I spit), &c. ; fallo, fides, funda, fungus beside 
 Gr. (T^a'AXw, G(^L^r], er^evSovij, a(^6yyog ; memor for sme-smor 
 beside Skr. smar (to remember), smara (love), Gr. fitp-jLLrip-a, 
 fiip-i'fivaf jmdpTvpi &c. St is lost before lin Idtus = 0. L. stld- 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 171 
 
 tus beside sterna^ &c. ; li8 for stlis beside O. H. G. stnt, G. 
 streit (a fight) ; locus for stlocus beside Skr. sthala (a place), 
 from sthal, a. secondary root formed from sthd : Bopp, how- 
 ever, connects locus with Skr. loka (mundus), Lith. laukas 
 (campus). 
 
 Medial s is lost between two vowels in viola for visola be- 
 side Skr. visha (poison), Gr. loQy i'ov, L. virus^ Benfey remarks, 
 " poison is connected with blue, cf. visha-pushpa (the blue^ lo- 
 tus), and S'iva's neck growing blue, by swallowing the poison 
 churned out of the sea ;" Cerealis for Ceresalis beside Ceres, 
 Cereris; Ramnes, Titles, Luceres for Ramneses, Titieses Luce- 
 reses; spei for spesi beside speres (nom. pi. in Ennius) ; ver for 
 veser beside Skr. vas-anta (ver), Gr. tap for Fscrap, Lith. vas-ara 
 (summer), Ch. SI. ves-na (ver), 0. N. vdr (ver) ; vis perhaps 
 for visis beside vires, virium ; dies perhaps for diesis beside 
 diur-nus, Dies-piter, ho-dier-nus, Skr. divas-a (day), Divas-pati 
 (the lord of day, i. e. Indra) ; nubes perhaps for nuhSsis beside 
 Skr. nahhas (nom. neut.), Gr. vB(f>OQ, ve<j)e(a)'Og, Lith. debesis 
 (nubes) ; sec?^s perhaps for sedesis beside Skr. sadas (nom. neut.) 
 = Gr. eSoc ; and perhaps some other cases like nubes and sedes. 
 Medial s is lost before consonants in the following cases : — di- 
 yredior for disgredior; dijudico ioi disjudico ; trdjicio for trans- 
 jicio ; diduco for disduco ; trdduco, trado beside transduco, 
 transdo; idem ^ox isdem; judex iov jusdex; nidus for nisdus, 
 E. nest; pridie, pridem ioi prisdie, prisdem; audio perhaps for 
 ausdio beside aus-culto, aur-is, Gr. ovg, Lith. ausis (the ear) ; 
 cenafoY cesna ; pono foiposno heside pos-ui ; aeneicsfoi aesneus; 
 satin for satisne; audin for audisne; pone (behind) for posne ; 
 anus for asnus beside Skr. dsana (a seat), dste = Gr. rjarai, 
 &c. ; penis for pesnis beside Skr. pasas (penis), Gr. iriog, iroa- 
 6ri; fanum iox fasnum = 0. fnsnu hesidiQ fes-tus, fer-iae, Gr. 
 6ea-aaiJ.evoL, &c. ; canus for casnus, but Bopp considers that 
 the original form of the root was skan whence Skr. kan (splen- 
 dere), Goth, skeina (I shine) ; venum for vesnum beside Skr. 
 vasna (price) ; corpulentus for corpuslentus ; qudlus (a basket), 
 
172 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 beside quasillus ; diligo for disligo ; tenebrae for tenesbrae; di- 
 mitto for dismitto; remus for resmus = retmus, Grr. IpeTjuog; 
 Cdmena for Casmena beside carmen, Skr. sds (to say, teach), 
 s'dhs (to praise), with which Benfey connects censeo^ cano, con- 
 cinn-iLS* but the two latter words belong to Skr. kvan (sonare) ; 
 pomoerium for pos-moerium ; dumus beside dusmus (incultus, 
 dumosus), densus, Gr. Sao-vc? ^avXog for daavXog^ ^ETri-Sav- 
 pof for 'E7rtSa<TU-jOoe, AavXig for AaauXtc- The words ex 
 and 5^^, as we have already seen, become e- and se- in com- 
 position, except before c, t, p; thus we have egero, editco, se- 
 decim, &c., but extendo, expello, &c. 
 
 Medial n is lost before gn in igrmvus, ignarus, ignoro, cog- 
 natusj cognatus, &c. ; signum is connected by Ebel with Skr. 
 san^na (sign, name), and therefore stands for singnum^ sin- 
 being found also in sin-guli, sin-cerus, simplex and -gnu-m 
 being from R. gno = Skr. ^'wa (to know). The preposition 
 con (= com) frequently loses its final n before A, j, v, and s in 
 composition ; thus we find cohibeo, coicio, cojunx, coventio, co- 
 sol, &c. N is lost before s in istega for instega (deck), isculpo- 
 neae from insculpo, intresectis beside intrinsecus. In Umbrian 
 we likewise find kuveitu = L. convehito. kuvertu = L. convertito, 
 covortust =■ L. converterit, &c. 
 
 Medial t" is lost in rubigo for rubrigo from ruber; pejero for 
 perjero; sempitemus from semper ; pedo, podex beside Skr.^ar(i, 
 Gr. irepdo) ; susum = sursum, &c. ; ^os^its for torstus from ^orreo ; 
 fuscus for furscus beside fur-vus ; formosus for formonsus ; re- 
 trosum beside retrorsum ; Tuscus for Turscus = Etruscus, be- 
 side 0. U. Turskum, N. U. Tuscom : Etru-s-cusf being formed 
 from U. ei^M- (alter) as pri-s-cus from jo/'i =prae, -s being the 
 remains of the comparative termination -/z*s, -E'^/'msc/ therefore 
 meant ^a?fen " the strangers" in Umbrian. 
 
 * Lottner connects con-cin-nus "with cin-dn-nus, in which case the 
 root must have meant " to connect, to twist." 
 
 f Consult Corssen, tJber Ausprache, &c , vol. i., p. 92, and his Kritische 
 Nachtrage, &c., p. 177. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 173 
 
 Medial I appears to be lost in cingere = clingere (Fest. 56) 
 beside 0. H. G. hring (a ring). 
 
 Initial p is perhaps lost before r in red beside Skr. prati, 
 Gr. TrpoTi. It is lost before I in lien beside Skr. plihan (lien), 
 Gr. (TTrArjv, (TTrXayx^ov; laetus ^ov plaitushQ^idiQ ^kx, pri (to 
 love, to rejoice) ; lanx beside Gr. TrXa^, L. planca (a plate), 
 planus for placnus (?), 0. H. Q.flah; Idtus, Latium beside Skr. 
 prath (to extend) ^prthu (broad), Gr. irXarvg, irXdroQ, L. planta 
 (sole of the foo^), planus for platnus (?), plautus for plotus, 
 (planis pedibus, Fest. 239) ; later (a tile), which is perhaps 
 connected with last root ; linter or lunter beside Gr. irXwrrip 
 from R. ttXv whence ttXIu). The connexion of lavo with R. 
 ttXu is very doubtful ; it is better to connect it directly with 
 Gr. R. Xv whence Xv/jlu, Xovrpov, &c. Pott also connects 
 livor, lividus, with Gr. fioXvf^og, juoXifdog, h.plumbum, 0. H. G. 
 pli, Lett, alwa ; but this too is very doubtful. 
 
 Medial b is lost in sus = subs in suscipio, sustuli, susque, 
 surgo for susrigo; surpio beside suhripio ; oportet for obportet, 
 beside pars, portio; operio for obperio beside a-perio ; opimus 
 for obpimus beside Skr. pydi ( ciesceie), pivara (crassus), Gr. 
 tt/wv, irlapoQi irifiiXr]. 
 
 Initial / is perhaps lost in rXgeo, rXgor, rtgidus beside Gr. 
 piyoQ for (ppiyog, &c., L. frlgeOy frigus, frlgidus. 
 
 Medial /is lost, according to Corssen, in illim, istim, &c., 
 for illo-fim, isto-Jim, &c., -Jim being = Skr. -bhyam. 
 
 Initial v is lost in olla (a pot), for vorula from I. E. var (to 
 boil), whence Gr. (dpatTawy j3/oa?w (I boil), 0. H. G. walm 
 (fervor), Oh. SI. vreti (fervere), Lith. virti (to boil), &c. ; odi 
 beside Skr. vadh (to strike), Gr. wOiu) ; orno beside Skr. varna 
 (colour). In these cases a becomes o on account of the pre- 
 ceding V. Initial v is also lost in n'^o beside Gr. jSpt'x^, Goth. 
 rign (jipoxh) from I. E. vragh ; repente, repens, repentinus be- 
 side Gr. pii^iii for FjOfTTw, avTi-ppoiroq, &c., Lith virpiu, (I tot- 
 ter), radix beside Gr. piZa, Lesb. (5piada, Goth, vaurts (a root), 
 
174 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 0. H. G. wurzala, wurza ; ros perhaps for vros beside Skr. 
 varsh (pluere), Gr. e^ctt? for Fepcrr}', laqueus heside Gr. j3poxoc» 
 Goth, vruggo (a noose); lacer, lacuSy lacinia beside Skr. vras'k' 
 (to tear), Gr. paKog^ Xclkoq, Xoklq (a rent), ^ol. jBpaKog (=pd- 
 Ko?) which points back to a root Fpa»c, Benfey connects Gr. 
 fXicoc, L. ulcus, with this root ; lacio beside Gr. cA/cw from R. 
 FeXic, Lith. velku (I pull), with which Corssen connects la- 
 queus ; lupus* Sabine irpus^ beside Skr. vrkas (nova., sing, 
 masc), Gr. Xukoc, Goth, vulfs^ Ch. SI. vluku^ Lith. vilkas^ con- 
 nected by some with Skr. vras'k' (to tear), and by others with 
 an I. E vrak, whence Gr. I'Xkw ; lana perhaps for vlana be- 
 side Skr. var (to cover), urna (wool), uruhhra (a ram, lit. the 
 woolbearer), Gr. ajooc, £/>tov, oSXoc (woolly), apvcc (lambs), 
 fiapviov (apvLov Hesych.), fdapixoi {apveg Hesych.), L. vel- 
 lus, villus, Goth, vulla (wool), Lith. vilna (wool), Ch. SI. vluna 
 (wool). 
 
 Medial v is often lost between vowels as in suus = 0. L. 
 sovos = Gr. wg ; iuus for toi^os = Gr. reog ; momentum for mo- 
 vimentum ; ploro for plovero from R. plu, according to Corssen ; 
 domui, hahui, &c., for domavi, habevi^ &c. ; mx)a; for movox 
 from moveo ; Mars for Mavors; nuntiusfov noviventius ; praes 
 for praeves, the plural of which, praevides, is found in Thorian 
 law, from prae and vas ; junior for juvenior ; rursum for re- 
 vorsum ; nosse = novisse, &c. ; amaram = amaveram ; &c. ; 
 audisti = audivisti, &c. ; nolo for nevolo ; &c. Fis lost after 
 c in cayiis beside Skr. s'van (a dog), Gr. kuwv ; cawo beside Skr. 
 kvan (to sound) : and after s in si (= O. s^;a^), s^, siU, sed£rom 
 St. sua; somnus= Skr. svapnas, Gr. vttvoc ; soror = Skr. svasd, 
 Goth, svistar ; sodalishova. a lost stem so Ja beside Skr. svadhd 
 
 * Some separate L. lupus from Gr. Xukoc, and connect it with Z. u- 
 rup-is, raop-is (a species of dog), from root rup or lup (to tear). The Sa- 
 bine irpus bears a great resemblance to the Zend words. It is not clear 
 whether this group of words is connected in any way with Gr. d-\w7r->??, 
 Lith. lap'e (a fox), lapHkas (a young fox). 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 175 
 
 (the will, properly "one's own action" from sva and dhd),* 
 Gr. f/0oc, WoQ from R. aFsd, the form tviOivKa (awica Hesych.) 
 proving that the root originally contained F, L. suesco, Goth. 
 sidus {?i6og), G. sitte (custom); sonus beside Skr. svan (to 
 sound) ; socer - Skr. svas'uras^ Gr. Ijcupoc ; socrus = Skr. 
 s'vasrus ; sermo perhaps for swrmo beside Skr. svar (to sound), 
 Gr. (TvpiyS, L. susurrus, ahsurdus (compare ahsonus) ; serenus, 
 sol beside Skr. svar (heaven), Z. hvarS (sol), Gr. Se/ptocj o-l- 
 
 Initial m is lost in imago and imitor for mimago and mimi- 
 tor beside Skr. ma (to measure), mimaU (imitantur), Gr. |i£- 
 TQOv, iJ.i-fii'Oiuiai, fxi-ixri-cnQ, fJu-jULO-g. 
 
 Corssen connects imitor and imago with a Latin root zc = 
 I. E. ak, whence G. ah-men, L. aequus, and considers their 
 original forms to have been icmitor, icmago. 
 
 §. 85. The Insertion of a Consonant. 
 
 P is inserted between m and a following dental, as in hiemps, 
 emptus, sumpsi, sumptus, contempsij contemptusy &c. S is in- 
 serted in mon-s-trum (from same root as maneo, moneo, mens, 
 &c., and -trum), lu-s-trum (from same root as luo, di-luv-ium, 
 lav-o, &c., and -trum), ahstineo, ostendo for ohstendo, sustineo 
 for substineo. 
 
 §. SQ. Final Consonants. 
 
 The combinations rs, Is, ns, are in general never allowed 
 to end a word, except when they represent rts. Its, nts ; thus 
 we have ferens, amans, &c., for ferents, amants, &c., puis for 
 pults, &c., but puer for puer(u)s, vir for vir(u)s, quatuor for 
 quatuor{e)s, vigil for vigil(i)s, novos (ace. pi.) for novons and 
 similar accusatives, 6aZ for sals. We have, however, /(Jt-s for 
 feris. 
 
 * This is Curtius* explanation, who translates dhd by G. thun, E. d/o ; 
 Kuhn explains svadhd to mean " seibstsetzung " from rf^^a (to place) 
 = Gr. Oa in ri9>//it. 
 
176 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Double consonants are never allowed to end a word : thus 
 we have os (oss-is) for oss- = ost- ; fel (Jell-is) for fell- = 
 felt- ; novos for novoss = novons, novas for novass = novans, &c., 
 while in Old Oscan the ace. pi. still ends in -55, as viass = L. 
 vias, &c. ; damnas for damnass = damnat{u)s, compare 0. U. 
 pihazy N. U. pihos = L. piatus, 0. U. tagez, N. U. tages = L. 
 tacetits, 0. 0. hurz = L. hortus, &c. 
 
 Two mutes are not allowed to end a word : thus we have 
 lac for lact (lact-is). 
 
 Final t was frequently lost : thus we find in Old Latin dede 
 (dedit), dedro (dederunt), &c. ; in Classical Latin the double 
 form of the 3 pi. perf. fecere and fecerunt^ &c. ; in late Latin 
 such forms as vixse (vixit), quiesce (quiescit), fecerun (fece- 
 runt), &c. In Umbrian such forms are common : thus we 
 find habe (habet), fagia (faciat), fuia (fuat), portaia (portet), 
 benits (venerit), convortus beside convortust (converterit), be- 
 nuso (venerunt), &c. In Oscan t is retained, as mfust (fuerit), 
 fefacust (0. L. faxit), hipust (0. L. habessit), &c. 
 
 Final d was also frequently lost : thus in abl. sing, we find 
 patre (t. Scip. Barb.) beside Gnaivod and in Classical Latin 
 this abl. -d was universally lost, while it was retained in 
 Oscan, as in suvad (sua), ehtrad (extra), toutad (civitate), cas- 
 trid (castro), &c. Similarly d was lost in the imperatives 
 esto^ agito, &c., beside Osc. estud, actud, &c. 
 
 In Old Latin s was frequently lost after a vowel, as in 
 Tetio, AlbaniOf &c., for Tetios, Albanios, &c. ; Cornell iox 
 Cornells, and this again for Cornelios, &c. ; in Classical Latin 
 we also find mage beside magis, pote beside potis^ laudare be- 
 side laudaris, &c. Final s was also lost in the nom. pi. of the 
 0- stems, and in the gen. sing, of the a- stems, as in hi = 0. L. 
 heis, magistri = 0. L. magistreis, familiae =^familiaSf &c. In 
 Oscan and Umbrian s (N. U. r) is retained in these cases, as 
 in 0. U. urtas (ortae), tutas (totae), N. U. screihtor (scripti), 
 totcor (tutici), totar (totae), motar (multae, poenae), O. 0. 
 Nuvlanus (Nolani), N. O. pas (quae), scriftas (scriptae), &c. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 177 
 
 Final n was sometimes omitted as in ceieroqui, alioqui for 
 ceteroquin, alioquin, and in nominatives in -o as virgo, ca- 
 ligoy &c. 
 
 Final m in Old Latin was frequently omitted as in the 
 conjunctive forms attinge, dice, &c., for attingam, dicam^ &c. ; 
 also in the following examples from the Epitaphs of the 
 Scipios Taurasia (ace. sing.), Saimiio (^cc. sing.), omio (unum), 
 duonoro (bonorum), urhe (urbem), &c. ; in Classical Latin m 
 before a vowel in verse was elided. 
 
 N 
 
( 178 ) 
 
 CHAPTER VI I. 
 
 Roots and Stems. 
 
 §. 87. The root* of a word is that portion of it that re- 
 mains when eYerythmg formative and accidental has been re- 
 moved from it. Thus the root of L. pater^ Gr. irarrtp, Skr. 
 pita (nom. sing.) is pa = Skr. pa (to support), L. -ter^ Gr. -rij/o, 
 Skr. -tar being the same suffix that appears in L. mater^ &c. ; 
 the root of elementum is el^ e being a connecting vowel and 
 -mentu-m the same suffix that appears in rudi-mentu-m ; the 
 root of ETiOero is Be, t being the augment signifying past time, 
 TL the reduplication signifying duration, and to the sign of the 
 3rd pers. sing. ; similarly the root of lyiyvero for tyiyevETo is 
 yev ; the root of Zevyvv/xL is ^vy for vv and fxt are formative 
 elements, the first signifying present time, and the second the 
 first pers. sing., while ev is the guna of u, and e is consequently 
 merely an accidental element;! similarly the root of AAotTra 
 is XiTT. In the above remarks I have used the word root in 
 its ordinary signification as representing that portion of the 
 
 * Max Miiller (Lectures, &c., ii., p. 81) calls " root or radical what- 
 ever, in the words of any language or family of languages, cannot be re- 
 duced to a simpler or a more original form." The Indian Grammarians 
 called a root dhdtu from dha (to nourish); dhdtu means any primary or 
 elementary substance, and consequently shows that these grammarians looked 
 upon roots as the primary elements, the constituent parts of words. We 
 generally translate roots by the infinitive, as this gives the most abstract 
 idea of the word. The Indian Grammarians, however, represent them 
 by abstract substantives in the Locative, as gam (to go) by gatau (in 
 going) ; Bopp's Skr. Gram,, p. 69. 
 
 f Consult Curtius, Grundziige, &c., p. 49 seq., and Bopp's Compara- 
 tive Grammar, vol. i., p. 197. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 179 
 
 word which contains the fundamental idea ; but properly 
 speaking, every Indo-European word consists of two or more 
 roots : thus Skr. asmi (I am) = Gr. tl/xt' consists of the two 
 roots as (to be) and mi = ma (I) ; Skr. hhardmi (I bear) = Gr. 
 ^fjow, consists of the three roots bhar (to bear), ^5 (to be)* and 
 mi (I) ; Skr. hharati (he bears) = Gr. tpepei for ^tpcrt consists 
 of the three roots bhar, a (a demonstrative root) and ti (the 
 pronoun of 3rd pers. sing.) ; Gr. 6\p = L. vox = I. E. vales 
 when Skr. vdk (nom. sing.) comes from the two roots vak (to 
 speak) = Skr. vach and sa (a demonstrative root), &c. In the 
 earliest period of the I. E. language, long before any separa- 
 tion of the dialects occurred, roots existed as indejjendent 
 words, exactly as in Chinese at the present day; thus the 
 words, just discussed, probably existed then as as ma, bhar as 
 ma, bhar a ta, vak sa. There never was a period, however, in the 
 history of Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, or any other I. E. language, 
 after their separation from the parent stock and from each 
 other, when roots existed as actual words. No exception to 
 this statement is formed by such imperatives as die, fac, &c., 
 for these are merely shortened forms o( dice, face, &c., nor by 
 such vocatives as vdk from St. vdk (voice) from R. vak, for a 
 vocative is not properly a word, but rather an interjection, 
 nor by words which in the process of time appear only as 
 roots on account of the loss of their terminations. 
 
 §. 88. All Indo-European roots are monosyllabic, and 
 this is the only law to which they are subject. We con- 
 sequently find as roots the following combinations of vowels 
 and consonants : — 
 
 I. (Spiritus lenis +) Vowel : I. E. i (to go) = Skr., Z., Gr., 
 L., Goth., Lith., Ch. SI. i (to go), as Skr. Smi (I go) = Gr. 
 HfjiL = Lith. eimi, L. eo, Skr. imas (we go) = Gr. '//xev, L. Imns 
 (the I of which seems to point to a root i) ; Skr. u (to sound) 
 
 * I assume here that hhardmi is for bhar-as-mi (to bear am I, i. e. I 
 bear) : the second syllable may, however, be the only demonstrative root 
 a lengthened to a. 
 
 n2 
 
180 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 is given by the grammarians ; L. u is found in ind-u-erej 
 ex-u-ere. 
 
 II. Cons.+vowel : I. E. da (to give), Skr., Z. da (to give), 
 Skr. daddmi = Gr. Sidwfii, Skr. data (nom. sing, from St. da- 
 tar) = Z. ^a^a (from St. ddtar) = Gr. ^oTr}p or Swrrip = L. cfof- 
 for, L. cZar^, donum^ &c. ; I. E, jt?a (to guard), Skr. pa (id.), 
 pati'S (nom. sing., a master), patni (a mistress), Gr. Troo-tc, 
 ^80'-7ro-rr)c? Trorvm, S^<T7rofi/a, L. com-po-{t)s^ po-t-is, &c. ; I. E. 
 dha (to place), Skr. c?/ia (id.), Z. cZa (id.), Gr. 0f-/ia, ri-Ori-fdi = 
 Skr. dadhdmi^ &c. ; I. E. A:i (to lie), Skr. s'z (id.), s'et^ = Gr. 
 Karat, L. civis (= Osc. ceus), quiesco, &c. 
 
 III. Vowel + cons. : I. E. ak (to be sharp, quick), Skr. 
 as'-ri (point of a sword), as -us = Gr. wkwcj as'-vas = L. eq-uus^ 
 Gr. aK-pOQi aK-u)v, L. ac-er, ac-u-o, ac-er, oc-ior ; I. E. <?/? (to 
 obtain), Skr. ap (id.), L. ad-ip-iscor, aptus = Skr. api^5 ; I. E. 
 ad (to eat), Skr. ad (id.), Gr. tS-w, L. ed-o ; I. E. as (to be), 
 Skr. asmi = Gr. ufxi (^ol. cju/xt) = L. (e)sum^ &c. 
 
 IV. Cons. + vowel + cons. : I. E. blni^h (to fij, bend), 
 Skr. bhug' (to bend), bhoga (a snake), Gr. (^£uya>, ^uy??, ^v^a 
 = (pv^ya for (pvyya, L, fugio, &c. ; I. E. Zip (to smear),. Skr. Ztp 
 (id.), Gr. AtTT-a (fat), a-Xti^-fu, &c- ; I. E. j[)a^ (to bind), Skr. 
 and Z. pas' (id.), Gr. Tray-oC) Trao-o-aXoc = iraKt/aXog, L. pa.a7, 
 pig-nus, compesco = com-pec-sco, &c. ; I. E. bhudk (to know), 
 Skr. ftwcZA (id.), Z. Z>mcZ (id.), Gr. irwO-avoimaii &c. 
 
 V. Cons. + cons. + vowel : I. E. kru (to hear), Skr. sru 
 (id.), Gr. kXu-w, L. cZw-o, cli-ens ; l^E. p/w (to swim), Skr. 
 jtjZw (id.), Gr. ttXe-w, irX^v-aofxai^ ttXo-o-Cj L. plu-it, &c. ; I. E. 
 pn (to love), SkY.pri (id.), Z./n (id.), Gr. np^og^or Trpay-o-g, 
 TTQavQ for TTQay-v-Q ; I. E. sto (to stand), Skr. sthd (id.), Z. 
 s'Za (id.), Gr. ara-Gig, L. std-tus ; I. E. ^va (to go), Skr. 
 g'i-gd-mi (I go), Gr. fiaivw for /3a-yya>, L. ar-biter. 
 
 VI. Vowel + cons. + cons. : Skr. ard (to kill), Gr. apd-ig 
 (point of an arrow) ; I. E. ard (to water) ; Skr. drd-ra (wet), 
 Gr. apd-(jj (i water) ; I. E. argh, Skr. ark (to be worthy), Z. 
 areg (id.), Gr. apx-(^9 opx-afJtog ; I. E. arg (to shine), Skr. 
 arg'-una (white), Gr. apy-ijc (white), apy-u^oc, apy-tXoc, L. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 181 
 
 argentum, arg-u-o (I make clear) ; I. E. ark (to shine), Skr. ai^lc 
 (id.), arka (the sun), Ir. earc (id.) ; I. E. ardh (to grow), Skr^ 
 ardh (id.), Gr. aXS-a^vw, Ir. aZ< (nursing), according to Bopp. 
 
 VII. Cons. + cons. + vowel + cons. : I. E. stigh (to ascend), 
 Skr. stigh (id.), Qx.(jtux-w^ aroX-xoQ, arixog, Goth, steiga (I go 
 up), 0. H. G. stega (semita), Ch. SI. stiza (id.) ; I. E. stag (to 
 cover), Skr. sthag (id.), Gr. o-rcy-w, ariy-rij riy-r}, h. i-steg-a (a 
 deck) for in-steg-a, teg-o, O. N. thek (a roof), 0. H. G. dak-Ju (I 
 cover) ; T. E. bhrag (to shine), Skr. bhrdg (id.), Gr. ^Acy-w, 
 (|)Ao5, L. fulg-eo, flag-ro, flam-ma ; I. E. 5^aw (to sound), Skr. 
 sto/i (id.), Gr. arivti), L. ^o7i-o, ton-itru, 0. N. styn-ja (I groan), 
 O. H. G. stun-od (a sigh), E. s^wn. 
 
 VIII. Cons. + vowel + cons. + cons. : I. E. varg, Skr. varg* 
 (to exclude), Gr. eipy'vv-/ii, c'/py-w from R. Ftpy, L. urg-eo^ 
 Goth, vrik-a (I pursue) ; I. E. marg, Skr. m(7?y (to wipe, rub), 
 Gr. afxiXy-u) (I milk), bfio^y-vv-fxi (I wipe), L. mtdg-eo, 
 
 0. H. G. milch-u. Benfey connects with this root Gr. yXayog 
 (for juXayoc)) yaAa, L. mulier, margo^ lac (for m^«c) ; I. E. tars 
 (to dry), Skr. tarsh (to be thirsty), Z. tarsh-m (thirst), Gr 
 ri^a-ofxai, L. torr-eo, tos-tus, terr-a, Goth, thaurs-ja (I thirst). 
 
 IX. Cons. + cons. + vowel + cons. + cons. : I. E. skand (to 
 move quickly ?), Skr. skand (to ascend), Gr. aKavl-aXov, L. 
 scand-o, de-scend-o, Lith. skhid-u (I sink) ; I. E. stambh, Skr 
 stamhh (to prop up), Gr.arfV^-vAoy (pressed olives), a-trra^^-j^c 
 (firm), 0. H. G. stamplion (to stamp), A. S. 6'^emw (mandatum) ; 
 
 1. E. sparg (to move quickly), Skr. sparh (to desire), Z. s'parez 
 (to strive), Gr. (nripx-ofim (I hasten), (TTrtpx'^oc (hasty), 
 (TTripy-driv (epptjidivwg, Hesych.) ; I. E. spardh, Skr. spat^dh 
 (to contend with), Goth, spaurds {(TTadtov), 0. H. G. spurt, 
 A. S. spyrd, E. spurt, 
 
 §. 89. It is very doubtful whether any roots began or ended 
 with three consonants in Indo-European. When such roots 
 appear in any of the Indo-European languages, either one of 
 the consonants is not original, and merely a late addition to 
 the root, or else the phenomenon arises from transposition. In 
 the following cases the conjunction of the three initial con- 
 
182 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 sonants may be original : Gr. arpdyZ (a drop), arpayy-tuw (I 
 twist), cFTpoyy-vXog, (rrpayy-a-AtSw (I strangle), L. string-o^ 
 strang-uloj O. H. G. strangi (strong), from a root Strang or 
 strag, signifying "to penetrate, to press," yet the original 
 form of this root may have been starg, whence Gr. Tagyavai 
 {irXoKai, Hesych.), TSTapyavtofiivai {ejuLireTrXeyiiivai^ Hesych.), 
 (Tapydvri (a basket), with the loss of r as in Ir. sreang-aim 
 (stringo), sreang (a string) ; L. scrof-a (a sow), scribo, scrob-s, 
 Gr. ypo/uKp-dg (an old sow), ypd(})U) may point to an I. E. root 
 skrabh ; L. scruta (trash), whence scrutor beside Gr. -ypurij 
 (trash) ; Gr. aKvnr-OQ (stingy) beside yvi^Mv (id.), &c. 
 
 §. 90. Roots of the form cons. + a + cons, or a + cons, are 
 frequently found in the form [cons. + cons. + a] or [cons. + a] : 
 I. E. mar (to .die) = mra (id.), Skr. mryati (he dies), marta-8 
 (nom. sing, dead), Gr. j^porog for fipo-Tot;^ L. morior ; I. 
 E. dhar (to bear) = (iAm, Skr. dhar (id.), Gr. Opa-vog (a 
 seat), Opo-voQi Oprj-wg (a stool), lu. fre-tus, fre-num^ fir-mus ; 
 I. E. dhar (to sound) = dhra^ Skr. dhdrd (vox), Gr. Opi-ofiaij 
 0p6-og, Opri'vog, 66p-v-j5og, Goth. drimjus (a noise), E. drone ; 
 I. E. man (to think) = mna, Skr. man (id.), Gr. fxi-iiov-a, 
 fiiv-og^ fiav'la, fxvd-0'p.ai, juv»?-/xtj, L. me-min-i, mon~eo ; I. E. 
 gan (to know) = gna, Skr. g'nd (to know), Gr. yvuj-rog, L. 
 gnO'Sco, Goth, kann (I know) ; Gr. Oav beside Ovr], t-dav-ovj 
 ddv-arog^ Ovrj-Tog, Ovyi-ctkii), perhaps connected with Skr. dhmd 
 (to blow), and consequently Oav would have meant originally 
 *' to blow," hence " to breathe," and then " to expire," &c. 
 
 §. 91. According to the Indian Grammarians no Sanskrit 
 verbal root ended in a, and they write such roots either with 
 a, or with the addition of a suffix, such as n, y (i), v (u) ; con- 
 sequently we find in place of da (to give), sa (to sharpen), ga 
 (to be born), hva (to call), &c., the assumed forms dd, so (for 
 sau), g'an, hve (for hvai)i&c. The only roots that they write with 
 d are pronominal roots, such as to, sa, &c. We see, however, at 
 once that this is merely an arbitrary custom, for we find nu- 
 merous verbal roots in Sanscrit ending in a : khyd (to speak) 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 183 
 
 is the original root, and not khyd^ as we see from akhydt ; gd 
 (to go) is found in gd-tas (nom. sing. part, praet. pass.), gd-ld 
 (2 sing, imperat.), ga-k'k'hati (he goes), Gr. (5i-Pa-ij.sv ; dd (to 
 give), dadmas (we give) for dadamas^ Gr. Si-^o-jULev, L. dd-miis ; 
 dha (to place), dadhmas (we place) for dadhamas, Gr. Ti-Oe-fjLEVi 
 Oi'CTig, Oe-Tog = Ved. dhi-tas = Skr. hitas ; sthd (to stand), 
 ti-shtha-ti (he stands), sthi-tas = Gr. txra-roc, L. std-tus ; ma 
 (to measure), mi-ti (measuring), mi-ta (measured), Gr. fxi- 
 Tpov; pd (to drink), pibdti (he drinks), Gr. wo-mg ', pd (to 
 protect), pdtis (a master) = Gr. iro-cng, dea-Tro-Trjg, Skr. pi-tar, 
 Gr. ira-TYip ; md (to think), ma^i (mind), mdtas (nom. sing. perf. 
 pass, part.) = fxarog (in avro-fiarog), Gr. ni-fxa-iizvi fxa-iofxai. 
 (I seek), jua-r»?v, jua-ratoc (not real, only imagined, according 
 to Benfey) ; ta (to stretch), tdtas (nom. sing. pass, part.) = Gr. 
 rarog, Ti-Ta-fiai ; ha (to kill), hdti (a striking), hatas (nom 
 sing. perf. pass, part.) = Gr. (jiarog (in * ApeicpaTog, juuAr^^a- 
 roc), 7r£-0a-jua(, &c. These roots are written by the Sanskrit 
 grammarians under the forms khi/d, gd, dd, dhd, sthd, md, pd, 
 pd, man, tan, han ; but the grammatical forms above adduced 
 prove that they also ended with a in Sanskrit. In Greek and 
 Latin we frequently find roots ending with d, which corre- 
 sponds to Sanskrit roots ending with d or an ; thus we find 
 Gr. yi-ya-juiev from R. ya beside Skr. gan (to produce, to 
 grow) ; Gr. cpa-Xog (bright), <pa-Tig from R. 0a beside Skr. 
 bhd (to shine) ; L. rdtits from R. ra beside Skr. rd (to give), 
 compare Ved. rdtam astu with L. ratum esto and reor, &c. 
 
 §. 92. Neither in Sanskrit nor in Greek do any roots 
 occur of the form, aspirated mute + vowel + aspirated mute, 
 except a few dialectic forms in the former language, and the 
 forms* l-6a(l>-6riv, re-Ba^'Oai, Te-BcKp-Oo), r^'OcKp-aTait re- 
 
 * Bopp (Vergleichende Grammatik., vol. i., p. 182, §. 104») accounts 
 for these forms (except rtQatparai, which he confesses his inability to ex- 
 plain), partly from the inclination shown by the Greeks for the combina- 
 tion 00, and partly from the fact that in these cases was felt to belong 
 to the root, and was therefore allowed to show itself again contrary to the 
 usual custom. 
 
184 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 OpcKji-Oaii l-Bpi(^'Or)v, in the latter. In Indo-European, how- 
 ever, roots of this form were common, as is shown by the 
 cognate languages; consult §. 31. But Sanskrit and Greek 
 were opposed to such a combination, and always omitted the 
 aspiration of one aspirated mute. This disinclination of San- 
 skrit and Greek to the proximity of two aspirates, is shown 
 by the fact that when aspirates occur in two groups of conso- 
 nants belonging to the same roots, and merely separated by 
 a vowel, one of these aspirates, generally the first, loses its 
 aspiration.* Thus in Sanskrit and Greek aspirates are redu- 
 plicated generally by the corresponding unaspirated conso- 
 nants, but this law did not hold in Indo-European, as we see 
 from the Latin fefelliy and the Oscan fufans^ fefacust^ &c., in 
 which, though /be not a true aspirate, it represents an original 
 Indo-European aspirate. Originally the whole root was re- 
 peated in reduplicated syllables, as we see in Sanskrit inten- 
 sive forms,t such as daridrdX (to be poor) from drd (to run) 
 beside Gr. Sz-S/oa-n-Ktu, tS/oav, daridrs' or daridrs' or dardrs 
 from dars (to see) = Gr. SepK, k'rikar, or k'arikar, or k'arkar^ 
 from kar (to make), &c., and in such Greek forms as tto/x- 
 (paivio for (ftav-cjiavt/u), fuLip'firjp-a (care) and jLLep'/nep'og (care- 
 laden) from R. jU€/o = Skr. smar (to remember), /xa/o-juatp-w 
 (I shine) from R. juap whence jxap-fxap-oq (stone, marble, lit. 
 ***what glistens"); Kip-Kvp-a (lit. Round town) from same root 
 as Kip-K'OQ (a ring), icu-icX-oc, L. circus, &c. 
 
 * This does not happen when the aspirates belong to different roots or 
 different suffixes, or when one belongs to a root and another to a suffix, 
 or when more than one vowel intervenes between the groups of conso- 
 nants, except in a few cases, such as tKe-xeipia from txc^ and x"V> 
 TtiXiOdu} from K. 6aX for 0aX0a-a>, an irregular reduplicated form like 
 ^sp-/3-w from R. ^fp = Skr. bhar and <pe-l3-ofiai for ^i-jii-ofxai from R. 0( 
 «= hhi (to fear), &c. 
 
 •f- Consult Bopp's Sanskrit Grammar, p. 343 seq., and Grassmann in 
 K. Z., vol. xii., p. 111. 
 
 X Lottner considers daridrd to be a reduplicated form of I. E. dar (to 
 tear). 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 185 
 
 Although in Greek we generally find no combinations 
 such as aspirated mute + vowel + aspirated mute, we fre-_ 
 quently find such as spiritus asper + vowel + aspirated mute 
 or p + vowel + aspirated mute ; thus we find a^-r} (a fasten- 
 ing, lightning) from a7r-rtu ; u^-rj (a web) from R. u^ = I. E. 
 vabh whence Skr. urna-vd-bhas (nom. sing, a spider, lit. a 
 weaver of wool) ; ri9-fx6g* (a strainer) from riOio = ariOd) (I sift) ; 
 e(l)'66g from e\pu) beside o^ov, ott'Toq, the initial aspirate per- 
 haps compensating for tt (as in "nrTaixai = TnirTafxm from I. E. 
 pat), if the root be ttett, whence ttett-tocj Triir-Mv, &c. ; v9-\og 
 (idle talk), from R. vd, whence vSwp, or from same root as 
 Skr. vad (to speak) ; po(j)-lw (I swallow), pocji-avb) (id.) beside 
 L. sorbeo, Lith. srebiu (I swallow) ; pitp-ri (a throwing) beside 
 f'/nr-Tw, &c. In these cases the spiritus asper either is inor- 
 ganic, and did not exist in Indo-European, or represents a 
 lost consonant, generally s, and the same may be said of the 
 aspiration of p ; in no case does either aspiration seem to re- 
 present an original aspirated mute. 
 
 §. 93. In Sanskrit we find several combinations of more than 
 one syllable classified as roots, but such forms are not true roots. 
 They arise either from the reduplication of true roots, as g'dgar 
 (to wake) from I. E. gar whence Gr. lyeiptjjf for yey eipu), 
 k'a-kds (to shine) from kds (id.), &c. ; or from the union of 
 prepositions with true roots, as avadhir (to despise) from ava 
 (de, ab) and dhir, which Bopp connects with dhi (the mind), 
 sangrdm (to fight) from sam (Gr. o-uv, L. cum) and kram (to 
 go), unless it be a denominative formed from sangrdrna (a 
 fight), &c. ; or from nouns, as kumdr (to play) from kumdra 
 (a boy), &c. 
 
 §. 94. Roots in general may be divided into the two great 
 
 * This word is generally written tiOfiSg, the spiritus asper becoming the 
 lenis on account of the following 9 as in ex^- On Sigeian Inscription it 
 is written >)0judg. 
 
 f Some consider initial t here to be merely prosthetic, while Pott de- 
 rives it from iK. The view taken above is, however, much more plausible. 
 
186 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 classes, verbal (called also qualitative oi predicative), and pro- 
 nominal (called also demonstrative). The first class is com- 
 posed of verbs and nouns, of which the former stand in a closer 
 connexion with the root than the latter. Originally there was 
 no difference between verb and noun, the root da^ for example, 
 signifying the giver, the thing given, the act of giving, &c. The 
 second class consists of all the pronouns, most prepositions, 
 conjunctions, and particles, which are generally derived from 
 pronominal roots, and perhaps a few other words. In this class 
 the root and the stem are identical, and the roots express some 
 relation to the speaker, while those of the first class express 
 a state or action. 
 
 §. 95. The chief pronominal roots in Indo-European were* 
 kva (who) whence Skr. ku-tas (whence), ka-s (who), ka-d 
 (what) ki-m (what), Gr. tlq, irorepog. Ion. Korepog, 7rwc» ^on. 
 Kwg, ri, Ka-i (an old locative), k£v (ke. Dor. kuv) = Skr. kam, 
 L. quis, quae,,qiiid, &c. ; ga or gha (perhaps derived from kva or 
 ka), whence Skr. ha- Ved. ghaoi ghd (indeed), Gr. ov-xh 7^; 
 ya (who) whence Skr. ya-s, yd, ya-d = Gr. og, ri, o, L. jam ; 
 i (he, she, it) when Skr. i-yam, id-am, i-ha (here) for idha, Gr. 
 '/, -I (in ovToai, &c.), L. is, ea, id, i-terum, i-pse, &c. ; ta (this) 
 Skr. tarn, tdm, tad = Gr. tov, tt^v, to, Gr. ov-toq, av-rog, L. 
 i.s-te, is-ta, is-tud, turn, tarn, ipse (for i-p-te), i-ta, i-tem, &c. ; da 
 (perhaps derived from ta), Skr. ka-dd (when), Gr. Tro-Sa-irog, 
 ovTL-da-v6g, o-de, ^oiuLov-Se (homewards), L. quam-do, qui-dam, 
 in-de, un-de, qui-dem, &c. ; dha (closely connected with da), 
 Skr. a-dhas (below), adhara-s (= L. inferu-s), i-ha (here) for 
 i-dha, Gr. £v-0a, iro-di, av-Oig (Ion. av-Tig), ev-Oev, L. u-bi 
 and i-bi, according to Leo Meyer for cu-dhi and i-dhi ; sa (he), 
 Skr. sa, sa - Gr. 6, 17, Skr. sa-krt (once), Gr. a-7raS, a-irXovg, 
 0. L. sum, sam, sos, sas (ace. sing, and pi., masc. and fem.), 
 &c. ; na, an, ana, Skr. nas (us), na (not, lest; like, Vedic), 
 ana-yd (instr. sing., through her), an-tara-s (alius), an-ya-s 
 (alius), Gr. vw, vtv, vri, vvv, vai, av, Iv, ava, L. nos, ne, num, 
 
 * Leo Meyer, Vergleichende Grammatic, &c., vol. i., p. 323, seq. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 187 
 
 nam* in^ &c. ; pa, Skr. a-pa (away), pa-rd (away), Gr. a-7ro, 
 7r6-pt, ira-pa, ir-po, L. ab, p-ro, pe-r,f &c. ; bha (which is, per- . 
 haps, connected with pa ; there does not appear to be any 
 trace of a stem ba)^ Skr. -bhis (term of instr. pL), -hhyas (term, 
 of dat. and abl. pi.), -bhydm (term, of instr., dat. and abl. 
 dual), Gr. aii-(p(i) = Skr. u-bha (both) = L. amho, j3irj-0f, vav- 
 0<v, L. ti-bi, mi-M, no-bis, &c. ; ra,J Skr. va-yam (we), which 
 Bopp considers to be a weakened form of ma-yam, butE. we, 
 Goth, veis, G. wir, establish the originality of the initial v, 
 Skr. vas (ye, ace. pi.) and vdm (ye two, ace. dual), Gr. av, 
 av'Tog, ovv (?), av-Tap, L. ne-ve, vos, tu = t-va (Skr. tvam^ 
 thou), &c. ; ma, Skr. mdm, and ma (me, ace. sing.), ma-yd 
 (instr. sing.), Gr. jul, fxa, fxri (= Skr. md, not), jutv, L. me, 
 ego-me-t, &c. 
 
 §. 96. No verbal root can by itself form a word. It be- 
 comes a word by the addition of a pronominal root; thus 
 from the Latin verbal roots reg (to rule), luc (to shine), we 
 form the words rex (reg-s) and lux {luc + s) by the addition of 
 the pronominal root sa. 
 
 §. 97. Verbal and pronominal roots frequently agree in 
 form : thus i is a verbal root meaning * to go^ and a pronominal 
 root meaning '/ie'; similarly ta (to stretch) and ta (this), ka 
 (to be sharp) and ka (who), unless kva be the original form of 
 this pronominal root, as is probable. In consequence of this 
 agreement, some writers have derived the pronominal from the 
 verbal roots : thus Schleicher (Compendium, §. 265, p. 642, 
 2nd Ed.), writes : " I take ma (I) to be identical with the verbal 
 root ma (to measure, think) ; this root also signifies ''homo' 
 (compare Skr. ma-nii-, Goth, ma-n-), who was described as 
 
 * Nam is derived by some writers from I. E. ndman (a name). 
 
 f h. per ^ pro, Gr. Tra^ja, &c., may, however, be all connected with 
 I. E. root par (to penetrate, cross, &c.). 
 
 t Va originally meant " is, ea, id.^' We have Old Persian ava (iste) 
 from same root. Initial t was probably lost before Skr. vas and vdtn ; 
 compare Skr. tvam (thou) = ^ + va + m for ta + va + m. 
 
188 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 ' the thinker ;^ what could 'i' have been originally save * man^? 
 The abstract conception of the 'i' cannot certainly be attri- 
 buted to the oldest stage of the Indo-European (ursprache)." 
 Bopp adduces as an argument against the deduction of pro- 
 nominal roots from verbal, his supposition, that no verbal 
 root ends in d, whilst pronominal roots for the most part end 
 in this vowel. We have, however, already seen that many 
 verbal roots do actually end in a, so that this argument of 
 Bopp is valueless. The Indian grammarians derive all words, 
 without exception, from verbal roots, either existing or in- 
 vented by them for this purpose ; thus, ta (this, he) they de- 
 rive from tan (to stretch), ya (who) from yag (to worship, 
 yadi (when) from yat (to make an effort), &c. Such deriva- 
 tions are of course preposterous ; but these grammarians are 
 not the only persons who offend in this way. 
 
 The connexion between verbal and pronominal roots is 
 is still unknown, and likely to remain so, for we have no ma- 
 terials on which to base our reasonings. A few sentences of 
 Indo-European, as it was spoken when the Indo-Europeans 
 first began to exist as a distinct race, would probably clear up 
 the difficulty. 
 
 Even if verbal and pronominal roots were originally iden- 
 tical, they must have been distinguished from each other in 
 very early times, in fact, before the origin of any gramma- 
 tical forms whatsoever, for these forms presuppose the dis- 
 tinction. " First," writes Curtius (zur Chronologic der Indo- 
 germanischen Sprachforschung, p. 205), " through this dua- 
 lity light and shade come into language, first through this it 
 becomes possible to arrange words beside each other so as to 
 express a meaning, the necessary condition of all further 
 development." 
 
 §. 98. Verbal roots are twofold, primary and secondary. 
 The primary consists (1) of % single short vowel, as t (to go) ; 
 or (2) of a consonant + a short vowel, as dd (to give), dhd (to 
 place), pa (to drinkj, kX (to lie) ; or (3) of a short vowel + a 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 189 
 
 consonant, as dd (to eat), dk (to be sharp), ds (to be), Xdh (to 
 burn) ; or (4) of a consonant + a short vowel + a consonant,^ 
 as dur (to tear), hhdr (to bear), div (to shine), pat (to fall, fly) ; 
 or (5) of two consonants + a short vowel, as std (to stand). 
 
 The last division (5) of these roots is very small, and per- 
 haps belongs to the secondary class. 
 
 Secondary roots are formed from primary by the addition 
 of a new sound, or sounds, called by Curtius the root deter- 
 minative. The object of this addition is to express a modifi- 
 cation of the meaning of the primary root. Thus from L E. 
 yu (to bind, to mix dough, &c.), came I. E. yug (to unite in- 
 tentionally^ to yoke horses), and I. E. yudh (to unite for the 
 purpose of fighting) ; from I. E. gan (to produce), came gnd 
 (for gand ov gna + a) to express the idea of ^^ knowing how to 
 produce;'^ similarly from I. E. man (to think), came 7nnd (to 
 remember) ; &c. 
 
 §. 99. A complete list of the primary and secondary roots 
 of Indo-European does not fall within the scope of the present 
 work. It will be sufficient here to give a few examples of 
 the chief root-determinatives. 
 
 ^(root-determinative). Primary root, I. E. tar or tra (to 
 move), whence Skr. tarala (tremulous), tara (a passage), -tara 
 (term, of comparative) = Gr. -repo = L. -ter (in dex-ter), -tra 
 (in con-tra), ter-minus ; secondary root, Skr. tark (to suppose, 
 lit., to turn in one's mind), tarku (a spindle), Gr. a-TpiK-iiQ, 
 a-TpaK-Tog (a spindle), L. torqu-eo, torc-ular, torqu-es. Pr. 
 root, I. E. pat whence Skr. pat (to fall, fly), pat-ra (a wing), 
 Gr. KaTa-7rTri-Tr}v, TTiTTTti) for Tri-TreT-io, TriT-Ofiai^ ttts-qov,, wtw- 
 (TiQ, L. pet-o, penna = 0. L. pesna for pet-na ; sec. root, Gr. 
 TrraK, t-Trrafcoy, WTijcrati) for Trrrj/c-ytu, Trrcu?, TTTwaait) for tttcuk- 
 -ya>. Pr. root, I. E. gva (to go), whence Skr. gd or ga (to 
 go), Gr. j3a ; sec. root (3aK, Gr. jSajc-rpov, L. bac-ulnm. Pr. 
 root, Gr. 6X (to destroy), oX-Xvjut for oX-w-iul ; sec. root, oAek, 
 oXiK-ovTo. Pr. root, I. E. var (? to draw) whence Skr. var 
 (to choose), L. vel-lo for vel-yo ; sec. root, Gr. FfAjc, uXkov = 
 
190 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 cFeXkov. In English we similarly find roots lengthened by 
 k, as harkf talk, pluck, beside hear, tell, pull. 
 
 G (root-det.). Pr. root, yu (to bind ; sec. root, Skr. yug-a 
 (a yoke, pair), Gr. Jvy-ov, L. jug-um. 
 
 KhfoT sk (root-det.) = Skr. k'h = Gr. ;y- Pr. I'oot, gva (to 
 go) = Skr. ga; sec. root, Skr. gak'h-ati (he goes) ^ Gr. ^aaK-u. 
 Pr. root, ar (to move) ; sec. root, Gr. i^^-oiiai = iQaK-oiiaL 
 probably. Sk here is perhaps the remains of a root = I. E. 
 sak to (follow) whence L. sequ-or, &c. 
 
 T (root-det.) . Pr. root, Skr. cZ^m = div (to shine); sec. 
 root, Skr. dyut (id.). Pr. root, l.E.av (to blow), whence 
 Gr. au-oj, a-rijuLi ; sec. root, Skr. dt-man (breath), Gr. avr-fxrjv, 
 ar-juoc, aer-juov (irvevfjia, Hesych). From the sec. root, Skr. 
 tup (to strike) = Gr. tvtt comes another sec. root, Gr. ru7r-r-a>. 
 Similarly from Gr. Oair or Ta(l>^ comes a sec. root, Od-n-T'tjj.* 
 It is doubtfnl whether raif) or Oair be a primary or a secondary 
 root ; if it be = Skr. tap (to burn) beside Gr. Ti(j)-pay L. tep-eo, 
 A. S. thef-ian (aestuare), it is a primary root and originally 
 meant " to buni^ (sc. the dead). On the other hand, if it be 
 formed from dha (to place) = Skr. dhd, by the root-determi- 
 native p, it is a secondary root, Oair (ra(f>) : dhap : : Ovir (ru0) : 
 Skr. dhup (to fumigate). 
 
 D (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. ska (to cleave) whence Gr. 
 R. K€ (= <TKs), ic£-/<w, Ke-a^u), Kaiada^, Skr. k'hd, k'hydmi (ab- 
 scindo), L. de-sci-scOy sci-o ; sec. root, Skr. skhad (to cut), Gr. 
 GKi^-avvv^i, L. scindo. Pr. root, I. E. ma (to measure), whence 
 Gr. fxi-Tpov^ &c. ; sec. root, Gr. /neS-ifivog, fii^-ovrtg^ L. mod- 
 ius, mod-eror, mod-us. Pr. root, I. E. ni (to sound) : sec. 
 root, Skr. rud (to weep), L. rud-o. 
 
 Uh (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. yu (to join) ; sec. root, 
 Skr. yudh (to fight, manus conserere), Z. yud (to fight), Gr. 
 va-iiLvr\ for vd'ijnvr\. Pr. root, I. E. pa (to suffer) ; sec. root, 
 Gr. i-iraQ-ov, L. patior being formed from same root by means 
 of a different suffix (t), unless Gr. and L. ^represent an I. E. 
 
 * These forms are perhaps only presential bases. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 191 
 
 th, as is supposed by those who believe in the existence of the 
 hard aspirates in Indo-European. Pr. root, I. E. dar (to 
 sleep) whence Skr. drd (id.), L. dor-mi-o ; sec. root, Gr. 
 £-S/oa0-ov, ^apd-dvit). Pr. root, I. E. pu (to stink), whence 
 Skr. pui/ (id.), Z, pu (id.), Gr. ttv-ov, L. pus, pu-t-eo, Goth. 
 fu-h (foul) ; sec. root, Gr. irvO-h). This root-determinative is 
 of frequent occurrence in Greek;* thus we have such forms 
 as vii-6-(t) from E, ve (vi-io), (ti)-6-(v from R. era (cra-w), ^Xsy- 
 i-6-w, TTpri-O-uj from R. Trpa = I. E.par, whence Ch. S\. pal-iti 
 (to burn), Ea-Oiu) from R. tS, fdpi-O-io, £-<rx^-0-ov, eipy-a-O-ov, 
 ax-O-ofiai beside ax-oc, &c. 9 is frequently added to secon- 
 dary roots in v : thus from ttbv = ira -f- v we have iri-rrovQ-a 
 and irivQ-oQ ; from I.E. man (to think) = ma (to measure) + 
 w, whence Gr. jirivig^ fxiv-og, L. 7/<ews, &c., we have Gr. juavO- 
 dvw, fitvO-ripai {(jipovTiSegy Hesych.). BivO-og which is related 
 to (5dB-oQ as 7riv9-0Q is to TraO-og, is derived from R. j3fv = 
 j3a + v from [5a (to go), unless indeed in both these cases 
 (tt^i^^-oc and (5h0-og), the forms iraO and (5a0 are the older, 
 and wevO and j3ev0 formed from them by the insertion of v. 
 BdO'og, (BaO-vg, f5v9-6g -peihsiips come from a root f3a0 (to dive 
 into) = Skr. gdh (id.) = 1. E. gvn + dh from gva (to go). 
 
 >S (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. ark or rak (to preserve), 
 whence Gr. aXtc-j?, apK-tw, L. arc-eo, arc-a ; sec. root, Skr. 
 rahh (to defend) = ra^ + s, Gr. a-XiS-o). Pr. root, I. E. tar 
 or tra (to move) ; sec. root, Skr. tras (to tremble), Z. fares' 
 (id.), Gr. rptcD for rpecr-w, Horn. Aor. rpiaaa, Tpr\p6g, perhaps 
 for rpia-Qog, L. terr-eo for ters-eo, tris-tis (?). Pr. root, I. E. 
 c?a^ (to bite), whence Skr. dans' (id.), Gr. Sok-vw, Sok-oc (a 
 bite, beast), Goth, tah-ja (I tear) ; sec. root, Gr. 6-^a?-a». Pr. 
 root, I. E. vag (to increase), whence Skr. w^-^^a (strong), 6g-as 
 (power), Z. vaz (to strengthen), Gr. vy-i-r^g, L. veg-eo, vig-eo, 
 aug-eo, Goth. ai«^« (I increase) ; sec. root, Skr. vaksh (to grow), 
 = vak + s, Gr. au^-w, ae^w = a-FeJ-w, Goth, vahs-jan, E. wa-r. 
 
 * Curtius, Grundzuge, &c., p. G2. 
 
192 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Pr. root, I. E. dak (to take), whence Ion. ^eK-ofiai, ^aK-rvXog; 
 sec. root, Skr. daksh-a (clever), daksh-ina (right), Gr.lStS-toc, 
 L. dex-ter, Goth, taihs-vo (SfSict). 
 
 JSf (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. gva (to go), whence Skr. 
 gd (id.), Z. gd (id.), Gr. £-j3rj-v, j3a-T0Ci L- ar-hi-ter; sec. root, 
 |3atva> = ^av- yw, 0. hen-ust (= L. ven-erit). Pr. root, I. E. 
 ga (to be born, to produce), whence G-r. yi-ya-a ; sec. root, 
 Skr. g'an (to bring forth), Gr. yh-og^ L. gen-us. Pr. root, 
 I. E. hha (to shine), whence Skr. hhd (id.), Gr. (^a-rig^ L./a- 
 teor; sec. root, 0aivw = ^av-yw. Pr. root, I. E. ^a (to stretch), 
 whence Gr. rd-w-Tai = Skr. ta-nu-tS ; sec. root, Gr. tuvio = 
 T^v-yii). 
 
 R ox L (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. ma (to measure), 
 whence Skr. md (id.), Gr. /xi-rpov ; sec. root, Gr. fxip-og, 
 HOiQ-a^ fieifi-ofiai = fitp-yofxai, L. mSr-eo, mer-ces^ mer-x. Pr. 
 root, I. E. sta (to stand) ; sec. root, Skr. sthal (to stand 
 firmly), s^^aZ-a (firm ground), Gr. ariWio = areX-yu), L. prae- 
 stol-07% stul-tus, stol-idus, O. H. G. stel-lan (to place). Pr. root, 
 I. E. sta (to stand) ; sec. root, Skr. sthir-a (fast), stor-i(vacca 
 sterilis), Gr. (rrtp-pogy artipa = ar^Q-ya^ Goth, stairo (o-rcTpa), 
 M. H. G. star (rigidus). 
 
 P (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. tar ox tra (to move) ; sec. 
 root, Skr. (Ved.) trp-ra (hastening), trap (to be embarrassed), 
 Gr. £v-rpa7r-fXoC) Tpin-u), Ion. rpdn-u)* L. trep-idus, turp-is 
 (according to Benfey). This I. E. root tra was weakened to 
 tru^ whence Gr. rpv-xu) (I rub away), Tpv-aKii) (id. Hesych.), 
 TQv-u) (id.), Tp\)-p.a (a hole) ; sec. root, Gr. rovir-avov^ rpvir- 
 d(t). Pr. root, I. E. dhu (to move), whence Skr. dhu (to move, 
 to blow), dhu-ina-s (smoke) = Gr. Ov-fio-g = L. fu-mu-s, Z. 
 dun-man (mist), Gr. Ov-eXXai Ov-og, L. suh-fi-o^ 0. H. G. tunst 
 (storm), O.N. dust (dust), Lith. du-mas (mind) ; sec. root, 
 Skr. dhup (to fumigate), Gr. Tv<p-wv (a whirlwind), riKp-tj (I 
 
 * In these Greek works, however, tt may represent an older kv, as we 
 find in Latin torqu-eo^ torc-ulum. 
 
COSIPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 193 
 
 smoke), ru0-oc (mist). Pr. root, I.E. da (to cut), whence 
 Skr. da (id.), Gr. Sa-to), ^a-ig, ^a-er/ioci ^ai-ru-juoiv ; sec. root,_ 
 Gr. ^dir-Td), dair-dvY}^ deiTT-vov. 
 
 B (root-det.). Pr. root tri weakened from I E. tra (to 
 move) ; sec. root, Gr. r|0tj3-w, L. trib-ula, 
 
 Bli (root-det.). Pr. root, I.E. sta (to stand) ; sec. root, Skr. 
 stambh (to make firm), Gr. a-dreiicp-rtc (unshaken), ariinji-ht 
 (I shake by stamping), A. S. stemn (stem) = stabh + na. Pr. 
 root, I. E. va (to twine round), whence Skr. va-ydmi (I 
 weave), Gr. ri-rpiov (the warp), L vimen ; sec. root, Skr, 
 urna-vdhh-a (a spider, lit. a spinner of wool, Gr. u^-?}, u*^- 
 
 F (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. sta (to stand); sec. root, 
 Skr. stMv-ara (fixed), Z. stavra (strong), Gr. arav-poQ, anv' 
 TO, Goth, stiviti (vTrojuovrj). Pr. root, I. E. bha (to shine) ; 
 sec. root, Gr. (pd-og for (paf-og, iEol. ^au-oc> nn-^av-aKW^ 
 Pamph. ^a/3-oc (= (jiaf-og), h, fav-eo, fav-iUa, fau-stm. 
 
 M (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. tra (to move) ; sec. root, 
 Gr. TQifX'ii}^ L. trem-o, trem-ulus. Pr. root, I. E. gva (to go) ; 
 sec. root, Skr. gam (to go), Z. gam (id.), Goth, quim-an (to 
 come). Pr. root, I. E. da (to bind), whence Skr. (Ved.) da 
 (id.), Gr. dl-dri-imi, de-rogy Sl-to ; sec. root, Skr. dam (to tame), 
 Gr. ^a/x-acu, 3/itt)-c» ddfJL-api L. dom~o, E. ifa7?2e. 
 
 §. 98. The primary roots were chronologically older than 
 the secondary. Some writers support the opposite, and be- 
 lieve that the so-called primary forms were obtained by ge- 
 neralization from the so-called secondary. They suppose that 
 they were originally special terms, for different cognate ideas, 
 e. g. for yoking horses {yiig), coming together for the purpose 
 ^f fi'9^^^'^^9 {yudh), &c., and that from these roots was developed 
 the general idea o^ uniting for any purpose (yu). This opinion 
 is extremely unlikely ; it is far more probable that the sim- 
 plest form of the root was the oldest, as expressing the funda- 
 mental idea of all the secondary roots. 
 
 The oldest form of an I. E. root was perhaps either (1) d 
 
 o 
 
194 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 + any consonant ; or (2) any consonant + a. Thus the most 
 primitive roots were hd^ dk, dd, dd, &c. The origin of such 
 roots is wrapped in impenetrable obscurity, for we have no 
 remains of any I, E. language in its radical stage to supply 
 us with materials on which we might found our investigations. 
 We may theorize as much as we like, but that is all that we 
 can do. It is puerile to dogmatize.* 
 
 §. 99. The origin of the root-determinatives is as -obscure 
 as that of the primary roots themselves. Various theories 
 have indeed been invented to account for them ; but although 
 a few of them may be explained by these theories, the vast 
 majority of them are still as dark as ever. Thus it has been 
 suggested that secondary roots arise from nominal stems, e. g. 
 I. E. gan (to produce), from a nom. stem gana derived from 
 R. ga + nom. suffix na ; but in the first place, on this theory, 
 primitive verbs would be confounded with denominative, and 
 in the second, very few of the usual root-determinatives ever 
 appear as nominal suffixes, e. g. p is a common root-det., but 
 never occurs as a nominal suffix. Again we are told that 
 secondary roots are compounded of two primary verbal ones ; 
 thus I. E. yudh (to fight), is derived from yu (to join), and 
 dha (to place), and consequently meant originally " to make 
 to join," I. E. halp (to make), is from kar (to make) + pa (to 
 do), &c. Thirdly, secondary roots are said to consist of a 
 primary verbal root + a pronominal root ; e. g. the root de- 
 terminatives, k, t, m, are identified with the pronominal roots 
 ka, ta, ma : this is, however, the merest guess-work, and 
 sheds no light at all on the subject. 
 
 We must, therefore, for the present be content to be igno- 
 rant of the origin of these secondary roots, but we need not 
 
 * Here is a specimen of dogmatism with respect to one theory of the 
 origin of roots. " The onomatopoeic theory goes very smoothly as long as 
 it deals with cackling hens and quacking ducks; but round that poultry 
 yard there is a dead wall, and we soon find that it is behind that wall that 
 language really begins."— Max Miiller, Lectures II. p. 91. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 195 
 
 give up all hope of being ever able to account for them, for it 
 is quite possible that at some future period, when the non-- 
 Indo-European languages shall have been thoroughly studied 
 and their connexion with the Indo-European family discover- 
 ed, these root-determinatives may be easily explained. 
 
 §. 100. Stems. 
 
 The stem of a noun or verb is that portion of the word 
 that remains after the case-endings or personal endings have 
 been removed. The first class of stems is called nominal, 
 and the second verbal. Thus the nominal stems of Skr. 
 devas (nom. sing, a god), as'vasya (gen. sing, a horse), Gr. 
 tTTTToc, tTTTTou, L. ciwus, equus, &c., are Skr. deva, as'va, Gr. 
 tTTTTo, L. divo, equOj &c. The verbal stems of Skr. imas (we 
 go) = Gr. tij.av, Skr. bharati (he bears) = Gr. (pipeiy L. Imus, 
 are Skr. i, = Gr. T, Skr. bhara = Gr. ^epe, and L. l. 
 
 Stems may be of three kinds: (1) they may consist of 
 the root alone, its vowel being sometimes affected by guna 
 or vrddhi ; (2) of the root + a pronominal suffix, the vowel of 
 the root being affected as in (1) ; (3) of the union of two stems 
 so as to form a single new one. 
 
 I. Stems formed from the root alone* are such as Skr. e in 
 emi(l go), i in imas (we go), from R. ^, the guna of which is S, 
 Gr. OTT in b\p from R. ott, &c. We find many examples of no- 
 minal stems consisting of the mere root, such as Gr. ott, the 
 vowel of the root being sometimes lengthened as in Skr. vd/c 
 (the voice), from R. va^'(to speak). Thus in Skr. we have yudh 
 (a fight), kshudh (hunger), wMC?(joy), bM (fear), drs (the eye), 
 vis (a man), &c., from the verbal roots yudh, kshudh, &c. In 
 Greek we have (pXoy (^XoS) from R. (pXay, &c. In Latin we 
 haveped (pes = pSds) from I. E. pad (to go), voc {vox) = Skr. 
 
 * Consult Schleicher Compendium, pp. 346 seq., 374 seq., and Cur- 
 tius zur Chronologie, &c., pp. 218 seq. 
 
 02 
 
196 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 vaM^ &c. Curtius supposes that the signification of such stems 
 as these was originally a mean between an infinitive and a 
 participle, and nearly the same as that of English forms in 
 -ing ; e. g. vis (a man) from vis' (to enter), originally meant 
 " the entering " person ; drs' (the eye) from drs (to see) 
 meant " the seeing " faculty ; &c. 
 
 In stems of this first class the root was sometimes redupli- 
 cated, as in Skr. daddmi= Gr. StSw/xt, &c. 
 
 II. Stems formed from the root + a pronominal suffix, are 
 such as Skr. deva (a god) from dSv, the guna-form of R. div 
 (to shine), and pronominal suffix a ; Skr. divya (celestial) from 
 div + ya ; Skr. bhdra (a burden) = Gr. ^oqo from Skr. hhdr 
 the guna-form of hhar (to bear) = Gr. 0£p and pron. suffix a ; 
 Skr. hhdraya, the stem of bhdrayati (he makes to bear) from 
 hhdr + a + ya, and similar causative forms ; &c. 
 
 Before nominal stems were formed from roots by means 
 of pronominal suffixes, the root itself must have been used 
 independently as a nominal stem, for the pronominal suffix 
 has merely an individualizing force, and is nearly equi- 
 valent to an article. In the earliest stage of Indo-Euro- 
 pean, language consisted of roots placed in juxtaposition ; at 
 this period there were no stems, no case-endings, no personal 
 endings, no distinction between noun and verb. The root hhar^ 
 for example, signified " to hear^^ " hearing,'^ *' the burden^* 
 '•''the hearer^'' &c. The next stage through which Indo-European 
 passed was the formation of verbal stems. Nouns were now 
 distinguished from verbs only negatively^ that is, only by the 
 absence of the pronominal suffixes. This stage again was 
 followed by another, in which nominal stems were formed by 
 the addition of these suffixes in order to individualize the root 
 that had been used as a noun. That the verbal suffixes are 
 older than the nominal ones is shown by the fact, that the 
 latter are preserved in a much more perfect form in the Indo- 
 European languages than the former ; thus we find the suf- 
 fixes a, aw, ma, ta, &c., still kept perfect in nominal stems, 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 197 
 
 while no single personal ending is found in its original form.* 
 An additional proof that verbal and nominal stems were 
 formed at different periods is supplied by the consideration 
 that, as the same suffixes are in many cases used to form both 
 classes of stems, a considerable period must have elapsed be- 
 tween the use of the same suffix in two such totally different 
 ways. Moreover, as the original meaning of the pronoun is more 
 manifest in the verbal stem than in the nominal, the former 
 must have been older than the latter ; thus the pronominal 
 stem ta (he, she, it) is employed to form the 3 pers. sing, of 
 the verb, as hharati (he bears), and also such nouns as Skr. 
 sthi-ta-s (standing) = Gr. (rra-ro-c, Gr. 0OjO-ro-c, kol-ty}, L. seC' 
 ta, doc-tu-s, &c., and it is obvious that its original meaning can 
 be much more easily discovered from the verb than from the 
 noun. 
 
 Pronominal suffixes are twofold, primary and secondary. 
 The former are employed in forming stems from roots, and 
 the latter in forming stems from other stems. Stems formed 
 directly from roots are called 2)rimari/^ and those from stems, 
 secondary. In many cases these suffixes agree in form : thus 
 a is a primary suffix in Skr. bhdr-a-s (a burden) = Gr. (pop-o-g, 
 Skr. dSv-a-s (a god) = L. div-u-s^ &c., and a secondary suf- 
 fix in Skr. dduhitr-a-s (filiae natus) from St. duhitar, Gr. 
 riyefiovY) from St. riysfiov, &c. ; ya is a primary suffix in Skr. 
 madh-ya-s = Gr. iiicraog (for juLeOyo-g) = L. med-iu-s, Gr. fioiQa 
 = fiop'T/a, L. exim-iu'S, &c., and a secondary suffix in Skr. pitr 
 -ya-s = Gr. narp-i-og, h. patr-ia, &c. 
 
 III. Stems formed by the union of two other stems are such as 
 Gr. \oyo-ypa^o-g^ Skr. urna-vabha-s (a spider), &c. Schleicher 
 supposes that such compound stems existed in Indo-European, 
 and adduces as examples I. E. svastar (soror), and svakura 
 (socer). 
 
 §. 101. As there was a period when Indo-European con- 
 
 * Gurtius zur Chronologie, &c., p. 220. 
 
198 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 sisted merely of roots, so there was subsequently another 
 period when it consisted merely of stems.* 
 
 The nominal suffixes -ant and -tar are found in all the 
 I. E. languages, and consequently must have existed in the 
 original Indo-European. Now i£ ant is composed of the two 
 pronominal suffixes an and ta, and tar of the two ta and ra, 
 bharanta, ddtara must have been the original forms of the 
 stems bharantj ddtar ; and if the case-endings had already 
 existed, we would have found such forms as hharanta-s (nom. 
 sing.) in place oi hharanta-s (= Gr. tpipdjv, Ij.ferens, &c.), 
 hharanta'Sya (gen. sing.) in place of hharant-as (= Gr. (pipov 
 roc, Ij.ferentis, &c.), ddtara-s (nom. sing.) in place oiddtar-s, 
 ddtara-i (loc. sing.) in place of ddtar-i, &c. Now although it 
 is possible to suppose that hharants came from bharantas from 
 analogy with later formations, yet it is impossible to derive 
 the oblique cases bharantas, ddtari, &c., from bharantasi/a, dd- 
 taraij &c., and therefore before the oblique case-endings 
 were attached, these stems must have already lost their final 
 vowel. 
 
 §. 102. We have remarked that in the earliest stage of 
 Indo-European there was no distinction between the noun 
 and verb. In its latest stage, however, this distinction was 
 sharply marked, firstly, by the form, and secondly, by the 
 syntactical construction of each, the verb requiring as its com- 
 plementary case an accusative, and the noun requiring a ge- 
 nitive. In Vedic even still many nouns, following the analogy 
 of the verb, are construed with the accusative. 
 
 * Consult Curtius, zur Chronologie, &c., p. 223, whom I have here 
 closely followed. 
 
( 199 ) 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Substantives. 
 
 §. 103. All the Indo-European words are either nouns or 
 verbs. Nouns include substantives, adjectives, pronouns, 
 and numerals. Prepositions, adverbs, and particles were 
 originally cases of nouns or verbal forms. No nominal stem 
 can be used as a word ; the only example of the pure stem 
 being found independently is the vocative case, but this case 
 is not properly a word, being only an interjection. The stem, 
 subject only to euphonic changes, occurs in the beginning 
 of compounds, as the representative of all the cases, and con- 
 sequently it has been called casus generalis : thus we have 
 Skr. g'alamuch (a cloud), from St. g'ala (water), and much (to 
 pour), Skr. rathas'dla (a coach-house), from St. ratha (a 
 coach) and s'dla (a house), Skr. as'varupa (having the form of 
 a horse), from St. as'va (a horse) and rupa (shape), Gr. A.070- 
 ypd(poQ from St. Xoyo and ypa^w, Gr. vvKOri/xepov from St. 
 vvKT and r]fxipa^ Gr. fxaKQoQvfxog from St. juaKpo and Ovfxog, 
 L. longimanus from St. longo and manus, L. tubicen from St. 
 tuba and cano. 
 
 In Sanskrit when a noun has two stems, the weaker is 
 always employed in compounds, as in pitrrdg'a-s (the God 
 Yama, lit. the king of the Manes) from pitr the weak form of 
 the stem pilar; and when a noun has three stems, strong, in- 
 termediate, and weak, the intermediate is the one always em- 
 ployed in these forms. The Sanskrit grammarians treat as the 
 true form of the nominal stem that which is found at the be- 
 ginning of compounds. 
 
 §. 103. There were three numbers in Indo-European, 
 
200 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 singular ^ dual, and plural. The dual is of later formation than 
 the plural and derived from it, as is proved by the forms of 
 its case-endings. In Pali the dual is found only in the words 
 for two and both, while in Prakrit it is entirely lost. It did 
 not occur in Mo\\c Greek, and is lost in Modern Greek. In 
 Latin it is only found in duo and amho (nom. and ace. masc. 
 and neut.) ; the feminine and the other cases of these two 
 words are treated as plurals : even duos and amhos are found 
 in the oldest poets, beside (Zwo and ambo ; the neuter dua was 
 used in vulgar Latin, and finally crept into the literary lan- 
 guage, as in post dua lustra (Orestis trag. 26). Tliere is no 
 trace of the dual in Umbrian ; N. U. dur (two) has assumed 
 the plural ending. 
 
 §. 104. There were three genders in Indo-European, mas- 
 culine^ feminine^ and neuter ; the last was called klwa (an 
 eunuch) by the Sanskrit grammarians. In Semitic and Ha- 
 mitic, the latter including Egyptian, Ethiopian, Libyan, and 
 Hottentot, we only find two genders, masculine and feminine, 
 while no distinction* of gender is found in Tataric (Tungu- 
 sian, Mongolian, Turkish, Samoyedic, Finnic), the monosyl- 
 labic languages (Chinese, &c.), the isolated languages (in 
 Europe, Basque, in Asia, Japanese, &c.), the Polynesian, 
 Australian, African, and American languages. 
 
 The distinction of gender was of course unknown to the 
 
 * *' It is not accidental (writes C. R. Lepsius, Standard Alphabet, 
 2nd Ed. p. 89), but very significant, that as far as I know, without any 
 essential exception, only the most highly civilized races — the leading na- 
 tions in the history of mankind — distinguish throughout the genders, and 
 that the gender-languages are the same as those which scientifically, by 
 linguistic reasons, may be proved as descending from one original Asiatic 
 stock. The development of peculiar forms for the grammatical genders 
 proves a comparatively higher consciousness of the two sexes ; and the dis- 
 tinction not only of the masculine and feminine, as in the Semitic and 
 Hamitic languages, but also of the feminine and neuter gender, exclusively 
 expressed in the Japhetic branch, is only a further step in the same direc- 
 tion." 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 201 
 
 Indo-European in its radical stage, just as it is at present un- 
 known to radical languages, such as Chinese, &c. Such a 
 distinction was impossible when language consisted merely of 
 roots placed in juxtaposition. Moreover, at the period when 
 verbal suffixes first made their appearance, the difference of 
 gender was not marked, for had it been so, it would have 
 shown itself in the verb, just as the same distinction appears 
 in the Semitic verb, proving that in this latter case the diffe- 
 rence of gender was marked before the introduction of the 
 verbal suffixes. The early introduction of the verbal suffixes 
 in Indo-European also appears from the fact that they must 
 have been introduced before the difference of number was 
 marked in the noun, for had there existed at that period a 
 plural suffix, we would have found it in the verb instead of 
 such forms as I. E. -masi, -tvasi (or -tasi), -anti, (or -nti)* 
 for the suffixes of the Jirstj second^ and third persons plural 
 respectively. 
 
 We find traces on all sides that originally there was no dis- 
 tinction between the masculine and feminine gender in Indo- 
 European ; e.g. the words ior father and mother are formed 
 with the same suffix (= I. E. -tar) in all the Indo-European 
 family of languages. The introduction of the neuter gender 
 took place at a period subsequent to that of the introduction 
 of the masculine and feminine. That these three genders 
 were all, however, introduced before the first separation oc- 
 curred among the Indo-Europeans, is obvious from the agree- 
 ment respecting them that pervades the whole I. E. family of 
 languages. Various methodsf were adopted of marking the 
 difference of gender as well in Indo-European as in the 
 languages that sprang from it. 
 
 * Consult Curtius zur Chronologie der Indo-germanischen Sprach- 
 forschung, pp. 214, 222. 
 
 f I have here followed chiefly Schleicher's arrangement ; see his Com- 
 pendium, p. 518. 
 
202 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 I. By a Change of Stem. 
 
 While no attempt was made to distinguish the gender of 
 diphthongal and consonantal stems, those in -a, -i, and -u, 
 were lengthened to -«, -% and -w, to express the feminine, al- 
 though this method was only very partially carried out in the i- 
 and i(r- stems, and there are some important exceptions in those 
 in -a. In Sanskrit, where the majority of stems in -i and -u are 
 feminine, we find many both masculine and feminine as papi-s 
 (the sun) nrtu-s (a dancer), &c., as well as stems, formed from 
 such roots as dhi (to think), lu (to cut), &c., such as s'uddha- 
 dhi-s (a man of pure thought), yavalu-s (o. corn-cutter), &c. 
 Besides we find numerous feminine stems, as well as masculine, 
 in -i and -w ; e. g. mati-s (fem. thought), s'uchi-s (fem. 
 bright), mrdu-s (fem. soft). The feminines of adjectives in -u 
 may also be formed by adding ^, as mrdvi (nom. fem.), &c., 
 except when two consonants precede, as in pdndu-s (fem. 
 pale), &c. Some adjectives in -u lengthen this vowel in the 
 feminine, as pdngu-s (fem. lame from St. pdngu)^ kurit-s (a fe- 
 male Kuru) from St. kuru, &c. The allocation of the a- stems 
 to the masculine, and the a- stems to the feminine, was better 
 carried out than that of the i- and u- stems ; yet we find a in 
 such feminine forms as Skr. s'ivayd (instr. sing, ois'ivd), &c., 
 and a in Skr. s'ivdt (abl. sing. masc. and neut. of s'ivd), &c. 
 In Greek we find masculine stems in -a (tj, a) and feminine 
 ones in -a (o). Thus we have as masculines, veaviag, linroTrig, 
 TToXiTtig, &c. ; and as feminines, 17 oSoc, v KiXevOog, and other 
 names for a road, except 6 aravujirog; 17 vijo-oc? and the 
 special names of islands, such as 17 Aia^og, &c. ; names de- 
 noting a collection, such as 17 tWoc (a body of cavalry), ?} 
 
 * We also find in Yedic a nominative plural, both masculine and fe- 
 minine, in -dsas where d is common to both genders, e. g. dhumdsas (masc.) 
 from St. dhuma (smoke), yag'nAsas (masc.) from St. yag'na (a sacrifice), 
 pdvakdsas (fem.) £rom pdvakd (pure). 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 203 
 
 ^p6(rog (the dew), &c. ; 17 \l9oq* (a precious stone) ; &c. In 
 Latin we also find masculine stems in a, and feminine ones 
 in a (o, u). Thus we have as masculines, poeta, scriba, col- 
 lega, terrigena^ &c., which originally ended in a, although in 
 classical Latin this a has been shortened to a, just as in Greek 
 we find the Epic forms iTnrora, vecpeXrjyspaTa for iTnrorrig, ve- 
 (pEXrjyepiTYig : and as feminines we have domus^ nurus, alvus, 
 carbasus, mains (the apple tree), pomus (id.), Cormthiis^ Sa- 
 guntusy &c., along with many words borrowed from the Greek, 
 such as atomus, antidotus, dialectus, diametrus^ &c. There was 
 some irregularity among the Romans in their use of the dif- 
 ferent genders : two forms of the same word often coexisted, 
 as ramenta beside ramentum, caementa beside caerne7itum, vinus 
 {vitius mihi in cerebrum abiit) beside vinum, &c. ; on inscrip- 
 tions we ^nd eum sepulchrum, hunc munimentum, Corinto deleto, 
 &c., which prove that in vulgar Latin the distinction of the 
 genders was often lost; moreover, in classical Latin many 
 stems in -0 are both masculine and feminine, such as colus 
 (the distaff), papyrus^ pampinus (the vine), barbitos (the lyre), 
 &c. ; vulgus, originally a masculine a- stem, is sometimes mas- 
 culine but generally neuter. 
 
 In Gra3co-Italic timesf the masculine and neuter of adjec- 
 tives in -OS, -a, -om, were distinguished from the feminine by 
 the former changing the original a into : thus we have Gr. 
 viog (m.), vlov (n.), L. novos (m.), later novus, novom (n.), 
 later novum beside Gr. via (f.) and L. nova (f.). 
 
 * 6 yiQoQ is any stone, but Homer twice uses ») \. for 6 \. Names of 
 precious stones are in general feminine, but we find 6 and -n fffidpaydog. 
 
 t See Grundriss der lateinischen Declination von Franz Biicheler (p. 4), 
 where he remarks that the tendency of feminines to retain the older gram- 
 matical forms shows itself also in adjectives whose stems ended in -ri, e. g. 
 Fem. ceteris^ equestris, salubris, Masc. celer, equester, saluher^ where the 
 helping vowel e was inserted after the loss of the final -is. 
 
204 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 II. By different Case Suffixes. 
 
 S was added to the stem to mark the nominative of the 
 masculine and feminine genders, while the nominative neuter 
 was represented by the mere stem, or in the case of the d- 
 stems, by the stem + m. In Indo-European times this s 
 was already dropped in the nom. fem. of the a-stems, as Skr. 
 navd - Gr. via = L. nova. In Sanskrit it is also dropped in 
 the case of polysyllabic feminine z-stems, as halini (fem. 
 strong), except lakshmi-s (the wife of Vishnu), tari-s (a boat), 
 avi-s (mulier menstrualis, lit. not desiring), tantri-s (a lute), 
 start- s (smoke). In Greek and Latin s is also dropped in the 
 nominative of feminine f-stems, but new sufiixes are intro- 
 duced in its stead, such as -a, -Sc in Greek, -cs in Latin, &c. 
 Sis kept in feminine a-stems in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, 
 as Skr. vadhu-s (a wife), bhU-s (earth), Gr. ^pvg, crvg, L. sus.* 
 
 The nominative neuter of a-Stems was formed by add- 
 ing m to the stem, as Skr. navam = Gr. veov = L. novom, &c. 
 In other cases the mere stem, subject to the euphonic laws 
 peculiar to each language, was used as the nom. neut. : thus 
 the following stems act as nominatives neuter, Skr. vdri 
 (water), nnrdu (soft), sumanas (benevolent), &c., Gr. iSpt (ex- 
 pert), yXvKV (sweet), evfievigj ya\a for jaXaKV, atofxa for awfiar, 
 repacfor repar^ &c., h.mare for mari, facile foYfacili, genu, caput, 
 cor for cord, corpus, &c. Gr. yiipag is neuter, but the cor- 
 responding Skr. stem g'arasf (old age) is feminine ; similarly 
 in Latin vulgus (nearly always neut.) and virus (neut.) corre- 
 spond to Skr. varga-s (masc. a multitude), and visha-s (masc. 
 
 * Schleicher considers that neither i nor u existed in Indo-European, 
 and consequently that we cannot speak of I. E. stems in i and u. This is 
 a question upon which it is difficult to pronounce a decided opinion, on 
 account of the conflicting evidence, and it may consequently be considered 
 at present an open one. 
 
 f The usual form of this stem is g'ard ; g'aras is defective in those 
 cases, whose case-endings do not begin with a vowel. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 205 
 
 poison). In Latin the masc. -s has frequently penetrated 
 into the neut. ; thus prudens (St. prudent), concors {St. con- 
 cord), dives (St. divit), ferens (St. ferent), are both masc. and 
 neut. The Greek does not permit this confusion of the gen- 
 ders, for we find ^ipov for (l>£povT, riOiv for tiOevt, X"P*'^^ ^^^ 
 XapievT beside L. ferens, &c. In Greek, however, we find 
 two neuter nominatives lengthened, although no -s could have 
 been lost, viz. irvp from St. ttu/o, and irav from St. iravr. 
 
 D is used as a neuter suffix in the pronominal declension ; 
 it appears as t in Sanskrit, but the Latin, Gothic, and German 
 forms prove* that the L E. form was d. In Sanskrit we find 
 this t in yat (which), tat (it). Hat (this), tyat (this) from ta + 
 yat, Yed. kat (which) = Skr. kirn, it (an old neuter = L. id, 
 Goth, ita), found in k^et] (even, if) = k'a (and) + it, and in nU 
 (lest) = na (not) + it, anyat (aliud), itaratX (aliud). We find on 
 the other hand Z. noid (lest) = Skr. net, Z. kad (quod) = Ved. 
 kat, Gr. OTTL = 6S + ti, L. aliud, alid (= aliud), istud, id, illud, 
 Goth, ita (it), G. das, was, in which s points back to an older t, 
 which represents an I. E. d according to Grimm's law. 
 
 A was the Indo-European case-suffix for the nom. pi. 
 neuter : thus we have Z. madhva (or madhava) = Gr. juWva 
 from St. madhu = Gr. ^lidv, Z. namana = L. nomina, Z. data 
 (gifts) from St. datS, Gr. Swpafrom St. ^wqo, raXava from St. 
 ToXaVi 'i^pia from St. idpi, L. dona, maria, capita, Goth, nam- 
 na (names) = L. nomina, &c. In Sanskrit this a became i ; 
 as in ndmdjii = L. nomina, madhu-n-i from St. madhu, ddnd-n-i 
 from St. ddna = L. dOno, &c. 
 
 The genitive singular of masculine and neuter a-stems ends 
 
 * Bopp (Kritlsche Grammatik der Sanskrita-Sprache, p. 173, note) 
 supports the view that the I. E. form of this suffix was t, and he considers 
 the Gothic forms to be exceptions to Grimm's law. 
 
 + Benfey connects Gr. kuI with Ket : Kai would then be derived from 
 an older koi^. Wilson derives Skr. k'et from R. k'it (to think). 
 
 X Beside itarat we also find Yed. itaram (nom. neut.), which may be 
 compared with L. iterum. 
 
206 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 in -sya, whereas that of the . feminine a-stems ends in -s ; 
 thus we have Skr. as'vasya (gen. sing, masc.) from St. asva^ 
 Gr. Iinroio for linroaio beside Skr. as'vdyds (gen. sing, fern.) 
 from St. as'vd^ Gr. xwqolq from St. x^P«- 
 
 III. By a Change of the Stem after the Separation of the various 
 Indo-European Languages from each other. 
 
 Thus Sanskrit masculine and neuter stems in -i and -u 
 insert an euphonic n before a the instrumental case-ending, 
 as in kavindf from St. kavi (masc. a poet), vdrind from St. vdri 
 (neut. water), bhdnund from St. hhdnu (masc. the sun), tdlund 
 from St. tdlu (neut. the palate) beside gatyd from gati (fem. 
 motion), and dhenvd from dhSnu (fem. a milch cow). Sanskrit 
 a-stems also insert an euphonic n in the masc. and neut. instr., 
 but they shorten the final d, and change a of the stem into S, 
 as in sivena from St. s'iva (masc. the god S'iva), gdtrSna from 
 St. gdtra (neut. a limb), beside s'ivayd = s'iv^ + d from St. s'ivd 
 (fem. propitious). In the Veda we find instrumental forms 
 without the euphonic w, as mahitvand from St. mahitvana 
 (neut. greatness), madhvd from St. madhu (neut. honey), &c. 
 We also find in the Veda such instr. forms as svapnayd from 
 St. svapna (masc. sleep), kulis'Snd from St. kulisa (masc. and 
 neut. an axe). 
 
 In forming the genitive of Sanskrit i- and u- stems, we 
 gunate these vowels, and add merely s for masc. stems, while 
 for fem. stems we either form the genitive as in the masc. or 
 we simply add as to the stem, and for neut. stems we insert n 
 before the final as ; thus we have kav^s^ gatSs or gatyds, vagi- 
 nas, bhdnos, dhSnos or dhenvds, tdlunas as genitives of the 
 stems kavi^ gati, vdri, hhdnu, dhSnu, tdlu. In the Veda, how- 
 ever, we find sometimes the older form of the genitive, with- 
 out either the gunation of the vowel, or the insertion of n, as 
 pas'v-as from St. pas'u (masc. cattle), madhv-as (= Gr. fxiOv-OQ) 
 from madhu (neut.), ary-as from St. a7n (an enemy), as in Gr. 
 I^pi-OQ from St. idpi. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 207 
 
 The above insertion of n in the instrumental was not Indo- 
 European, for we find in Zend as'pa = Skr. asvena, 'pas'va == 
 Yed. pas'vd from St. pas'u. Similarly the gunation of i and u 
 in the gen. of masc. and fem. stems, and the insertion of n in 
 neuter ones, was not original, as is proved by the Grreek forms 
 TTiTvoQ (fem.) TTT/x^oc (masc.) jiidvog (neut.) i^piog (masc. fem. 
 and neut.) irocriog (masc.) ; the gunation of the genitives of 
 the i- and u- stems, however, occurred before the separation 
 of the Sanskrit from the Zend, or else the same course was 
 pursued independently by each of these languages. The 
 Gothic and Lithuanian present the same gunation of i and 
 u, as in Goth, sunaus = Lith. sunaus = Skr. sunSs from St. 
 sunu (masc), Goth, anstais from St. ansti (favor), Lith. awes^ 
 from St. awi (a sheep) : these forms, on the other hand, sup- 
 port the opinion that the above gunation of i and u was 
 Indo-European. 
 
 IV. Bt/ a Change of Case-endings^ originally identical. 
 
 Thus in Indo-European the case suffix of the ace. pi. was 
 -nsj while in Sanskrit masc. stems dropped the s, and feminine 
 stems the w, the preceding vowel in each case, if short, being 
 lengthened to compensate for the loss of the consonant: con- 
 sequently we have s'ivdn^ kavin^ bhdnun, as aces. pi. of the 
 masc. stems s'iva, kavi, bhdnu, and s'ivds^gatis^dhSnus, as aces, 
 pi. of the fem. stems s'ivd, gati^ dhSnu. 
 
 V. By the Formation of special Stems, especially for the Femi- 
 7iine Gender. 
 
 Long i was perhaps used as a feminine suffix in the Indo- 
 European ; in Sanskrit its use as such is very common, as in 
 d^vi (nom. fem. a goddess), from St. deva (a god), dhanavati 
 (nom. fem. rich) from St. dhanavant, laghvi (nom. fem. light), 
 from St. laghu, svddvi (nom. fem. sweet), from St. svddti, ddtrl 
 
208 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 (nom. fern, a giver) from St. ddtar. In Greek this i also ap- 
 pears in feminine forms, but its exact signification seems to 
 have been lost, and consequently a was added to express the 
 feminine more definitely : thus we have 178^0 for i7SfcFta beside 
 Skr. svddvi from St. ri^v = Skr. svddu ; Soretpa for ^orepya = 
 doTspi + a beside Skr. ddtrz ; awTeipa for (ruyrepoja ; Oiatva (a 
 goddess) for Oeavya ; XvKaiva (a she-wolf) for XvKuvya ; rtK- 
 Taiva, Xta'eva,* &c., beside rticTwy, Xiwv, &c. ; Sco-Tro/va = Sect- 
 TTOvya ; Trorvm beside Skr. j9a^m (nom. fem. a wife) ; avacraa 
 for avaKya beside ava^ ; &c. We also find ^ added in Greek 
 fem. stems to this I. E. i to form new stems, as in TrpoSJnc* 
 St. TTpoSortS beside 7rpoSdr»jCj Sicu^tc? St. Sicu^iS beside Sku- 
 0»jC» IlfptTtC) St. rif/OGrtS beside nipo-rjc? Ka^^^\^Q^'\ St. K:a7n7XtS 
 beside KaTrrjXoc, alxfiaXijjTiQ, St. aJ^^juaXwrtS beside alxfidXw 
 Tog, &c. Many Greek masculines have two feminines of both 
 these classes : as Xyarstpa and XycTTpig from Xyarrig or XycTrrip ; 
 opxr](jrpia and 6p-)(r}(TTpig from 6p;Yrj(Tri7p ; oXir^ipa and oXtrf^ 
 for oXcrjOif from oXsTrip ; auXr^rpm and avX^rptc from avXrjTrip 
 or auX^ri^c- Ii^ Latin ^ is found in feminine stems, but new 
 stems were formed by the addition of c, as victrix from St. vie- 
 trlCf genetrix from St. genetric beside Skr. g'anitri (nom. fem. a 
 mother), &c. This formative c has been identified by some 
 writers with h in Gr. ^vvatKo'c, but this is very unlikely. Curtius 
 
 * The stems of Xewi/, OepdTrojv^ &C., are Xsovt^ Oepairovr, &c., of which 
 the termination -ovt is = I. E. vant. The Greek feminines in -aiva 
 = -avya,, and the Sanskrit ones in -vati, therefore point back to an I. E. 
 fem. term, -vanti, or else these different feminine forms were developed 
 independently after the separation of Greek from Sanskrit. It is even pos- 
 sible that the Greek form is older than the Sanskrit, and that the Skr. i 
 is = I. E. -y&. 
 
 t Bopp (Sanskrit Grammar, p. 144) adduces as additional proof of 
 the connexion of Gr. -18 with Skr. -z, the fact that the accent in many- 
 Sanskrit feminines in -i changes in the same way as in many Greek femi- 
 nines in -iS: thus we have Skr. kalmusM' (nom. fem. variegated), nartaki' 
 (nom. fem a dancer), Gr. vfitpic, KaTrrjXig^ &c., all oxytones, beside Skr. 
 kalmufiha-s^ n'artaka-s^ Gr. tjntpog, Karn/Xoe, &c. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 209 
 
 considers tliat the I. E. stem was cfanaki, which is very probable, 
 a3 we findSkr. g'anaka-s (a father). Bopp supposes that -yuyafjc-- 
 meant originally "the figure of a woman," and derives it from 
 yvvii and R. \k (to be like), whence come f-otic-a, eiK-rriv, 1k- 
 fXoc, &c. It is very doubtful whether a was ever added in Latin 
 to form new feminine stems in -a from original ones in -I, but 
 some Latin words apparently point to such forms : thus gal- 
 Una appears to bear the same relation to gallus that Oeaiifa 
 does to OioQ, and if so, it must be for gallaina ; Diana or 
 Deana, which is found on an inscription, may be for 
 Deaina, sl feminine similarly formed from deus ; regina may 
 likewise be for regaina, a feminine of rex. If gallaina, JDeaina, 
 regaina ever existed, they were probably for gallantya, 
 Deantya, regantya, just as Xiaiva is for Aeai^rya beside St. 
 
 §. 105. There were nine cases in Indo-European. These 
 were the nominative (casus* rectus), accusative, locative, dative, 
 ablative, genitive,^ two instrumentals and vocative. The last of 
 these, though not properly a case, and generally in the singu- 
 lar represented by the mere stem, I nevertheless enumerate 
 among the cases, following the common custom of doing so. 
 These nine cases are only distinguished from each other in 
 the singular : in the dual there are only three diiFerent case- 
 endings, one for nom. ace. and voc, another for gen. and loc. 
 and a third for dat. abl. and both inst. s : in the plural the 
 
 * Casus is a translation merely of Gr. rrTutTig, which meant the in- 
 clination that one idea had to another, and which was expressed by the 
 case-ending. The nominative was called rectus {tvdtla, 6p9ri) because ifc 
 stood erect at the beginning of the sentence, and did not depend on any- 
 thing : consequently some grammarians did not consider it to be strictly a 
 casus. The Sanskrit term for a case-ending is vihhakti (division), Pan. I. 
 4, 104 ; V. 3, 1 , sq. 
 
 •f- The Greek term for genitive is yiviKi], which meant casus generalis. 
 Genetivus is properly equivalent to ytvvijriKrj and is a mistaken transla- 
 tion o^ yiviKT). 
 
 T 
 
210 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 nom. and voc. agree in form, so do the dat. and abl., while 
 there is only one instr. 
 
 The question now suggests itself,* what are the relative 
 ages of these cases ? This is a question that in the present state 
 of our knowledge can only be partially answered. The 
 cases at once divide themselves into two groups, f the first 
 consisting of the nominative, accusative, and vocative, and the 
 second of all the rest. That the nom. ace. and voc. are closely 
 connected together, is shown by the facts, that in the neuter 
 they are generally all identical, and that they are never inter- 
 changed with any case belonging to the second division, while 
 these latter cases frequently interchange with one another : e. g. 
 in Sanskrit the ablative and genitive frequently agree in form, 
 so do the genitive and locative dual ; the instrumental is re- 
 presented in Greek by the dative, and in Latin by the abla- 
 tive ; -hi is locative in L. uhi, ibi, and dative in L. tibi, this 
 connexion of the loc. with the dat. is easily understood, for 
 the sentence, " You gave the book to me" (dative), is equiva- 
 lent to "The place where you deposited the book was I" 
 (locative) ; again, the genitive and dative are closely allied, 
 for " she is my daughter" has the same meaning as " she is 
 daughter to me ;" &c.:|: 
 
 * Consult Curtius zur Chronologie der indogermanischen Sprachfors- 
 chung, p. 250, seq., whose views I have followed in the text. 
 
 f Grassraann (iiber die casusbildung in indogermanischen in K. Z. 
 XII. p. 241, seq.), also divides the cases into these same two groups. The 
 first group are formed from the stem by the addition of what he calls die 
 deutende anhdnge, and the second, by the addition of die zeigende anhdnge : 
 die deutende are -5, -<?, -a, -«m, and are all of pronominal origin, die 
 zeigende are -as^ -at^ -in, —ana, -bhi, -ahht, -av, and are derived from 
 prepositions ; these latter, he says, only enter in those cases where a pre- 
 positional origin is probable, and where prepositions are used to a great 
 extent in Greek, Latin, German, and almost entirely in the Romance lan- 
 guages and English. Ahrens calls the genitive, dative, and accusative, 
 the three logical cases, and he justifies his use of this name by the relation 
 in which this triad stands to the three chief classes of words, substantives, 
 adjectives, and verbs. 
 
 X So in Pali and Prakrit mayham dhitu and mama dhitu both mean 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 211 
 
 The vocative is the oldest of all the cases, and was origi- 
 nally merely the stem itself used as an interjection: e. g. Skr. 
 s'iva (masc.) is both the voc. and the stem, Gtv,irpia^v is both 
 the voc. and the stem which is found in Trpfo-jSu-yfvr/c- Next 
 to the vocative the accusative, called by Curtius the case with 
 the M- suffix, was developed ; the suffix probably only acted 
 the part of an article, and was merely intended to call at- 
 tention to the word to which it was attached. That the case 
 with the M- suffix is older than the case with the S- suffix, 
 (afterwards the nominative) appears firstly from the fact, that 
 the nominative of the pronouns frequently ends in 7?i, as Skr, 
 aham, tvam^ ayam^ iyam, idam, Gr. lyujv. Boeot. rouv, L. ideni^ 
 and secondly from the very extended use of the accusative 
 which is used in so many different relations, and which con- 
 sequently must have existed for a long period by itself* 
 
 When the case with the M- suffix had been for some time 
 in use, the want of a suffix, which should distinguish the ani- 
 
 my daughter where mayham = Skr. mahyam (dative), and mama - Skr. 
 mama (genitive). In modern Greek also we find the genitive used for the 
 dative, as in aov Xkyio (I say to thee) ; in Constantinople and Athens, how- 
 ever, where the best Modern Greek is spoken, ai Xsy w is used in this sense, 
 while in printed books aoi Xlyw is used. 
 
 * Madvig, in his Latin Grammar (§ 222, Obs. 1, p. 197, Fourth English 
 Edition), explains the connexion of the accusative with the infinitive, on 
 the ground that the accusative, as the indefinite case, was naturally joined 
 to the indefinite infinitive expression. " The accusative," he writes, " is 
 originally the word without further definition or distinction. In the mas- 
 culine and feminine a peculiar form, the nominative has boen devised, in 
 order to denote the word as a subject (or as the predicative noun), but in 
 the neuter, the accusative is also nominative. The accusative, therefore 
 (as an indefinite case), is used in the most simple way, in which a word is 
 added, to define and complete the predicate expressed in the verb. In the 
 indefinite infinitive expression, where the connexion between the subject 
 and predicate is not of itself asserted, the subject and the predicative noun 
 stand in the accusative, e. g. hominem currere, that a man runs ; esse do- 
 minum^ to be lord." The derivation of the nominative in the Romance 
 languages from the Latin accusative, as Fr. pere from L. patrem^ It. do- 
 mino from L. fJnniwffm^ supports this view of the nature of the accusative 
 
 t2 
 
212 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 mate from the inanimate, began to make itself felt, and the S- 
 suffix was consequently introduced to satisfy the want. This 
 S wsiS used to mark both masculines and feminines, and was 
 evidently derived from the pronominal root sa (he, she). 
 
 In the same period, during which the M- and S- suffixes 
 were being developed, also arose the D- suffix to mark the 
 neuter of the pronouns. The introduction of this latter suffix 
 probably occurred between that of the M- and that of the 8- 
 suffix. 
 
 For a long period the Indo-European was content with 
 the three cases noticed above, the Vocative, Accusative, and 
 Nominative ; but gradually there arose the necessity of new 
 case-endings to express different ideas, and the remaining 
 cases began to develope themselves. Among these the ge- 
 nitive singular appears to be the oldest; it originally ended in 
 -sya, a suffix which is found in Gr. §r|juo-ff<o-c> and which, 
 perhaps, arose from an older -tya* This form was evidently 
 of adjectival origin, and it is probable that adjectives in -sya 
 were used to denote the notion afterwards expressed by the 
 genitive in early times, even before the introduction of theili^ 
 and S- suffixes : in Greek we find one adjective in -s7/a, viz., 
 ^i7jLio(T<oc, the stem of which ^rumoaio is the original of the 
 Epic genitive Siifioio. The other genitive suffix -as is con- 
 nected by Curtiusf with the same pronominal root sa from 
 which the nominative suffix 8 is derived, and consequently 
 points back to an older -asa: the original form of I. E. gen. 
 vdk-as (Skr. vdJc-as^ L. voc-is) was accordingly ^'aA-asa, justas 
 the original form of I. E. nom. svana-s (L. sonu-s) was svana- 
 sa. The compound vdk-asa, in Curtius' view, is therefore 
 related to svana-sa, as a Tatpurusha compound in Sanskrit 
 
 * This is the same pronominal root that appears in Skr. sya-s (he), 
 9yd (she), tyat (it). With this pronoun Bopp connects the Old High 
 German and Anglo-Saxon article ; see his Sanskrit Grammar, 3rd Ed. 
 p. 176. 
 
 f Consult Curtius zur Chronologic, &c., p. 253. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 213 
 
 (i. e. one in which the last word governs the preceding one, 
 as iatpurusha-s, his man, where St. tat is used for gen. sing— - 
 tas(/a, kumhha-Mra-s, a maker of pots, from St. kumbhui a pot) 
 is to a Karmadharaya (i. e. a compound in which the first 
 part is the predicate of the second part, as nUa-utiyalarriy the 
 blue lotus, from St. nila, blue), vdk-a-sa being thus equivalent 
 to 6 (rr)c) oTToc ai^d svana-sa to 6 (^tOoy^oQ^ the suffix in the 
 first case governing the noun, and in the second, being only 
 in apposition ; and consequently vdkasa svanasa in conjunc- 
 tion would mean the sound of the voice, vdkasa being used in an 
 adjectival sense, and literally meaning vocal. The two ob- 
 jections that can be brought against this view of the genitive 
 are first, that the a which occurs before sa in vdkasa is left un- 
 accounted for, and second, that, while the combination vdkasa 
 svanasa (= vocis sonus) is quite comprehensible, vdkasa sva- 
 nama (= vocis sonum) is not so, but that we should expect 
 vdkama svanama. The first of these objections is of little im- 
 portance, for a may be merely an adventitious element similar 
 to n, that is inserted so frequently in Skr. gen. pi. as in dSvd- 
 n~dm, vadhu-n-dm, rndtr-n-am, &c., from the stems dSva, vadhu, 
 7ndir, &c. ; or to i that is inserted in the loc. pi. of Skr. a- 
 stems, as in s'iveshu = s'iva-i-shu from St. s'iva. The second 
 objection is of more importance, and different methods of ob- 
 viating it may be adopted : the simplest explanation seems to 
 be that these adjectival forms in -sya and -asa are relics of 
 that period when language had only arrived at the stage of 
 Hems, and that, when their true explanation had been lost, 
 they became genitives after the introduction of the M- and S- 
 suffixes, for before these latter suffixes were introduced, the 
 conception of the genitive could not have been formed. Cur* 
 tins compares this ancient genitive with the L. cujus, which 
 is used not only as genitive, but also declined like an adjeC' 
 live, as cujus puer, cuja puella, cujum pecus. 
 
 In the present state of our knowledge, it appears impossible 
 
214 COMPARATIVE GliAMMAU. 
 
 to advance farther in the chronolooflcal arrano-ement of the 
 cases. 
 
 Sanskrit Consonantal Stems. 
 
 §. 106. As the case-endings were originally the same for 
 all stems, we properly cannot speak of different declensions, 
 but only of different stems. We therefore, classifying stems 
 according to their final sounds, divide them into consonantal 
 and vocalic.'^ The declension of stems, ending in ^, ^, w, it, or a 
 diphthong, agrees in many respects with that of those ending 
 in a consonant ; this arises partly from the fact that the vowels 
 i and if are closely related to the spirants ^ and r, and are 
 easily interchanged with them. Consonantal stems in San- 
 skrit generally end in w, t^ s, and r ; the other consonants are 
 found only in root-stems or those of uncertain origin. 
 
 §. 107. Guttural Stems. — These are found much more fre- 
 quently in Greek and Latin than in Sanskrit. In Greek we 
 find gutturals ending both root-stems and those of uncertain 
 origin, as ^Xoy, ^/otK, 6yi';>(, KopaK, &c. ; and in Latin we find 
 the mending not only root-stems, 2ls due, reg, leg, &c., but also 
 formative suffixes, as vor-ac, ed-ac, geiii-tric, junic, &c. In 
 Sanskrit we have sarvas'ak (omnipotent, nom. sing sarvasak,f 
 
 * Grassmann (K. Z. xii. p. 241) divides Indo-European stems into 
 those that end in a consonant or root-vowel and those that add a stem- 
 vowel before the case-endings. The declension of the first class of stems 
 he calls the Jtrst declension, and that of the second, the second declen- 
 sion. 
 
 t Sarvas'ak (nom. sing.) is for sarvas'ak + s, because two consonants 
 are never allowed to end a word in Sanskrit, the last being always reject- 
 ed, except when the one before the last is r (after which every consonant 
 is kept, except sh (= 5 of desiderative forms) as Hrk, nom. sing, of St. 
 urg' (strong). The nom. sing, of St. k'itralikh is k'itralih for k'itralikh + s, 
 final s being first rejected, and then kh becoming k, as in Sanskrit only 
 tenues are allowed to end a word, aspirates and medias consequently having 
 to pass into the corresponding tenues, in the guttural, cerebral, dental, and 
 labial rows, as kh, g, gh, into k. No palatal can end a word ; k', g', g'h, 
 generally become k, and k'h becomes /. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 215 
 
 from sarva^ all, and sah^ to be able), suvalg (going well, nom. 
 sing, suvalg from sw, well, andvaZ^, to go), ^'i^^'aZiM (a painter, 
 nom. sing, k'itralik, from k'itra, a picture, and likh, to paint), 
 lih (licking, nom. sing, lit), guli (covering, nom. sing ghut), 
 ujjdnah (a shoe, nom. sing, updnat, from upa = Gr. vtto and 
 nahj to bind), duh (milking, nom. sing, dhuk), druh (hating, 
 nom. sing, dlirut or dhruk), &c. No stem ends in w. 
 
 §. 108. Palatal Stems. — Vdk' (voice, nom. sing, va^), rut 
 (light, nom. sing, ruk), ff' alamuk' {a. cloud, nom. smg. g'alamuk, 
 from g'ala, water, and muk' to shed), prank' (the east, nom. 
 sing, ^mn), rw^' (disease, nom. sing, ruk), samrdg' {o. king, 
 nom. sing, samrdt, from sam = Gr. (tvv and rdg^ to shine), urg^ 
 (might, nom. sing, urk), bhiig' (eating, nom. sing, hhuk)^ khang' 
 (lame, nom. sing, khdn), prdk'h (asking, nom. sing, prdt, from 
 pra = Gr. Trpo and I. E. ask), vis' (a man, nom. sing, vit, E. 
 wight), dis (a region, nom. sing, dik), &c. There are no stems 
 which end my or n. 
 
 §. 109. Cerebral Stems. — Dadhrsh (bold, nom. sino-. 
 dadhrk), dvish (hating, nom. sing, dvit), mrsh (bearing, nom. 
 sing, mrk), sugan (a good reckoner, from su, well, and gan, to 
 number, a denominative verb formed from gana, a multitude, 
 for garna from I. E. ^ar, to collect, whence Gr. aydpijj). 
 
 §. 110. Dental Stems. — Marut (the wind, nom. sing, ma- 
 rut), g'agat (the world, nom. sing, g'agat), bharant (= Gr. 0£- 
 povr, nom. sing, bharan = Gr. ^I^wv = L. ferens), &c., suhrd 
 (good-hearted, nom. sing, suhrt, from su = Gr. ev and hrd = 
 E. heart), pad (a foot, nom. sing, pdt), kravydd {one who eats 
 flesh, nom. sing, kravydt, from kravya, raw flesh, Gr. Kpiag, 
 L. caro, E. raw, and ac?, to eat, Gr. e^w, L. ecZo), aranyasad 
 (living in forests, nom. sing, aranyasat, from aranya, a forest, 
 and sad, to sit), sac^ (found in the dative d-sad-e, used as an 
 infinitive, to place one's self), a^mma^7i (fire-lighting, nom. sing. 
 agnimat, from agni, fire, L. ignis and math, to agitate), path 
 (a way), s'is'rath (found in the dative s'is'rath-e, used as an in- 
 finitive, from s'israth, a reduplicated form of strath, to tie, to 
 
216 COMPARATIVE GfKAMIUAK. 
 
 loosen, with which Benfey connects Gr. k\u)Ocd, KaXaOog, L, 
 crates, rete, restis), hudh (knowing, nom. sing, hhut), kshudh 
 (hunger, nom. sing, hhut), y^udh (war, nom. sing. yut)y idh 
 (found in the accusative sam-idh-am, used as an infinitive, to 
 set on fire), &c. Stems formed by the suffixes -as, -is, and -us 
 are common, as sumaTias (= Gr. tvfxeveg), k'andramas (the 
 moon, nom. sing, k^andramds), sug'yotis (having good light, 
 nom. sing, sug'yotis)^ sukakshus (having good eyes, nom. sing. 
 suk'ashus), &c. We also find stems ending in radical 5, as 
 pindagras (an eater of lumps, nom. sing, pindagras , from pindaj 
 a lump, and gras, to eat), supis (walking well, nom. sing, su- 
 pis from sw, well, and pis to walk), sutus (well sounding, nom. 
 sing, sutus), dvs (the fore-arm), &c. Stems ending in n are 
 also common, as s'van (a dog, nom. sing, s'vd), maghavan (a 
 name of Indra, nom. sing, maghavd, from magliavant, wealthy), 
 yavan (young, nam. sing, yuvd), rdg'an (a king, nom. sing. 
 rd'gd), <S:c. Stems in r are also of frequent occurrence, as 
 gir (voice, nom. sing, glr), dvdr (a door, nam. sing, dvdr), pur 
 (a town, nom. sing, pur), pitar (father, nom. sing. pitd)j 
 ddtdr (giver, nam. sing, data), &c. No Sanskrit stem ends 
 in I. 
 
 §. 111. Labial Stems. — Ap (water, only used in the 
 plural, nom. pi. dpas, ace. pi. apas, instr. pi. adhhis),* gup 
 (guarding), kakuhh (a summit or a region, nom. sing, kakup), 
 lahh (receiving, nom. sing, lap), rabh (found in the accusative 
 rabham, used as an infinitive, to desire), dio (heaven, nom. 
 sing, dydus from another stem dyo, ace. sing, divam), pras'dm 
 (mild, nom. sing. ^;r«s'a?i from pra = Gr. Trpo and s'am, to 
 cease, connected by Benfey with Gr. Kafi-vw), kram (found 
 in the dative ati-kram-e, used as an infinitive, to step over). 
 
 §. 112. Unchangeable and Changeable Stems. — Nouns with 
 unchangeable stems have the same form before all the case-ter- 
 
 * Bopp (Sanskrit Grammar, p. 135), illustrates the change of the la- 
 bial media in this word into the dental media by the Dor. o^tXoQ =. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 217 
 
 minations, subject only to the influence of euphonic laws ;* 
 e, g. mariLt (the wind) belongs to this class, and remains un- 
 changed. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Dual.^ 
 
 Plural. 
 
 N. 
 
 marut 
 
 marut-du 
 
 marut-aa 
 
 A. 
 
 marut-am 
 
 7narut-du 
 
 marut-as 
 
 I. 
 
 marut-d 
 
 marud-hhydm 
 
 marud-hhis 
 
 D. 
 
 marut-S 
 
 marud-bhydm 
 
 marud-bhyas 
 
 Ab. 
 
 marut-as 
 
 rnarud-hhydm 
 
 marud-hhyas 
 
 G. 
 
 rnarut-as 
 
 marut-os 
 
 marut-dm 
 
 L. 
 
 marut-i 
 
 marut'OS 
 
 marut-su 
 
 V 
 
 marut 
 
 marut-du 
 
 marut-as 
 
 Nouns with changeable stems are divided into two classes ; 
 the first class has two stems, the second has three. 
 
 The cases of the first class are divided into the strong 
 (called by the Indian Grammarians the Anga cases) and the 
 weak (called by the same grammarians the PacZa and Bha cases). 
 The strong cases in masculine and femininef nouns are the 
 nom. and voc. of the three numbers, and thenom. and ace. of 
 the singular and dual, while in neuter nouns the nom. voc. 
 and ace. pi. are the strong cases ; all the remaining cases are 
 weak. 
 
 The cases of the second class of nouns are divided into 
 strong (or Anga), intermediate (or Pada) and weak (or Bha). 
 The strong stem is found in the same cases as in the nouns with 
 only two stems ; the intermediate stem is found before all 
 case-terminations beginning with consonants, and in the nom. 
 and ace. sing, of neuter nouns. 
 
 The strong stem is evidently the oldest form, for it is found 
 in the three oldest cases, nom. ace. and voc. (consult §.105), 
 
 * For the special euphonic laws of Sanskrit, consult Bopp's Sanskrit 
 Grammar, pp. 36-68, or Max Miiller's Sanskrit Grammar, pp. 9-59. 
 
 f Such feminine stems are very rare, and generally occur at the end 
 of compounds, for the feminines of changeable stems are formed by add- 
 ing i to the weak stem. 
 
218 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 and in Greek and Latin the strong stems are preserved much 
 more generally than in Sanskrit, as may be seen from a com- 
 parison of the declension of the present participle, e. g. Skr. 
 hharant (bearing) = Gr. (pspovr = L. ferent, the weak form of 
 which stem is bharat : 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 Sing. N. V. 
 
 hharan 
 
 ^ipwv 
 
 ferens 
 
 A. 
 
 hharant-mn 
 
 (pipovT-a 
 
 f event- em 
 
 I. 
 
 hharcft-d 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 D. 
 
 hharat-i 
 
 ^ipovT-i 
 
 ferent-i 
 
 Ab. 
 
 bharat-as 
 
 — 
 
 ferenUe 
 
 G. 
 
 bharat-as 
 
 ^ipovT-og 
 
 ferent-i$ 
 
 L. 
 
 bharat-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 These Greek and Latin forms at once indicate that the origi- 
 nal form of the stem was the strong one. 
 
 The declension of the participle stem bharant (masc.) illus- 
 trates that of all stems with two bases ; 
 
 Strong cases. Weak eases. 
 Sing. N. V. bharan 
 
 A. bharant-am 
 
 !• — bharat-d 
 
 L). — bharat-e 
 
 Ab. G. — bharat-as 
 
 L. — bharat-i 
 
 Dual. N. V. A. bharant-du 
 
 I. D. Ab. — bharad-bhydm 
 
 G. L. — bharat-6s 
 
 Plural. N. V. bharant-as 
 
 A. — bharat- as 
 
 i* — bharad-bhis 
 
 D. Ab. — bharad'bhyas 
 
 G. — bharat-dm 
 
 L — bharat-su 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 219 
 
 
 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 A. 
 
 V. 
 
 Strong cases. 
 
 Weak cases. 
 bharat 
 
 Dual. N. 
 
 A. 
 
 V. 
 
 — 
 
 bharat-i 
 
 Plural. N. 
 
 A. 
 
 V. 
 
 bharanti. 
 
 
 
 The feminines of these participle stems* are formed by adding 
 i to the weak stem, as bharati, &c. 
 
 The declension of the participle of the praeterite active 
 illustrates that of stems with three bases ; e. g. rurudvdm 
 (having wept) is the strong, rurudvas the intermediate (the 
 final s of which becomes t if it be either final or followed by 
 terminations beginning with s and M), and rurudush the weak 
 base. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 
 Strong. 
 
 Intermediate. 
 
 Weak. 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 rurudvdn 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 A. 
 
 rurudvdhs-am 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 I. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 rurudush- d 
 
 D. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 rurudush-e 
 
 Ab. G. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 rurudush-as 
 
 L. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 rurudush-i 
 
 V. 
 
 rurudvan 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Dual.N.A.V. 
 
 rurudvdnS'da 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 I.D.Ab. 
 
 — 
 
 7nirudvad-bhydm 
 
 — 
 
 G. L. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 7'urudush-6s 
 
 Plur. N. Y. 
 
 rurudvdns-as 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 A. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 rurudush-a>i 
 
 I. 
 
 — 
 
 rurudvad-bfiis 
 
 — 
 
 D. Ab. 
 
 — 
 
 rurudvad-bhyas 
 
 — 
 
 G. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 rurudush-d7n 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 * For exceptions to this rule consult Max Miiller's Sanskrit Gram- 
 mar, p. 81. 
 
220 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 Strong. Intermediate. Weak. 
 
 Sing. N. A. V. — rurudvai — 
 
 [The others are the same as the masculine.] 
 
 Dual. N. A. V. — — rurudufih-i 
 
 [The others are the same as the masculine.] 
 
 Plur. N. A. V. rurudvdns-i — — 
 
 [The others are the same as the masculine.] 
 
 §. 113. The most important changeable stems in Sanskrit 
 are the following : — 
 
 I. Guttural. — Compound stems, whose last element is vdh 
 (bearing), retain vdh in the strong and intermediate cases, but 
 ruduce it to uh in the weak cases ; e. g. from St. visvavdh (the 
 supporter of the world) we have Sing. A. visvavdh-am^ PL I. 
 visvavdd-bhis, but PL A. visvduh-as : in a similar way are de- 
 clined s'dlivdh (bearing rice), bhdravdh (bearing a burden). 
 S'vetavd/i (a name of Indra, lit. drawn by white horses) differs 
 from the preceding compounds of vdh in forming its interme- 
 diate cases from avStavas, from which also the nom. and voc. 
 sing, are formed, and in allowing the weak cases to be formed 
 from either s'vetavdh or svetduh. The feminine stems of vis- 
 vavdh^ &c., are vis'vauhi, &c. Anaduh (an ox, lit. a waggon- 
 drawer, from anas, a waggon and vdh) forms the nom. and voc. 
 sing, and the nom. ace. and voc. pi. neut. from anadvdns (the 
 d of which becomes a in voc. sing.) and the remaining strong 
 cases from anadvdh, the intermediate from anadiit and the 
 weak from anaduh. Updnah (fem. a shoe) forms the nom. 
 sing, and the intermediate cases from the stem updnat, as 
 Sing. N. updnat, Dual. I. updnadbhydm, PL I. updnadbhis, and 
 the remaining cases from updnah : these forms are explained 
 by the fact that the original form of nah (to bind) was nadh^ 
 connected perhaps with Gr. vtiOw. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 221 
 
 II. Palatal. — Compounds o£ ank' (to go) have either two 
 or three stems : e. g. prank (directed forwards, eastern) and 
 avdnk' (directed downwards, southern, from ava^ down, and 
 ank') have each two stems, prank' and avdnk' for the strong, 
 and prdk' and avdk' for the weak cases ; pratyanM (lying oppo- 
 site, westward, from prati = Grr. ttqotl and ank!)^ udank! (di- 
 rected upwards, northern, from ut, up, and anM)^ &c., have 
 each three stems, pratyanM^ udank\ &c., for the strong, pra- 
 tyalc^ udak\ &c., for the intermediate, and pratiM^ ndik\ &c., 
 for the weak cases. Yung (binding) forms its strong cases 
 from yuhg and its weak from yug- 
 
 III. Cerebral. — Sag'ush (a companion from sa, with, and 
 g'ush, to love) forms its strong and intermediate cases from 
 sag'iis (u also becoming u) and only its weak cases from 
 sag'ush. 
 
 IV. Dental. — The present and future participle stems* end 
 in ant in the strong, and in at in the weak cases ; see §. 112. 
 for the declension of St. bharant, in a similar way to which 
 are declined future participles, such as ddsyant = Gr. ^warovr. 
 The present participles of reduplicated verbs use the weak 
 base throughout their whole declension, except in the Nom. 
 Ace. and Voc. PI. Neut., where either the strong or the weak 
 stem may be used : e. g. g'dgrat (waking, from g'dgar, to 
 wake) and dadat (giving from da, to give) have as their ace. 
 s. sing, g'dgratam and dadatam (= Gr. di'^ovra). G'agat (neut. 
 the world, lit. moving, an old present participle of gam, to 
 go) is declined like dadat (neut.), except that it only has 
 g'aganti as nom. pi. Brhant or vrhant (great) and prshant 
 (m. a deer and n. a drop of water) are declined like hharant ; 
 these words are however real participles, the first two being 
 
 * Zend, as well as Greek and Latin, keeps the strong stem all through 
 the declension of participles in -ant; in some words we find traces of the 
 weak stem, as in Z. here.mnt (great) = Skr. brhant, the dat. of which is 
 ber^saite and the gen. heresato from the weak stem beresat, while the ace. 
 is beresantem from the strong stem. 
 
222 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 from brh or vrh (to increase) and the last, which is used in 
 Vedic Sanskrit as an adjective, meaning speckled, being from 
 prsh (to sprinkle). Mahant (great)* is also declined like 
 hharant, except that the strong cases are formed from mahant; 
 this word is a participle of mah (to be great) = I. E. magh, 
 whence Skr. maglia (power). In Vedic we find other exam- 
 ples oi ant becoming ant, as in mahant : e. g. Nom. Ace. and 
 Voc. PI. Neut. of the sujSixes mant and vant and the present 
 participle of as (to be) ; thus we have pasumdnti (abounding 
 in cattle), sdnti = Gr. ovrat &c. Stems in vant and mant are 
 declined like hharat, except that the nom. sing masc. ends in 
 van and man, whereas the nom. sing. masc. of the participles 
 ends in an, as nom. sing, agnimdn (having fire), udanvdn 
 (having water) in opposition to hJiaran. In Greek the vowel 
 is lengthened in the participles, as Gr. ^ip^v = Skr. bharan = 
 L. f evens = Z. harans. Arvant] (m. a horse) is declined like 
 nouns in -vant, except that the nom. sing, is arvd, as if from 
 a stem arvan. Kiyant (now much), iyant (so much), hhavant 
 (Your Honour) are declined like udanvant. In Vedic we find 
 that the vocatives of stems in -vant and -mant generally end in 
 -vas and -mas, which point back to an older -vat and -mat. 
 
 Pdd (a foot) at the end of compounds keeps pdd in the 
 strong and intermediate cases, but shortens it to pad in the 
 
 * In Vedic we find maMm (ace. sing.) for maMntam. Bopp com- 
 pares to this rejection of nt, that of vr in the Greek participles rv^dg^ 
 'iardQ, and he considers nkyag to be for fx^yavrg, a similar participial form ; 
 lie alse accounts for the short d in fjtsydg by supposing that its participial 
 origin had been so long forgotten by the Greeks that they shortened the a. 
 
 f This stem comes from ar (to go) and vant (possessed of), the horse 
 being so called from his speed : similarly Skr. as'va-s (a horse) = Gr. 
 iTrxog, iKKog, L. equus is from the same root as Skr. As'ti-s (swift) = Gr. 
 b)Kvg, &c. ; E. horse has also been connected with Skr. k'ai^ (to move), 
 L. curro, though it seems better to connect it with Skr. hresh (to neigh), 
 and to look upon it as an onomatopoeic word. L. armentum is perhaps 
 connected with Skr. nrvnnt. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 223 
 
 weak cases. The participle in -vans* of the reduplicated pre- 
 terite has three stems, as we have already seen from the de- 
 clension o£ rurudvdhs in §. 112. Comparative stems in 4i/dns 
 preserve these forms in the strong cases, but reduce them to 
 -lydhs or -yas in the intermediate and weak cases ; e. g. from 
 yaviydhs (younger) we have nom. sing, yaviydn, ace. pi. 
 yaviyasas, instr. pi. yaviyohhis^ &c. The termination of the nom. 
 sing, is -iydn = Gr. lujv = L. ior (the o of which is only shortened 
 when r is final = 0. L. -ios)^ all of which forms point back to 
 -iydns as the termination of the nom. sing, in Indo-European. 
 The feminines of participles in -vdhs and comparatives in 
 iydhs are formed by adding i to the weak base, as rurudasld, 
 yaviyasi. Fumahsf (a man) forms the strong cases from pu- 
 mdm, the intermediate from pum and the weak from puns. 
 
 * This suffix = I. E. vant which meant havings provided with, &c. Its 
 use to express the idea of the perfect tense is similar to that of the auxi- 
 liary verb have in English : udanvant (having water, the ocean) is a per- 
 fectly-similar form to rurudvant (having roared). We find -vant in Gr. 
 fivr (nom. sing. masc. -fnQ) fem. -fefftra- = -^tvrya^ neut. -Ft*'), as 
 vt^o-F«j/r, &c., and in Lat. -osus = -onsus = -vant-a-s, as formdsus for 
 formonsus^ &c. Similarly we find -vant in perf. part, in Gr. as \t\onr-wg = 
 XsXoiTT-JpoT-g (m.) XiXoiir-vla = XtXonr-vai/a = XeXotTr -^avrya (f.) XeXoiir-og 
 = XeXoiTT -for (n.) : the only case of -vant being used to express the per- 
 fect in the Italic languages is the very doubtful one of the Oscan perfect; 
 e.g. prufatted^ 3. sing. perf. (probavii)^ prufattens, 3. pi. perf. (probave- 
 runt) are supposed to be for prufat-fed, prufat-fens, -where fed a,ndfens 
 come from root fu (to be) and prufat is supposed to be the participle 
 pret. and = profa-vot^ vot being = Gr. for. Consult Schleicher's Com- 
 pendium, p. 834. 
 
 •j- Pumuns is derived by Benfey from api (= Gr. *7rt, L. ob) and man 
 (to think) + t. This is a very unlikely account of the word. It is much 
 more probable that it is derived from an old root pu (with the suffix 
 -manf) whence come Skr. pu-tra-s (a son), pC-ta-s (the young of any 
 animal). Pu meant to grow^ and from it arose in Sanskrit the secondary 
 verb push (to nourish). This root perhaps is the origin of a very numerous 
 class of words in Greek and Latin, as Gr. iraig (for iraf-i^g) for which 
 iravQ and TTovQ are found on inscriptions, ttCjXoq (for Trof-Xog), ttoi-sw, tto-o, 
 TTo-ia, L. pu-er^ pa-pav-er, po-mum (for iwv-mum)^ prce-pu-tium^ &c. 
 
224 
 
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Stems in -an, -man, -van* form their strong cases from 
 -an, -man, -van, their intermediate form -a, -ma, -va, and 
 their weak form -n, -ynn, -vn : e. g. rag an (m. a king) and 
 ndman (n. a name) are thus declined : 
 
 
 
 [St. 
 
 rdg'dnl. 
 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 Dual. 
 
 PI. 
 
 N. 
 
 rdg'd 
 
 
 rdg'dn-du 
 
 rdgdn-as 
 
 A. 
 
 rdgdn-an 
 
 rdg'dn-du 
 
 rdg'n-as 
 
 I. 
 
 rdg'n-d 
 
 
 rdga-hhydm 
 
 rdg'a-hkis 
 
 D. 
 
 rdg'h-S 
 
 
 rdg'a-hhydm 
 
 rdg'a-bhyas 
 
 Ab. 
 
 rdg'n-as 
 
 
 rdg'a-hhydm 
 
 rdg'a-bhyas 
 
 G. 
 
 rdg^n-as 
 
 
 rdg'n-os 
 
 rdg'n-dm 
 
 L. 
 
 rdg'n-i 
 
 
 rag' n- OS 
 
 rdg'a-su 
 
 V. 
 
 rdg^an 
 
 [St. 
 
 rdg'dn-du 
 ndman'] . 
 
 rdgdn-as 
 
 N.A. V. 
 
 ndma 
 
 
 ndmn-i 
 
 ndmdn-i 
 
 I. 
 
 ndmn-d 
 
 
 ndma-hhydm 
 
 ndma-bhis 
 
 D. 
 
 ndmn-S 
 
 
 ndma-bhydm 
 
 ndma-bhyas 
 
 Ab. 
 
 ndmn-as 
 
 
 ndma-hhydm 
 
 ndma-hhyas 
 
 G. 
 
 ndmn-as 
 
 
 ndmn-os 
 
 ndmn-dm 
 
 L. 
 
 ndmn-i 
 
 
 ?idmn-os 
 
 ndma- 811 
 
 The locative sing, of these nouns may also be rdgani and 
 ndmani; the voc. sing, of ndman may also be ndman and its 
 nom. ace. and voc. dual also ndmani. 
 
 The femininesf of rdg'dn and similar stems are generally 
 formed by adding i to the weak stem, as rdg'nl (a queen). 
 Nouns in -uawform their feminines in -vari, as pivdn (m. fat) = 
 Gr. TTttJv, pivarl (f ) = Gr. irUiga, UiEpia, &c. Feminine stems 
 in -an, such as ddmdn (f. a rope) are declined like rdg'dn. 
 
 * For special peculiarities in the declension of these stems consult 
 Bopp's Sanskrit Grammar, p. 129, seq., or Max Miiller's Sanskrit Gram- 
 mar, p. 85, seq. 
 
 \ For special rules see Max Miiller's Sanskrit Grammar, p. 87, seq. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 225 
 
 S'van (m. a dog), yuvmi (m. young), and maghavan (m. a 
 name of Indra, lit. mighty) form their strong cases from s'van 
 yuvdn, maghavan; their intermediate froms'va, yuva^ maghava; 
 and their weak from s'wn, z/iln, maghon. 
 
 For other examples of changeable stems in -n Bopp's 
 Sanskrit Grammar (pp. 130-134) may be consulted. 
 
 Stems in -tar and -tar form their strong cases from -tar 
 and -tar, and the remainder from -tr and -tr : e, g. ddtdr (m. 
 a giver), pitar (m. father), mdtar (f. mother) are thus de- 
 clined. 
 
 Singular 
 
 N. 
 
 A. 
 
 I. 
 
 D. 
 
 Ab. G. 
 
 L. 
 
 V. 
 
 ddtd 
 
 ddtdr-am 
 
 ddtr-d 
 
 ddtr-4 
 
 ddtur 
 
 ddtar-i 
 
 ddtar 
 
 pita 
 
 pitar-am 
 
 pitr-d 
 
 pitr-e 
 
 pitur 
 
 pitar-i 
 
 pitar 
 
 mata 
 
 mdtar-am 
 
 mdtr-d 
 
 mdtr-e 
 
 mdtur 
 
 mdtar-i 
 
 mdtar 
 
 Dual. 
 
 ^. A. V. ddtdr-du 
 
 pitar-du 
 
 mdtar-du 
 
 '.. D. At>- ddtr-hhydm 
 
 pitr-hhydm 
 
 mdtr-hhydm 
 
 X. L. ddtr-Ss 
 
 pitr-os 
 
 mdtr-os 
 
 Plural. 
 
 N. V. 
 
 ddtdr-as 
 
 pitar-as 
 
 mdtar-as 
 
 A. 
 
 ddtr-n 
 
 pitr-n 
 
 mdtf'S 
 
 I. 
 
 ddtr-bhis 
 
 pitr-hhis 
 
 rndtr-hhis 
 
 D. Ab. 
 
 ddtr-hhyas 
 
 pitr-bhyas 
 
 mdtr-hhyas 
 
 G. 
 
 ddtf-ndm 
 
 pitr-ndm 
 
 mdtr-ndm 
 
 L. 
 
 ddtr-shu 
 
 pitr-shu 
 
 mdtr-shu 
 
226 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 The locatives pitari and mdtari are treated as strong cases, 
 while the corresponding Greek datives Trarpi and /Ltr^rpt have 
 become weak. 
 
 Bopp considers that the term, of the abl. and gen. sing. 
 -ur is for -wrs, and that this is derived by metathesis from 
 -riLSi which represents an older -ras : pitr-as would be ex- 
 actly = Gr. irarpog. This view is supported by Zend, in which 
 we find ddthro (gen. sing.), which has arisen from ddthras. 
 
 V. Labial. — Ap (f. water), only used in the plural, forms 
 its strong cases from op, and its weak from op, which becomes 
 ad when followed by bh. Div (f. sky) forms its nom. and voc. 
 sing, from dyoy its intermediate cases from dyu^ and all the 
 rest from div. 
 
 §. 114. The division of cases into strong and weak mani- 
 fests itself remarkably in the accentuation of monosyllabic 
 nouns, of which the strong cases retain the accent on the 
 stem, while the weak have it on the case-ending. In this 
 law of accentuation Greek in general agrees with Sanskrit, 
 and it has consequently been inferred by Bopp that the di- 
 vision of the cases into the strong and the weak had already 
 partially begun in Indo-European times. As far as the ac- 
 centuation is concerned, the accusative plural ranks as a strong 
 case : this fact points back to the time when the ace. pi. was 
 in every respect strong, as it must have been in early times 
 on account of its being older than all the other cases (except 
 the vocative). In the Veda we also find traces of its having 
 been strong, as in the ace. pi. pitdras (= Gr. Traripag) for 
 which in later Sanskrit we find pitrn. The declension of the 
 Sanskrit stems ndu and vdk\ as compared with that of the 
 Greek stems vav and ott, illustrates the agreement of Sanskrit 
 and Greek in the accentuation of the cases : 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMxMAR. 
 
 227 
 
 Singular 
 
 N. V. 
 
 
 naus 
 
 vavQ 
 
 vd'k 
 
 6^ 
 
 A. 
 
 
 navam 
 
 vr]a 
 
 vd'k'am 
 
 oira 
 
 I. 
 
 
 ndva! 
 
 — 
 
 vdk'a 
 
 — 
 
 D. 
 
 
 ndvS' 
 
 — 
 
 vdk!^ 
 
 — 
 
 Ab. 
 
 
 ndvds 
 
 — 
 
 vdk'a's 
 
 — 
 
 G. 
 
 
 ndvds 
 
 vdoQ 
 
 vdk'as 
 
 OTTOC 
 
 L.(Gr. 
 
 D.) 
 
 ndvi 
 
 vat 
 
 Dual 
 
 vdk'i 
 
 oiri 
 
 N.A. 
 
 V, 
 
 nd'vdu 
 
 va£ 
 
 vd'k'du 
 
 6irs 
 
 I. D. Ab. 1 
 (Gr.G.D.)J 
 
 y nduhhyam 
 
 vaoXv 
 
 vdghhyd'm 
 
 oiroU 
 
 G. L. 
 
 
 ndvos 
 
 Plural 
 
 vdk'os 
 
 — 
 
 N. V. 
 
 
 nd'vas 
 
 va€c 
 
 vdk'as 
 
 OTTEC 
 
 A. 
 
 
 nd'vas 
 
 vaaq 
 
 vd'k'as 
 
 owag 
 
 I, 
 
 
 nduhhis 
 
 — 
 
 vdgbhis 
 
 — 
 
 D. Ab 
 
 
 nduhhyds 
 
 — 
 
 vdghhyds 
 
 — 
 
 G. 
 
 
 ndvd'm 
 
 vaijjv 
 
 vdk'd'm 
 
 OTToiv 
 
 L,(Gr. 
 
 .D.) 
 
 ndushu 
 
 vavai 
 
 vdkshu 
 
 6xpi 
 
 In the declension of vavg given above I have used generally 
 the Doric forms as being nearer to the Sanskrit, on account 
 of their having kept the original a, except in the ace. sing., 
 where the Ionic v^a is nearer to nd'vam than the Doric vavv 
 or vav- 
 
 There are some exceptions to the foregoing law of accen- 
 tuation in Sanskrit : e. g. go (m. f an ox, cow), s'van (m. a dog), 
 krunk' (m. a plover) always keep the accent on the stem- 
 syllable. The same is the case with rdg' (m. a king), krt 
 (making), and roots in a, such as dhmd (to blow), when occur- 
 ring at the end of compounds, except in the vocative, where 
 the accent is thrown as far back as possible, as in sdnkhadh- 
 
 q2 
 
228 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 mdSf voc. sing, of St. sankhadhmd (m. a shell-blower). In the 
 Greek stems (5ov and kw, corresponding to Skr. go and sran, 
 the accent, however, follows the general rule : thus we have 
 Kvvi = s'une, kwoq = s'unas, kvvoiv = s'vdhhydm, kvvwv = s'undm^ 
 KvcTi = s'vdsu, f5oL = gdvi, [5oolv = gobhyam, jSowy = gdvdm^ 
 j3ov(TL = goshu. In div (f. heaven) the accent is kept on the 
 stem in the intermediate cases, as in the instr. pi. dyuhhis ; in 
 the intermediate cases o£nar (m. a man), the accent may fall 
 either on the stem or on the case-ending, as in dat. pi. 
 nr'hhyas or nrhhyds. In the Greek ari^j), corresponding to 
 Skr. nar, the accent is kept on the c whenever it appears as 
 in avfpd, avi^a^ avipiov, but in the weak cases, when the t is 
 lost, the case ending is accented as in Sanskrit ; thus we have 
 Gr. avdpi = Skr. nari, &c. 
 
 The following Sanskrit monosyllabic stems accentuate the 
 case-ending of the accusative plural, like those of the other 
 weak cases : ap (f. water), dat (m. tooth), div (f. heaven), nas 
 (f nose), mV (f. night), pad (m. foot), puns (m. man), mas 
 (m. month), path (m. path), math (m. churning-stick), rdi 
 (f. riches), and uh (for vdh at the end of compounds), suhrd 
 (m. friend), and other compounds of ho^d (n. heart). The 
 Greek presents an older form than the Sanskrit in wo^ag = 
 Skr. padds, -while in the other cases the accentuation is the 
 same, as in irodi = padi, irodog = paddsy ttoSwv =padamj ttoctcti 
 = patsu. 
 
 It has been already remarked that the opinion is main- 
 tained that the distinction between the strong and weak cases 
 in monosyllabic stems had already begun in Indo-European 
 times. Now, if such a distinction had then manifested itself, 
 and if it had begun in a dijBference of accentuation, it would 
 be quite natural to expect that the Greek stems (5ov and kvv 
 should be accented in the same way as the Skr. stems go and 
 s'van, but this, as we have seen, is not the case ; for in Sanskrit 
 these stems are accented throughout their whole declension, 
 whereas in the Greek corresponding stems the accent is placed 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 229 
 
 on the case-en§}ings of the weak cases. It is then safer to 
 suppose that, when the Greek and Sanskrit separated from 
 each other, there was no distinction (as far as monosyllabic 
 stems were concerned) between the accentuation of the strong 
 and that of the weak cases, and consequently, as we shall see, 
 only one form of the stem (i. e. the strong one) existed. It 
 is, however, evident that certain latent tendencies already 
 existed in Indo-European, which afterwards bore similar 
 fruits in Sanskrit and Greek, 
 
 Before the first separation of any Indo-European language 
 from the parent stock, the only law of accentuation that 
 existed was this, that the root-syllable should always have the 
 accent. Consequently in the declension of monosyllabic stems 
 the accent always fell upon the stem, which preserved the 
 strong form in every case. In process of time, but not till 
 after the first separation that occurred in the Indo-European, 
 the accent began to move towards the termination, and con- 
 sequently, as generally happens to unaccented syllables, the 
 stem became shortened in form. The initial consonants* 
 {hh and s) of the intermediate case-endings preserved the ac- 
 cent on the stem in these cases for a longer period than it re- 
 mained on the stem in the weak cases, and consequently these 
 cases frequently preserve a stronger form of the stem than is 
 found in the weak cases. The accentuation of the interme- 
 diate cases of div (e. g. instr. pi. dyubhis, &c.) is a relic of the 
 
 * Oxytone stems of the part. pres. active allow the accent to fall on 
 the case-ending in the weak cases, while in the intermediate cases the ac- 
 cent is kept where it originally was, as the consonantal combinations dhh 
 and ts prevent it passing over them : thus from St. tuddnt (striking) we 
 have instr. pi. tudadhhis^ loc. pi. tuddtsi beside instr. sing, tudata, &c. 
 Similarly the consonantal conjunction nt prevents the accent moving on 
 to the final syllable in nom. and ace. dual neuter tuddnti^ whereas in the 
 side form of the same cases tudati' the accent advances. In participles 
 such as hhdrant (bearing) the accent remains on the root syllable through- 
 out the whole declension. 
 
230 
 
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 time when the accent in these cases still remained on the 
 stem ; while that of nrhhyas or nrhhyds (dat. pi. of nar) points 
 to the time when the accent in the same cases was moving on 
 from the stem to the case-ending. The monosyllabic pro- 
 nouns and the numeral two also retain the accent on the stem 
 in Sanskrit in the weak cases : thus we have U'shu = Gr. roTo-i 
 tasu - Gr. raTo-t, y^'shu = Gr. oTtrt, mdhyam = L. mihi, tuhhyam 
 = L. tibi^ mama (gen. sing, oiahdm, I), dvabhydm = Gr. SvoTv, 
 which latter has become weak beside the nom. Suo, which is 
 still strong. 
 
 Sanskrit Vocalic Stems. 
 
 §. 115. Stems ending in a (m. and n.) and a (f ) are very 
 numerous ; e. g. s'iva [which as an adjective means prospe- 
 rous^ while as a noun Siva (m.) is the god Sivd^ s'iva (f.) 
 his wife^ and s'ivam (n.) happiness~\ is thus declined : 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 N. 
 
 s'ivas 
 
 A. 
 
 s'ivam 
 
 I. 
 
 s'ivena 
 
 D. 
 
 s'ivdya 
 
 Ab. 
 
 sivdt 
 
 G. 
 
 sivasya 
 
 L. 
 
 s'ive 
 
 Y. 
 
 s'iva 
 
 Fem. 
 
 s'iva 
 
 s'ivam 
 
 sivayd 
 
 s^ivdydi 
 
 s'ivdyds 
 
 s'ivdyds 
 
 s'ivdydm 
 
 s'iv^ 
 
 Neut. 
 s'ivam 
 s'ivam 
 s'ivSna 
 s'ivdya 
 sivdt 
 sivasya 
 sivi 
 s'iva 
 
 Dual. 
 Masc. Fern. Neut. 
 
 N.A. V. s'ivdu sivS s'ive 
 
 I. D. Ab. sivdbhydm s'ivdbhyam s'ivdbhydm 
 
 G. L. s'ivayos sivayos sivayos 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 231 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 N. V. 
 
 s'ivds 
 
 s'ivds 
 
 s'ivdni 
 
 A. 
 
 s'ivdn 
 
 s'ivds 
 
 sivdni 
 
 I. 
 
 s'imis 
 
 s'ivdbhis 
 
 s'ivdis 
 
 D. Ab. 
 
 s'ivebhyas 
 
 s'ivdbhyas 
 
 s'ivebhyas 
 
 G. 
 
 sivdndm 
 
 sivdndm 
 
 sivdndm 
 
 L. 
 
 siveshu 
 
 s'ivdsu 
 
 s'iveshu 
 
 The declension of these stems corresponds to that of malus, 
 mala^ malum in Latin, and ayaOog, ayaBrji ayaOov in Greek. 
 
 Stems ending in a, both masculine and feminine, are de- 
 rived from verbal roots ending in a, as sarikhadhmd (m. f. a 
 shell-blower), from saiikha (a shell, Gr. Koyxn) and dhmd (to 
 blow). The strong and intermediate cases of this stem are 
 formed from s'aiikhadhmd, and the weak from s'ankhadhm. 
 The neuter stem is s'aiikhadhma, which is declined as s'iva (n.). 
 
 §. 116. Stems in i, i, ?^, u. We find masc. fem. and neut. 
 stems in i and u; e. g. kavi (m. poet), gati (f. motion), vdri 
 (n. water), &c. ; bhdnu (m. the sun), dhenu (f. a milch-cow), 
 tdlu (n. the palate), &c. We find stems in t and w, both masc. 
 and fem., derived from verbal roots such as kri (to buy), lu 
 (to cut), &c. ; these stems are of course monosyllabic. We 
 find other polysyllabic stems in i and u, also masc, such as 
 papi (m. the sun), n7jtu (m. a dancer), &c. In general stems 
 in t and u are feminine, such as bhi (f. fear), b/m (f. earth), 
 vadhu (f. a wife), &c. 
 
 §. 117. The chief diphthongal stems are rdi (m. f. wealth, 
 L. res), go (m. an ox, f. a cow), dyo (f. heaven), ndu (f. a ship), 
 gldu (m. the moon).* 
 
 * For the special rules respecting all Sanskrit Vocalic stems consult Max 
 Miiller's "Sanskrit Grammar," pp. 96-115, and Bopp's "Sanskrit Gram- 
 mar," pp. 109, seq. 
 
232 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 GREEK CONSONANTAL STEMS. 
 
 §. 118. Guttural Stems. 
 
 The nom. sing of these stems ends iii 5. 
 
 I. Stems ending in k : kooclk (m. a crow), Spctfc (f. the hand, 
 connected with ^Qctacro^ai^ ^paxjuVt ^payima, dapK-eg, meaning 
 bundles according to Hesychius), OwpaK (m. a corslet), j3Aa<c 
 (weak, connected with juaXaKoc), aXwTre/c (f.nom. sing. aXwTrrj^, 
 where c irregularly becomes rj ; this word is perhaps derived 
 from aXwTTOQ which meant craft, Hesych.), o-^tjk (m., derived 
 from Curtius from the same root as L. vespa, by the addition 
 of the individualizing suffix /c, which is found in Upa^ beside 
 tepog, fjLvpiuY)^ = fivpfxoQ^ an ant, aAwTrrj? beside aXwTro'c? &c. ; 
 the stages through which the original vaspa passed were ac- 
 cordingly F£(T7ra, F£<T7raic, cTraic, Ion. txTrrjic, arcprfK, as ir is aspi- 
 rated through the influence of o-), ;)^oti^tK (f.), 0otv7fc(m. and f. 
 nom. sing. (j)oivi^, where the t is irregularly shortened as in 
 KTipv^ from St. kyjpuk), yvvaiK* (f. nom. sin. yvvri, voc. yvvai ; 
 this noun is also declined as an a-stem, as ace. sing, yvvriv 
 ace. pi. yvvac, &c.), &c. These ic-stems are very common in 
 Greek, and are either root-stems such as Trraic (f ace. sing. 
 TTTciKa, a hare, found in-/Esch. Ag. 135) from E. Trrafc, whence 
 t-TTTaKov, TTTiiaao = TTTr}K-i/(i), TTTw^, 01 stcms of uuccrtain origin 
 such as KopaK, v^uK (m. a young man), &c. The k of these 
 latter stems may however have arisen from an older ko = I. E. 
 ka, a very common suffix ; thus paXaKog became juaXaicc, and 
 then /xXaS, and finally jSXa?, as jSporog from pporog. Many 
 ic-stems exist side by side with ones in ko or ktj : thus oik in 
 
 * FvvaiK is accented in the oblique cases like monosyllabic stems, such 
 as oTT, see §. 114; thus as the strong cases we have ywatKa, yvvalKt, 
 yvvaiKeg, yvvaiKag ; and as the weak, yvj'aiKog, yvvaiKt, yvvatKoTv, &C. : 
 yvvaiK may either be for ywnKi = I. E. ganaki, the fern, o^ ganaha, whence 
 Skr. g'anaka (a father) ; and as the accent generally is placed on the fem. 
 termination -e, it may be kept here on it, although transposed, or else it 
 may be derived from yvva + R. tK (to be like), and declined as a root- 
 stem. This latter derivation is improbable, as the R. ik was originally fix. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 233 
 
 oiK-a-de beside otfco, aX»c in ciXkl for oXk^ from a\Krt, Iwk in 
 tw/ca for l(i)Kriv from IwKrj^ KpOK-a for KpoKtiv from KpoK-n, XuK-ag 
 ((papayyag, Hesych.) beside XaKKO-c (m. a lake). Moreover 
 in the dialects we find a similar connexion between the K-and 
 the Ko-stems : thus we have Ion. cjivXaKO-g = (pvXa^, Ion. 
 (ppiKYj = (ppi^, jEol. UpQKO-g = ff/oaS, yXaujco-e = yXavKi avXa- 
 KO-g = avAa^. 
 
 II. Stems ending in y : apnay, pay (f. a berry), paarly 
 (f. a whip ; Homer uses paan as the stem whence dat. patrrij 
 ace. fxaaTLv),, <pXoy (f. from E. (^Afy = Skr. hhrdg\ to shine), 
 ^d^uy (m. f. having two yokes), S^r/y (f the Sphinx, lit. the 
 strangler : this stem becomes (^ik in Boeotic, nom. sing. $i5)» 
 aty (m. f. for ayi = I. E. ag% a she-goat, beside Skr. a^a-s^ a 
 he-goat, from R. ag = Skr. ^^', to move, when Gr. ay-w, L. 
 ago), &c. &c.* There appears to be some connexion between 
 the y-stems and those in -yo and -yr;, but not so close as the 
 connexion between the »c-stems and those in -ko and -kt] ; thus 
 we find (^vy in (pvy-a-^a beside <j)vyrij apna^ (f. = apirayri in 
 Hesiod), ^Eol. apirayog = apira^, alyo- (= aly) found in Bceot. 
 Vy^Qi i. e. aiyoiQ for al^i. 
 
 III. Stems ending in \ : f3rix (f ^ cough), rpix (f nom. 
 sing. 0/oiS), opvtx (^' ^- ^oi'ic for opviB, beside which in Pin- 
 dar we find stem opvi), (ttix (f. a row), tttvx (f a fold), ovu^ 
 (m. a nail), &c.t There appears also to be some connexion 
 between these stems and those in -;^o and -xr^ ; thus we have 
 TTTvK beside irrvxth ortS beside (rrixo-g, ayx^^ (^^® g^^- of an 
 old ;)^o-stem) beside ayx-i (the loc. of an old ;;^-stem) ; ovvx is 
 probably derived from an older owxo = I. E. nagha, whence 
 Skr. nakha-s (m. a nail), L. unguis, Lith. naga-s (id.). 
 
 * Uv^ (with the fists) may be a shortened dat. pi. from a stem Trvy, 
 connected with Trvydjv (an ell), irvy-nfj (the fist), L. pug-nus, pvg-Hi &c. 
 Consult Curtius, Grundzuge, &c., p. 258. 
 
 f TlX'iK (f. (3fjfjia'), appears to be from the stem ttXix ; compare irXix-ag 
 (interfeminium). 'Ayx-i may be the loc. of an old stem ayx? connected 
 with ayx(o, axog, L. angustus, anxius, &c. 
 
234 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 §. 119. Dental Stems. 
 
 I. Stems ending inr: yaXaKT (n. nom, sing yaXa), wkt 
 (f. nom. sing, vu?), jucXir (n. nom. sing. fiiXi), npar (n. nom. 
 sing, ripac), ^aiT (f. nom. sing, ^aig), Kspdr* (n. horn, nom. 
 sing. Kepag, dat. pi. Kipaaij but Kipdrog, Kipdri, &c.), Kpsar (n. 
 meat, nom. sing. Kpiag), XP^'' (^- ^0"fi« sing. xio^c)> «pwr 
 (m.), x<*i°*^t (f- nom. sing. x«P*c)) ovupar (n. found in gen. 
 sing. 6v£tpar-oc, nom. pi. ovupar-a beside nom. sing, ovupo-gj 
 m. a dream), TrpoarwTrar (n. found in dat. pi. Trpoawira-cn be- 
 side 7rp6(TU)Tro-v, n.), yovFaT (n. the knee, nom. sing, -yovu, 
 gen. sing, yovvarog and 'yovaroc = 70vFarocj &c. : -yovu is 
 also declined as an u-stem, from which the former stem yov- 
 Far has been derived by means of the individualizing suffix 
 ar, thus, gen. sing, yovvog = yovvog, ace. pi. yovva = yovva), 
 ^opFar (n. a spear, nom. sing. Sopv, gen. sing, ^ovparog and 
 ^oparog = SopFaroC) &c., Sojou is also declined* as an v-stem, 
 thus gen. sing, ^ovpog = ^opvog, &c., and as a p-stem, thus 
 gen. sing. ^op-6g, dat. sing, dop-i, and perhaps as a (7-stem, 
 thus dat. sing. Sopct = ^opscr-i, ace. pi. Sopij = Sopta = ^o/oeo-a), 
 a>r (n. the ear, Ion. ovar, nom. sing. ovg,t Ion. ovac, gen. 
 sing. loT'OQ, Ion. oi5ar-oc : Curtius supposes that the ori- 
 
 * The stems Ktpar, Kpiar, xpo^^j tJpwr, yeXwr, &c., appear to have side 
 forms ending in s : thus Ktpwf (gen. sing. ofKspag) = KtpaoQ = Kipaa-og, Kspg, 
 (dat. sing.) = Ktpa'i = Ktpaa-i, xpot (dat. sing, of X|Owg) = Xpo<r-t, yiXto (ace. 
 sing, of ysXijjg) = ysXoa = yeXoc-a, &c. Beside tpojr we find the stem tpo, 
 whence comes ace. sing. tpov. 
 
 f Beside such stems as x«P»'' ^^^ other dental stems ending m -iS, ~i9, 
 ~v^, -v9, which are not oxytone in the nom. sing., other stems are found 
 ending in — i and -v ; thus we find j(^dpiT-a = xapt-v, tpiS-a = fpi'V, Otrid- 
 o£ = OsTi-og, &c. : in the case of oxytone stems no such side forms exist, 
 and we only find such forms as iXTriS-a, x^afivS-a^ XafnrdS-a, &c. 
 
 t Ovc may be connected with Skr. av (to desire), Gr. d-iw (I hear), a- 
 tTe {oKov'sTt, Hesych.), L. av-eo, oii-dio^ &c. The sulfix ar appears also 
 in stem dXar (salt), whence dat. pi. dXaviv. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. ' 235 
 
 ginal form ofwr was aixr-ar, ar being the same suffix that 
 appears in dopv-ar and yovv-ar, and he connects with it L. aur- - 
 is for aus-iSf of. aus-culto, Goth, aus-o, the ear, Lith. aiis-is, 
 id.J ; BeafiaT* (n. bonds, nom. pi. decrjuiaT-a beside Sfor/xoc, m.), 
 awfxar (n. nom. sing. (tCj/xu), ofijuiaT (n. for oir-fxar, -^ol. OTTTrar, 
 nom. sing. ojUjua), uf-iar (n. for ea-fiar, Mol. IfXfxar^ nom. sing. 
 ufia)i &c. ; participial stems in -avr^ -evr, -ovt., -vvr, such 
 as j5ij5avTi j3avr, rvipavr, ridevT} devr, j5\r}9evT, ruTrrovr, St- 
 Sovr, dHKvvvr, &c. ; stems, which perhaps were originally par- 
 ticiples, such as FeKovT (willing, from E. Fck = Skr. vas', to 
 wish), OepairovT, XeovT, 'ArXavr (lit. the bearer, from R. tqX 
 = Skr. ^wZ, to bear, cf rXfj-vat, raXa-Cj &c.), XvKa(5avT (the 
 year, lit. the course of light), o^ovt (lit. the eater, from R. iS^ 
 to eat, nom. sing, o^ovg^ cf. SlBovq, nom. sing, of participial 
 stem ^idovr), &c. ; (pwr (m. a man, nom. sing 0wc) may be 
 an old participle of R. (pv (to produce), and = 0oFar (lit. the 
 producer), cf Skr. bhavat (being) from R. bhu (to be) ; par- 
 ticipial stems in or = For, such as hraFor (nom. sing, lorawc)* 
 XbXvkot (nom. sing. XsXukwc), &c. ; stems in -Fevr (nom. 
 sing. m. -Feig, n. -Fev, f. -Fsaaa = -Ferya from the weak form 
 of the stem -Far = Skr. -vantf (full of, provided with), such as 
 
 * Stems in -ftar are very common, and have arisen perhaps from older 
 forms in -fiavr, traces of which are found in the cognate adjectival and 
 other stems in -fiov, and in verbs ending in -fiuivio ; thus we have iv- 
 eifiov (well clad) beside elfiar, Svofxar, beside ovofxaivb) = ovofiavryb), x«'A*«r 
 beside x«'V<^^' and xf «/^a«»'<^ (compare Skr. heman, m. winter, and hemanta, 
 m. and n. id.). That verbs in -aivto originally possessed r appears not 
 impossible if we compare v^aff/xa and^t'acrywa, which arose from v(paTfia and 
 /itar/^xa, with ir^at'j'w and /xtaiVw. This connexion of -/zar with -/iair is 
 supported by comparing ovofxar with L. cognomen and cognomentum^ te- 
 gumen with tegumentum^ &c. 
 
 f llavT (nom. ■n-af, 7ra(Ta, ttolv) appears to contain this suffix, and to 
 point back to an I. E. kvd-vant or kvu-vanta, whence L. quantu-s, U. 
 panta. Kvdvan meant ^^ how much,^^ just as Skr. tuvant meant ^^ so 
 much'" (cf. L. tantus) and ydvant. '^ how much.^^ Jldaa (2Eo\. 7ra~iaa) 
 arose from Travrya through the steps Tzavr-za^ navT-ffa, Trav-aa ; a in irav 
 is irregularly lengthened ; it is short in inav. 
 
236 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 PpOToFiVT (full of blood), doXofavr (crafty), &c. ; stems in -apr 
 (the nom. sing, of which ends generally in -ap, and sometimes 
 in ~(i)p, whereas the oblique cases reject p*, and are formed 
 from stems in -ar, except Sa/nap, f., the oblique cases of 
 which are dapapr-og, dapapT-i, &c., compare ^opopri-g - ^a- 
 fxap, Hesych.), such as (l)psdT for tppeapr (n. a well, gen. sing. 
 (ppidroQ and 0|3T}roc, nom. pi. Horn, (ppeiar a, Ait. (ppidTa)^ 
 TiiraT for iinapr = Skr. yah't (n. the liver), aKapr (n. dung, 
 nom. sing. oKiop) = Skr. s'akrt (n. id.), ortar for aT^apr (n. fat, 
 beside to araXg, gen. (TTatr-og, dough), uSar for v^apr (n. nom. 
 sing, v^wp), aXEiar (n. meal), kvut (n. a hole), &c. ; stems in 
 -rr^rf, all feminine, such as (piXoTY)T (love, nom. sing. (jtiXo- 
 
 TYlc), &C. 
 
 II. Stems ending in -S (which is lost in nom. sing.)J : Xafx- 
 Trad (f.), dpopad (m. f.) &c. ; Qtpid (f. beside Qepi, Dor. Qeptr, 
 and Ep. Qepiar), 'Aprepid (f. beside Dor. 'AprspiT), Qerid (f. 
 beside Qeri), IXiriS (f.), aid (m. only used in the oblique 
 cases) ; ttoS (m. nom. sing, novg, the compounds of which 
 can also form their ace. sing, like stems in ou, e. g. OiStVoSa 
 and OiBiTTovVi rpiTroda and Tpiirovvi &c.) ; ^^Aa/iuS (f.), Bayvd 
 (f. a doll) ; 0(^S (f. a blister) ; iraid (m. f.) ; KXH^ (f. ace. 
 sing. icXai^ and KXctSa, ace. pi. kXeTc and jcXetSac), &c. 
 
 * We find other instances of the omission of r ; thus ttoti = Kret. 
 TToprt = TrpoTi = Skr. prati (jrpoQ), SpvpuKTOQ for Spv(ppaKrog from R. ^/ocry, 
 whence (jtgaaau) = (ppayyu), L. pec^o = Gr. TrspSw, E. speak = G. sprechen^ 
 &c. 
 
 t This stem -termination arose from an I. E. -<(U2, which is found in 
 Skr. s'ivatuti (f. benevolence), sarvatuti = Gr. oXotijt^ &c., and in the 
 Latin plural genitives, civitati-um, csfati-um, voluptati-um^ &c. 
 
 t In ^olic ^ is also lost in ace. sing. : thus we find in this dialect such 
 forms as KPcifxiv, atppayiv, KXaiv, Trait/, x^^f^^^i for Ktry/ii^a, <r^payXda, 
 KXrjlda, TTalda, x^^A'w^cf 
 
 § Beside KXtig we find the Doric form kXo^, which Ahrens (" De Dia- 
 lect© Dorica," pp. 94, 140, 141), considers to have arisen from KXatg, ig being 
 changed into $• This explanation is very doubtful, and it is much more 
 likely that the final guttural in kXo.^ arose from the dental in K\tid. If this 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 237 
 
 III. Stems ending in -0 (which is lost in nom. sing.): 
 Uapvr}9 (m. a mountain in Attica) ; opvlO (m. £ beside o^vi 
 and J)or. opvix); Kopvd (f.)j kwiuvO (f. a sheaf of hay); eXjuLivO 
 (f. a worm, beside eXjuLi and iXiuiyy), Trei^ivd (f. a wicker 
 basket); T«/)wv0 (f.) ; &c. 
 
 IV. Stems ending in -g (preceded by any vowel). 
 
 1°. Stems in -ag : (reXag (n. gen. sing. aiXaog for aiXa- 
 (Tog), KvB(pag (n. gen. sing. Kvifaog and Kv((j)Ovg, the latter being 
 from a stem KVE(peg), jdpsrag (n. an image), Kcuag (n. a fleece), 
 ovEag (n. the ground), yjjpac (n.), Seirag (n.), &c. These 
 stems appear to be closely connected with others in -eg : thus 
 jSpcVac, KU)ag, ovdag, &c., form their oblique cases from fdpEreg, 
 Kojeg, ovdeg, &c. It has been suggested that stems in -ag have 
 arisen from older forms in -ar, and accordingly they have 
 been compared with such stems as Kspar (n. a horn, whence 
 nom. sing. Kepag, gen. sing. Kipdr-og and Kspiog = KSpaog, r 
 being thrown out), Kpear (n. flesh, for Kptf^ar, whence nom. 
 sing. Kpiag and Kpuag, gen. sing. Kpiwg). 
 
 2°. Stems in -eg: adjectival stems in -gg such as aa^ee, 
 &c., of which the nom. sing. masc. and fem. ends in -17^ ; sub- 
 stantival masc. stems in -eg, of which the nom. sing, also ends 
 in -rig, as ^wKpareg, 'Apeg, &c., while the ace. sing, may either 
 come from these stems (S(i>»c/oar?j = Sa>fcpar£(T-a), or from 
 stems in -a (SwKparjjv) ; substantival neuter stems in -eg^ 
 which becomes -og in the nom. sing. ; e. g. yeveg, nom. sing. 
 yevog, gen. sing, yevovg = yeveaog = L. generis for genesis, 
 from St. gerieSf &c. These latter stems have frequently side 
 forms ending in -o : thus we have aKoreg (n.) and (tkoto (m.), 
 oxcc (n) and ox© (ni.), KXadeg (found in dat. pi. KXa^em) be- 
 side jcXaSo (na.), SevSpec (^O beside ^evSpo (n.), avdpairodeg 
 
 be so, (cXdC bears nearly the same relation or KXeig (for xXsiSg), that Dor. 
 6/oi/tx does to 6pvi9. Q and x appear to be interchanged in Mod. Gr. 
 AiQaSo -vriaa from Aixadtg and Mod. Gr. i}px" from fiXBov. Compare also 
 Dor. ^cL^aK (m.) from St. ^a^dx with «P^/^»f (f. dim. of ^pfj^os) from St. 
 
238 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 (found in dat. pi. avdoano^ecyai) beside av^pawodo (n.), and 
 many others. 
 
 3°. Stems in -og : aldog (f. nom. sing. aiSwc, gen. sing. 
 alBovg = atSoo-oc)j VX^^ (^' ^0^^* sing, rixto, gen. sing. ri\ovQ 
 = rixo(T-og)i riog (f. nom. sing, riwg)) X9^^ (^' ^^^- sing. XP^C» 
 gen. sing, xpooc = xpo^^'OC? beside Attic stem xpw)» TrsiBog 
 (f. nom. sing. Tret^w, gen. sing. ireiOovg), &c. The vocative 
 singular of these stems ends in -ot, as aiSoc, i7Xo*» -rreidot, &c., 
 and various theories have been proposed to account for these 
 forms. One writer suggests that the original form of these 
 stems ended in -ovl ; another that they ended in -ov, and that 
 V .was merely vocalized into t, as in jiEol. fiiXaig for fisXavgi 
 &c., TiOeig for riOevg^ &c. ; another that they ended in -ovi ; 
 another that they ended in -o ; another that they ended in 
 -ot, inasmuch as we find such nominative forms as Ar^rtj;, 
 SaTT^fj), &c., and, lastly, another that <j is vocalized into i. 
 Whatever may be the true explanation of this vocative in 
 -ot, it apparently bears a remarkable resemblance to the San- 
 skrit vocative in S of feminine nouns in -a, e. g. sVue from sivd ; 
 for w : a : : ot : ^ (ai). 
 
 4°. Stems in -vg : fxvg (m. nom. sing, juuc, gen sing, juuoc 
 = fxv(T-og), 
 
 5°. Stems in -wg : Owg (m. a jackal, nom. sing. Owg, gen. 
 sing. 9u)6g = 9(i)(T-og)i riptjg (m. gen. sing, lipiooc), iir)Tp{jjg (m. 
 avunculus), aXa>c (f- the threshing-floor, found in ace. sing. 
 aX(t>a = aXwtr-a, Arat. 940), icaXtuc (m. a rope), &c. Some of 
 these stems have side forms in -wv, and most of them can also 
 be declined according to the Attic second declension. 
 
 V. Stems ending in -v (preceded by any vowel) . 
 
 1°. Stems in -av : raXav (nom. sing. m. raXag, f. TaXaiva = 
 ToXavya, n. raXav), and similarly peXav, the only other adjec- 
 tival stem in -av ; Udv (m. Pan, nom. sing. Hav), iratdv (m. 
 nom. sing. Traidv). 
 
 2°. Stems in -ev : adjectival stems in -ev, such as aptrcv 
 (nom. sing. m. and f. aparjv, n. ap(T£v), repev (nom. sing. m. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 239 
 
 Ttprjv, f. Ttpeiva, n. ripev) ; (ppev (f. nom. sing, (ppiiv); ttoi/ulbv 
 (m. nom. sing. Troifii]v) ; ktev (m. a comb, nom. sing, ktuq), 
 Iv (nom. sing. m. ac, n. cv) ; &c. 
 
 3°. Stems in -riv (nom. sing, -rjv) : fir^v (m. beside Ion. fidg 
 = fxev + c ; Cur tins considers that the original form of this stem 
 was jurjvc? whence comes jEolic fxriwog for p.r]vaoQ, cf. L. 
 menS'i-s), ^(^rjv (m. beside x^^^ found in xwo-fSocTKog ; Cur- 
 tius considers that this stem was originally xevg, or a fem. stem 
 X£vo"i beside Skr. hahsi = I. E. ghansi, Ch. SI. gansi), Zr^v (m. 
 Jove), "EXXrjv (m.), Trev^ijv (m. an inquirer), irvpriv (m. a 
 fruit-stone), ^//jjv (m. the gall-insect), &c. 
 
 4°. Stems in-iv : plv (f. the nose, nom. sing, pig^ and later 
 pLv), Olv (m. f. a heap, nom. sing. Oig^ and later Oiv), IktIv 
 and >cr7v (m. a weasel), SeX^Tv (m.), &c. 
 
 5°. Ste77is in -ov : x^ov (f. perhaps for an older x^Oj"? com- 
 pare \ajiai, xdaji-akoQ^ Z. zem, earth, L. humu-s, Ch. SI. 
 zem-lja, land) ; adjectival stems in -ov (nom. sing. m. f. -wv, 
 n. -ov), such as puZov and other comparatives, in which v 
 may be thrown out, and the vowels contracted as in jueiZovg 
 for and beside pdZovEg, while other adjectival stems in -ov, 
 as (TW^pov, ivdaifjLOVi cannot throw out v ; daifiov (ni.), riyefxov 
 (m.), x<ov (f.) ; ari^ov (f. nom. sing, an^ajv, gen. sing. aijSo- 
 voc and a»?8oi)c)? x^^'^^v (f. nom. sing. x^Xi^wv, gen. sing. 
 X^XtSovoc and xfXiSouc), atKOv (f. nom. sing, ftjccuv, gen. sing. 
 iiKovog and £t»covc)> ro/oyov (f. nom. sing. Fopyw and TopywVi 
 gen. sing. FopYovoc and Topyoog, Dor. ropywc, -^ol. Fop- 
 ywg)j &c. These feminine stems in -ov partly agree in their 
 declension with feminine stems in -og : e. g. TniOovg (gen. 
 sing, of St. TreiOog) is similar to eJkouc (gen. sing, of St. el- 
 Kov). This similarity is, however, not a sufficient basis on 
 which to build the theory that all these stems in -ov and -oc, 
 such as aiSog, irEiOog, iIkov, &c., were originally identical. 
 
 6°. Stems in -w : p.oaavv (m. a tower, nom. sing, jmoacrvv), 
 4>op»cuv (nom. sing. ^opKvg), Voprvv (nom. sing. Fopruc)- The 
 
240 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 oblique cases of kvwv (m. f .), with the exception of the voca- 
 tive Kvov, are formed from St. kvv. 
 
 7°. Stems in -wv : 'AttoAXwv, DocreiSwv, jcXwv (m. a branch, 
 nom. sing. kXwv), al(jjv (m.), ripwv (m. found in Syracusan 
 ripivvi^aai* beside St. ripwg), raojv (m. a peacock, nom. sing. 
 rawc, which is generally declined according to the Attic se- 
 cond declension), aAwv (f. nom. sing. aXwc, also declined 
 according to Attic second declension), ru^wv (m. nom. sing. 
 Tv^wv and rv^tLg), &c. 
 
 8°. Stems in v preceded by a consonant : apv (m. f. a lamb, 
 without nom.), Uvkv (f. the Pnyx, nom. sing. UvvE,). 
 
 VI. Stems ending in -p (preceded by any vowel). 
 
 1°. Stems in -ap (nom. sing, -ap): vEKxap (n.), ^ap(m.the 
 starling), ^ajca/) (m. happy, nom. sing. jmaKap, jEoI. fidKapg), 
 oap (f. a wife, from 6 = Skr. sa^ with, and a root (jap, to join, 
 whence aeipa, a rope ; or from d = Skr. sa and Pap = L. vir ; 
 in the former case oap would be for baap, and in the latter 
 for oFap). 
 
 2°. /S^^ms ending in cp : ^c/o (f- nom. sing. ;^6fp, JEol. x^/>c, 
 beside St. x^'p)» at^ep (j^- nom. sing. alBfip), TraTep (m.), avcp 
 (m.), &c. 
 
 3°. Stems in -rip : 0T?p (m. a wild beast), Kparrip (m.), &c. 
 
 4°. /Sterns m -op : /orjro/o (m. nom sing, pqrwp), r\Top (n. 
 nom. sing, ^rop^ the heart), aop (n. a sword), &c. 
 
 5°. Stenns in vp : irvp (n. nom. sing. Trvp), fxaprvp (m. nom. 
 sing. fjLapTvg, and later juaprvp), i\t7vp (m.), KapKvp (m.). 
 
 6°. /Sterns ending in -tjp : ^wp (m. a thief), tteXojp (n.), 
 t'xwp (m.), &c. 
 
 VII. The only Greek stem in -X is aX (m. salt, f. the sea, 
 nom. sing. aXg)* 
 
 * Consult Ahrens " De dialecto Dorica," p. 241. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 241 
 
 §. 120. Labial Stems. 
 
 I. Stems ending in -tt : XaiXaTr (f. a storm, nom, sing. Aal- 
 Xa\p), depair (m. found in ace. sing. Bipaira for depairovTa^ ; 
 piir (m. nom. sing, plip^ a mat), kvItt (m. an ant); ott (f), 
 'At^iOTT (m.), KaXavpoTT (f. a shepherd's crook) ; yvir (m. a 
 vulture) ; wir (m. £), &c. 
 
 II. Ste7ns ending in -/3 : *Apaj3 (m.), XT/3 (m. a drop, from 
 same root as X£fj3a>), ATj3 (m. the south-west wind, lit. the 
 moist wind, connected with last stem), xepvij5 (f.), x^^^l^ 
 (m. steel). 
 
 III. Stems ending in -0 : vt^ (f. snow, found only in 
 oblique cases), Karr^Xicf) (f an upper story, nom. sing. KaTiiXi\p\ 
 Xi^ (f. nom. sing. Xi^, iTnOvfiia Hesych.). 
 
 §. 121. Strong and Weak Stems. 
 
 The strong form of the stem is kept in Greek in many 
 places where we find in Sanskrit the intermediate or the weak 
 form (consult §. 112). We however find several examples 
 where there is a change of stem in Greek. 
 
 The adjectival sufiix Ffvr = I. E. vant assumes frequently 
 tlie weak form Fcr, as in firjTLosacra = ^-nTioFeTi/a, fem. of jur^- 
 TioeiQ = jui]rtoFfvr-c> \apitaGa - \apiPsTya, fem. of ')(^apUig = 
 Xapif^vT-g, &c. The weak form of the stem is also found in 
 the dat. pi. masc. xp^pUcn = X'^P'-^ erai, &c., and in the compa- 
 rative and superlative of such adjectives, as x^9^^^"''^P^^'> 
 Xapii(T'TaTog = x«piF£r-rfpoc» xaptFcr-raroc, &C. 
 
 The above I. E. suffix vant also assumes the weak form 
 For in participles in -tog, as XeXvKvog = XeXvK-foT-g, XeXvKvXa = 
 XeXvK-FoT-ya, &c. : when a vowel precedes For, it generally 
 becomes Fa>r, as in lorcwc (gen. sing, io-rewroc) = i<Tra-For-c, 
 TeOvEU)Q = rtOva-foT-g, &c. This suffix vant is also supposed 
 to appear in kvwv = I. E. M-vant^ from M (to howl, c. f. Gr. 
 KU)'Kv-u))j which has two stems, the strong kvov and the weak 
 Kvv. In Latin we find this stem appearing as can in can-is^ 
 
 B 
 
242 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 and cat in cat-ulus^ and in Goth, we find it as limid in hund-s^ 
 E. hound. 
 
 The I. E. suffix mant appears in the strong form fxavr and 
 the weak juav, juar, /xov : thus we have liiavT (m. a strap, 
 nom. sing, t/xac from R. I = Skr. s^, to bind, whence siman^ f. 
 a boundary, and simanta^ m. a separation of the hair on each 
 side, so as to leave a distinct line on the top of the head), be- 
 side XfxaT (whence IjudacTit) = IfiaTyio and ijuaaOXr} = liuaTOXt], a 
 whip), and Ijuov (whence liiovia, the rope of a well), ovo^ar (n. 
 nom. sing, ovofia) beside ovofiav (whence bvofiaivii) = ovofiav 
 yii)\ which point back to an older stem bvofxavr^ c. f. L. 
 cognoment-um, &c. ; o-TTfjOjuar beside cnrEpfjiav (whence o-Trtp- 
 fiaivtj), &c. Stems in -/uuv are also connected with those in 
 fiar, as priyfiar (n. a breach) with pr\yfMv (m. breakers), &c. 
 
 The oblique cases of participles whose stems end in ovr 
 and avT retain the strong form : but we find a few examples 
 where the weak stem apparently shows itself ; thus we have 
 Mo\. fao-tra and iaaa (fem. of wv, being) which must be for 
 laaTya and Irya^ crar being the weak form of participial stem 
 ovr = I. E. sant = L. sent in absent-em^ &c. This weak form 
 of the participle of ct/it appears also to be found in hsog 
 (true) =» Skr. satyas (id.), arujuocj lTy]TVfiog. 
 
 Nouns of relationship in rrig^ such as jrarrip, urirrip, have 
 two stems ending in rep and rp, and may form their oblique 
 cases from either, e. g. gen. sing, iraripog and 7rarpoc> p.i)Tipog 
 and fULtiTpog, dat. sing. Trarepi and irarpi, jurtripL and fiYiTpl^ &c. ; 
 but in ace. sing, we only find iraripa and furiTipa, &c., while 
 in dat. pi. the stem ends in rpa, as Trarpact, &c. 
 
 §. 122. Vocalic Stems. 
 
 I. Stems in -a, -rj, and -o (= I. E. ct and a). 
 
 1°. Stems in -o (m. f. n.), as iTnro (m. f.), ^Ojoo (m.), voo-o 
 (f.), Suyo (n.), &c. 
 
 Many consonantal stems have side-forms in o, especially in 
 -^olic, where we find the stems ayojvo, ^uXajco, juiapTvpo, 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 243 
 
 tKarovx^tpo, yspovro, Tra^rj/xaro, &c. In Boeotic we find riyvg 
 = aiyotg from stem myo* 
 
 2^. Stems in -a, -a, -r/, as fiovaa (f. nom. sing, fxovaa)^ 
 X(t)pd (f. nom. sing. x^P«)> TroAtra (m. nom. sing. ttoX/tj]?), 
 viavtd (m. nom. sing. v£avtac)r'Epjur| (m. nom. sing. 'E^jw^g) 
 LTnroTOL (m. nom. sing. Ep. tTnroTci), &c. 
 
 II. /Sfems ending in -/, as Tro^i (m. for Trort = Skr. pa^z), 
 ^T^pt (£ strife), TToXi (f.), k7 (m. a worm), mvairi (n. mustard), 
 tS/ot (m. f. knowing), &c. Some stems in -a and -o became i- 
 stems by throwing out these vowels, as Dor. AeTvi-c? = ^uvia-q 
 and in later Greek AT^jurJrpi-c = Ar^^r^^xo-c, ^lovvgi-q = Ato- 
 
 III. Stems in -u, as t^^*^ ("^Oj tijxv(^^-)) ^TX^^^ (^O* ^«- 
 Kpv (n.), atrru (n.), yXufcw (m. n.), &c. 
 
 IV. Diphthongal stems, as vav (f ), ypav (f.), ^ovev (m.), 
 jSdo-tXeu (m.), vt£v (m. beside uto), 'A()£u (m. beside 'Apt? and 
 'Api?), Zeu (m.), &c. ; oi (m. f. a sheep, the only diphthongal 
 stem in ot ; it is also an t-stem, oi) ; j3ou (m. f.), ^ou (m. con- 
 guis). 
 
 The original stem of Xdag or Xac (m. a stone), was pro- 
 bably XaF : its declension is very similar to that of vavg, thus 
 we have gen. sing. Xaoc (beside Xaov, as if from an a-stem 
 Xda), dat. sing. Xat, ace. sing. Xda (beside Xdav and Xdv from 
 St. Xda), &c. That Xaac originally contained a digamma may 
 be inferred from the words Xevoj (I stone), Xcuo-juoci <5i6C. 
 Bopp and Benfey connect it with Skr. grdvan (m. a stone). 
 
 Latin Stems. 
 
 §. 123. Guttural Stems. 
 
 I. Stems in -c (nom. sing. m. f. n. x and c) : /(^c (f. a 
 torch), pac (f.) ferae (m. f. n. fruitful), nSc (f ), AaZ^c (nom. 
 sing. f. halex, and n. Aa/ec, brine of fish) , sa^fc (f. a willow), 
 
 * Consult Ahrens de Dialectis iEoliciset Pseudaeolicis, pp. 120, 236. 
 
 R 2 
 
244 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 supplXe (m. f. n.), radlc (f.), felic (m. f. n.), Cappaddc (m.), 
 ■prcBcQc (m. f. n.) voc (f.), atroc (m. f. n.), cruc (f.), triXc (m. f. 
 n.) Polluc (m.), &c. 
 
 II. Stems in -g (nom. sing, x) : grSg (m.), r^^ (i^)j ^^wif^ 
 (m.), Allobrdg (m.), conjug (m. f.), /rwy (f.), &c. , 
 
 §. 124. Dental Stems. 
 
 I. Stems in -t (which is lost before the nom. sing. 5, the 
 preceding vowel being frequently lengthened in [compensa- 
 tion) : anat (f. a duck), cetdt (f.), abi^t (f.), quiet (f.), milU (m.), 
 lU (f.), cot (f. a whetstone), virtut (f.), &c. Oss (n. a bone), 
 TWtfZZ (n.), /<5Z^ (n.), were originally ^stems, for gss = ost (as 
 messis = mes-tis = met-tis from R. rwe^, cf. Gr. 6<rr-oi)v), mell = 
 TweZ^ (c. f. Gr. jUfX^r, Goth, milith, honey), fell = felt, and this 
 perhaps for fel-ti. 
 
 II. aS^cws m -c? (which is lost before the nom. sing, s, the 
 preceding vowel being frequently lengthened in compensa- 
 tion) : vdd (m. a surety), p^d (m.), het^ed (m. f .), obsid (m. a 
 hostage), custod (m.), pecitd^ (f.), joafec? (f.), &c.; 
 
 III. Stems in -s: mas (m. a male), vds (n. a vessel), gen^s 
 (n. nom. sing, genus, gen. sing, generis = genesis), cinis (m. gen. 
 sing, cineris = dnisis, the second e becoming « through the in- 
 fluence of the succeeding r), ^Zz5 (m. a dormouse), arte (f. 
 nom. sing, arbor and arbos), corpus (n. nom. sing, corpus), 
 mos (m.), 05 (n.), LemUs (m. ghosts, found only in plural Le- 
 mures), LigUs {m.)s, jus (n.), mus (m.), &c. Farr (n. corn) is 
 probably for /ars, rs becoming rr, as in ferre £or ferse, and as 
 Zs becomes II in reZZ^ for velse. Vds (n. gen. sing, vasis), is the 
 only stem that retains s throughout its whole declension ; in 
 other stems it becomes t between two vowels. The Latin in- 
 finitive in -re is perhaps the dative of an old stem in -as; le- 
 gere would then be for leg-es-e, just as in Yedic similar datives 
 are used as infinitives, such as sahase (to strengthen, lit. for 
 strengthening, Rig. I. 16, 6), &c. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 245 
 
 IV. Stems in -n : ren (m. the kidney), lien (ra. the spleen, 
 beside lieni) ; stems in -min= I. E. -man, nom. sing, (-men), 
 as nomin (n.), agmin (n.), &c. ; fiamin (m. nom. ^mg. fiamen), 
 tibicin (m.), tubicin (m.), pectin (m.), sang uin {nom. sing. m. 
 sanguis, and n. sanguen), homin (m. nom. sing, homo), from 
 an older homon which is found in O. L. ace. sing, homonem 
 and hemonem, cardin (m. a hinge, nom. sing, cardo), praedon 
 (m. nom. sing.prcedo), carn{L nom. sing, caro), for caron, &c. 
 The stems of mm's snad juvenis were originally w-stems, as we 
 see from the gen. pi. can-um Siud juven-um, and the correspond- 
 ing Sanskrit stems s'van and yuvan, nom. sing, s'vd and yuvd, 
 
 V. Stems ending in -r : baccdr (n. a kind of berry), calcur 
 (n. a spur), career (m.), v^r (n.), «^w(yr (n.), cZo^or (m.), ful- 
 giXr (n.), /w/" (m.), &c. 
 
 VI. Stems ending in -I : sal (m. n. salt), animal (n.), pugil 
 (m.), 5oZ (m.)' consul (m.), &c. 
 
 §. 125. Labial Stems. 
 
 I. Ste7n$ ending in -p : cfej9 (f ), adip (m. f. nom. sing. 
 adeps, fat) ; compounds, the latter part of which is derived 
 from. R. cap (to take), as princip (m. nom. sing, princej^s), 
 aucup (m. nom. sing, auceps), &c. 
 
 II. Stems ending in -b : urb (f ), stems in -b are generally 
 short forms of other stems, as pleb (f. nom. sing, plebs), is for 
 plebi (gen. pi. plebi-um), scrub (m. f. a ditch), is for scrobi, &c. 
 
 III. There is only one stem in m, viz., Mem (f. nom. sing. 
 hiems and hiemps). 
 
 IV. There is only one stem in -v, viz., ?i?^i' (f snow, 
 nom. sing, nio!, gen. sing, nivis) beside ningui. 
 
 §.126. Strong and weak Stems. 
 
 The distinction between strong and weak stems has only 
 manifested itself in Latin in a few cases : thus pair is the weak 
 
246 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 form of St. pate7\ and from it in Classical Latin the oblique 
 cases o£ pater are formed, whereas in Old Latin e was retained, 
 as in the gen. sing. Diespiter-is, Opiter-is, &c., similarly ve7itr, 
 mater y are the weak forms of the stems venter and mater. 
 
 Cam is the weak form of car On (nom. sing, card) and may 
 be compared with Skr. rdg'h^ the weak form of St. rag an. 
 
 The participles in -ant and -ent retain their strong forms 
 throughout their declensions, but it is possible that the weak 
 form may show itself in the following examples : pariet (m. a 
 wall, nom. sing, paries) from par ^ Skr. pari = Gr. irtQi and 
 ient (going), and therefore, meaning literally, "what goes 
 round," ahiet (f the fir), from ah and ient^ and meaning lite- 
 rally *' what goes up," teget (f a mat, lit. " what covers" for 
 tegent, part, of teg-o), potestat for potet-tat = potent-tat, egestat 
 for eget-tat = egent-tat, while we have the strong form of the 
 participial stem in voluntat^ 0. herentat. 
 
 §. 127. Vocalic Stems. 
 
 I. Stems midi7ig in -a (a, e, o), 
 
 1°. Stems in -a (which lose the final s of the nom. sing, 
 although it originally existed there, as in paricidas found in 
 the law of Numa, and hostiGapas^ i. e. kostium captor), as equd 
 (f originally equd), incola (m.)y formd (£. hut forma on the in- 
 scription on the tomb of the Scipios), aquild (f but aquild in 
 Ennius), &c. Greek nouns in -ag lose the final g when bor- 
 rowed by the Latin, as Pintia (for <PivTiag), Apella, Mena^ 
 &C.5 Gr. 7roir\Tr]Q (m.) becomes poeta and -^^apr^g (m.) be- 
 comes charta (f.) 
 
 2°. Stems ending in -e (all of which are feminine except 
 dies, which is either masculine or feminine, while meridies is 
 always masculine) : re (nom. sing, res) ^ fide (j..), plebe (f.) &c. 
 These stems are closely connected with those in -a, and we 
 frequently find two forms of the same stem existing beside 
 each other, one ending in -a and another in -e, as barbafia 
 and barbaric, materia and materie, ejffigia and efiigie, &c. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 247 
 
 3°. Ste7ns in o : equo (m. nom. sing, equos^ later equus), 
 alvo (f. the stomach, nom. sing. ahoSf later alvus), jugo (n. 
 nom. sing, jugom, later jugum), &c. We frequently find 
 stems in -a beside stems in -o, as transfuga beside profugo, 
 collega beside sacrilego, Graiugena beside Asiageno and privigno 
 (= privigeno), &c. When r preceded o, the latter was gene- 
 rally dropped and e inserted in the nom. sing, when another 
 consonant immediately preceded, as in caper = Gr. Kairpo-g, 
 ager = Gr. aypog, &c. : this inserted e was not retained in the 
 oblique cases, as in gen. sing, capri^ agri, &c., excejTt where 
 it belonged to the root, as in coryiiger, armiger, prosper (from 
 pro and R. sjjer, whence sper-o, spes, O. L. ace. pi. sper-es), 
 &c., and in some other cases as 0. L. magisteres = magisteri, 
 dexteri beside dextri, &c. In many cases o is retained in the 
 nominative after r, as in 0. L. socerus = socer, 0. L. puerus = 
 puer (= poverus, which also became por in the proper names, 
 Marcipor, Publipor^ &c., and was then declined as a stem 
 in -7*), 0. L. vulturus = vultur, n,umerus, wnerus^ uterus, pros-^ 
 perus = prosper, herus, verus, laurus, taurus, severus, serus, mi- 
 rus, virus, -parus (oviparus), -vorus {carnivorus), purus, murus. 
 After I is only omitted in famul beside famulus, and nihil = 
 nihilum, just as in N. U. katel = L. catulus and O. 0. Mutil = 
 Mutilos. 
 
 is also lost in nom. sing, in 0. L. damnas for damnats = 
 damnatos, just as in N. U, tacez - L. tadtos, 0.0. kurz = L. 
 hortos, &c. In Old Latin a was lost after i, and then the nom. 
 sing, s was itself frequently lost, as in Clodis and Clodi = 
 Claudius, Cornells, and Cornell = Cornelius, &c. 
 
 was written in the nom. sing, of all o-stems until about 
 the middle of the third century, B. c, when u took its place, 
 except in stems ending in -vo, in which a was still written, a& 
 in servo-s, equo-s, &c. 
 
 II. Stems ending in -i (nom. sing. m. f. -is, and 
 -es, n. -e) : arnni (m. nom. sing, amnis), torqid (m. f. nom. 
 sing, torquis and torques), avi (f nom. sing, avis), scrohi 
 
248 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 (f. a ditch, nom. sing, scrohs and scrohis), sinapi (mustard, 
 nora. sing. f. sinapis, and n. sinape), mari (n. nom. sing. 
 mare, pi. mari-a), sali (n. the sea, nom. sing, sale beside 
 St. sal), ossi (n. a bone, nom. sing, osse beside St. oss)^ 
 lacti (n. milk, nom. sing, lacte beside St. lact), &c. In nouns 
 formed with suffix -ti the stem of the nom. sing, generally 
 ends in -t as menti (f nom. sing, mens == merits), morti (f. nom. 
 sing, mors = morts), juventuti (f nom. sing, juventus = juven- 
 tuts)^ civitati (£ nom. sing, civitas = civitats), &c. Stems end- 
 ing in -ri often lose the final i and insert e before r, like stems 
 in -ro; imhri (m. nom. sing, imber), acri (m. f. n. nom. sing, 
 m. acer and acris), silvestri (m. f. n. nom. sing, m Silvester Qxid. 
 sihestris), &c. Similarly i is sometimes lost when preceded 
 by I as in vigili (m. f. n. nom. sing. m. vigil), pugili (m. nom. 
 sing, pugil), &c. I is frequently added to adjectival stems in 
 ~u, and thus new stems in -i are formed, as brevi = bregu-i 
 from bregu = Gr. j3pa;)^u, gravi = garu-i from ^a?*M = Gr. j3apu 
 = Skr. guru, leti = Z^^w-z from legu = Gr. fXa^v = Skr. laghuj 
 suavi - suadu-i from suadu = Gr. iJSi; = Skr. svddu, pingui from 
 pingu = Gr. 7ra;^v, fenr^i from tenu = Gr. raw = Skr. tanu. 1 
 is also frequently employed to lengthen consonantal stems, as 
 in voc-i-bus, duc-i-bus for voc-bus due-bus, amant-i-a, amant-i~ 
 um, amant-i'bus, &c. Vates is for vats (gen. pi. vat-um)^ from 
 a root = Z. t?ai (to speak) ; canis (and canes) is for cans (gen. 
 pi. can-um) ; nam's is for navs = Gr. vovq = Skr. waws ; O. L. 
 Jovis (nom. sing.) = Jovs = Gr. Zcuc = Skr. dydus, bovis or bos 
 = 6ovs = Gr. j3ovc = Skr. gdus, 
 
 III. Stems ending in -u : fructu (ra.), lacu (m.), socrr« (f.), 
 mxinu (f.), com?* (n.), ^cww (n.). These stems are often inter- 
 changed with others in -o : thus beside the stems senatu, tu- 
 multu, cupressu, penu (provisions), &c., we also find the stems 
 senate, tumulto, cupresso, peno (n.), &c. In some cases we 
 find consonantal side forms of w-stems, as pecUd (f.), and pe- 
 cos (n.) beside pecu (n.), impet (m.) beside impetu (m.), penos 
 (n.) beside penu (f.). 
 
 No Latin stem ends in a diphthong. 
 
comparative grammar. 249 
 
 The Cases. 
 §. 128. The Nominative Singular. 
 
 The nominative singular masculine and feminine is formed 
 from the stem by the addition of 5, which is derived from the 
 pronominal root sa (sa = Gr. 6, sa= Gv. 17). The nominative 
 singular neuter is identical with the ace. sing, and consequently 
 adds m to the stem in the case of a-stems, while in all others 
 it is identical with the stem itself, subject only to the euphonic 
 laws peculiar to each language. 
 
 1. Sanskrit Nom. Sing. In all consonantal stems s is 
 omitted, and in some cases the vowel of the final syllable is 
 lengthened in compensation for this omission, and in others 
 not : thus durmands = durmanas + s, is nom. sing, of St. dur- 
 manas = Gr. Sv(Tfit:veg, whereas hharan = hharant + s, is nom. 
 sing, of St. hharant = Gr. (^^qovt. Masc. and fem. stems in 
 ~dr and -ar reject both r and 5, and form their nom. sing, in 
 ~a : thus pita is nom. sing, of St. pitar = Gr. Trarep, and data 
 is nom. sing, of St. ddtdr = Gr. ^orrip. Masc. and fem. nouns 
 in -an and -in reject both n and 5, and lengthen preceding 
 vowel : thus, rdg'd is nom. sing, of St. ragman (m. a king), and 
 dhani is nom. sing, of St. dJianin (rich). In all vocalic stems 
 s is retained, except in feminine ones which end in -a or -f, 
 if the latter are polysyllabic. When a however belongs to 
 the root, s remains as in vis'vapd-s (m. and f . all preserving, 
 from vis'va, all, and pa, to preserve), dhanadd-s (m. and f. 
 wealth-giving, from dhana, wealth and dd to give).* 
 
 II. Greek Nom. Sing. In the case of guttural and labial 
 stems, 5 is simply added, and the nom. sing, ends in S and \p, 
 as xpvXa^ from St. xpvXaK (m.), (p\6^ from St. (jiXoy (f ), oxjj 
 from St. on (f.), &c. In dental stems r and S are never kept 
 
 * For further particulars as to forming the nom. sing, in Sanskrit, con- 
 sult §. 104, and §. 107-113; also Bopp's and Max Muller's "Sanskrit 
 Grammars." 
 
250 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 before c, but always disappear, and the preceding vowel is 
 generally lengthened in compensation : thus we have x"P^? 
 from x^P^''' (^Oj -^^a/xTrac from Xa/xTraS (f.), Trovgirom irod (m.), 
 TSTvtfxLg from TgruTrFor, vv? from w/cr, &c. In ^a/nap from 
 ^aimapT (f.) both r and o- disappear. Stems in -vr sometimes 
 lose both consonants before a, as in Tv\pdg from rv\pavT, dovg 
 from dovTj Oeig from ^evr, &c., and sometimes lose t and c, re- 
 taining V, as in (pepiov from (pepovr, &c. The ^olic dialect 
 kept V before g, as in TiOsvg = TiOdc, and in this respect is 
 similar to Zend, Latin, Lithuanian, and Old Prussian ; thus we 
 have Z. barans = 1j. f evens =Gr. ^tpwv, lAth.degans (burning), 
 0. P. sidans (sitting), &c. In v-stemsthe nasal is sometimes 
 thrown out and the preceding vowel lengthened, as in raXag 
 from TaXav, Krdg from jcrcv, &c., while in other cases the nasal 
 is retained and the preceding vowel lengthened to compensate 
 for the loss of c, as in repr}v from re/oev, (j)pr)v from (j)pev (f.), 
 fxdtiwv from ptiZov, xOmv from x^ov (f.), &c. We often find a 
 later nominative in v beside an older one in g, as Oiv beside 6ig, 
 deXipiv beside StX^ic? &c. S is lost after p, as in x^tp from x^p 
 (f.), Trarrjp from Trarep (m.), &c. : whereas in ^olic both con- 
 sonants are kept, as in x^RQ = X^*'p» l^aKapg. In /uaprvg from 
 fiapTvp, p appears to be lost before g. The solitary X-stem 
 (uXg) retains both X and g. In ^-stems g is lost, and the pre- 
 ceding vowel lengthened as in Svcrpevrig from Bvapeveg. 
 
 In vocalic stems g is simply added to stem, as in aypog 
 from aypo (m.), rajxiag from rapid (m.), -rrokig from 7roXt(f.), 
 fSpf? from iSpt, (5or}Tvg from j3o?jri» (f ), &c. S is lost in fe- 
 minine stems in a (rj) as x<*^/oa) ^opr?, &c., and in the Homeric 
 forms, LTTTroTa (m.) for ImroTrjg, alxi^VT^ (i^-) foi^ «iXA*^^'^^' 
 &c. 
 
 III. Xaii'w iVom. /Si??^. In guttural and labial stems s is 
 simply added to the stem, as in vox, halex, lex, aiicepsy urbs, 
 &c., from the stems voc (f.), halec (f.), leg. (f.), aiicup («2.)> 
 wri (f), &c. In the case of adjectival stems this s is also re-, 
 tained in the neuter nom., as audax (m. f. n.), ferox (m. f. n.), 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 251 
 
 &c. : atriplex (the orach) is also neuter, and halec (n.) is 
 a side-form of halex (f.) In dental stems t and d disappear 
 before s, and the preceding vowel was originally lengthened 
 in compensation ; this lengthening is only found in Classical 
 Latin, in monosyllables, and where the preceding syllable ends 
 in ^, as in pes =p^d+s, vds = vad + s, aries = ari^t+ s, paries - 
 pariSt + 5, ahies = ahiSt + s; in other cases the vowel has be- 
 come short as in miUs = milet + s, pedSs = pedet + «, &c. Par- 
 ticipial stems in -nt only reject t, as in amans = amant + 5, &c. 
 In Old Latin and in the vulgar dialect we find n also lost in in- 
 fos, sapiesj &c. for infans, sapieiis, &c. : compare Gr. Tvipag for 
 TvxpavT + g. In these stems in -nt s is also retained in the neuter 
 nom. as sapiens (m. f. n.), &c. In s- stems s is lost, and the pre- 
 ceding vowel, although originally lengthened as in Greek, is 
 generally short in Classical Latin. Traces, however, of its hav- 
 ing been originally lengthened still remain, as in Ceres (f.) from 
 St. Cer^s, arhos (f ) from St. arhos, &c. In the declension of 
 these stems the final s became r in the oblique cases, except 
 in vas ; and in the case of masculine and feminine nouns this 
 r often supplanted the final s of the nominative, especially in 
 later Latin ; thus we have puher (m.) beside pubes, arbor (f.) 
 beside arbos, sudor (m.) for sudds = Gr. ISpwg, honor (m.) be- 
 side honos, vomer (m. a ploughshare) beside vomis (m.), lepor 
 (m. wit) beside lepos from St. lepos (gen. sing, lepor-is) &c. 
 The nom. sing, ends in-ifsin lepus(m. a hare), from St. lepos, 
 and in vettts (m. old) beside veter (m. id.) used by Ennius. 
 Neuter stems in -os retain the finals in nom. sing., yet we find 
 robur (n.) = Skv.rddhas (n. strength) and calor used as a neuter 
 in Plautus Merc. 660, nee calor necfrigus metuo. Masculine and 
 feminine stems in -n lose the final -ns in the nom. : thus we 
 have homo for homons, combibo (m.) for combibons, &c. In some 
 cases n is retained, as in pecten (m.), flamen (m.), &c., and in 
 sanguis for sanguins, s is kept and n lost. S is always lost after 
 r and Z, but the preceding vowel was originally lengthened 
 in compensation as in Greek : thus we have lector {m.) for 
 
252 COMPARATIVE GRAMxMAR. 
 
 lector 4- 5, mater (f.) for mater + «, sol (m.) for sol + 5, j&ar (m,) 
 for par + s, saZ (m.) for sal + 5, &c. 
 
 Id the i- and w- stems s is kept, as in amni-s (m.) fructu-s 
 (m.), &c. In stems ending in -ti^ i is frequently lost before s, 
 as in mens (f .) for ment + s = 77^e^^<^ + s, mors (f.) for mort + 5 
 = mo?'^i + 5, vetustas (f.) for vetustat + 5 = vetustati + s, senectus 
 (f.) for senectut + s = senectuti + 5, &c. After r and Z, zs was 
 lost in masculine stems and e was inserted before r, when 
 another consonant immediately preceded, as acer for acri + 5, 
 equester for equestri + s, &c. : the full form is kept in the fem. 
 nom. acris, equestrisy &c. Similarly we have vigii for and 
 beside vigilis. In neuter stems i was sometimes lost and some- 
 times changed into g, as in animal^ calcar, &c., and mare, ex- 
 emphre (also exemplar), &c. Stems ending in -o also retain 5, 
 as servos (m.), equo-s (m.), &c., except when r precedes, in 
 which case -as {-us) is often lost, as in ager for agro + 5, puer 
 £oT puero+ s, &c. (m) was sometimes lost after t, and then 
 ^ disappeared, as in damnas for damnato-s ; similarly we find 
 0. U. pihaZj N. U. pihos = L. piatus, 0.0. Awrs = L. hortitSy 
 N. U. ^flr^es = L. tacitus. After i o was sometimes lost, as 
 in Cornell's for Cornelius, Clodis for Clodius, &c., and then 
 5 sometimes disappears, as in Cornell, &c., which occur as 
 nom. s. on inscriptions : similarly in Oscan we find HeireJinis 
 for Herennius, in which u first became i or i (as in Pupidiis = 
 L. Popidius, Vimikiis = L. Vinicius) and then w or w be- 
 came I. We also find o (w) lost after n in Umbrian, as in 
 Ikuvins = L. Iguvinus, and in Oscan, as in Bantins = L. ^an- 
 ^zwMS, Pdmpaiians = L. Pompeiamis. is lost after ^ in 0. 0. 
 tuvtiks = L. tuticus. Feminine stems in -a have entirely lost 
 s, and -a has become -« in Classical Latin : Blicheler suggests 
 that the change of final -a of nom. sing, into -a was contem- 
 poraneous with that of final -ad of abl. sing, into -a. In Old 
 Umbrian this a sometimes became w, and in New Umbrian it 
 always became o, as in 0. U. tuta, tutu, N. U. toto = tuta (a 
 city); similarly in Old Oscan it became ii, and in New Oscan 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 253 
 
 0, as in 0. 0. viii = L. via, 0. 0. tuvtu, N. 0. tovto - tuta. 
 Masculine stems in -a, such as incola, nauta^ &c., have also 
 lost s, but that they once had it is shown by the forms pa- 
 ricidas, hasticapas (see page 246). 
 
 §. 129. The Nominative Plural. 
 
 The sign of the nom. pi. appears to have been originally the 
 reduplication of that of the nom. sing. Its oldest form, accord- 
 ingly, must have been -sasa, whence came firstly -sas and 
 then -as. Sas, as the sign of the nom. pi., occurs in Yedic 
 Sanskrit in the declension of the a-stems : thus we have, as 
 nom. pi. dhumd-sas from dhuma (m. smoke), devd-sas from 
 diva (m. a god), pdvaM-sas from pdvakd (f. pure). Traces of 
 this -sas also appear in Zend, in which such forms of the 
 nom. pi. as vShrkdonho (m. wolves) = I. E. varM-sas, &c., 
 point back to older forms in -sas. The nom. pi. neuter is the 
 same as the ace. pi. neuter. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Nom. PI. Masculine and feminine stems form 
 this case always in -as, before which X and il are gunated ; 
 thus we have marut-as from marut (m. the wind), mdtar-as 
 from mdtar (f. a mother), nddy-as from nddi (f. a river), sivds 
 for s'iva + as from s'iva (m. fortunate) or for sivd + as (f. id.), 
 kavay-as from kavi (m. a wise man), dhSnav-as from dhSnu (f. 
 a milch cow). In the Veda we find nom. s. of stems in -t and 
 -u without gunation of these vowels, as ary-as from ari (m. an 
 enemy), mumukshv-as from mumukshu (m. a sage abstracted 
 from all human passion). In Vedic we also find nom. pi. of 
 polysyllabic i-stems formed by simply adding s to the stem, 
 as dSvi'S from devi (f. a goddess). 
 
 II. Greek Nom. PI. Masculine and feminine stems form 
 this case by adding -eg to the stem ; thus we have ^XljS-ec 
 from ^XejS (f. a vein), Troijuiiv-ag from Troifirjv (m.), irarip-Eg 
 from narep (m.), lxOv-eq from l^Bv (m.), Ki-Eg from ki (m. a 
 worm. 
 
254 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Stems ending in f and u may either gimate the final 
 vowel or not, before adding -eg : thus we have as examples 
 of -€c being added to unchanged stem, juavr/^ec from fiavri 
 (m.), ot-fc from OL (m. f.), t^pi-fffrom X^ql (m. f ), vUv-^q from 
 vffcv (m.), &c. ; and as examples of gnnated stems we have, 
 TToAftC) TToArjEc, ttoXecc = TToXsi/'eg from TroXet, the gunated 
 form of ttoXl (f • a city), whence also we have without guna- 
 tion, Ion. iroXt-eg, iroXelg = iroXef-eg from ttoXev, the gunated 
 form of TToXvj ra^ug = ra^Ug = rax^F'^C from Ta\v, ly\iXug 
 = £7XfcA£F-£c from tyx^^^ C^*) t>eside Ion. ly^iXv-^g, &c. Mas- 
 culine and feminine stems in o and a (= Skr. a) form their 
 nom. pi. in -ol and -at, as iWot from linro (m.), and x<*ip«t 
 from xwQa (f ) These forms originally ended in g and were 
 not developed till after the Greek and Latin languages sepa- 
 rated from each other. The loss of the final g may have oc- 
 curred first in the nom. pi. of the pronominal stems 6 or ro^ a 
 or TCL. Schleicher suggests that roi (= ot), and rat (= ai) may 
 have arisen from ta-y-as and td-y-as, the pronominal stems ta 
 and td having been increased by y (i) before the addition of 
 -as, and that tayas and tdyas became tai and tdi by the loss of 
 the final syllable. In Sanskrit we find s lost only in the nom. 
 pi. masc. of some pronominal stems, while the fem. retains s : 
 thus yS (m.), beside yds (f ) from ya (who), tS (m.), beside 
 ids (£) from ta (he, she), tyS (m.), beside tyds (f ), from tya 
 (this), &c. This similarity between the nom. pi. masc. of the 
 pronouns in Sanskrit and Greek is not sufficient to prove that 
 these nominatives were already developed in Indo-European 
 times. All that can be asserted is that it is just possible that 
 the final s of the nom. pi. was lost in some pronouns before 
 the first separation occurred in the Indo-European family of 
 languages. 
 
 III. Latin Nom, PL Masculine and feminine consonantal 
 stems originally formed this case by the addition of -^5 = Gr. 
 tg. Final s was frequently lost in Old Latin, as we see from 
 Inscriptions, on which we find such forms as Pisaurese for 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 255 
 
 Pisaurenses. Even ^itself was also lost, so that the nom. pi. 
 was reduced to the mere stem, as in U. f rater (fratres), O. 
 censtur (censores), L. quattuor for quattuor-es, Luceres for Xm- 
 cerensesj Titles for Titienses, Ramnes for Ramnenses. Conso- 
 nantal stems, however, perhaps during the third century, B. C. 
 ceased to form their nom. pi. by the addition of -^5, but, as- 
 suming the form of the i-stems, formed this case by adding 
 -es, as in leg-es, bov-es, ferent-es. The nom. pi. of the i-stems 
 ends in -es, as oves from ovi, hostes from hosti, &c. : e here 
 may be explained in either of two ways, either as being for 
 ie {oves - ovi + ^s, as TroXt-cc from 7roX«, without gunation of 
 stem-vowel) or as being for ^^ (oves = ov^^s = ovey + ^s as tto- 
 Xeig for TToXEi/ + eg from TroXd, with gunation of stem-vowel), 
 /-stems also form their nom. pi. in -eis and -Is, which are pro- 
 bably of later formation than -es, although some writers hold 
 that -IS (= -Us = -ies) was the oldest form. The nom. pi. of 
 the w-stems ends in -ws, as fructus from fructu : fructus may 
 either be for fructu + ^s (as vIkvec from v£kv, without gunation 
 of stem-vowel) or £oy fructov-es (as Trr/x^tc = 7rrjxfF-£C from 
 7rij\u, with gunation of stem-vowel). The nom. pi. of the a- 
 stems ends in-m, the original termination was -as, as may be 
 inferred from the 0. U. urtas - L. ortce, N. U. ivengar = L. 
 juvencce, N. 0. serif tas = L. scriptcB, N. 0, pas = L. quce. Final 
 s was then lost, as we see from inscriptions, on which we find 
 as nom. pi. matrona, &c., and then after the analogy of the 
 pronominal declension, i was added, and the nom. pi. of these 
 stems ended in -ai, as in tabelai, datai (Sc. de Bacc), which 
 finally became ae. In Classical Latin the nom. pi. of the o- 
 stem ends in -^, but originally -es was attached immediately 
 to the stem, so that the original termination was -oes. This 
 termination appears in various forms : thus we find as nom. 
 pi. pilumnoe poploe (in Carmen Saliare, explained by Festus as 
 Komani pilis uti assueti), fescenince (qui depellere fascinum 
 credebantur), modies, ques,ploirume, leibereis, oinvorsei, minis- 
 triSy &c. Final s is retained in Oscan and Umbrian : thus we 
 
256 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 have 0.0. Nuvlanus = L. Nolani, puturus = Gr. iroTspoi, 0. U. 
 IkuvinuSf N. U. screitor = L. script^ &c. In Latin ^-sterns s 
 is kept as in dies^ &c., but in some cases the pi. is formed from 
 a corresponding a-stem, as nom. sing, intemperies or intemperia, 
 nom. pi. intemperice. 
 
 §. 130. The Nominative Dual. 
 
 The original termination of the masculine and feminine 
 nominative dual was -sds^ which was merely the lengthened 
 form of the nom. pi. -sas; similarly % the case-ending of the 
 nom. dual neuter, is the lengthened form of -X, the case-end- 
 ing of the nom. pi. neuter, and -hhydm (for -hhydms)^ the 
 case-ending of the dat. abl. and instr. dual, is the lengthened 
 form of-bhyas (for -bhyams), the case- ending of the dat. and 
 abl. pi. As -sas became -as, so -sds became -as. That the 
 dual nom. ended in -ds is proved by the Zend. nom. dual, 
 which sometimes ends in -do, which represents an I. E.-as. 
 The nom. ace. and voc. dual have the same case-ending. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Nom. Dual. Masculine and feminine stems 
 form this case by the addition of du, as marut-du from marut 
 (m.), nady-du from nadi (f.), sivdu from s'iva (m.), &c. In 
 Vedic we find a for du, as in uhhd (both), asvind (the two 
 As'vins'), &c. Masculine and feminine stems in -f and -u 
 omit -du, and in compensation lengthen the final vowel, as in 
 havi from hav^ (ni.), dMnu from dMnii (f ). Feminine stems 
 in -d merely change this vowel into -6, as in s'iv^ from s'ivd 
 (f.). Bopp* considers that the original form ofs'ivS was s'ivay- 
 du and that, when the final u had been lost, s'ivayd became 
 s'iv^, as Skr. k'intaydmi (I think), has become k'inUmi in Pra- 
 krit. The nom. neuter is formed by adding -i to the stem as 
 s'iv^ for s'iva + 1 from s'iva (n.), vdri-n-z from vdri (n. water), 
 
 * Consult Bopp's " Comparative Grammar," vol. i., p. 418, and 
 Bopp's " Sanskrit Grammar," p. 93. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 257 
 
 halini from balin (n. strong) : stems ending-in -t and it insert 
 n before -t. 
 
 II. Greek Nom. Dual The sign of this case for the three 
 genders is c for all stems except those ending in -a (o, a) : 
 thus we have fxlXavs (m. n.) from jueXav, ridk (m. n.) = ridife 
 from ridvy woXie from TroXt (f.) beside iroXss and iroXtie = tto- 
 Xfy-£, &c, In the a-stems the dual case-ending coalesces with 
 the stem-vowel : thus we have iWoi from Itttto (m.), Kopd 
 from Kopd (f ), &c. 
 
 III. Latin Nom. Dual. There are only two dual nom. s. 
 in Latin, duo and ambo : duO = Skr. dvdu = Gr. ^uw, ambo = Skr. 
 ubhdu = Gr. a/n^oj. 
 
 §. 131. The Accusative Singular. 
 
 This case in all masculine and feminine nouns ended in 
 -m, which was attached immediately to the stem if it ended 
 in a vowel, or by means of -a if it ended in a consonant. In 
 the a-stems the neuter ace. sing, was formed by adding -m, 
 but in all other neuters the stem and the ace. sing, were 
 identical. The ace. sign, -m or -am is perhaps connected 
 with the pronominal root which is found in Skr. am-u (that), 
 i-mi (those), &c. 
 
 I. Sanshrit Ace. Sing. Masculine and feminine consonantal 
 stems add -«m, as marut-am (m.), bJiarant-am (m.), pitar-am 
 (m.), &c. The ace. sing. neut. is merely the stem itself, sub- 
 ject to the euphonic laws of Sanskrit, as bharat (n.) from St. 
 bharant^ hrt (n.) from St. hrd^ &c. Vocalic stems add -m, as 
 s'iva-m (m.), s'ivd-m (£), kavi-m (m.), nadi-m (f.), &c. Mo- 
 nosyllabic vocalic stems, however, except those in -o, add 
 -am^ as ndv-am from ndu (f.), bhiy-am from bhi (f. fear), bhuv- 
 am from 67m (f the earth), &c. The ace. sing. neut. of stems 
 in -i and -u is merely the stem, but in the a-stems m is added, 
 as in siva-m from siva (n.). The nom. sing. neut. and the 
 ace. sing, neuter are the same. 
 
 s 
 
258 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 II. Greek Ace. Sing. Masculine and feminine consonan- 
 tal stems add -a for -av = I. E. -am, as in Xa/unrad-a (f.), ^t- 
 povT-a (m.), Trarip-a (m.), &c. Masculine and feminine vocalic 
 stems, except those ending in cu, add -v, as fiavri-v (m.), vIkv-v 
 (m.) aypO'V (m.), (fjvyn-v (f.), &c. : those in -ev add -a, as 
 /3a<T«X?i-a and f^aaiXi-a = /3ao-tXfF-a (m.), hpfia and /cpa-a = 
 «e/o€F-a (m.). Beside vav-v (f.) we find Horn. vriF-a and vaF-a ; 
 beside o^qv-v (f.), we find the later form ixjipv-a ; from evpv 
 we have both evpv-v and cups-a - tvpeP-a, &c. In consonantal 
 stems and those ending in -i and -v, the ace. neuter is merely 
 the stem, subject to the euphonic laws of the Greek language, 
 while in o-stems it ends in -v ; thus we have ripag (n.), for 
 repar, tpipov (n.) for ^epovr, fiiXi (n.) for jueXtr, 'idpL (n.), 
 yXvKv (n.), o-o^o-v (n.), &c. Stems ending in -to (= I. E. 
 -ya) sometimes lose o in later Greek, as in fiapTvpL-v for jmap- 
 TvpiO'Vf &c. ; similarly in Umbrian we find terti-m = tertio-m, 
 &c., and in modern Greek irai^i for ivm^iv -iraidiov, fiapri for 
 fiapTiv = fiapriov, &C. 
 
 III. iafm Ace. Sing. Masculine and feminine consonantal 
 stems form this case in -em, thus agreeing in form with the i- 
 stems : thus we have voc-em (f.), ferent-em (m. f .), patr-em, 
 &c. This -em does not represent an I. E. -am, as has been 
 suggested by some writers, but the consonantal stems were 
 lengthened by i, which became e before the ace. sing. -m. 
 Masculine and feminine vocalic stems add -m, as fructu-m, 
 (m.), bona-m (f.), bono-m (m.), &c. In the i-stems the stem- 
 vowel generally becomes «, as this vowel is more easily pro- 
 nounced with m than i ; but we nevertheless find i retained in 
 many feminine stems, as febri-m, siti-m, tussi-m, Tiberi-m, 
 vi-m, navi-m (also nave-m), &c. The ace. s sing, of su-s (£) 
 and gru-s (f.) are su-em (compare Gr. av-v and v-v) and gru- 
 em. In neuter stems the ace. sing, is merely the stem, sub- 
 ject to the euphonic laws of Latin : thus we have lac for lact, 
 mel for mell = melt, cor for cord, mare for mari, nomen, &c. In 
 some cases the ace. sing, neuter agrees with the nom. sing. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 259 
 
 masc, as in such forms as feren-s for ferent-s^ audac-s^ &c. In 
 Umbrian and Oscan the ace. sing, ends in -m, as in Latin, and 
 this m very often disappears, as in Old Latin : thus in Um- 
 brian we have 0. JJ, puplum = N. U. poplom = L. populum; 
 0. U. tutam = N. U. totam^ N. U. Fisim = Fisiom^ N. U. ter- 
 tim = L. tertiom, &c. ; and in Oscan, 0. 0. hurtiim = L. hor- 
 tunif viam and via = L. viam, &e. Consonantal stems in 
 Umbrian do not go over to the z-declension, as in Latin, but 
 form their ace. in -urn or -w, and -om or -o, as 0. U. uhturu » 
 L. auctorem^ N. U. curnaco = L. cornieem, &c. 
 
 §. 132. The Accusative Plural. 
 
 The accusative plural of masc. and fem. stems appears to 
 have been formed by adding s to the ace. singular ; its ending 
 was, therefore, originally -ns (= -ms), the labial m becoming the 
 dental n on account of the following dental 8. Traces of this 
 '718 are found in Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, and Latin ; but it is 
 kept perfect in Gothic vocalic stems, for the euphonic laws 
 of this language did not forbid such a combination as ws, oc- 
 curring at the end of a word. The ace. pi. neuter and the 
 nom. pi. neuter were formed by adding -a to the stem. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Ace. PL Masculine and feminine consonantal 
 and monosyllabic vocalic stems form this case by adding -as to 
 the stem, as marut-a8 from marut^ hhiy-as (f.) from hhi^ &c. 
 Masculine vocalic stems, ending in a short vowel, form their 
 ace. sing, by adding w, and lengthening the stem- vowel : thus 
 we have s'ivdn - siva-ns from siva (m.), kavin = kavi-ns from 
 kavi (m.), &c. The ace. pi. of masc. stems in -tar ends in 
 trn, as pi'tfn, &c. ; but an older termination was -tar-aSf as 
 in Vedic pitar-as from pitar. Feminine vocalic stems form 
 their ace. pi. by adding s, and lengthening the stem-vowel, 
 when it is short, as in gatis = gati-ns from gati (f. motion), 
 s'ivds = s'lvd-ns from sivd (f ), &e. We find traces of the ter- 
 mination -ns still appearing in Sanskrit, as in kdhsy the ace, 
 
 s2 
 
260 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 pi. of ka (ra. who), whicli occurs only before kdn^ the regular 
 form : thus Mns kan = O. Pr. kans kam^ compare Gothic ace. 
 pi. hvans, found in ^r«2/is-wA (quoscunque).* In Yedic also 
 masc. stems in -i and -u form their ace. pi. in -mr, -uhrf be- 
 fore vowels, and occasionally before y, v, and A, as in girvhr 
 from giri (m. a mountain), rtunr horartu (m. a season), vasuhr 
 from vasu (m.) ; we also find in Vedic nrhh and nrnr as the 
 ace. pi. of nar (m. a man) : in these cases -nr and -nh repre- 
 sent an original -ns ; compare the Gothic ace. s pi. gasti-ns, 
 sunu-ns from gasti and sunu^ and Z. ner-a-hs. Neuter vocalic 
 stems form the ace. pi. by lengthening the stem-vowel, and 
 adding ni ; neuter consonantal stems add i, and insert n be- 
 fore the final consonant, except in the case of stems ending 
 in a nasal, or ?/, r, /, and v : thus we have s'lvd-ni from s^iva 
 (n.), vdri-ni from vari (n. water), tdM-ni from tdlu (n. the 
 palate), g'aganti from gagat (n. the world), hrndi from hrd 
 (n. the heart), &c. Stems ending in -s or -n also lengthen 
 the preceding vowel, as in mandnsi from manas (n. the 
 mind), 6a^zm from balin (n. strong), &c. This final i is pro- 
 bably a weakened form of an older a, and was obviously 
 introduced in Sanskrit after the other Indo-European lan- 
 guages had separated from the parent stock. In the Vedas 
 we find for the ace. pi. terminations -am, -iniy and -wm, -a, -«, 
 and -w, as in vand for vandni from t7awa (n. a wood), ??zVva for 
 visvdni from m's'ra (n. all), vdri for vdrini from van (n. water), 
 pwrw for puruni from jomt'w (n. much) 4 Fana and vis^vd are 
 formations similar to Gr. KaKa and L. hona^ where the final 
 a was originally long ; but in puru for puru-a, and vdrt for 
 van'-a, the final a has been assimilated to the preceding vowels, 
 whereas in Greek and Latin this is never done, as in Gr. i8/oia, 
 yovva for yovvay L. maria^ pecua. 
 
 11. Greek Ace. PL This case was formed by adding g to 
 
 * Consult Bopp's " Sanskrit Grammar," p. 97. 
 t The sound of the Anunasika is represented by n. 
 I We also find in Vedic as ace. s pi. madhu^ vdri. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 261 
 
 the ace. sing., but the full termination ^vg was only kept ia 
 the Argive and Cretan dialects ; when v was lost, the precede 
 ing vowel wa& originally lengthened in compensation, traces 
 of which still remain ; thus we have IxOv-ac and ix'^^Q = 
 IxOvvg from i;^0u (m. ; compare ace. sing. 1%^^" ^^^ 'X^*^*^)^ 
 yXvKeig = yXvKeP-ag, from 'yXvKU (m.), TroXeig «= iroXey-ag be- 
 side rroXi-ag, woX^-ag, and iroXlg = TroXXvg from ttoAi (f.), &c. 
 The full term -vg is found in Arg. and Cret. rovg = roue? irpei- 
 yevrdvg = irpea^evTag. In Lesbian -ovg and -a vc became -oig 
 and -ate, just as we find in the same dialect, raXaig = raXavg 
 for ToXag, Kivriaaig = Kivriaag for Kivriaavrg, &c. : thus we have 
 KaXaig = KaXag^ a6(j)aig = (TO0ac> aXXaXofc = aXXT/Xowci &c. In 
 Doric -ove became wg^ as ^LTririog = iWovc- The ace. pi. 
 neuter is formed by adding a to the stem, as in (jilpovr-a, yivr) 
 — yeve(T-a, iSpi-a, acTTtj = aaref-a from clcttVj &C. 
 
 III. Latin Ace. PL In masculine and feminine stems this 
 case always ends in -s, the vowel preceding which is always 
 long, the consonantal sterns, as usual, assuming the form of 
 those in -i: thus we have Ieg-es,ferent-es, patres, artus = ai'tu- 
 ii$ from artu (m.), turreis, turris, and turres from twri (f.), 
 bono-s from bono (m.), bona-s from bona(f.). With such forms 
 as turreis, fineis, tristeis, compare Gr. TroXeig, and with turrls^ 
 ignls^ hostis^ compare Gr. iroXlg. The ace. pi. neuter is formed 
 by adding -«r, as cornu-a^ corpor-a for corpos-a, bona for bond = 
 bona-a, &c. Participial stems in -n^ assume i before adding a, 
 asferentia from f event, amantia from amant, &c. ; yet silenta 
 from si7ew^ occurs. In Oscan we find -ss for -ns, n being 
 assimilated to s, as in via-ss = L. vias for via-ns, &c. In Urn- 
 brian the ace. pi. ends in/, as in 0. U. avef, avif, N. U. am/, 
 aveif= L. av^s, avZs, aum, 0. U. aprttf, N. U. aprof= L. apros, 
 &c. No satisfactory explanation has as yet been suggested 
 for this/: some writers consider it to be the remains of a 
 postposition before which final 5 has disappeared, in which 
 case ar^/ would be for aves-f; others connect it with I. E. 
 -bhi, which is used to form some other cases, but this expla- 
 
262 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 nation is just as improbable as the preceding one. It is more 
 likely that / arose merely from a provincial pronunciation of 
 the original s, and s may have become / in Umbrian, just as 
 -as passed through the stage -af in becoming -6 in Sanskrit 
 (consult §. 34). 
 
 §. 133. The Accusative Dual. 
 
 This case has the same termination as the nom. dual. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Ace. JDical. The masc. and fem. ace. dual, 
 being the same as the nom. dual, has been already noticed 
 under that case. Neuters have as their ending z-, which is 
 merely the lengthening of the nom. pi. neuter sign -f, as ba- 
 lin-l from halin (n. strong), vdri-n-i from vdri (n. water), 
 madhu-n-i from madhu (n.), a'iv^ = s'iva + i from s'iva (n.). 
 
 II. Greek Ace, Dual. This case has the same termination 
 as the nom. dual. Greek differs from Sanskrit in having the 
 same termination in the three genders, as KopaK-s from KopaK 
 (m.), ^Xlj3-£ from ^XejS (f.), awixaT-z from GWfxa (n.), Ao'yoi 
 from Xo'yo (m.), voW from voao (£), ^uXw from %v\o (n.), &c. 
 
 III. Latin Ace Dual. In duo and ambo the ace. masc. is 
 either duo and amho, or duos and ambo-s, following the analogy 
 of the plural. The feminine is formed only as a plural, nom. 
 ducBy ambcBf ace dua-s^ amba-s. In vulgar Latin dua was 
 used for the neuter beside duo. 
 
 §. 134. The Instrumental Singular. 
 
 In Indo-European two forms of the instr. sing, existed, 
 one ending in -a, and another in -bhi. Now, as the instru- 
 mental has two meanings, the one comitative, and the other 
 instrumental proper* it is likely that each of the above ter- 
 minations was limited to one special meaning, although finally 
 this limitation was lost. The termination -a is perhaps con- 
 
 * So E. with has both these meanings, as in " I went with him," and 
 " I cut the bread with a knife." See Schleicher, " Compendium," &c. 
 p. 577, 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 263 
 
 nected with the pronominal root a, of which it is the guna : hhi 
 has been connected by some writers with the preposition Skr. 
 ahhi = Gr. a/>i(^t ; but then how is ahhi itself to be explained ? It" 
 is generally supposed to be the instrumental of the pronominal 
 root a. Besides, if hhi be of prepositional origin, how are the 
 terminations -hhy-as, hhy-dm, to be accounted for? Such 
 forms as Skr. vag-hhy-as cannot be compared to such as L. 
 vobiscum^ for in the latter the preposition comes last ; they 
 would rather require vO'Cum-bis as a parallel case. Curtius* 
 suggests that -bhi is connected with the root bhu (to be) ; from 
 bhu was formed the nominal stem bhu-ya, whence came bhya, 
 and finally bhi, Bhuya and consequently hhi in this view meant 
 existence, and being added to another nominal stem expressed 
 coexistence ; hence we have the cmmtative instrumental. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Instr, Sing. In consonantal stems and femi- 
 nine ones ending in -i, 4, -u, and -w, this case is formed by 
 simply adding -a, as in vdk'-d from vat (f.), marut-d from ma- 
 rut (m.), nady-d from nadt (f.), diUnv-d from dkSnu (f.), &c. 
 Feminine stems in -d alter the stem-vowel to -S before add- 
 ing 'd ; hence we have s^ivay-d from s'ivd, &c. In Vedic, 
 however, we find such forms as dhdrd (= dhdrd-d) for dhdray-d 
 from dhdrd (f. a shower), &c. Masculine and neuter stems 
 ending in -i and -w insert w, as in bhdnund from bhdnu (m. 
 the sun), vdrind from^van (n. water), &c. In the Vedas we 
 find other forms of this case without n, q.s pas'vdhovapas'u (m. 
 cattle), madhvd from madhu (n. honey) ; also with guna, as 
 prabdhavd from prabdhu from bdhu (m. the arm) ; and also 
 with euphonic y, as uruyd from uru (great). Even in later 
 Sanskrit we find patyd from pati (m. a master), and sakhyd 
 
 * Consult Curtius "zur Chronologic," ifec, p. 257. ^Ai appears to be 
 connected with other suffixes beginning with bk, as Skr. -bha = Gr. -<po in 
 karabha-Sf karam-bha-s, Gr. t\a-<po-s, arspi-cpo-g, &c. As Curtius con- 
 nects 6Ai with R. bhu, so he connects the Greek suffixes -9a, -Oi, -0ci/, with 
 the I. E. dha (to place), whence perhaps also the suffix -Oo in hio-96-q 
 (from R. /if^), &c. 
 
264 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 from sakhi (m. a friend). Masculine and neuter stems in -a 
 also insert w, but change the stem-vowel into ^, and shorten 
 the final a, as s'iv^na from s'iva (m. n), &c. In the Vedas we 
 find the final d sometimes retained, as in kuUsind from kulis'a 
 (m. n. an axe) ; also without the euphonic n, as mahitvd from 
 mahitva (n. greatness) ; and also with an euphonic y, as svap- 
 nay a from svapna (m. sleep). 
 
 The other instrumental termination, -bhi, does not occur in 
 Sanskrit, unless the preposition abhi be the instr. of the pro- 
 nominal root a. It is, however, much more probable that 
 abhi was originally a locative, meaning " on both sides of;" 
 compare Skr. abhitas, which still retains this sense. 
 
 II. Greek Instr. Sing. The form ending in -d appears pro- 
 bably in the adverbial forms, a/ia, Dor. afia, St'x"' •^^^- ^'Xo» 
 Taxa> TTii, ^7] (found in II. 2, 144 ; 14, 499, perhaps for (T(pri = 
 Goth, svi, as), aXXaxVi ^V (for dyd = yd^ from pronominal 
 stem ya, whence we have the locative form in L. jam), iravTn, 
 Dor. TravTUi &c. "Iva may be the instr. of pronominal stem 
 £ = I. E. ya, with v inserted, as in tlvoq from ri-g. 
 
 The other instrumental ending, -^t, is used also in an abla- 
 tive and locative signification. It is an instrumental proper in 
 /3t»?^£, ^^f, &c. ; and comitative in (^hv) ©xttr^tj {afi rioX) (^at- 
 vojUEvrj^f, &c. 
 
 III. Latin Instr. Sing. Neither form of the instr. is found 
 in Latin or any other Italic language. 
 
 §. 135. The Instrumental Plural. 
 
 In Indo-European this case ended in -bhis, the plural form 
 of the sing -bhi. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Instr. PI. Marudbhis from marut (m.), kavi- 
 bhis from kavi (m.), s'ivdbhis from s'ivd (f.), &c. Masculine 
 and neuter stems in -a change the stem-vowel into S in Vedic, 
 as in asvSbhis from as'va (m.) ; whereas in ordinary Sanskrit 
 a becomes a, and bh is thrown out, as in s'ivdis from siva (m. 
 n). The oldest form of the instr. of the <?-stems ended in 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 265 
 
 -dbhis, as we see from the pronominal instr. forms asmdbhis 
 and yushmdhhis, from asma and yushma. The Prakrit instr. 
 pi. of the a-stems ends in -^hin = Yed. -^bhis, as in kusumehin 
 = Ved. kusumMis beside Skr. kusumdis from kusuma (n. a 
 flower). In Old Persian this case in these stems ends in 
 -aibhish = Ved. -Sbhis. 
 
 II. Greek Instr. PL The final g w^sls lost, and consequently 
 the form of the instr. pi. is the same as that of the instr. sing. ; 
 i. e. -(f)L 01 -(j)iv, as in vavcpiv (II. 2, 794). The form -(j)iv 
 probably belonged originally to the dual, and corresponded to 
 Skr. -bhydm. 
 
 III. Latin Instr, PL There is no trace of this case in 
 Latin or the other Italic languages. 
 
 §. 136. The Instrumental Dual. 
 
 See the section on the dative plural, which is identical in 
 form with this case. 
 
 §. 137. The Dative Singular. 
 
 In Indo-European this case was formed by adding -ai 
 to the stem. The origin of this termination is very doubtful. 
 Some writers consider it to be the guna of the locative ter- 
 mination -i ; others derive it from the preposition abhi, bh 
 being lost, as in Skr. s'ivdis, instr. pi. o^siva (m. n.), &c., and 
 in Lith. vilkais (for vilkamis) instr. pi. ofvilka, &c., and as 
 is lost in Doric ^fxiv = Skr. maJiyam for mabhyam^ and Homeric 
 Tuv =Skr. tubhyam. Bh also appears in these pronominal 
 datives ; and as the pronouns generally preserve more archaic 
 forms than the noun, it is likely that here also they point back 
 to the oldest form of the dative. We may compare with this 
 use of abhi to form the dative the use of the Latin preposition 
 ad to express the dative idea in the expression te ad carnufi- 
 cem dabo, which occurs in Plautus. Bopp identifies ^, the 
 termination of the Sanskrit dative, with the demonstrative stem 
 e, whence ay-am = i + am, and which i he considers to be only 
 another form of the stem (i. 
 
266 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Dative Sing, The dative of the consonantal 
 stems is formed by the addition of -^, as marut-^ from marut, 
 &c. Polysyllabic feminine stems in -i and -u form the dative 
 by adding ae, while monosyllabic feminines in -z and -w, and 
 all feminines in -i and -u may form this case in either -e or -di. 
 AU masculine and feminine stems in -i and -u gunate the final 
 vowel before -^, as gatay-S £vom gati (f. motion), bhdnav-S from 
 bhdnu (m. the sun), &c. Neuter stems in -^ and -u insert n, as 
 vdri-n-^ from vdrif &c. Masculines and neuters in -a add -aya, 
 as s'ivdya from sVf«, &c., while feminines in -d add -yai, as 
 dvdydi from s'iua, &c. 
 
 II. Greek Dative Sing. The true dative termination in 
 Greek is only found in stems ending in -a (a, r?, o) : thus we 
 have offcfj) = oiKo + o«, de^ = dea + at, &c. In other stems the 
 locative is used as the dative. 
 
 It is a disputed question whether Greek infinitives in -at, 
 -fxevai, '£vai, -vai^ are datives of consonantal stems, or loca- 
 tives of feminine stems in -a. In favour of the first view we 
 have the analogy of the Sanskrit, in which datives are used as 
 infinitives ; and in favour of the second view we have the 
 fact that no Greek dative ends in -ae, whereas this termination 
 is found in ^afiai, loc. of St. X"i^"* Thus Xvaaiy reOvaimsvatj 
 XeXoiirivai, deLKvvvai, may be either datives of the stems \v-g, 
 Tf0va-jU£v, XeAotTT-ev, SetK-vu-i/, or locatives of the stems Xu-o-a, 
 TtSva-jmeva, XeXotTT-tva, ^eiK-vv-va. The infinitive in -aOai is 
 either the dative of a feminine stem in -i, corresponding to the 
 Sanskrit dative of stems in -dhiy which is used as an infinitive, 
 as piha-dhydi (to drink, Rigv. 4, 27, 5), or it has assumed the 
 termination -at, following the analogy of other infinitives. 
 
 III. Latin Dative Sing. The dative of cons, stems ends 
 in -^, which probably represents the I. E. -ai. In the fifth 
 century A. U. C. the termination of this case was -^, as in the 
 Umbrian forms nomn-e = Skr. ndmn-S, patr-e = Skr. pitr-S. In 
 the sixth century A. U. C. S became ei^ as in Oscan : thus 
 find L. patr-ei^ Diov-eiy &c., beside 0. pater-el^ Diuv-ei, &c. 
 Finally ei became t, as in voc-l, &c. The u-stems follow the 
 
COMPARATIVE GEAMMAR. 267 
 
 analogy of the cons, stems, sls in senatu-ei (SC. deTiburtibus) : 
 here also final ei became ^, as in ostentu-ij and at last -u-i be- 
 came -U, a change which began early, as in visit (Lucr. 5, 
 101), &c. In the a-, e-, and o- stems the initial vowel of the 
 termination -at united itself to the stem vowel, and final i 
 while it remained an independent syllable was long. Thus in 
 the ^-stems we have terrd-l (Enn. Ann. 479) «= terra-ai, later 
 terrce, &c. ; final l sometimes entirely disappeared in early 
 times, as in the datives Matuta, Tuscolana, and similar forms 
 dating from the sixth century, just as in Greek we have Oeq, 
 for Oeatj &c. ; -di sometimes became e, as in the datives Diane^ 
 Victories &c., just as in Umbrian we have the datives 0. U. 
 tute Ikuvine = N. U. tote Ijoveine, O. U. ase = L. arce. In Os- 
 can we find the dative ending in^^, as in aasat = L. arce. In 
 the e-stems we have the dative ending in -el = -6 + ei, as /Ide-i, 
 spe-iy &c. ; and later in -e, i being lost, 2iS fide. The dative of 
 the o-stems ended originally in -oi, as populoi = populo-oi, later 
 populoi i being lost, as in Gr. iTriri^ = iTTTrwt, &c. In Umbrian 
 this dative ended in e, sispople = L. populoi, Martie-h.Martioi ; 
 similarly in Volscian we have deve = L. divoi, Declune = L. De- 
 clunoi. In Oscan o-stems this case ends in -ui, as in 0. 0. hur- 
 till =» L. JiortOy &c. The Latin infinitive in -re is probably the 
 dative of an abstract noun in -as, just as similar datives are 
 used as infinitives in Sanskrit, as Skr. k'akshas-e (to see), &c. : 
 legere would therefore be for legese — final e, though originally 
 long, as representing ai, being shortened. This shortening of 
 final e is not surprising, as the Romans forgot that the infini- 
 tive had been originally a dative ; and moreover, we have an 
 analogous case in the loss of the final ai in Greek infinitives 
 in 'fxsvai, as tfitv = e/uevai, &c. 
 
 §. 138. The Dative Plural. 
 
 We have already seen that in Sanskrit bhyam (= hhi + am), 
 is used to form the dative singular of the pronouns, as in tub' 
 hyarriy mahyam. This termination, with the addition of 5, was 
 
268 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 therefore most probably the original termination of the dative 
 plural in Indo-European. The Old Prussian supplies us with 
 a positive proof that this supposition is correct, as in it the 
 dat. pi. ends in -mans, which represents an I. E. -hhyams. In 
 Lithuanian this case ended in -mws, which also must have arisen 
 from the same form, as the presence of the nasal is shown by 
 u ; for had the original form been -hhyas, we would have found 
 -mas. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Dat. PL Here -hhyams becomes -hliyas^ as in 
 marud-hhyas^ ndubhyas^ &c. Final (^ becomes e, as in sivehhyas 
 from s'iva (m. n.), &c. 
 
 II. Greek Dat. PL The locative plural is used as the 
 dative in Grreek. 
 
 III. Latin Dat. PL Here -hkyams became -heis, and later 
 'Us in the pronouns, as in vobeis, later vobis, &c. ; and -bos (?), 
 and later -bus in the nouns, as in navebos, ovibus, &c. The 
 consonantal stems add i to the stem, as in fratribus, hominibusy 
 from the stems f rater, homin. It is possible that originally in 
 Latin -bus was added immediately to the stem, and perhaps 
 bobus or bicbus = bov-bus, is a relic of this stage. In the 2-stems 
 i in Old Latin became «, as in tempestatebus. In the w-stems, 
 u sometimes became i, as in fructibus. In the e-stems -bus 
 only occurs in Classical Latin in diebus and rebus ; speciebus is 
 censured by Cicero as not correct. In the o-stems -bus only 
 occurs in duobus and ambobus. In feminine a stems -bus often 
 occurs, as in Jiliabus, dedbus, &c. The dat. pi. of the a- and 
 o-stems ends in -is. Two different explanations have been 
 suggested to explain this termination. Schleicher supposes 
 that equis, for example, arose from equois, and that equois again 
 represents an older equo-hios = equo-Jios, in which -fios = -bhyas. 
 This explanation is most improbable, and it is much more 
 likely that here,* as in the Greek dat. pL, we have the old lo- 
 
 * Consult Schleicher, ''Compendium," &c., p. 587 ; and '* Grundriss der 
 lateinischen Declination von Franz BUcheler," p. 66. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 269 
 
 cative : silvais, agrois, would then be for silvaisi, agroisi, just 
 as Gr. uAatC) aypoTc? are for uXaiort, aypot^ri. The loss of final 
 fis very common in Latin ; thus we have est = Gr. lari, tremunt 
 = 0. L. tremonti, &c. The oldest form of the Latin dative, 
 without the addition of i to the stem- vowel, as in mensa-i'S, 
 &c., is found on an inscription (C. L L. 1, n. 814), where we 
 read devas Corniscas sacrum, where devas and Corniscas cor- 
 respond to the old Attic datives rajuiaai, uipaai, &c. That the 
 dative plural of the a- and o-stems originally ended in the 
 diphthongs -ais and -ois is proved by the forms noticed by 
 Festus, oloes (= illis), privicloes (= priviculis), and by the cog- 
 nate Italic languages. On an old inscription, perhaps of 
 Latin origin, we find suois and cnatois = L. suis and gnatis. 
 In Oscan we find Nuvlanms (m.) = L. NolaniSi iigatuls (m.) 
 = L. legatis, diumpals (f )= L. lymphis. In Umbrian the dat. pi. 
 of the a- and o-stems ends in -m, -es, -is, and in later 
 Umbrian in -eir, -er, -ir ; thus we have O. U. termnes 
 (= L. terminis), O. U. veskles (= L. vasculis), 0. U. tekuries 
 = N. U. dequrier (= L. decuriis), 0. U. Treplanes = ^. 
 U. Trehlaneir or Trehlanir, N. U. toter (= L. tutis), N. U. aljir 
 (= L. alhis), &c. In the z-stems this case ends in -eis, -es, fol- 
 lowing probably the analogy of the a- and o-stems ; Schleicher, 
 however, explains this form in the same way as Latin datives 
 in -is, and deduces aves, aveis, from avi-fos, &c. The dative 
 pi. of the consonantal stems ends in -us, a,sfratrus (fratribus), 
 dupursus (bipedibus), &c. Schleicher considers that the oldest 
 form offratrus was fratr-o-fos, whence came fratrus through 
 the stages fratrufos, fratrufs, fratruss. 
 
 §. 139. The Dative Dual. 
 
 This case in Indo-European perhaps ended in -hhydms, a 
 lengthened form of the pi. -hhyams. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Dat. Bv/xl. The 1. E. termination here became 
 'hhydm, as in marud-hhydm from marut (m ), s'ivd-bhydm from 
 s'iva (m.n.) and s'ivd (f.), &c. The a-stems lengthen the stem- 
 vowel before adding this suffix. 
 
270 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 II. Greek Dat, Dual.^ The dative and genitive dual have 
 the same form in Greek : -hhydms first, probably, became -^£v, 
 and then -iv, being lost. Stems ending in -f, -v, or a conso- 
 nant, follow the analogy of the a- stems : thus we have yevlotv 
 and ytvoiv = yevecr-o-tpiv, fiaripoiv = iLiaTep-0'(l)iVi veKVOiv = 
 v£KV-o-<l>iVt yXvKioiv = y\vK£F-o-<pLv from St. y\vKV with guna 
 of the stem-vowel, Ion. 7roAiotv = iroXt-o-(j)tv, ttoXbolv = TroXcy- 
 o-0tv from St. woXi with guna of the stem-vowel, ^Ittttoiv « 
 tTTTTo-^iv, &c. In the Homeric forms ToiiVi lojuiouv, aWrt' 
 XouVi (^Xa^apouvy &c., from the stems to, wjuo, aXXriXo, jSXc- 
 ^apo, &c., I appears to have been added to the stem, and con- 
 sequently Touv = TO'i'tpiVi &c. This I, perhaps, represents an 
 older a, by which the (5^-stems.were lengthened as in Sanskrit ; 
 toXlv would then be identical with Skr. tdhhydm (from St. ta) 
 = ta-a-hhyaTm. It has been suggested that the second a here 
 is not a mere lengthening of the stem, but that it belongs to 
 the termination : consequently the word should be thus di- 
 vided, ta-ahhi'dmsy dbhi being in this view the preposition. 
 We find in some Greek consonantal stems datives similar to 
 ToiLv ; thus we have TroSoTtv = 7roS-o-i-^tv from St. ttoS, ^eipri' 
 vouv - S€tprjv-o-4-0iv from St. Sttpnv. 
 
 III. Latin Dat, Dual. There is no trace of the termina- 
 tion -bhydms in any Italic language. 
 
 §. 140. The Ablative Case. 
 
 In Indo-European this case was formed by adding -^f to 
 the vocalic stems, with gunation of the stem vowel, or -at 
 
 * Consult Schleicher, "Compendium," &c., p. 590; and Leo Meyer, 
 *' Gedrangte Vergleichung der griechischen und lateinischen Declination," 
 p. 64. 
 
 f As the abl. sing, ends in Zend in d (written / by Bchleicher), and in 
 Latin in d, it is likely that d was the original form of the case-ending. 
 This d may be connected with the pronouns ad-as (n. that) and id-am (n. 
 that). Bopp considers that the d in these pronouns is derived from an 
 older ^, but it is quite possible that here we may have an independent pro- 
 nominal stem. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 271 
 
 with or without this gunation : in consonantal stems -at was 
 simply added. This -t or -at is of pronominal origin, and was 
 probably connected with the pronominal stem ta.* 
 
 I. Sanskrit Ahl. Sing. The original t only occurs in the 
 a-stems, as in s'ivdt from ^iva (m. n.). Benfeyf adduces one 
 ablative of an w-stem ending in -if, vidyot from vidyu. In all 
 other stems -t has become -s, and the ablative agrees in form 
 with the genitive. The change of final t into s is common in 
 Greek, as in tztv(^6q - rerv^or, &c., bfxwg for ojuwr = Skr. 
 samdt (abl. of St. sama, similar), &c. That final s of the abl. 
 has sprung from -t is proved by the Zend, where we still 
 find the abl. termination d : thus we have Z. patoid (abl. of 
 pati) = Skr. pates (abl. oipati = Gr. ttoctl), which is found in 
 compounds, beside Z. patois (gen.) = Skr. pates (gen.). 
 
 II. Greek Abl. Sing. The I. E. t is found in Greek adverbs 
 in -wc, where final (t = I. E. ^, as no Greek word can end in t : 
 moreover, -at has become -at = -wr = -wq, just as in Zend-t 
 Thus we have ttwc* Ion. Kiog = I. E. kvdt from kva^ Travr-wg 
 — 7ravr-(ur, ra^l-wc =Tax£f-(jJT, &c. 
 
 III. Latin Abl. Sing. In Old Latin and Oscan the abl. 
 ends in -d, which is lost in Classical Latin and in Umbrian. 
 Thus in Old Latin we find dictator-ed, convention-idy senatU'd, 
 navale-d, mari-d, alto-d, Gnaivo-d, praida-d, sententia-dy &c. 
 From facilumedy which is found in the S. C. de Bacc, we see 
 that all adverbs in -e are of ablatival origin, and spring from 
 adjectives in -us, -a, -um ; the adverbial ablative ending in -ed, 
 so as to be distinguished from the masc. and fem. ablatives of 
 the adjective, which ended in -od and -ad. This e was originally 
 long, but gradually became short, as the adverbs were words 
 in constant use. In Oscan ^d is also found : thus we have 
 
 * Consult Curtius "Zur Chronologic der Indogermanischen Spach- 
 forschung," p. 255. 
 
 t Benfey's Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language for the use of 
 early Students, §. 237, p. 197. 
 
 \ Consult Bopp*s " Comparative Grammar," vol. i., pp. 347, 348. 
 
272 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 from a-stems, sakarakld-d (sacello), aragetii-d = L. argentOj 
 preivatu-d - 0. L. preivato-d, suva-d = 0. L, sova-d (sua), 
 ehtra-d = 0. L. exstra-d (in S. C. de Bacc, exstrad urbem), 
 Akudunnia-d = L. Aquilonid^ &c. ; from an i-stem, slaagi-d 
 (fine); the w-stems follow the analogy of those in -z, as cas^ 
 tri-d from St. castru, which appears in Latin as an a-stem 
 castro; the consonantal stems partly follow the i-stems, and 
 partly end in -ud, as prcesent-id = L. prcesente, lig-ud = L. lege. 
 The Oscan also supplies us with additional proof that adverbs in 
 -e were originally ablatives ; for we find ampruji-d ( = L. im- 
 probe)i which is either from an z-stem or from an a-stem, as L. 
 improbe. Perhaps the stem vowel was lengthened by a, as in the 
 Latin adverbs ; in the latter case 0. -id and L. -ed would both 
 point back to an older -eid = -oid = -a-i-d = -a-a-d or -a-a-t. 
 This lengthening of a-stems by adding a is, as we have already 
 seen, of frequent occurrence in Sanskrit. In Umbrian -d has 
 been lost, as in the a-stems, puplu = 0. L. poplod (populo), 
 vinu = 0. L. veinod (vino), termnu = L. termino, mefa = L. me- 
 didj tuta = 0. touta-d, mestru = L. magistro, &c. ; in the «-stems, 
 ukri, &c. ; in the w-stems, which, however, as in Oscan, fol- 
 low the analogy of the ai-stems, as mani = L. manu, &c. ; in 
 the consonantal stems, as kvestur-e = L. qrmestore^ &c.* 
 
 * In Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, we find the suffixes, Skr. ~tas, Gr. 
 -0«v, L. -/MS, employed to form adverbs with an ablative meaning, and 
 which in some cases actually take the place of the ablative, especially in 
 the pronominal declension. Thus in Sanskrit we have svarga-ias (from 
 heaven) from svarga^ ku-tas (whence) from ku = kva (who), itas (from 
 here), also used as abl. of id-am (n. this), &c. The Skr. pronouns of the 
 1st and 2nd pers. attach -tas, not to the true stem, but to the abl., as 
 mat'tas, tvat-tas. In Latin -tus corresponds to Skr. -tas, as in coeli-tus^ 
 &c. This termination has also a locative meaning in Latin, as in in-tus^ 
 suh-tus. The Greek Qtv is from a different root ; for Gr. d = Skr. dh^ and 
 not t ; rro'Btv, to-Qsv, 'i-9tv^ do not therefore correspond exactly to Skr. 
 kU'tas, ta-tas, ya-tas^ but would require such forms as ku-dhas, &c. We 
 find -dhas^ however, in Skr., adhas (down), with which Benfey connects 
 Gr. Iv-Btv. We also find the exact representative of Skr. -tas in Gr. 
 iv-roff, l/c-roff, which have a locative meaning. It is possible that in 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 273 
 
 §. 141. The Ablative Plural. ^^^T^tMM^^ 
 This case agrees in form with the dat. pi. 
 
 §. 142. The Ablative Dual. !^ Juibpttft 
 
 This case agrees in form with .the dat. dual. \^ 
 
 §. 143. The Genitive Singular. 
 
 In Indo-European the gen. sing, of the a-stems ended in 
 -sya, and that of all other stems in -s or -as. The origin of 
 these suffixes has been already discussed in §. 105. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Gen. Sing. In consonantal stems and mono- 
 syllabic ones ending in any vowel except 6, this case ends in 
 -as, as marut-as from marut (m.), ndv-as from ndu (f.), hhiy-as 
 from Mz(f.fear), &c. The gen. sing, of monosyllabic stems in 
 -i and -u may also end in -as, as hhiy-ds, &c. ; stems in -ar ori- 
 ginally formed their gen. in -as, as we see from the Vedic 
 genitives pitr-as, nar-as, from the stems pitar, 7iar (m. a man) ; 
 but in later Sanskrit we find the remarkable forms, pitur, md- 
 tur, ddtur, &c., as gen.s of the stems pitar, rndtavy ddtdr, &c. 
 Bopp considers that -ur here arose from -urs = -rus = -ras^ 
 and consequently that the old form pitras passed through the 
 stages pitrus {- Gr. iraTpog) and piturs in becoming pitur. 
 According to this view the final r is the stem -r transposed ; 
 but it is more natural to suppose that the old form pitras be- 
 came pitrs (a being lost, and r treated as a vowel), and that 
 from pitrs arose pitus (as this gen. ought properly to be writ- 
 ten), r becoming w, as is very common in Prakrit.* The Zend 
 supports the view that these gen.s originally ended in -as : 
 thus we have Z. dathro (for dathr-as) = Skr. ddtus, Z. nafi- 
 
 Indo-European these suffixes had at first a merely locative signification, 
 and that -ta-s marked the direction whither^ and -dha-s the place where, 
 the former being from the verbal root ta (to stretch), and the latter from 
 dha (to place), and the final s coming from the pronominal stem sa, 
 
 * The form pitus may also be accounted for by supposing that the 
 gen. sing, was originally pitaras (= Gr. irarkooQ), and that this, through 
 the influence of the accent, became, firstly, jotVar*. and than piiCs. 
 
 * rp 
 
274 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 dhro (euphonically for naptro) = Skr. naptus, final -as becom- 
 ing 6, as usual. In Z. dthras'-k'a (ignisque) we find the gen. 
 still ending in -as, from St. citar. In Vedic the gen. of the i- 
 and w-stems was formed by adding -as directly to the stem- 
 vowel, as in pas'v-as from pas'u (m. cattle), madJiv-as - Gr. 
 fieOv-og from madhu (n. honey), ary-as from art (m. an enemy), 
 as Gr. 'ISpi-og from l^pi. We find traces of this formation in 
 later Sanskrit, as in paty-us for paty-as from pati (m. a mas- 
 ter), sakhy-us for sakhy-as (m. a friend). The original geni- 
 tive in -as was supplanted by other forms ; and with the ex- 
 ception of Skr. paty-iis, and sakhy-us no traces of it are found 
 except in Vedic. Masculine stems in -^ and -u gunate the stem- 
 vowel, and add 5, as kave-s from kavi Cm. a poet), bhdno-s from 
 bhdnu (m. the sun), &c. Neuter stems are lengthened by «, 
 as vdri-n-as from vdri (n. water), &c. Feminine stems in -i and 
 -u either follow the analogy of the masc. stems in -i and -w, 
 or attach -ds directly to stem, while feminine stems in -i and 
 -w can form their genitive only in the latter way : thus we 
 have gates or gaty-ds from gati (f.), but only 7iady-ds from 
 nadi (f.), &c. Feminines in -d change the stem-vowel into 
 -di before -ds, as sivdy-ds from s'ivd, &c. Masculines and 
 neuters in -d form the gen. by adding -sya^ as s'iva-sya from 
 s'iva (m. n.), &c. ; -sya occurs in no other stems except in the 
 pronominal stem amu^ the gen. of which is amushya. 
 
 II. Greek Gen. Sing, In consonantal stems this case is 
 formed by adding -og to the stem, as in ttoS-oc, fxivovg = /x£- 
 veo-ocj ai^ooQ and al^ovg (^ol. ai^uyg) = al^oa-oq, epi(5ovg 
 (Hom. epi^evg) = lpefie<T-og, Fopyoog (Dor. Fopywg, JEol. 
 Fopywg) = Topyov-og, irarp-og and iraTip-og, &c. The gen. of 
 stems ending in a diphthong, or i or v, is formed in a similar 
 way, as vaF-oc? j3oF-oc, vj5pL-og, axXv-og, yovvng = yovv-og, 
 ^ovpog = dopv-og, &c. : the stem-vowels i and v can also be 
 gunated before -oc, as TroXi-iog,* noXt-og, and Hom. ttoXjj-oc 
 
 * The lengthening of -og here is analogous to the lengthening of -as 
 in the gen. sing, of Skr. feminine stems in ►«, -t, and -w. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 275 
 
 = TroXey-ocj beside Ion. iroXi-og, Horn, fxavrri-og = fxavrzy-oQy 
 beside jLiayrf-ocj yXuiclF-oci aoreF-oc and aart-wg^TToki^'-OQ from 
 TToXu. In feminine a-steras the gen. sign -as was immediately 
 added to the stem-vowel, as in (rotpidg, (pvyrig. The gen. of 
 the masculine and neuter a-stems ended originally in -ayo ; 
 the Hom. gen. s in -oio and -oo are derived at once from 
 -o-ayo ; thus KTafxivoio = Kra/jLevo-cryo, ay poo = ay polo = ay^o- 
 ayo. The ordinary gen. in -ou, Mo\. -a>, arises from -oo 
 simply by contraction. The Hom. gen. in -ao is probably 
 derived from an older form in -a-(Tyo, as in 'Arpti^do, &c. ; 
 -do sometimes become -oj, as in Atveiw, &c. ; and final -o is 
 sometimes lost, as in the iEol. 'AiSa, KpovtSa, &c. In the 
 Arcadian dialect -ao becomes -av, as in 'ATroXXtJvidav, "Eaif, 
 &c. Curtius* deduces the gen. ending -ao from -aog = Skr. 
 -dyds, but the former explanation is much more probable. 
 Such genitives as ttoititov, ttoXltov, &c., are derived from 
 older forms in -ao : thus iroXirov = TroXtrao, &c. In the 
 Thessalian dialect f the gen. sing, of the o-stems frequently 
 ended in -oi. Ahrens considers, and rightly I believe, that 
 this -OL represents the older -oio, final o being merely lost, as 
 in gens, in a. In opposition to this view it has been sug- 
 gested that this gen. in -oi is properly an old locative, which 
 is here used in the genitive signification, just as in Latin the 
 gen. in -i is supposed to have been also originally a locative. 
 III. Latin Gen. Sing. — The I. E. gen. suffix -as appears 
 in Latin in the forms -os, -us, -is, -es. The gen. of conson- 
 antal stems is formed by adding the suffix immediately to the 
 stem : thus we have ped-is, gener-is for genes-is, nomin-is, patr- 
 is, &c. The L E. -as in becoming -is first became -os (which 
 is found in the i^-stems), and then -us (which is found on in- 
 scriptions up to the middle of the seventh century A. U. C. 
 
 * Curtius, ** Grundziige der griechischen Etyraologie," p. 646. 
 t Ahrens, " De Dialectis Solids," &c., p. 221 ; and "DeDialecto 
 Dorica," p. 528, seq. 
 
 t2 
 
 • 
 
276 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 in homin-uSf Vener-us, Cerer-us^ patr-us, &c.). In Old Latin 
 we also find the gen. of consonantal stems ending in -es, as in 
 Salut-es, Apolon-eSf Cerer-es. In late Latin this gen. in -es 
 again appears as in the gens. CcBsar-es, campestr-es. This -es 
 either arose from -is, or else preceded it, the I. E. -as be- 
 coming first -es, and then -is ; or perhaps we can detect here 
 the influence of the z-stems, and -es may be equal to -eis or 
 'Is, Final s was often lost in old and vulgar Latin, as in 
 Ccesar-u (C. I. L. 1, n. 696), Falmtrion-i (PI. Mil. Glor. 387), 
 &c. ; and in many cases, where it was written, it was not pro- 
 nounced, as in militXs qui amicam (PI. Bacch. 574), &c.* As 
 the gen. of the z-stems ends in classical Latin is -% it agrees 
 in form with that of the cons, stems ; thus ovis, piscis, &c., 
 would have had the same form, if they had been derived from 
 the stems ov, pise, &c. But this gen. ending -is was perhaps 
 originally long {-Is), and arose from -i-os, just as alis = alios. 
 The close connexion of the consonantal stems with those in -i 
 is shown by the gen. form part-us (Tab. Bant.), from St. part 
 beside parti-s from St. parti. The gen. of the w-stems was 
 formed by adding -os to the gunated stem ; thus, senatu-os 
 (S. C. de Bacc.) = senatov-os, magistratu-os , &c. ; -os after- 
 wards became -us, as in domu-us, exercitu-us, conventu-us (all 
 on inscriptions) ; and from -u-us, by contraction, arose the 
 usual gen. in -its, and in Old Latin -u, final s being lost. Be- 
 side these gens, in -u-os, -u-us, -us, we also find another 
 form in -it-is in use up to Cicero's time, as in senatu-is, 
 domu-is, &c., cited by Gellius, anu-is (Ennius), metu-is 
 (Cicero), &c. : su-is and gru-is always kept this form. The 
 w-stems are also declined like those in -o, as gen. sumpti be- 
 side sumptus, qucesii beside qucestu-is (Ter. Hec. 735), and 
 qucBstus, senati, gemiti, geli, &c. The gen. of neuter w-stems 
 followed the analogy of the masculine, as cornu-is, cornus, and 
 cornU (final s being lost, as in gen. senatu, C. I. L. 1, n. 1166), 
 
 * Biicheler, " Grundriss der lattinischen Declination," p. 30, seq. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 277 
 
 from St. cornu. The gen. of the o-stems, masc. and neut., 
 ends in !, in late Latin -ei. Three different ways of explain- 
 ing this form have been suggested : one is, that this case is 
 really the locative, which has here supplanted the old geni- 
 tive ; another is, that we find here a trace of the termination 
 -asija^ e. g. agri= agroi = agro-f^ya ; the last is, that the gen. 
 originally ended in -o-is, e. g. agri = agro-is. This last ex- 
 planation is much the most likely, for in Umbrian and Oscan 
 the final s is still retained ; thus we have O. 0. siiveis = L. sui, 
 O. O. Piimpaiia-neis = L. Pornpeiani; 0. U. puples^ puple^ and 
 N. U. popler=- L. populi; 0. U. katles and katle - L. catuU, &c. 
 These forms point back to an Italic gen. in -ois, whence came 
 O. 0. -eis, 0. U. -es, -e, and L. -^, final s being lost. This 
 -ois may be explained in three different ways : either the stem 
 was lengthened by y (= ^), and -as added, as to the consonantal 
 stems, agrois representing therefore an older agra-y-as; or 
 the analogy of the «-stems was followed here, and -is added 
 directly to the stem ; or, more simply, -as was added to the 
 stem without the intervention of?/, and, consequently, -o-is 
 = -a-is = -a-as. Final «, though essentially long, was some- 
 times shortened by Plautus ; and disappeared in Ncepor for 
 Nmi (= G-n(jevi), por and Marpor = Marcipor. The gen. sing, 
 of the fem. a-stems ended originally in -as, as terras (Nsev.), 
 vias (Enn.), fortunas (Nsev.), &c. ; the same ending is found 
 in O. eituas (pecunije), 0. multas (= L. mulctce.), U. tutas, &c. ; 
 in classical Latin it is still found in {pater-, mater-) familias. 
 The gen. sing, of these stems also ends in -dl (in Ennius, 
 Plautus, Lucretius, &c.), later -cb. This -ai arose perhaps 
 from -ais = -ay-as, the stem being lengthened by y (= i) ; -ais 
 is found in the gen. Prosepnais (C. I. L. 1, p. 554) = Proser- 
 pincB, and it appears as -cbs in FaustcEs, Diances, LepidcuSy 
 &c. This form in ces belonged entirely to vulgar Latin, and 
 is not found before the seventh century A. U. G. It pene- 
 trated even into the masc. a-stems, as in MessalcBs, MidcBs, We 
 may also explain the form -ais in the same way as we ex- 
 
278 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 plained the masc. -ois, without supposing the stem to be 
 lengthened by y : thus, by adding -as directly to the stem we 
 get, on the one hand, -d-is = -d-aSy the second a being weak- 
 ened to i to diminish the weight of the termination, as in -o -is 
 = -d-as, while on the other hand we obtain by simple con- 
 traction the other form of the gen. -as = -d-as. A third expla- 
 nation has been suggested : it is supposed that the a-stems 
 formed their gen. by adding -sya, following the analogy of those 
 in -a, and that consequently -dl = -d-sya ; but this theory is ex- 
 tremely improbable, for no trace of the I. E. -sya is found in the 
 corresponding Oscan and Umbrian stems. The gen. of the e- 
 stems is formed similarly to that of those in -a ; thus corre- 
 sponding to the gen. in -as, we find the gen. in -es, as rabies 
 (Lucret.),y?(ies (Plant.), c^i^s (Enn.), &c. ; this gen. perhaps 
 appears in Diespiter (the father of day). Corresponding also 
 to the gen. in -d% we find the gen. in -el^ later -^z, except 
 when immediately preceded by a vowel ; and then still later 
 corresponding to -ag, we find -e^ contracted into a diphthong : 
 thus we have/c?^^ (Enn.), rm (Plant.), &c. ; then rSl (PL), 
 jid^i, &c. ; but always aciei; then in the Comedians, m, spei, 
 are frequently monosyllables. The gen. of the e-stems also 
 ends in e, which may be derived either from -es, s being lost ; 
 or from -ez, i being lost ; as pernicie, fide, acie, die. Finally, 
 we find a gen. in -i after the analogy of the o- and u- stems, 
 as fami (Cato), plebi (Tab. Bant.) ; and even when i imme- 
 diately precedes, as in pernicii (Cic. according to Gellius), pro- 
 genii (Pacuv.), &c., where we might have expected final e to 
 be retained to avoid the conjunction of two i's : this i evi- 
 dently arose from the diphthongisation of the original -el^ as 
 in the monosyllabic m. In Oscan the gen. of the consonantal 
 stems is formed by adding -eis, as Juv-eis = L. Jovis, 7naatr' 
 eis = h. matris. The gen. of the i-stems also ends in -eis, as 
 Herentateis, from St. Herentati, Luvkanateis from St. Liivka- 
 nati. We find only one example of an w-stem, viz., castrous 
 from St. castru; here -s appears to have been simply added to 
 the gunated stem, as in Sanskrit. We have already noticed 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 279 
 
 the Oscan and Umbrian a-stems. In Umbrian the conso- 
 nantal stems form their gen. in -es, N. U. -^r, following the 
 analogy of the i-stems, as N. U. nomn-er from St. nomn be- 
 side N. U. ocrer from St. ocri. In the w-stems we find o 
 instead of the old w, as in N. U. trifo-r (from St. trifu) = L. 
 tribu'S. 
 
 §. 144. The Genitive Plural. 
 
 The oldest form of the termination of the gen. pi. in Indo- 
 European was probably -as-am-s, -as being the sign of the 
 gen. sing., -am the pronominal element which is found 
 in -bhi-am, &c., and -s the sign of the plural. From -asams 
 came first -asdm, then -sdm, and finally -am. We find traces 
 of the first of these forms in the Sanskrit pronominal declen- 
 sion, as teshdm (horum) = ta-dsam from St. ta (hie), ySshdm 
 (quorum) = ya-dsam from St. ya (qui), &c. ; and in the Latin 
 o-stems, as equorum (from St. equd) = I. E. ahva-asdm (from 
 St. akva), &c. 
 
 1. Sanskrit Gen. PL The gen. ending -sam is only found 
 in the pronominal declension : in the nominal declension this 
 case was formed by attaching -dm immediately to stems end- 
 ing in a consonant or diphthong, as marut-dm, manas-dm^ 
 bharat-dm, ndo-dm, &c., from the stems marut (m.), manas (n.), 
 bharant (m.), nda (f.), &c. Pollysyllabic vocalic stems 
 lengthen the stem by ?i, as in gati-ndm, vdn-ndm, s'ivd-ndm, 
 nadt-ndm, &c., from the stems gati (f.), vdri (n.), siva(m. n.), 
 nadt (f.), &c. : short stem-vowels are always lengthened before 
 this n. Monosyllabic feminine stems in t and u may either add 
 n or not ; thus from bhi (f.) we have bkiy-dm, or bhi-ndm, &c. 
 Stems in -ar form tneir gen. pi. from the weak stem in -r, and 
 add «, as pitr-mhn, mdtr-nam, ddtr-naniy &c., from the stems 
 pitar, mdtar, ddtdr, &c. In Vedic we find older forms of these 
 genitives without n^ as devdm from St. dSva (m. a god), nar-dm, 
 svasr-dm from stems nar (m. a man), svasdr (f. a sister). 
 
 II. Greek Gen. PL This case is formed by adding -wv 
 to all stems, except those ending in -a ; i- and v- stems are 
 
280 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 sometimes gunated. Thus we have ttoS-wv, dfrra-iov^ ^eTraa- 
 wv, (TrrjOwv and (jrriOiwv = GTtiOaa-ojv, fxaKap-wv, vaF-tov, j3a- 
 (TtXr)-wv = /Sao-fXEp-wv, (Tu-<jJv, yevv-wv, yovviov = yovv-wVi 
 TToXwv and TToXc-wv = ttoXeF-wv from St. ttoXu gunated, TroXt- 
 wv beside ttoXc-wv = ttoXe^z-wv from St. TroXt gunated, aypvjv 
 = aypo-u)v, xwpu)v = x*^^" -atuv. The gen. pi. of the a-stems 
 generally ends in Homer in -a-iov = -d-sdm; thus we find 
 Oea-wv = 9td-a(i)v from St. Oed^ ra-cuv = ra-o"tuv = Skr. td-sdm 
 from St. ta, &c. This -a-tuv became -s-wv in Ionic. 
 
 III. Latin Gen. PL This case is formed by adding -um, 
 0. L. 'Om (found in the «<-stems and in the o-stems after v or 
 w), to stems ending in a consonant or -i or -u. Thus we have 
 princip-uniy fulmin-um, can-um, matr-um, &c. ; avi-um^ ovi-um^ 
 &c. ; magistratu-om perhaps for magistratov-om^ fructu-um^ &c. ; 
 and with -u-um contracted, as in passum (PL), currum (Virg.), 
 but in vulgar Latin also after the analogy of the o-declension, 
 verso-rum^ spirito-rum, &c. Many consonantal stems are 
 lengthened by i, and so their gen. pi. termination agrees in 
 form with that of the z-stems : thus we have merc-i-um, radic- 
 i-um, forcip-i-unif penat-i-um^ amant-i-um beside amant-um, 
 ferent'i'Um heside ferent-um, &c. Stems ending in -w, -r, or 
 -5, seldom permit this addition of i ; we find, however, vir-i- 
 um and complur-i-um. We find some examples of consonan- 
 tal stems following the analogy of those in -u : thus we have 
 alit-U'um (Lucr. and Virg.) beside alit-um, and on inscriptions 
 virtut'U'Um, fratr-u-um^ &c. 
 
 The masc. and neut. o-stems form their gen. pi. in two 
 ways : by adding either -om (or -urn) = I. E. -dm or -Qrura 
 = I. E. -asdm. Thus we find in Old Latin the forms in -om, 
 Romanom (C. I. L. 1, n. 1), sovom (C. I. L. 1, n. 588) = suo- 
 mm, divorn (Lucr.) &c. ; later in -um, as in virum, deum, 
 meunif nummum, modium, talentum, fabruniy &c. Similarly 
 in Oscan we find Ahellanum, Tiiatium, Nuvlanum, and in 
 Umbrian puplum, later poplom (populorum), (S:c. The other 
 gen. pi. ending in -drum^ (m. n.) and -drum (f ) is the usual 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 281 
 
 form, as in honor am = bond + d7'um^ hondrum = bond + drum^ &c. 
 In Oscan the gen. pi. of the a-stems ends in -azum, and in Um- 
 brian in -arum^ -aruj as in 0. eisa-zun-c egma-zum (illarum 
 rerum), U. menzaru = L. mensarum, &c. The ^-sterns follow 
 the analogy of the a-stems, as dierum, rerum, &c. Masc. 
 stems in -a form their gen. pi. in -rum, but in the poets we find 
 the form in -um in compounds of -gena and -cola, and in the 
 patronymics in -des, as agricolum, terrigenum, ^neadum, &c. 
 Two feminine stems in -a form their gen. pi. also in -um — name- 
 ly, amphorum and drachmum, but these forms were probably 
 borrowed from the Greek. We find other traces of the gen. 
 pi. ending -sum in the forms (noticed by Yarro and Charisius) 
 hoverum, nucerum, regerum, lapiderum, which are supposed by 
 Bopp to have been formed from the i-stems bovi, nuci, regi, 
 lapidi, and consequently to be for bovirum, &c., thus proving 
 that -rum was also originally attached to the i-stems. These 
 forms have been also explained by supposing them to have been 
 formed from the stems hover, nucer, &c., the original stems 
 bov, nuc, &c., being lengthened by the addition of -er, be- 
 cause this r appears also in some stems in the gen. sing., and 
 consequently is not peculiar to the plural : thus we find sueris, 
 puberis, acipenseris, cucumeris, beside suis, pubis ^ acipensis, 
 cucumis* 
 
 The Oscan and Umbrian form the gen. pi. of stems ending 
 in -i or a consonant in the same way as the Latin. 
 
 §. 145. The Genitive Dual. 
 This case agrees in form with the locative dual. 
 
 §. 146. The Locative Singular. 
 
 In Indo-European the sign of this case was probably -in, 
 which was added directly to the stem. This -in was connected 
 
 * Consult Bopp's "Comparative Grammar," i., p. 490; and Biicheler 
 *' Grundriss der lateinischen Declination," p. 40. 
 
282 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 with the pronominal root -aw, which was reduced firstly to 
 -an {n being weaker than m), and then to -in {i being weaker 
 than a). From -an are derived the prepositions, Gr. ev, L. in. 
 The oldest form (-am) of this suffix is still perhaps found in 
 -dm^ the locative ending of Skr. fern, stems. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Loo, Sing. Stems ending in a consonant or 
 diphthong form this case by adding -i to stem, as marut-% 
 bharat-i, pitar-i^ ndv-i, gav-i, from the stems marut, bharat, 
 pitar, ndu, go. Masc. stems in -i and -u add -du, before which 
 the stem-vowel disappears, as in kavdu, bhdndu, from kavi, 
 bhdnu : the stem-vowel is still kept in paty-du and sakhy-du 
 from pati and sakhi. This -du perhaps represents -dm, the 
 gunated form of -am. Fem. stems in -i and -u either follow 
 the analogy of the masc. in -i and -w, or else add -dm, asgat-du 
 or gaty-dm from gati. Polysyllabic fem. stems in -a, -i, or w, 
 always add -dm, as sivd-y-dm, nddy-dm, vadhv-dm, from sivd, 
 nadiy vadJm. Monosyllabic fem. stems in -^ and -u add either 
 -i or 'dm, as bhuv-i or bhuv-dm from bhu. Neuter stems in 
 -i and -m lengthen the stem by n, as vdri-n-i from vdri, Masc. 
 and neut. stems in -a add -i, as sive from siva (m., n.). 
 
 In Vedic we find the loc. of the w-stems formed by simply 
 adding -i, as tanv-i (from tanu, f. the body) = Z. tanv-i (loc. of 
 tanu, f. id.) ; this form corresponds to Gr. dat., as vskv-l, &c. 
 We also find in Vedic -i added to the gunated w-stem, as 
 sunaV'i (from sHnu, m. a son) = Ch. SI. sitnov-i. The loc. of 
 the fem. a-stems also ends sometimes in -S in Vedic. The 
 loc. ending -in is only found in Sanskrit in the pronominal 
 declension, as in ya-sm-in from ya (who), ta-sm-in from ta 
 (that), &c. 
 
 II. Greek Loc, Sing. The Gr. dat. sing., except in the 
 case of the a-stems, is properly a loc, being formed simply 
 by the addition of l : thus we have nod-i, yipovr-i, fxrjTep-i, 
 Xpo-'i. for ^QO(j-L, f^iXi-i for jStXea-t, XaF-i, vr]F-t, <Tv-i, vekv-i, 
 Eovp-i for ^opv'i, yXvKt-l for yXvKtf-i, iroXe-i for noXe^-i, &c. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 283 
 
 The loc. meaning is still frequently found, as in AwSwv-i, 
 MapaSiov-i, ^aXajuuv-t, vvkt-i, &C. 
 
 In the a-stems we find the loc. and dat. both in existence 
 beside each other, as dat. ayptf = aypo + oi beside loc. o'lKot 
 = oIko + t, dat. Tiiuy = tiiulo. + at beside loc. xafxai = xafxa + 1. 
 Xafiai is the only example of the loc. of an a-stem, unless the 
 preposition virai (viro) be the loc. of a stem W7ra, just as vireip 
 (virep) appears to be the loc. of a stem virep, and to be for 
 vwepi = Skr. upari and Z. upairi. Besides oikol we find many 
 other examples of Iocs, of o-stems, as Uv\o-i (found in Uv- 
 Xoiyevrig — compare xajuat-cuvr^c), Trt^o-t (^sch. Prom.), ^ol. 
 liii(TCFO-t or ju£(70-t (Ale), ^ol. ev^o-i (I'vSov), -^ol. vxl^o-i (be- 
 side vxl^ov), TTot = iro + I, &c. In ^olic we frequently find 
 this loc. termination -o-i becoming -v-l : thus we find fiscrv-i 
 ^^fiiao-L^ TVL^E (here) for ro-t-Se, Trr}Xv-i{Tri\ocFt), aXXv-i, aripv-t 
 (hipoat) = hepo-i. In Doric we find -ol represented by -«, 
 as in tl (ol), irtl (ttoT), rrjva, toutcT, TtiSs, Lac. e^ei (e^w, 
 Syrac. f^ot). We also find in common Greek this same loc. 
 in 'El J as in eku = e-ko-i from St. ko = I. E. kva, ajuaxaii iravoi- 
 K£i, afiiaOEi, iravarpaTEi : -el sometimes became -t, as in aiia\i. 
 "Ayx'i is perhaps for ajx^-t from an o-stem ayxo^ whence 
 ayxov : comp. Hom. ayxi-fxaxog, where ayxe = ayxf--t, i being 
 lost. 'AiEi may also be the loc. of a stem, mFo = Skr. Sva 
 = L. (Bvo : in Lesbian ^olic this particle appears also in the 
 forms aav, aiv, where final v is perhaps the original loc. n. 
 The datives jlioI, aoi = Dor. tol, are probably locatives, and 
 correspond to the Skr. Iocs may-i^ tvay-i, from the stems ma, 
 tva ; may-i being = ma-i-i = ma-a-% the stem being lengthened 
 by a, and then this a being weakened to i, and similarly 
 tvayi = tva-a-L 
 
 III. Latin Loc. Sing, The locative of the consonantal stems 
 ended in -i, later -e: the loc. ending was properly i\ but 
 the consonantal stems were lengthened by i, and so followed 
 the analogy of the i-stems, and thus l = -f + f arose ; thus 
 we find loc-i (PI. Amph. 165), rur-i (PI. Most. 799), and 
 
284 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 rur-^, vesper-i and vesper-e, infelic-i, arbor-i (Liv. 1, 26, infe- 
 lici arbori reste suspendito), her-i for hes-i from hes (= Gr. 
 xBig) which appears in hes-ternus, Anxur-i, Acherunt-i, Si- 
 cyon-% &c. Mane is the loc. of an 2-stem, and domu-i of an 
 w-stem ; for domu-i we generally find dorm and domX after the 
 analogy of the o-stems.* The loc. of the o-stems ends in 
 'i (Old Latin also -ei and -e) = -o-z, as humi (from St. humo) 
 = humo-i, belli, foci, Ephesi, Corinthi, &c. This case is also found 
 in postri-die, quoti-die, pri-die ; and in Old Latin we find die 
 quinte and die quinti, die septimei, die crastini, &c. Similarly 
 the loc. of the fl:-stems is formed by adding -i, as Roma-i, later 
 Romce, militicE, &c. In Oscan the loc. of the o- and «-stems 
 is formed in the same way as in Latin : thus we have muintk^ 
 terei (in communi agro), tero- being a neuter stem, and esai 
 
 c e 
 
 vim mejiai (in ea via media). The loc -n has nearly disap- 
 peared, but it probably still exists in -en (lo !) loc. of St. i, 
 and in peren-die, peren being loc. of St. pero = Skr. para 
 (another), which is also found in per-egre, from pero and agro. 
 In Oscan we find this n in Jiortm Kernim (in horto Cereali), 
 hortin being probably for hortem from St. horto. In Sabellian 
 we also find it in esmen-ek asin (on this altar), from stems 
 esmo and asa : esmen is identical with Skr. asmin, except that 
 it still retains the stem-vowel, which is lost in Sanskrit. Jam 
 is also supposed to be a loc. from a stem ja, and is identified 
 with Skr. yasmin^ loc. of ya. In Umbrian we find two pe- 
 culiar locative suffixes, -mem or -me in sing., and -fern or fe 
 in pi. No satisfactory explanation of these forms has as yet 
 been suggested : Aufrecht and KirchhoflP consider that mem 
 and /em were originally identical,! and connected with Skr. 
 
 ♦ Domus was originally an o-stem = Gr. Sofios. 
 
 f Lottner agrees with Siegfried's view that the suffixes -mem, -fern 
 originally began with mbh ; see Siegfried's remarks on the Gaulish in- 
 scription of Poitiers, arranged and edited by C. F. Lottner. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 285 
 
 hhydm, while Bopp* considers that they arise from a postpo- 
 sition added to the acc.s sing, and pi. In Umbrian we also 
 find traces of a loc. in -i, as in 0. U. sve (if) = 0. O. svai = L. 
 si, 0. U. pre = L. prcR for pra-i, from a St. pra ; N. U. perne 
 (from the front), N. U. postne (from the rear). 
 
 §. 147. The Locative Plural. f 
 
 Schleicher considers that the original termination of this 
 case in Indo-European was -sva-sa, -sva being of pronominal 
 origin, and sa the mark of the plural. From -svasa are de- 
 rived the Vedic loc. ending -susu, the Zend -shva, -shu, -shu, 
 -hva, -hu, -hu, the old Persian -suvd, the Skr. -su, -shu, and 
 the Gr. -(T(n, -m. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Loc. PL — This case is formed by adding -su 
 (or -shu) to the stem, final a becoming S ; thus we have s'ivS- 
 shu, s'ivd-su, kavi'shui marut-su, &c., from s'iva (m., n.), sivd 
 (f ), kavi (m.), marut (m.), &c. 
 
 II. Greek Loc. Pi. — ^This case ends in -aoL or -o-f, from 
 -o-Ft, before which stems in -a are lengthened by the addition 
 of ^■, as is the case with df-stems in Sanskrit. This -(tgl or -m is 
 added to some consonantal stems and some ending in -i and 
 -V, by means of the helping vowel e : thus we have irotr-ai for 
 7roS-(Tt, KTY]fxa-<JL for KTYijuLaT-cTi, da7rd-£(T(TL for ^ETra(T'£(T(n, jScXe- 
 fo-fft for j3£X£(T-£(r(Tt, jSoF-ccrtTf, and jSou-at, Kuv-ctro-t and Kv-aiy 
 ^fjOou-(Ti for (p£povT-(Ti, vEKv-EacTL and veKV-<T<TLi woXi-ecrai, ttoXl- 
 GL and TToAf-cTi = 7roXey-e(jaL from ttoX^, TroXe-o-o-t for zroXeF- 
 £(T(Tt from TToXu-, iTTTTo-t-cr/, ^wpa-L-uL^ &c. Thc lengthening 
 of the a- stems by i was probably much later than that of 
 the a-stems ; for we still find fem. Iocs without this e, as Qvpd- 
 
 III. Latin Loc. PI. This case agrees in form with the 
 dat. and abl. pi. A trace of the Indo-European loc. termi- 
 
 * Consult Bopp's " Comparative Grammar," vol. i., p. 400, seq. 
 t Consult Schleicher, " Compendium," &c., p. 673 ; and Bopp, '• Com- 
 parative Grammar," pp. 494, 545. 
 
286 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 nation is supposed by some to be found in the plural ending 
 -is, which is also used for the dat. and abl. in the a- and o- 
 declensions : thus we find/ons, Athenis, Cumis, Delphis, &c., 
 all used as locatives. 
 
 §. 148. The Locative Dual. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Loc. Dual. This case is formed by adding 
 'OS to the stem, final -a becoming -S and neuter stems in -i 
 and -u being lengthened by n: thus we have marut-Ss, kavy- 
 oSf vdri-n-os, sivay-os, &c., from marut (ni-)> ^^^* (^O' ^^*^ 
 (n.), s'iva (m., n.), and sivd (f.), &c. 
 
 II. and III. This case is not found in either Greek or 
 Latin. 
 
 §. 149 The Vocative Singular. 
 
 The vocative singular consisted of the mere stem in Indo- 
 European. 
 
 I. Sanskrit Voc. Sing. Masc. and fem. stems in -i and -u 
 gunate the stem- vowel in this case, as kavS, dhSno, &c., from 
 kavi (m.), dhenu (f.), &c. Polysyllabic fem. stems in 4 and 
 -w shorten the stem-vowel, as in nadi, vadhu, from nadi (f.), 
 vadhu (f ) ; fem. stems in -d change the stem- vowel into e, as 
 s'ivi from s'ivd (f ). Monosyllabic stems ending in a vowel 
 use the nominative for the vocative, as bhiSy ndus, &c., from 
 bht (f ), ndu (f ), &c. Neuter stems in -i and -u may either 
 gunate the stem-vowel or leave it unchanged, as vdri and 
 vdrS from vdri (n.), &c. Neuter stems in -n may either re- 
 tain or lose this consonant, as ndma or ndman from ndman 
 (n.), &c. In all other stems the vocative consists of the mere 
 stem, as s'iva, marut, vdk, &c., from s'iva (m., n.), marut (m.), 
 vdk (f.), &c. In all Skr. vocatives the accent is always 
 placed on the first syllable, as nadi, balm, &c, from nadi, 
 balm, &c. 
 
 II. Greek Voc. Sing, — In guttural and labial stems the vo- 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 287 
 
 cative is the same as the nominative, as 0uXa|, KvkXw^, &c. ; 
 we find, however, yvvai from yvvaiK. In dental stems the 
 vocative generally is identical with the mere stem, subject 
 to the euphonic laws of the Greek language, as nai for TratS, 
 ava for avaKr, "Aprtjut for 'A/orc/ztS, yipov for yepovT, kvov, 
 TTarep (with accent thrown back as in Skr. Voc. pitar), ^va- 
 fjLiviQy &c. ; we find, however, irovq used as the voc. ; and 
 in participles ending in -ac, -ffc? 'Ovq, and -a»v, the voc. 
 is the same as the nom. The voc. of masc. o-stems ends 
 in -€ generally ; but we also find voc. Qw^ (beside Gtl 
 /iov, Od fiov, Matth. xxvii., 46), (piXog (Od. 3, 375), &c. 
 Masc. stems in -d (-r/) form the voc. in a and rj, as TroAtra, Kjoo- 
 vidrjj &c. Fem. stems in -a form voc. in d generally, as Oedy 
 Kovpd (JEol. Kovpa), &c. ; and this d often becomes a, as in 
 the nom., as juovo-a, avaaaa. In stems ending in -t, -v, or a 
 diphthong, the voc. is the mere stem, as pdvTt, raxv, ypav, 
 &c. The fem. voc.s in -ot, such as aldoX, appear to be related 
 to the nom.s in -w as the Skr. voc. of fem. a-stems is to the 
 nom. ; for -ot (= I. E. -ai): -w (= I. E. -a) : : -e («= I. E. 
 -ai) : -a. 
 
 III. Latin Voc. Sing. The voc. in Latin is always the 
 same as the nom., except in the case of the masc. o-stems, 
 where it ends in -e, as bone, puere (PI. Most. 947), from piierus 
 = puer,filie (in Livius Andronicus), and later Jili, &c. So in 
 Umbrian the voc. of the o-stems ends in -e, as Sangie, &c. 
 
 §. 150. The Vocatives Plural and Dual. 
 
 In Sanskrit and Greek the voc. pi. and the voc. dual are 
 the same as the nom. pi. and the nom. dual, except that in 
 Sanskrit the accent is always placed on the first syllable of 
 the voc. In Latin the nom. pi. and the voc. pi. are the 
 same. 
 
288 
 
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 §. 151. Paradigms* of the Nominal Declension. 
 I. Consonantal Stems. 
 
 
 
 I.— I. 
 
 E. vdk' (f.), &c. 
 
 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 
 vdk'- (f.) 
 
 bw (f.) 
 
 v6c- {voc-i, f.) 
 
 Sing. N. V. 
 
 
 vdk. 
 
 5^-C. 
 
 vdc-s. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 vdk'-am. 
 
 dTT-a. 
 
 voo-em. 
 
 I. 
 
 
 vdk'-d 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 D, 
 
 
 vdh-L 
 
 — 
 
 v6c-l. 
 
 Ab. 
 
 
 vdk'-as. 
 
 — 
 
 v6e-e(d). 
 
 G. 
 
 
 vdJc'-as. 
 
 i7r-6c. 
 
 voc-is. 
 
 L. (Gr. 
 
 D.) 
 
 vdk'-i. 
 
 6ir-L 
 
 — 
 
 Plur. N.V. 
 
 
 vdk'-as. 
 
 OTT-IQ. 
 
 tdc-es. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 vdk'-as. 
 
 OT-UQ. 
 
 voc-es. 
 
 I. 
 
 
 vdg-bhis. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 D.Ab. 
 
 vdg-bhyas. 
 
 -- 
 
 vde-i-bus. 
 
 G. 
 
 
 vdk'-dm. 
 
 bTT-uiv. 
 
 voc-um. 
 
 L. (Or. 
 
 D.) 
 
 vdk-shu. 
 
 6lT-<Ti 
 
 _ 
 
 Dual. N. A. V. 
 
 vdk'-du.. 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 M 
 
 
 Ved. vdk'-d. 
 
 07r-£. 
 
 
 
 (Gr.G.D.)}*"*^"*^^"^ 
 G. L. vdk'-ds. 
 
 oir-o-lv. 
 
 II. — I. E. bharant- (m., f., n.),&c. 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 
 Gr. 
 
 
 L. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 bharant- (m., n.) 
 
 (pepovT- (m.j 
 
 ,n.) 
 
 fermt- {ferent-i.) 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 (m., f., n.) 
 
 Sing. N. V. 
 
 bharan (m.) 
 
 
 <pkpu)v (m.) 
 
 
 f evens (m., f., n.) 
 
 
 bharat (n.) 
 
 
 <t>spov (n.) 
 
 
 — 
 
 A. 
 
 bharant-am (m 
 
 •) 
 
 (pepovr-a (m 
 
 .) 
 
 ferent-em (m., f.) 
 
 u 
 
 bharat (n.) 
 
 
 ipepov (n.) 
 
 
 ferens (n.) 
 
 I. 
 
 bharat-d. 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 D. 
 
 bharat-e. 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 ferent-i. 
 
 Ab. 
 
 bharat-as. 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 ferent-eid). 
 
 G. 
 
 bharat-as. 
 
 
 tpkpOVT-OQ. 
 
 
 f event- is. 
 
 L. (Gr. D.) 
 
 bharat-i. 
 
 
 <pkpovT-u 
 
 
 — 
 
 * Consult Bopp's "Comparative Grammar," vol. i., pp. 449-519; and 
 Scbleicher's " Compendium," &c., pp. 624-623. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 289 
 
 Plur. N. V. 
 
 Skr. 
 
 bharant-as (m.) 
 bharant-i (n.) 
 
 Gr. 
 
 <pkpOVT-EQ (m.) 
 
 (pkpovr-a (n.) 
 
 L. 
 
 ferent-es (m., f.) 
 ferent-i-a (n.) 
 
 A. 
 
 »» 
 I. 
 
 bharat-as (m.) 
 bharant-i (n.) 
 bharad-bhis. 
 
 ^epovT-ag (m.) 
 ^kpovT-a (n.) 
 
 ferent-es (m., f.) 
 ferent-i-a (n.) 
 
 D.Ab. 
 
 bharad-bhyas. 
 
 — 
 
 ferent-i-bus. 
 
 G. 
 
 L. (Gr. D 
 Dual. N. A. V. 
 
 bharat-um. 
 .) bharat-su. 
 
 bharant-uu (m.) 
 
 (pSpOVT-UIV. 
 
 ^kpov-at. 
 
 ferent-i-um. 
 
 »> 
 
 Ved. bharant-u (m.) 
 
 (pkpOVT-i. 
 
 — 
 
 ,, 
 
 bharant-i (n.) 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 bharat-i (n.) 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 I. D. Ab. 
 (Gr. D. G. 
 
 bharad-bhydm. 
 
 ^6poi/r-o-tv. 
 
 — 
 
 G.L. 
 
 bharat-6s. 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 III. a. — I. E., manas- (n.), durmanas- (n.), &c. 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 manas- (n.) 
 
 IJ.6V6Q- (U.) 
 
 genes-. 
 
 >i 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 (yener-i-) (n.) 
 
 Sing. N. A. V. 
 
 manas. 
 
 fisvog. 
 
 genus. 
 
 I. 
 
 manas-u. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 >> 
 
 — 
 
 Krpar£(T-0i. 
 
 — 
 
 D. 
 
 manas-e. 
 
 — 
 
 gener-i. 
 
 Ab. 
 
 manas-as. 
 
 — 
 
 yener-e{d.) 
 
 G. 
 
 manas-as. 
 
 ^'hvovg {-vea-og.) 
 
 gener-is. 
 
 L. (Gr. D.) 
 
 manas.i. 
 
 {.dvti (-via-i.) 
 
 — 
 
 Plur. N. A. V. 
 
 manuns-i. 
 
 n'svr] {-vea-a.) 
 
 yener-a. 
 
 I. 
 
 mano-bhis. 
 
 oXto-(f)i. 
 
 — 
 
 D.Ab. 
 
 mano-bhyas. 
 
 — 
 
 gener-i-bus. 
 
 G. 
 
 manas-Am. 
 
 fxtvuiv (-vsa-(tjv.) 
 
 gener-um. 
 
 L. (Gr. D.) 
 
 manas-su. 
 
 ^ivta-(Ji. 
 
 — 
 
 »? 
 
 — 
 
 nkvt-ai. 
 
 — 
 
 Dual. N. A. V. 
 
 manas-t. 
 
 flSVTl ( -V£(J-e.) 
 
 — 
 
 I. D. Ab. \ 
 (Gr.D. G.)t 
 
 mano-bhy&m. 
 
 fitvolv (-vi<r-o-iv.) 
 
 — 
 
 G.L. 
 
 manas-6s. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
290 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 III. h, — I. E., dmmanaS' (m., f.), &c. 
 
 L. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 durmanas- (m., f.) 
 
 dvfffiBvfQ- (m., f.) 
 
 vetes- 
 
 » 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 (veter-i-) (m.,f.,n.) 
 
 )) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 arbos- 
 
 » 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 {arbor-i-) (f.) 
 
 Sing. N. V. 
 
 durman&s. 
 
 Svfffievi'iQ. 
 
 vetus Cm., f., n.) 
 
 j> 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 arbos (f.) 
 
 A. 
 
 durmanas-am. 
 
 dvafitvfj {-veff-a). 
 
 arbor-em. 
 
 I. 
 
 durmanas-d. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 durmanas-e. 
 
 — 
 
 arbor-i. 
 
 Ab. 
 
 durmanas-as. 
 
 — 
 
 arbor-e (d). 
 
 G. 
 
 durmanas-as. 
 
 dvofitvovg (-vt(T-og'), 
 
 , arbor-is. 
 
 L. (Gr. D.) 
 
 durmanas-i. 
 
 dvtTfxevsi {-V6<r-i). 
 
 — 
 
 Plur. N. V. 
 
 durmanas-as. 
 
 SvafiBvuQ (-vea-sg). 
 
 arhor-es. 
 
 A. 
 
 durmanas-as. 
 
 Svafieveig {-veff-ag). 
 
 arbor-es. 
 
 I. 
 
 durmano-bhis. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 D.Ab. 
 
 durmano-bhyas. 
 
 — 
 
 arbor-i-bu8. 
 
 G. 
 
 durmanas-dm. 
 
 dvfffievbjv {-vta-iav). 
 
 arbor-um. 
 
 L. (Gr. D.) 
 
 durmanas-su. 
 
 dv(Tjj.evs(T-ai. 
 
 — 
 
 Dual. N. A.V. 
 
 durmanas-du. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 J) 
 
 durmanas-d. 
 
 dvofievfj (-v6<T-e). 
 
 — 
 
 I. D.Ab. ] 
 
 durmano-bhydm. 
 
 
 
 (Gr.G. D.): 
 
 SvcTfxevoXv (-vf(T-o-tv). — 
 
 G. L. 
 
 durmanas-6s. 
 
 
 
 
 
 IV. a. — I. E. ahman- (m.), &c. 
 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 
 asman- (m.) 
 
 » 
 
 
 — 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 
 as'md. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 as'mdn-am. 
 
 I. 
 
 
 as'rmn-d. 
 
 D. 
 
 
 as'man-e. 
 
 Ab. 
 
 
 asman-as. 
 
 G. 
 
 
 as'man-as. 
 
 L. (Gr. 
 
 D.) 
 
 as'man-i. 
 
 V. 
 
 
 as'man. 
 
 Plur. N. V. 
 
 
 as'mdn-as. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 as'ma/n-as. 
 
 D. 
 
 I. 
 
 as'ma-bhis. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 
 L. 
 
 daifiov- (m 
 
 .) 
 
 homin-. 
 
 — 
 
 
 (homin-i) (m.) 
 
 daificjv. 
 
 
 homo. 
 
 daifiov-a. 
 
 
 homin-em. 
 
 
 
 
 homin-l. 
 
 — 
 
 
 homin-e (d). 
 
 Saifiov-OQ. 
 
 
 homin-is. 
 
 daifiov-i. 
 
 
 — 
 
 Sal/xov. 
 
 
 homo. 
 
 daifiov-eg. 
 
 
 homin-es. 
 
 Saifiov-ag. 
 
 
 homin-es. 
 
 KorvXriSov- 
 
 6-^iv. 
 
 — 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 291 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 D. Ab. 
 
 as'ma-bhyas. 
 
 — 
 
 homin-i-bus. 
 
 G. 
 
 as man-am. 
 
 Saipiov-Mv. 
 
 homin-um. 
 
 L. (Gr. D.) 
 
 as'ma-su. 
 
 daifio-ai. 
 
 — 
 
 1. N. A. V. 
 
 as'man-uu. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 »» 
 
 Ved. as'man-d. 
 
 Saiixov-i. 
 
 — 
 
 I. D. Ab. 
 (Gr. D. Go) 
 
 ^ as'ma-hhyAm. 
 
 datiiop-o-iv. 
 
 — 
 
 G.L. 
 
 as' man-OS. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 IV. h. — 1.^. gndman- (n.), &c. 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 numan- (n.) 
 
 ToKav- (n.) 
 
 nomen- 
 
 ,, 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 (nomin-i-) (n.) 
 
 Sing. N. A. 
 
 nama. 
 
 ToKav. 
 
 nomen. 
 
 I. 
 
 ndmn-d. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 D. 
 
 ndmn-e. 
 
 — 
 
 nomin-i. 
 
 Ab. 
 
 ndmn-as. 
 
 ^ 
 
 nomin-e (d). 
 
 G. 
 
 ndmn-as. 
 
 ra\av~oq. 
 
 nomin-is. 
 
 L.(Gr. D.) 
 
 ndmu'i. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5> 
 
 numan-i. 
 
 Ta\av-i. 
 
 — 
 
 V. 
 
 ndman. 
 
 ToXav. 
 
 nomen. 
 
 i> 
 
 ndma 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Plur.N.A.V. 
 
 ndmdn-i. 
 
 ToKav-a. 
 
 nomin-a. 
 
 I. 
 
 ndma-bhis. 
 
 — 
 
 — . 
 
 D.Ab. 
 
 ndma-bhyas. 
 
 — 
 
 nomin-i-bus. 
 
 G. 
 
 ndmn-dm. 
 
 ToXav-iiiV. 
 
 nomin-um. 
 
 L.(Gr.D.) 
 
 ndma-su. 
 
 Td\a-<Ti. 
 
 
 
 Dual. N. A. V. 
 
 ndmn-i. 
 
 rdXav-e. 
 
 
 
 I. D. Ab. 
 Gr. G. D. 
 
 \ ndma-bhydm. 
 
 raXdv-o-iv. 
 
 — 
 
 G. L. 
 
 ndmn-os. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Y. a. — I. E. mdtar- (£), patar- (m.), &c. 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 mdtar- (f.) 
 
 UriTip- (f.) 
 
 mdter- 
 
 ?> 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 (matr-i) (f.) 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 mutd. 
 
 nvmp. 
 
 mater. 
 
 A. 
 
 mdtar-am. 
 
 fiijTep-a. 
 
 matr-em. 
 
 I. 
 
 mdtr-d. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 D. 
 
 mdtr-e. 
 
 
 
 matr-i. 
 
 u2 
 
292 
 
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 Sing. Ab. 
 
 
 mdtu-s. 
 
 — 
 
 mdtr-e (d). 
 
 G. 
 
 
 mdtu-s. 
 
 Unrp-or. 
 
 mdtr-is. 
 
 )) 
 
 
 — 
 
 IxrjTEp-og. 
 
 — 
 
 L. (Gr. 
 
 D.) 
 
 ntdtar-i. 
 
 /iJ/T6|0-l. 
 
 — 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 — 
 
 jwi/rp-t. 
 
 — 
 
 V. 
 
 
 mdtar. 
 
 finrep. 
 
 mditer. 
 
 Plur. N.V. 
 
 
 m&tar-as. 
 
 firiTsp-tg. 
 
 mdtr-es. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 mdtr-s (f.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 » 
 
 
 pitr-n (m.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 >» 
 
 
 Ved. pitar-as. 
 
 Hr}Tfp-aQ. 
 
 matr-es. 
 
 I. 
 
 
 mdtr-hhis. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 D.Ab. 
 
 mdtr-bhyas. 
 
 — 
 
 mdtr-i-hus. 
 
 G. 
 
 
 mdtr-n-dm. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 >» 
 
 
 Ved. svasr-dm. 
 
 firirkp-utv. 
 
 mdtr-um. 
 
 L. (Gr. 
 
 D.) 
 
 m&ir-shu. 
 
 fiijTpa-ai. 
 
 — 
 
 Dual. N. A. 
 
 V. 
 
 mdtar-du. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Ved. mdtar-d. 
 
 UriTfp-t. 
 
 — 
 
 I. D.Ab. 
 (Gr. G. D.) 
 
 \ mdtr-bhydm. 
 
 firjTtp-o-iv. 
 
 — 
 
 G 
 
 . L. 
 
 mdtr-os. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 V. b.—l. E. ddtdr- (m.), &c. 
 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 Stem'. 
 
 
 ddtdr- (m.) 
 
 Sorrip- (m.) 
 
 datdr-. 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 (dator-i-) (m.) 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 
 ddtd. 
 
 COTtJp. 
 
 dator. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 dutdr-am. 
 
 dorrjp-a. 
 
 dator-em. 
 
 I. 
 
 
 ddtr-d. 
 
 — - 
 
 — 
 
 D. 
 
 
 ddtr-L 
 
 — 
 
 dator-l. 
 
 Ab. 
 
 
 ddtu-s. 
 
 — 
 
 dator-e {d). 
 
 G. 
 
 
 ddtU'S. 
 
 S0Tfjp-0£. 
 
 dator-is. 
 
 L. (Gr. 
 
 D.) 
 
 ddtar-i. 
 
 SoTtjp-l. 
 
 — 
 
 V. 
 
 
 ddtar. 
 
 SoTTJp. 
 
 dator. 
 
 • Plur. N.V. 
 
 
 ddtdr-as. 
 
 Sornp-eg. 
 
 dator-es. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 ddt^-n. 
 
 SoTrjp-ag. 
 
 dator-es. 
 
 I. 
 
 
 ddtr-bhis. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 D. 
 
 Ab. 
 
 ddtr-bhyas. 
 
 — 
 
 dator-i-bus. 
 
 G. 
 
 
 ddtr-n-dm. 
 
 doTrjp-u)v. 
 
 dator-um. 
 
 L. (Gr. 
 
 D.) 
 
 ddtr-shu. 
 
 Soriip-ai. 
 
 — 
 
 Dual. N. A. 
 
 V. 
 
 ddtdr-au. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 t> 
 
 
 Ved. ddtdr 'd. 
 
 lornp-t. 
 
 — 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 293 
 
 Skr. Gr. 
 
 /q T) q\\ datr-bhyain. Sorrjp-u-w 
 
 G. L. dutr-ds. — 
 
 VI. a. — I. E. akva- (m.), yuga- (n.) 
 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 • Stem. 
 
 
 «.«'t;a- (m.) 
 
 tTTTTO- (m.) 
 
 equo- (m.) 
 
 '5 
 
 
 yuya- (n.) 
 
 ^uyo- (n.) 
 
 >^o- (n.) 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 
 flsW-s (m.) 
 
 iTTTTO-g (m.) 
 
 ejMt<-« (m.) 
 
 „ 
 
 
 yuga-m (n.) 
 
 ^wyo-v (n.) 
 
 jugu-m (n.) 
 
 A. 
 
 
 as'va-m (m.) 
 
 "iTCKO-V (m.) 
 
 ^j^MM-m (m.) 
 
 >» 
 
 
 yuga-m (n.) 
 
 ^W7<5-v (n.) 
 
 jugu-m (n.) 
 
 I. 
 
 
 ««'ue-w«. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 >» 
 
 
 Ved. a/r^. 
 
 airr6-0i. 
 
 — 
 
 D. 
 
 Ab. 
 
 
 
 tTTTTt^. 
 
 c^Mot, equo. 
 equd-d. 
 
 G. 
 
 
 as'va-sya. 
 
 tTTTTO-lO (-0-(Tyo). 
 
 equl. 
 
 >» 
 
 
 — 
 
 tTTTTOy. 
 
 — 
 
 L. 
 
 
 as've. 
 
 OIKO-t, /iO-t. 
 
 ffOMJ. 
 
 V. 
 PI. N.V. 
 
 
 as'va. 
 as'vd-s (m.) 
 
 tTTTTC, ^Uyor. 
 tTTTTO-l (m.) 
 
 eque,jugum. 
 eque-i, equl (m. 
 
 5> 
 
 
 Ved. as'vd-sas (in.) 
 
 — 
 
 eque-is. 
 
 » 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 U. Ikuvinu-8. 
 
 )> 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 0. Nuvlanii-a. 
 
 » 
 
 
 yugd-ni (n.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 M 
 
 
 Ved. 2/w^d (n.) 
 
 Ivya (n ) 
 
 juga(ji.) 
 
 A. 
 
 
 as'vd-n (m.) 
 
 'iTTTTO-Vg (m.) 
 
 equd-s. 
 
 j> 
 
 
 — 
 
 Kret. irptiyvrd-VQ. 
 
 ~. 
 
 » 
 
 
 yugd-ni (n.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 I. 
 
 
 Ved. ywyd (n.) 
 
 ^uyd (n.) 
 
 juga(n.) 
 
 >» 
 
 
 Ved. as've-bhis. 
 
 Oco-^tj/. 
 
 — 
 
 D.Ab 
 
 '• 
 
 asve-bhyas. 
 
 — 
 
 equi-Sj dud-bus. 
 
 G. 
 
 
 asvd-ndm. 
 
 'imrwv (-tto-wv). 
 
 (equu-m.) 
 
 L. (Gr. 
 
 D.) 
 
 as've-shu. 
 
 ITTTTO-t-ac. 
 
 equd-rum. 
 
 ») 
 
 
 — 
 
 iTTTro-t-e. 
 
 — 
 
 Dual. N. A. 
 
 V. 
 
 ^s'i^dw (-y«-flM) (m.) 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 »> 
 
 
 Ved. as'vd (m.) 
 
 tTTTTW (m.) 
 
 duo (m., n.) 
 
 
 
 yw^e (n.) 
 
 ^uyw (n.) 
 
 — 
 
 I. D. Ab. 
 (Gr.G.D.) 
 
 as'vd-hhydm. 
 
 ITTTTO-tV. 
 
 — 
 
 L. 
 
 G. 
 
 as'va-y-os. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
294 
 
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 yi. b.— I. E. ahvd (f.), &c. 
 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 
 as'vu' (f.) 
 
 X^pa- C^O 
 
 «<?w«- (f.) 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 
 asvci. 
 
 Xwpa. 
 
 equa. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 asvu-m. 
 
 Xtipa-J'. 
 
 equa-m. 
 
 I. 
 
 
 as'va-y-d,. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 )? 
 
 
 Ved. asvd. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 j» 
 
 
 — 
 
 /3ij?-^t. 
 
 — 
 
 D. 
 
 
 as'va-y-ai. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 )> 
 
 
 Yed. as'vd-i {-va- 
 
 ■««'■) X*^P? (-pa-ai) 
 
 equa-i (^-va-ai) 
 
 Ab. 
 
 
 as'va-y-ds. 
 
 — 
 
 equae. 
 praeda-d. 
 0. tovta-d. 
 
 G. 
 
 
 as'vd-yds. 
 
 x'^pfl-f- 
 
 familia-s. 
 Frosepna-is. 
 
 
 
 _" 
 
 — 
 
 , Liana-es. 
 
 J) 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 equa-i, equae. 
 
 L.(Gr. D.) 
 
 as'vd-y-dm. 
 
 "j^^aiia-i. 
 
 Eomae. 
 0. via-i. 
 
 V. 
 
 
 as'vL 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 jj 
 
 
 Ved. asVa. 
 
 X^pa. 
 
 equa. 
 
 Pl.N.Y. 
 
 
 as'vd-s. 
 
 X&pai. 
 
 equal, equae. 
 0. scrifta-s. 
 
 }) 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 U. urta-8. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 as'vd-s. 
 
 Xi>pa-Q' 
 
 equa-s, O.vta-ss 
 
 I. 
 
 
 as'vd-bhis. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 D. 
 
 Ab. 
 
 as'vd-bhyas. 
 
 I 
 
 equa-bus, equi-s. 
 0. diumpa-is. 
 
 G. 
 
 
 as'vd-n-dm. 
 
 j^u}pd-(ijv. 
 
 equa-rum. 
 
 11 
 
 
 Ved. as'vct-m. 
 
 ■^wpibv. 
 
 — 
 
 L. (Gr.D.) 
 
 as'td-su. 
 
 Xb>pa-i-(Ji. 
 
 — 
 
 
 >> 
 
 — 
 
 Xwpa-i-j;. 
 
 — 
 
 Dual. N. 
 
 A.V. 
 
 as've. 
 
 Xwpo. 
 
 .— 
 
 I. D, 
 
 (Gr. 
 
 . Ab. 
 G.D.) 
 
 i as'vd-bhydm. 
 
 XWpa-tv. 
 
 — 
 
 
 G.L. 
 
 aa'vd-y-os. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 295 
 
 VII.— I. E. am- (m., f.), &c. 
 
 Skr. Gr. L. 
 
 Stem. avi- (m., f.) ttoXc- (f.), ki- (m.) ovi- {i.\fasci (m.) 
 
 5' *'«»*^- (n.) — m«n- (n.) 
 
 smA;V- (m., f., n.)* idpi- (m., f., n.) levi (m., f., n.) 
 
 Sing. N. r^«7j-5 (m., f.) ttoXi-q (f.) ovi-s (f.) 
 
 „ vdri (n.) f^pt (n.) niare (n.) 
 
 A. am'-m (m., f.) 7r6\i-v (f.) oe;«.;w (f.) 
 
 M ^«^'*- l;^/ot(ii.) w»rg(n.) 
 
 I. avi-n-d (m.) — 
 
 „ avy-d{t) _ _ 
 
 „ vdri'n-d(n.) — 
 
 D. avai/-e (m., f.) — 
 
 „ avy.di{i.) _ om. 
 
 ,, vdri-n-e (m.) — 
 
 Ab. fl!«;^-« (m., f.) _ ove-d, marl-d. 
 
 „ avy-ds (f.) — 
 
 „ vdri-n-as (n.) — 
 
 Cr. ave-s (m., f.) 7r6X«-wf. ove-5, 
 
 5 J avy-ds (f.) Horn. TroAj^-of. — 
 
 ,, vdri-n-as (n.) 7r6\t-Of. — 
 
 L. (Gr. D.) ay-dw (m., f.) TroXt-t. 
 
 „ avy'dm (f.) ttoXei, ttoXZ. — 
 
 ,, vdri-n-i (n.) Horn. TroXj^-t. — 
 
 V. «^e (m., f.) TToXi (f.) oui-s (f.; 
 
 jj vdri (n.), mre (n.) i5pi (n.) mare (n.) " 
 
 n. N. y. avay-as (m., f.) Horn. iroXri-tQ (f.) owe-s (f.) 
 
 ,, — -koXl-iq (f.) — 
 
 „ TToXll-Q (f.) — 
 
 „ vdri-n-i. Idpi-a (n.) J mari-a (n.) 
 
 A. a^;^'-w (m.) iroXi-ag (f.) ow-« (f.) 
 
 ,, avi-s (f.) TToXti-f (f.) — 
 
 M — Horn. 7r6Xjy-ac(f.) — 
 
 ,, vdri-n-i. Upi-a. mari-a {rx.) 
 
 I. avi-bhis. — — 
 
 D. Ab. avi-bhyas. — ovi-bus. 
 
 G. av«-w-aw. tidXI-ojik ovi-um. 
 
 J, — TToXe-wv. — 
 
 * Neuter adjectives in -i in Sanskrit in the D. Ab. G. and L. sing., and in 
 the G. and L. dual may follow the declension either of vdri (u.), or of avi (m.). 
 
296 
 
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. (Gr. D.) avi-sku. 
 
 ■jToXi-tri. 
 
 >> 
 
 TToXs-cn. 
 
 »» 
 
 Horn. iroXi'toai. 
 
 Dual. N. A. V. ml (m., f.) 
 
 TToXi-e. 
 
 „ vdri-n-i (n.) 
 
 TToXe-i. 
 
 LD.Ab. \ .,, ^ 
 (Gr.D.GOr"-'^^'"- 
 
 iroX's-o-iv. 
 
 G. L. avy-os. 
 
 — 
 
 „ vdri-n-6s. 
 
 — 
 
 VIIL— I. E. sunu- (m.), &c. 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 item. 
 
 sunti- (m.) 
 
 V6KV- (m.) 
 
 fructu- (m.) 
 
 
 e^Aeww- (f.) 
 
 <Tt;-(f.) 
 
 manu- (f.) 
 
 
 <<i^M- (n.) 
 
 /it0w- (n.) 
 
 cornu- (n.) 
 
 
 mrdu- (m., n.)* 
 
 yXvKU- (m., n.) 
 
 — 
 
 N. 
 
 sunu-s (m. 
 
 vfKu-g (m.) 
 
 fructu-s (m.) 
 
 »» 
 
 ^(i^w (n.) 
 
 fjisOv (n.) 
 
 cornu- (n.) 
 
 A. 
 
 sunu-m (m.) 
 
 i/eKu-v (m.) 
 
 fructu-m (m.) 
 
 j» 
 
 ^<2^M (n.) 
 
 /itE6^y (n.) 
 
 comw (n.) 
 
 I. 
 
 SMWM-w-a (m.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 »» 
 
 <?Aew«;-a (f.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 j» 
 
 tdlit-n-d (n.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 D. 
 
 sunav-e (in.) 
 
 — 
 
 fructu-i. 
 
 >> 
 
 ^A^w«u-e (f.) 
 
 — 
 
 fructu. 
 
 )> 
 
 dhem-di (f.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 >> ■ 
 
 tdlu-n-e (n.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Ab. 
 
 SMWO-5 (m.) 
 
 — 
 
 magistratu-d. 
 
 5> 
 
 a^w^-s (f.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 )> 
 
 dhenv-ds (f.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 » 
 
 tdlu-n-as (n,) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 G. 
 
 SMWo-s (m.) 
 
 VEKV-og. 
 
 fructu-os. 
 
 » 
 
 ^A^w^-» (f.) 
 
 yXvKS-og. 
 
 fructu-s. 
 
 »» 
 
 dhenv-ds (f.) 
 
 a(TTs-u)g (n.) 
 
 0. castrou-s{n.) 
 
 n 
 
 tdlti-n-as (n.) 
 
 — 
 
 U. fn/o-n 
 
 :.. (Gr. 
 
 D.) SMW-^e< (m.) 
 
 VEKV-l. 
 
 — 
 
 »» 
 
 «?Aew-aM (f.) 
 
 darti' 
 
 — 
 
 » 
 
 dhenv-dm (f.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 * Neuter adjectives in -« in Sanskrit in the D. Ab. G. and L. sing., and in 
 the G. and L. dual may follow the declension either of tCilu (n.), or sunu (m.). 
 

 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. (Gr. D.) 
 
 idlu-n-i (n.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 V. 
 
 suno (m.) 
 
 VSKM. 
 
 fructu-s (m.) 
 
 5J 
 
 (fA^WO (f.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 >» 
 
 tdlo (n.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ,, 
 
 <d^«^ (n.) 
 
 /t60V. 
 
 comM (n.) 
 
 .V. 
 
 sunav-as (m.) 
 
 'y\wic£tj:(-icfF-6g)(in 
 
 O/j'wt'^w-sCm.) 
 
 n 
 
 dhenav-as (f.) 
 
 iyxhXiiQ (f.) 
 
 — 
 
 >» 
 
 ^a^M-w-i 
 
 yXuKS-a (n.) 
 
 cornu-a (n.) 
 
 )t 
 
 — 
 
 aoT?7 (-rfF-a) (n.) 
 
 — 
 
 , A. 
 
 sunu-n (m.) 
 
 vfKy-a^. 
 
 fructu-s (m.) 
 
 5> 
 
 Ved.«MWV-as (m.) 
 
 yXvKEtt; (-KiF-aff). 
 
 — 
 
 „ 
 
 dhenu-s (f.) 
 
 ^rx^x^c (fO 
 
 — 
 
 ?> 
 
 tdlu-n-i (n.) 
 
 yXvKfi-a (n.) 
 
 cornu-a (n.) 
 
 >» 
 
 — 
 
 d(rr?7 (n.) 
 
 — 
 
 I. 
 
 «MWW-Mw. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 D.Ab. 
 
 «ii/^^^iAya5. 
 
 — 
 
 fructi-bu8. 
 
 j> 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 portu-hus. 
 
 G. 
 
 «unu-72-^m. 
 
 VlKV-UiV. 
 
 fructu-um. 
 
 297 
 
 L. (Gr. D.) sunu-ahu. 
 
 I. N. 
 
 A.V. 
 
 stinu (m.) 
 rf/i^w^i (f.) 
 tdlu-n-t 
 
 I. D 
 (Gr. 
 
 . Ab. 
 D.G.) 
 
 sunu-bhyA 
 
 
 G. L. 
 
 sunv-6s. 
 
 yXvics-iov- 
 
 vsKV-eaai. 
 
 vkKV-aai. 
 
 vsKv-ai. 
 
 yXwKe-fft. 
 
 VEKV-e. 
 
 yXvKf-e. 
 yXvKt-o-iv. 
 
 IX. — I. E. ndu- (f.), gvau' (m., f.), &c. 
 
 Skr. Gr. L. 
 
 Stem. ndu- (f.) vdu- (f.), Ion. vtv- nav-i-* (f.) 
 
 „ ^0- (m., f.) /Sow- (m., f.) bo- (bov-), bov-i- 
 
 (m. f.) 
 
 * There were no diphthongal stems in Old Latin ; diphthongs were avoided 
 either by the addition of t, as in nav-i, or by dropping the second vowel, as in bo-. 
 Greek diphthongal stems, such as 'Ax'XXeyf, &c., when introduced into Latin 
 became, in early times, Aciles, &c. ; while in later times either the Greek de- 
 
298 
 
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 L. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 N. 
 
 «dM-s, ^raef-s. 
 
 vav-Q, j3ov-g. 
 
 navi-s, bo-s, bov-i-s. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Ma«;-am. 
 
 vij-a, vav-v, v't-a. 
 
 nave-m. 
 
 
 »i 
 
 ga-m. 
 
 /3ou-v. 
 
 bove-m. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 ndv-d, gav-d. 
 
 vav-(pi. 
 
 — 
 
 
 D. 
 
 ndv-e, gav-e. 
 
 — 
 
 navi, bovl. 
 
 
 Ab. 
 
 ndv-as, go-s. 
 
 — 
 
 nave-(d),bove(d). 
 
 
 G. 
 
 ndv-as. 
 
 vri-oQ, ve-iog, ve-oe. 
 
 navi-s. 
 
 
 » 
 
 go-s. 
 
 ^o-6g. 
 
 bovi-s. 
 
 
 L. Gr. D. 
 
 ndv-i, gav-i. 
 
 vij-t, ve-U fio-t. 
 
 — 
 
 
 V. 
 
 ndu-s, gdtc-s. 
 
 vav, ^ov. 
 
 navi-s, bovi-s. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N.V. 
 
 ndv-as, gdv-as. 
 
 vfj-tg, v£-eg, (36-eg. 
 
 nave-s, bove-s. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 ndv-as. 
 
 vri-ag,vav-g, vk-ac. 
 
 nave-s. 
 
 
 » 
 
 gdv-as, gd-s. 
 
 (56.ag, (3ov-g. 
 
 bove-s. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 ndu-bhis, go-bhis. 
 
 vav-cptv. 
 
 — 
 
 
 D.Ab. 
 
 ndu-bhyas. 
 
 — 
 
 navi-bm. 
 
 
 >> 
 
 go-bhyas. 
 
 — 
 
 bo-bus, bu-bus. 
 
 
 G. 
 
 ndv-dm. 
 
 vr]'G)V, vi-Stv. 
 
 navi-um. 
 
 
 3> 
 
 gav'dm. 
 
 (30'UJV. 
 
 bo-um. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 L. 
 
 ndu-shu. 
 
 vif-t-aai^ vtiv-ai. 
 
 — 
 
 
 j> 
 
 — 
 
 vav-ffi, vs-e-aai. 
 
 — 
 
 
 ?> 
 
 go-shu. 
 
 (36-e-a(Ti, fSov-ci. 
 
 — 
 
 Dual. N. A. V. ndv-du, gdv-du. 
 ndv-d, gdv-d. 
 
 I. D. Ab. I ndu-bhydm. 
 
 (Gr. D. G.) 1 go-bhydnYu 
 
 G. L. ndv-6s, gav-6s. 
 
 j/ij-e, /36-t. 
 Bo-o-7v. 
 
 clension was followed, or the diphthong was resolved into its two constituent 
 elements, and the word passed over to the o- declension ; thus we find N. Aehille- 
 us, Orphe-us, &c. ; G. AchiUe-'i, Orphe-'i, Ulixe-'i, &c. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 299 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 adjectives.* 
 
 §. 152. The Comparative Degree. 
 
 The stem of the comparative degree was formed in Indo- 
 European either by the addition of -yant (= yan-td)^ or by 
 that of -tara to the stem of the positive. Yant and tara may 
 be derived either from verbal or from pronominal roots. 
 Those writers who connect them with verbal roots derive 
 -yant from I. E. root ya (to go), whence come Skr. yd (id.), 
 Gr. li'vai^ &c. ; and -tara, from I. E. root tar (to cross over) ; 
 whence come Ved. tira^ (across), Z. taro (id.), Kelt, tair (id.), 
 L, trans, Goth, thair-h, E. through. These roots signify a 'pro- 
 gression, and consequently their addition to the positive 
 heightens the idea implied by it. It is, however, better to 
 derive these suffixes from pronominal roots, and to connect 
 -yant with the common suffixes -ant, -m-ant, -v-ant, and to re- 
 solve -tara into the elements ta and ra — the latter of which 
 by itself sometimes expresses the idea of the comparative, as 
 in Skr. avara (posterior), apara (id.), Goth, afar, G. aher, L. 
 sup-er-us, &c. As regards the relative age of these suffixes, 
 it is probable that -yant is the older of the two, for it is a pri- 
 mary suffix, i. e. it must be attached immediately to the root, 
 whereas -tara is a secondary suffix, and consequently must be 
 of later introduction than those primary suffixes to which it is 
 attached. We find, however, traces of -tara being used as a 
 primary suffix in Skr. antara (interior, other), antar (within), 
 L. mter, Goth, anthar (other), E. other, all from pronominal 
 root an, Gr. (jtiX-repog, &c. 
 
 * The declension of the adjectives has been already noticed in Chap- 
 ter VIII., and consequently we have here only to do with the degrees of 
 comparison. 
 
300 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 §. 153. The Sanskrit Comparative. 
 
 I. The form in -ydnsand -lydns. We find -yam (f. -yasi, 
 n., -yas) in Ved. nav-ydiis, from nava (new), Skr. sthe-ydns, 
 from sthira (firm) ; spM-ydns^ from sphira (swollen) ; s're-ydns, 
 from srila (lucky) ; prS-ydhs^ from priya (dear) ; g'yd-ydhs, 
 from R. g'yd (to grow old, overpower), the positive of which is 
 not found, but which is supposed by Bopp to have been g'yd-yin, 
 formed from g'yd, as yd-yin (going), from yd ; bhu-ydns, from 
 bhuri (much), according to Bopp, or from bahu (much), accord- 
 ing to Benfey . In stheydns, spheydns, s'reydhs, and pr^ydns the i 
 of the positive is gunated ; but we may also explain the e in the 
 first two of these forms by adding -iydns to what were probably 
 the original forms of their positives (omitting the ending -ra) 
 sthara (from R. sthd = L. sta), and sphara (from R. sphd-y, 
 c. f. Gr. <T0atpa = acpapya) : this latter explanation is, how- 
 ever, more improbable than the preceding one, for the stem- 
 vowel of the positive, if it be i or u, is gunated when final -ra 
 is lost, as we shall see further on ; and it is also possible that 
 the form -lydm had not been developed from -ydks before 
 sphara and sthara had become sphira and sthira. The form 
 -Iydns arose from -ydhs through the influence of y, which has a 
 tendency to generate i before it, as in the Pali nadiyd = Skr. 
 nadyd, Instr. of nadi. That -ydns is older than -iyans appears 
 at once from the cognate languages ; thus, beside Skr. mah- 
 lydhs, from Ved. maha (great), we find Z. mas-yas, Gr. 
 jiieiZov = jUEy-yov, L. major = mag-yor, from L E. magh (to be 
 mighty) ; beside Skr. ds'-tydns, from ds^u (swift), we find Z. 
 ds'-yas, Gr. wklov = <x)k-i/ov, L. oc-ior. Before -iydns the final 
 vowel of the positive stem is suppressed, and the vowel of its 
 first syllable, if susceptible of gunation, receives it, except 
 this vowel be r, which becomes ra, or a, which is unaltered. 
 Thus we have alp-iydhs, from alpa (small), pdp-iydns (= Gr. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 301 
 
 KOK-tov), from |?apa (bad), var-iydhs (= Gr. ape-iov), from, vara 
 (good), &c. ; sddh-iydns, from sddhu (good), lagh-iydns 
 (= Gr. Wa<j(Tov = Wax-yov), from laghu (light), gar-iydns 
 (= Gr. fiap'LOv), mrad-iydn's (=Gr. j3/)aS-tov), from mr<iw (soft), 
 prath-iydris^ from prthu (= Gr. TrXaru), &c. ; -ra is lost in 
 kshSp-iydhs, from kshipra (swift), &c. ; as in Gr. al<rx'iov, from 
 aiaxQo^ &c. ; -Za is lost in s'Te-ydits^ from s'ri-la (lucky) ; -ya 
 is lost in pre-ydns, from /jnya (dear) ; adjectives in -mant, 
 -vantf -vin, and -tdr lose these suffixes before -lydns. 
 
 11. The form in -tar a. This suffix is attached immediately 
 to the positive stem, as in punya-tara^ from punya (pure), 
 bali'tara, from balin (strong), final n being lost, beside Ved. 
 supathin-tara. In words with two stems -tara is attached to 
 the weak form, and in words with three, to the intermediate 
 one, as mahat-tara, from mahat, the weak form o£ mahdyit 
 (strong), and vidvat-tara, from vidvat, the intermediate form 
 of vidvdns (Gr. ei^or), beside Yed» vidush-tara, from the weak- 
 est form of vidvdns, &c. In the pronoun we find this suffix 
 constantly employed, as in ka-tara (uter), from ka (= I.E. kva, 
 L. qui-s), ya-tara (uter), from ya (= Gr. 6-), i-tara, from i 
 (= L. is, whence i-terum = Ved. i-taram), eka-tara (one of 
 two), from Ska (one), &c. From the preposition ut (up) is 
 formed ut-tara (higher) = Gr. xxj-Tigo. 
 
 §.154. The Greek Comparative. 
 
 I. The form in -Lov. In adding this termination to the 
 stem of the positive final, o, v and po are omitted, as in (^ik-iov, 
 from 0tXo, ica-K-tov, from jcajco ; o\iZ,ov = oXiy-yov, from oXtyo; 
 i^S-fov, from 7]^v ; Qaaaov = rax-yov, from raxv ; iXacraov 
 = eXax-^/ov, from skaxo > yXuic-tov, and yXvaaov {acr = ki/), 
 from yXu/cu, j3joa8-tov and jSpatTtroy ((tct = Sy), from /jpa^u ; 
 irax-iov and Traatrov ((T(t = xy), from Trax^ ; juaaerov = [jiaK-yov, 
 from fiaK-po ; aiffx-tov, from ai(Tx-po, &c. 
 
 II. The form in -Tspo. In adding this termination to the 
 
302 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 stem of the positive, the stem- vowel is generally retained, 
 -repo being a secondary suffix, as in ^tXw-re/oo, from cjuXo (the 
 stem-vowel here being lengthened as the penult is short), 
 Kov^o-repo, from kov(1)o ; yXvKV-rspo, from yXvKv ; \apu(T-TEpo, 
 from x«P<«^) ^^^ weak form of x^pi^vT, &c. In (piX-Tspo this 
 suffix is primary, being attached directly to the root. 
 
 By adding -repo to the preceding form of the comparative 
 suffix -lov «= yan-s, we obtain the forms -ccr-repo, -ftr-repo, and 
 -at-repo;* as in a<p6ov-e(TTEpOj i'rom. acjyOovo ; XaX-icrrcpo, from 
 \a\o ; (l)LX-aiT€po, from ^tXo, &c. ; the stem- vowel being lost 
 in these cases. In -ai-repo it is possible that a may b^ong to 
 the stem, and so represent the original a from which o was 
 developed ; Benfey, however, considers -at to be an old lo- 
 cative termination, to whjch the comparative suffix was 
 attached. We find the two forms -lov and -Tspo combined 
 also in affo-o-rc/ow, from aacrov = ayx~y^^^ ^^^ ^^ *^^® Hom. 
 IwacravTepoL from the same root. The suffix -Tspo is added 
 also to prepositions, numerals, and pronouns ; as irpo-rEpo, 
 from TTpo ; Sfu-repo, from Svo ; e-Tspo, from i ; no-Tspo/* and 
 Ko-repo, from I. E. kva, &c. It is also employed in other cases 
 where only opposition in space is implied, as in de^L-repo, 
 api(T-Tepo, &c. In aWo-rpio-g we find -repo augmented by 
 the suffix -lo = I. E. -ya. 
 
 §. 155. The Latin Comparative. 
 
 I. The form in -ids (m. f. n.), later -ios (m. f.), -ius (n.). 
 The masc. -ior and the neut. -ius were both originally -ios ; 
 the neuter -ius is still found in Plautus. This suffix is both 
 primary and secondary in Latin; in adding it to vocalic 
 positive stems the stem-vowel is always lost. Thus we have 
 sapient-ior, from sap-ient; prob-ior, from proh-o ; lev-ior, from 
 lev-i = leg-u-i; major = mag- j or, ma-jus, and mag-is = mag-ius, 
 
 * From this form is probably derived the Modern Greek comparative 
 in -r)Ttpog, as KaX-rjTtpog from icaXog, KaK-rjTspog from KaKog, &C. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 303 
 
 from R. mag, whence mag-nus ; min-or = min-jor, from R. 
 min ; plus = plo-jus, from I. E. par or pra (to fill), whence 
 ple-nus, ple-rique ; Gr. irXe-cwv, &c. 
 
 II. The form in -tero. This suffix is not used in Latin to 
 form regular comparatives. It is, however, of frequent oc- 
 currence : as in dexter = Gr. Sc^^rEpo-c ; u-ter = Goth, hva-thar 
 (which of two), from I. '^.kva (who) ; neu-ter, al-ter, from the 
 same root, as Gr. aXXo-c = aX-yog, L. al-iu-s, &c. ; ce-teru-s 
 from same root as L. -ce in hi-ce, ci-s, ci-tra; Gr. t-jca, I-ku- 
 vo-q. We find -ter also employed to form prepositions : as in 
 prcB-ter, prop-ter, in-ter; and adverbs, as in sub-ter, audac-ter, 
 pari-ter, &c. It appears as -tro in ul-tro and -intro; and as 
 ~trd in ex-trd, in-trd, con-trd, &c. These forms in -trd are 
 supposed by some to be old instrumental, just as in Skr. the 
 instr. antar^T^a is used adverbially ; this view is, however, 
 wrong, for they are really old ablatives, as we see from 0. L. 
 exstrdd = extrd. 
 
 In many cases both forms of the comparative suffix are 
 united in Latin. Thus in sin-is~tero-, min-is-tero-, mag-is-tero-, 
 we have -is-tero = I. E. -ydns + tara ; and in dex-ter-ior, in- 
 ter-ior, ci-ter-ior, &c., we have -ter-ior = I. E. -tara + ydns. 
 With sin-is-tero, &c., may be compared the Gr. XaX-Kx-repo, 
 &c. 
 
 §. 156. The Indo-European Superlative. 
 
 In Indo-European the idea of the superlative was ex- 
 pressed by adding either -ma or -ta to the stem of the posi- 
 tive. After the first separation that occurred in the I. E. 
 family of languages, these suffixes were either used separately, 
 or united together, or doubled, or ta and tata were added to 
 -ydns. Thus we find -ta in the stems Skr. shash-tha = Gr. 
 Ik-to, L. quar-to, &c. : -ma in Skr. nava-ma (= L. no-no by 
 assimilation for nomo\ Skr. ava-ma (low) from ava (down), 
 which is, perhaps, connected with Gr. av, av-rog, L. au-t, 
 
304 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 au-tem, Skr. agruma (first), from agra (a point), L. sum-mo 
 for sup-mOf &c. ; -tama* in Skr. punya-tama from punt/a (holy), 
 and other superlatives, in pra-thama (beside Gr. irpio-To, L. 
 pri-mo), &c., L. op-tinio, &c. ; -mata in Gr. tj5do-iuiaTo^ (beside 
 ij5^o-iuio), TTv-fiaTO (for Trvar-fjLaro, from ttuc* an ^olicised form 
 of a root TTog which is connected with Skr. pas'k'dt, after, Gr. 
 6-7rt(T-a>, L. pos-t, po-ne = pos-ne, 0. pos-mo-m = L.postremum), 
 and especially in the Irish ordinals, as secht-mad (the 6th), 
 ocht-mad (the 8th), &c. ; -mama, also in the Irish forms 
 uaisli-mem, from wasa^ (high) ; doir-hem, from cZi^iV (a slave), 
 with 6 for m, &c. ; -tata in Gr. Kov(j)0'TaTo, and other super- 
 latives ; -ydns + ta = ish-tha, in Skr. mah-ishtha (= Gr. ju£7- 
 toTO, &c., and = to-ro in Gr. wjc-foro, &c. ; -ydns + ta -i- ta = -lg- 
 ra-TO, -ea-Ta-TOy -ai-Ta-To in Gr. 
 
 §. 157. The Sanskrit Superlative. 
 
 The form in -ta is found in some ordinal numbers, as 
 Jcatur-tha = Gr. reTap-To, &c. Ish-tha- is of common occur- 
 rence, and is added to the stem in the same way as the comp. 
 suffix lydns, as in pap~ishtha (= Gr. KaK-iaro), &c. J/a-is found 
 in ashta-ma (the 8th), nava-ma (the 9th), madhya-ma (middle), 
 &c. Tama- is the usual superlative suffix, as in mahat-tama, 
 &c. ; it is also found in the ordinals, as in vinsati-tama (the 
 20th), &c. From the superlative g'y^shtha (eldest) is also 
 formed the double superlative g'yeshtha-tama. 
 
 * Bopp derives -tama from -tara + ma, and -tuto from -rapo + ro ; he 
 had previously suggested tan (to stretch) as the root of both forms ; but 
 it is much more probable that they arise from the pronominal roots ta 
 and ma, as these roots are separately found expressing the idea of the 
 superlative. 
 
 t Lottner and others consider that initial m of the suffixes -ma and 
 -mata belongs sometimes to the stem, and that the words noticed in the 
 text should be divided thus: Skr. ashta?n-a, navam-a; Gr. e/Sdon-o, 
 ij3dofi-aTo ; Ir. sechtm-ad, &c. 
 
comparative grammar. 305 
 
 §. 158. The Greek Superlative. 
 
 The form in -to is found in some ordinal numbers, as 
 rerap-To, &c. Ict-to is added to stem in the same way as the 
 comp. suffix -ior, as in r]d-i(TTo, from rjdv, &c. Ta-ro is the 
 usual superlative suffix, as in (piX-raTo, &c. ; added to the 
 comparative suffix -ycms, it appears as -ai-TaTo, -£(7-raro, -la- 
 TaTO, in 77(ju;^-at-raro, auxp^ov-i^a-TaTo., irTwx-ear-TaTO, &c. 
 from ri<TVxo,auj(}>pov, Trrtu^o, &c. We find -juo in £j3So-juo and 
 TTpo-fio and -fxa-ro in tjSSo-juaro and irv-fxaTo. 
 
 §. 159. The Latin Superlative. 
 
 The form in -to is found in some ordinal numbers, as 
 quin-fo-, &c. ; also in quo-to-, from I. E. kva. Mo- is found 
 in i-mo-, sum-mo-^* &c. In min-i-mo- andplur-i-mo-, it is added 
 to the comparative suffix -iost of which the vowel i alone is 
 left ; and we find it added to the other comparative suffix -ter 
 in ex-tre-mo-'heside ex-ti7no-,]pos-tre-mo- he^ide pos-tu-mo-. The 
 form -timo or -tumo is found in op-timo-^ and op-tumo-, dex- 
 timo', maximo- = mag-timo-j pessimo- = pep-timo-, proximo-f = 
 prop-timo-y liberrimo- = liber-timo-, facillimo- = facil-timo-^ &c. 
 This suffix is also used in other words without expressing any 
 superlative idea, as in Jini- timo-, mari-timo-, &c. Timo is added 
 to the comparative suffix -zos, which here becomes is, and 
 -is-timo becomes -issimo-, as in prob-issimo-, levissim-o, pot- 
 issimo-, &c. 
 
 * I-mo is a superlative stem formed from the preposition tw, and summo 
 is a superlative of sub. 
 
 f This is Ben fey 's view, who connects the word with Skr. papa (bad), 
 L. peccare ; pejor is, in his view, for pepjor. I.ottner, however, connects 
 it with an I. E. root pi (to hate), whence E.fend, &c. 
 
30 6 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR^ 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 numerals. 
 
 §. 160. The Cardinal Numbers.* 
 
 I. — Ind. Eur. : the idea of unity was probably marked by the, 
 demonstrative stem i- or its gunated form ai-. 
 
 Sanskrit : S-ka- from e- = I. E. a/-, the gunated form of 
 the demonstrative stem /-, and ka-.f 
 
 Greek : nom. sing, m., elg = h-r, f. fiia, n. ^v ; fv may be 
 = I. E. sarriy or sa, whence Gr. a-TraK, Kret. a/ut-aKig 
 (once), Jarent. afi-arig (id.), Skr. sa-krt (id:); L. 
 sem-el, sim-plex, sin-guU, and juia would then be = sdm-^ 
 ya. In Hesiod we find %uq for a^, Avhere the initial e' 
 must represent a lost digamma ; and if this be so, then' 
 it is possible that Fcv may be an older form of the 
 stem, with which we may compare the Lith. vena-s 
 (one), and E. 0W6 (as pronounced). IfBopp's expla- 
 nation of Lith. venas (Comp. Gram. 11. , p. 57) be cor- 
 rect, then it is also possible that Gr. Ffv may be = an 
 older jU£v, whence fiiv. In l(^ (= Ivi), and i'a (= jjiia)^ the 
 demonstrative stems i and a are united. Gr. oi-Fo- 
 (whence oto-c) is identical with Z. aeva (one). Gr. 
 
 * For the declension of the Sanskrit numerals, consult Bopp's " San- 
 skrit Grammar," pp. 157-161. 
 
 f Ka- (one) is found, according to Bopp, in L. codes (one-eyed), 
 froni ca, and oculus and emeus = ea-icus, from ea and a supposed ocus (eye), 
 whence oeulus, a diminutive; and in Goth, halta- (lame), from ha = I. E. 
 ka^&xidiiith (to go) ; halba- (half), from ha^ and leihan (to remain) ; haihs 
 (one-eyed). Curtius connects L. ccecus and Goth, haihs with I. E. root ska 
 to shade) ; whence Skr. k'hdyd for sMyd^ Gr. (r/ct-d, gko-io. ((TKOTSivd, 
 Hesych.) = I. E. sTcaya, aKij-vri, (TKo-rof, E. shade, shj^ &c. : codes he 
 considers to be a diminutive from the same root. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 307 
 
 ol'v6-g, oi-vr) (one) correspond also exactly to 0. L. 
 
 oino-s, Goth, ain-s ; oi- in olvog and olog, being from 
 
 the stem i- . 
 Latin : uno-s = 0. L. oino-s, from stem i- . 
 II. — Ind.-Eur. : dva- .* 
 
 Sanskrit : dva-, dvi- (in compounds) ; dvis (twice). 
 Greek : ^uo, SvcG^ G. Suoiv, Suw, Att. SutTv, Dor. §uwv, 
 
 Mod. Gr. Suovwv, D. ^voXv, Svu), Dor. ^uat, ^ol. 
 
 SmcTCTi ; Stc (twice) for Bfig ; ^(o-o-o-c for ^Fi-r^/o-c ; ^t-a 
 
 (originally meaning between and then through) , for ^Fi- 
 
 a, Instr. of stem ^F^, as E. between is from twain; ^otw, 
 
 ^otoi (two), from stem ^Ft-o ; S^- (in compounds) ; ^i 
 
 (lit. secondly). 
 Latin : m. duo, f. c?wae, n. duo (and c?w^ in vulgar Latin), 
 
 Ace. m. duo J duos; f. duas ; bini for dvini ; bis for cZvis ; 
 
 * Various methods of explaining the numerals have been suggested; 
 but, except in the case of the first numeral, which is probably derived 
 from a demonstrative stem, none of these explanations are satisfactory. 
 Thus tri- is derived from I. E. tar (to cross) ; but how is the idea of 
 crossing connected with the idea of three more than with that of four ? 
 Kvankva is supposed to be the reduplication of a root kvan, which is said 
 to mean to seize, whence are derived Skr. s'van (a dog), Gr. kvov, &c., 
 and therefore to have originally meant the five fingers, as that part of the 
 body with which we seize anything; but what proof have we that such a root 
 ever existed? Skr. pank'an is again connected with. pdni (the hand), but 
 pdni is probably for par-ni from par (to fill). The I. E. form often is 
 said to be dva-kvan from dva- (2), and kvan- (5) ; but there are no 
 traces of the two u s in any I. E. language. Again, it is suggested that 
 the root of dakan is I. E. dak (to point out), whence come Gr. dsiKvv/j.i, 
 StxKTvXog ; L. digitus, Skr. dis (to point out), &c. Kantam probably 
 meant host, multitude ; but its origin is obscure. Other methods of ex- 
 plaining the numerals have been suggested, but so absurd as scarcely 
 to deserve notice ; thus Skr. tisar (fem. three) is derived from tri (3), 
 and stri (a woman) ! Ashtdu (8) is for as'vdu (two horses), &c. ! It is 
 also impossible to connect the I. E. numbers with the Shemitic ; the 
 likeness that exists between the names of numbers six and seven is merely 
 accidental. 
 
 * x2 
 
308 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 du-phim, du-plex. N. U. duf (duos), duir (duobus), 
 
 O. U. tiives (duobus), N. U. du- (in compounds), L. 
 
 hi- (id.). 
 III. — Ind. Eur. : tri-. 
 
 Sanskrit : m. n. tri-, f. tisar- for titar-^ according to Bopp, 
 
 a reduplicated form of tri- ; t7i~s (thrice). 
 Greek: m. f, tquq^ Dor. tqI-q; n. rpi-a^ from Tpi-\ 
 
 TQL-Q. 
 
 Latin : m. f, tres, n. tri-a^ from tri- ; ter ; 0. U. tri- in tri- 
 brigu (triplicatio). 
 IV. — Tnd.-Eur. : kvatvar-. 
 
 Sanskrit : m. n., k'atvdr-, k'atur- ; f. k'atasar- (according to 
 Bopp, from ka, one, and tasar, three) ; k'atur (four 
 times). 
 
 Greek: m. f., Titraapeg, TtTrapeg; n., r^acrapa, Tirraoa; 
 Dor. rsTopeg (o = Fa), Boeot. irtTTapeg, ^ol. Trtaavpsg, 
 Horn, mcrvp^g (e becoming i through the influence of 
 v) ; New Ion. and Mod. Gr. riaaepEg ; rerpa-Kig. 
 
 Latin : quatuor and quattuor, quadru- (in compounds), qua- 
 ter; U. petur- (in compounds), 0. petor-a, whence 
 Petr-ejus, petiro- (in compounds). 
 V. — Ind. -Eur. : kvankva-. 
 
 Sanskrit: pank'an-. 
 
 Greek : ttIvte for Trcvra found in ir^vTa-Kig^ for I. E. -an 
 becomes -a in Greek ; .^ol. iriinrs, the gen. of which 
 occurs in paxiwv airv irefiiriov* (Alc^i fragmenta, 26). 
 
 Latin : quinque,0.pomtis, whence Pontius (= L. Quinctius), 
 Pomp-ejus : p = J. E. kv as in W. pump (5), &c. 
 yi. — Ind.-Eur. : ksvaks- ; from this complicated form alone 
 can be deduced the various words expressing the 
 idea of six, in the Indo-European languages. Thus 
 in Z. khsva-s we find the initial ksv still preserved ; ks 
 is found in Ossetian achsaz^ and the initial sh in Skr. 
 
 * " Ahrens de Dialectis ^ollcis et Pseudaeolicis," p. 245. 
 f The a in achsaz is merely prosthetic, as e in exOsc. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 309 
 
 shash arises from s through the influence of the pre- 
 ceding k ; sv is found in Afghan spash ( Afgh. sp = Skr. 
 sv), and in Welsh chwech (W. chw = Skr. sv*); s is 
 found in Gr. £$ (aspirate = s), L. sex, Ir. s^ ; v is found 
 in Dor. F^S, Armenian wez. 
 
 Sanskrit : shash-. 
 
 Greek : ??, Dor. Fi^, Mod. Gr. 'l^i. 
 
 Latin : sex. 
 VII. — Ind.-Eur. : saptam- or saptan-. 
 
 Sanskrit: saptan-. 
 
 Greek : £7rra, Mod. Gr. i(pra. 
 
 Latin : septem. Bopp supposes that the final m in septem^ 
 novem, and cZecewz is due to the influence of the corre- 
 sponding ordinal numbers, s epiimo- = Ski\ saptama-, &c. 
 VIIL — Ind.-Eur. : aktam-, or, according to Bopp, aktaun. 
 
 Sanskrit: as/ite- (after analogy of sop tow-), nom.. ashtdu, 
 apparently a dual form, as s'ivdu from s'iva (m.), 8 
 being equal to twice 4, and therefore being the dual 
 of 4. 
 
 Greek : ofcrw, Dor. oktu) (the aspirate being added as in 
 Fr. huity from L. ccto, New Pers. hest = Skr. asUdu), 
 Mod. Gr. ox^-w. 
 
 Latin ; octo. 
 IX. — Ind.-Eur. : navam- or navan-, 
 
 Sanskrit : navan-. 
 
 Greek : Ivvia, Dor. kvvia, Mod. Gr. ewm. 
 
 Latin : novem. 
 X. — Ind.-Eur. : dakam-. or dakan-, 
 
 Sanskrit : das'aii-. 
 
 Greek : Sl/ca. 
 
 Latin : decern, U. degem. 
 XI. — Ind.-Eur. : ai~(?) dakam- {this and the other I. E. num- 
 bers up to XIX. were probably two separate words). 
 
 * Thus we have W. chwegyr = Skr. s'vas'ru (where sv = I. E. so), "W. 
 chwaer (O. W. chwior) - Skr. svasar. 
 
aiO COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Sanskrit': ekd-das'an-, 
 
 Greek: fv-^cjca, §fKa tic- 
 
 Latin: un-decim. 
 Xlii — Ind/rEtir. : dva-dakam-. 
 
 Sanskrit : dvd-das'an-. 
 
 Greek : Sw-ScKa, ^vw-Seica, Suo-Kai-ScKO (gen. ^uoKatStKcuv, 
 Alcsei Fragmenta,* 98), Sljca Suo. 
 
 Latin: duo-decim, U. desen-dtir-f (ace. pi.). 
 XIIL — Ind.-Eur. : tri- dakam-. 
 
 Sanskrit: trayo-dasan-. 
 
 Greek : Tpig-Kai-deKaj SsKa-Tpeig. 
 
 Latin : trS-decim. 
 XIV. — Ind.-Eur. : kvatvar- dakam-. 
 
 Sanskrit : k'atur-dasan-. 
 
 Greek : TScraapeg-Kai-EEKa, T£(T(Tapa-Kai-deKa. 
 
 Latin : quatuor-decim. 
 XV. — ^Ind.-Eur. : kvankva- dakam-. 
 
 Sanskrit: pank'a-das'an-. 
 
 Greek : TrevrE-jcai-Sejca. 
 
 Latin : quin-decim. 
 X VI.— Ind.-Eur. : ksvaks- dakam-. 
 
 Sanskrit : sho-das'an-. 
 
 Greek: tK-Kai-^eKa, 
 
 Latin : se-decim, sex-decim. * 
 
 XVII. — Ind.-Eur. : saptam- dakam-. 
 
 Sanskrit: sapta-das'an-. 
 
 Greek : tirra-Kal-dEKa. 
 
 Latin : septem-decem. 
 XVIII. — Ind.-Eur. : aktam- dakam-, 
 
 Sanskrit : ashtd-dasan-, 
 
 Greek: oKrw-jcai-Seica. 
 - Latin :- decern et octo [duo-de-vigiriti]. 
 XIX.— Ind.-Eur. : navam- dakam-. 
 
 * " Ahrens de Dialectis iEolicis et Pseudasolicis," p. 255. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 311 
 
 Sanskrit: nava-das'an- \una-mn^ati-^, 
 *•' Greek : Evvca-jcai-Sf/ca. 
 
 Latin : decern et novem [un-de-viginti]. 
 XX.— Ind.-Eur. : dvi-dakan-ta- or dvi-dakan-ti-. 
 
 Sanskrit : vihs'ati- = dvin-das'a-ti-. The nasal in dvin is 
 ' probably the remains of the nom. pi. case-ending of a 
 
 neuter stem dvi-. 
 Greek : IPukogl, uKom, Boeot. Ftjcar*, Lacon. (^iiKaTi. He- 
 sychius notices /Kavrtv (eUaaiv), which is remarkable 
 . on account of the retention of the v before r. 
 Latin : vigint% g taking the place of the original c, which 
 is retained in vicesimits, vicies. 
 XXX. — Ind.-Eur. : tri-dakan-ta-, or tri-dakan-ti-. 
 Sanskrit : tiihs'ati^ or trins'at-. 
 
 Greek : rptdKovra (gen. rptrjKOvrwvj Hes. Op. et D. 694) 
 a neuter pi. the first a being lengthened. The remain- 
 ing decades XL.-XC. are also neuters pi. 
 Latin : triginta for triaginta, a neuter pi., a^ are also the 
 remaining decades. 
 XL.— Ind.-Eur. : kvatvar-dakan-ta-, or kvatvar^dakan-ti-. 
 Sanskrit : k'atvdrihs'at-. 
 Greek : TEaaagaKovra, Ion. T^aaapriKOVTa, Dor. rtrpwicovra ; 
 
 Ion. -rj- and Dor. -w- = -a-. 
 Latin : quadrdginta. 
 L. — Ind.-Eur. : kvankva^dakan-ta-j or kvankva-dakan-ti-. 
 Sanskrit : pankdsat-. 
 Greek : Trevrrjicovra. -?j- = -a-. 
 Latin : qmnqudginta. 
 LX. — Ind.-Eur. : ksvaks-dakan-ta, or ksvaks'dakan-ti-. 
 Sanskrit : shashti-, 
 Greek : l^rjicovra. ->?- = -a-. 
 Latin : sexdginta, 
 LXX. — Ind.-Eur. : saptan-dakan-ta-, or saptan-dakan-ti-: 
 'Sanskrit: saptati-. 
 
312 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Greek : f]3Soju?jfcovra from ordinal stem tjSSojuo- ; -tj- = -a-. 
 
 Latin : septudginta for septumdginta from ordinal stem sep- 
 tumo-, 
 LXXX.— Tnd.-Eur. : aktdu-dakan-ta-, or aktdu-dakan-ti-. 
 
 Sanskrit : as' Hi-. 
 
 Greek : oy^oZ/KOvra from ordinal stem 67S00-, with -ri- for 
 -a- ', Hom. oySwjcovra. 
 
 Latin : octo-ginta. 
 XC. — Ind.-Eur. : navan-dakan-ta-, or navan-dakan-ti-. 
 
 Sanskrit : navati-. 
 
 Greek : hevriKovTa, Hom. evvr/jcovra, from an ordinal stem 
 Eveyo- = L. nono- ; -r]- = -a-. 
 
 Latin : nondginta from ordinal stem nono-. 
 C. — Ind.-Eur. : kantam. 
 
 Sanskrit: sata-m. 
 
 Greek: k-aro-y, I being = %v (one). 
 
 Latin: centu-m. 
 CC-DCCCC. — Ind.-Eur. : here no compound forms were 
 found, but the constituent numerals were kept sepa- 
 rate, as in E. two hundred^ &c. 
 
 Sanskrit: here also the constituent numerals were either 
 kept separate, as in dve sate (200), or the compound nu- 
 meral was formed in usual way, as dvis'ata- (200), &c. 
 
 Greek : diaKoaLO- (m. -ou f. -aiy n. -a) ; Ion. SiriKocrio-, 
 Dor. BiaKario-, &c. 
 
 Latin : ducento- (m. -i, f. -ce, n. -a) ; trecento-, quadringento-, 
 quadrin- being formed after the analogy o^septin-; 
 quingento- for quinc-gento- ; sexcento-, septingento-, octin- 
 gento; where octin- is either formed after analogy of 
 septin-, or else = 1. E. aktan- ; nongento- from ordinal 
 stem nono-. 
 M.— Ind.-Eur.: ? 
 
 Sanskrit: sa^asT'a- (m. and n.). 
 
 Greek : x^^^O" ("^- "^^ f- -a'> »• -«)» Lesb. xc^Xfo-, Boeot. 
 X«Xfo-, Dor. x*?Xto-. Bopp suggests that this stem 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 313 
 
 • may be connected with Skr. sahasra-, the original 
 
 • Greek form having been aaxiXio-, then a^tXto-, and 
 finally x*^^^" ' ^' became A, and the preceding 5 was 
 assimilated in the Lesb. form, or became i, as inBoeot., 
 and a new suffix -10 = Skr. -ya was added. Schleicher, 
 on the other hand, considers x^^^o- to have been the 
 original stem, which would be identical with an J. E. 
 ghar-ya-. 
 
 Latin : milli- {mille, milli-a). 
 
 §. 161. The Ordinal Numbers. 
 
 In Indo-European the ordinals appear to have been formed 
 by adding either -ta or sometimes -ma to the cardinal stems ; 
 pra-ta- or pra-ma- (1st), dva-ta- (2nd), tri-ta- (3rd), kvatvar-ta- 
 (4th), kvankva-ta- (0th), ksvaks-ta- (6th), sapta{m)-ma or sap- 
 tmi-ta (7th), akta{m)~ma- or aktdv-{m)a- (8th), navan-ta- or 
 nava(jn)-ma- (9th), dakan-ta- or daka7i{tn)-ma- (10th). The 
 ordinal decades were formed in a similar way. The ordinals 
 from 11 to 19, &c., were formed of two separate words, as 
 prata- dakanta- (11th = 1st + 10th), &c. 
 
 In Sanskrit we have prathama- (1st), from preposition 
 pra and superlative suffix -tama ; dvitiya- (2nd) for dvitya 
 (Gr. ^laao-), =dva-ta-ya-; trtiy a- (Sid) f 01 trity a- (Gi. Tpiaao') 
 -tri-ta-ya-; k'aturtha- and turiya- (4th) = {k'a)turi?/a-, perhaps 
 for (k'a)turttya-, the second t being thrown out to distinguish 
 this form more completely from trttya-, unless ya- is used here 
 by itself instead of ta-ya- ; pank'ama-, Ved. paTik'atha- (5th) ; 
 shashtha- (6th), saptama-, Ved. saptatha- (7th), ashtama- 
 (8th), navama- (9th), dasama- (10th).* In the numerals com- 
 pounded with das' an final -an is lost, and the suffix a- added ; 
 thus we have ekddas'a- (11th), &c. The cardinal stems end- 
 
 * Lottner considers that the ordinals, Skr. saptama-, as/itama-, nava- 
 ma-, das'ama-, Gr. £/(35o/xo-, L. septimo-, decimo-, &c., are formed simply 
 by the addition of a to the cardinal stems, saptam, ashtam^ &c. 
 
8^4 -COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 ing in -U or -t either • ^dd -fofma or -a; in the latter case 
 vms'dfft >and the numerals ending in -t lose t- with the^teceding 
 vdwel^ while shashti, saptatij as'Uij and navdti only I6^e final i : 
 thiis vinsatitama- or vihsa- (20th) ; trins'attama- or trihs'a- 
 {2>()i\i)', k'atvdrihs'attama- or Hatvarihsa- \^.^\}il)\ 'panUddat- 
 iaind- or panJcdsa- (50th) ; shashtitama- or shashta- (60th), 
 ■&c. From sWa and scsAasT'a we have s'atatama- (100 th), sa- 
 hasratama- (1000th). 
 
 In Greek we have ttjowto- (1st), Dor. irpaTo-, Ep. Trpojuo-, 
 from TT/oo (whence irpiv = irpo-iov, Trpoaad) = irpoTyu), irporepogf 
 &c.), SevTEjOO- (2nd) =1. E. dvatara-.; tqlto-^ Tpiraro', JEiol. 
 TEpro- (3rd) ; Tsrapro-., reTparo- (4th) ; ttcjuttto- (5th); tjcro- 
 (6th) ; IjSSojuo-, kl^dofxaro- (7th) ; 67^00- (8th) = oySoFo- from 
 oicroF = I. E. aktdv : Ivaro-, Ivvaro-, tivaro- (9th) ; Scfcaro- 
 (10th); €vS€Karo-(llth) ; ^wSeicaro-, SuoSEKaro- (12th) ; rpia- 
 KaidsKaro-, rpiro- kui dsKaro- (13th), &c. ; hkoctto- (20th) ; 
 TptaKOCTTO- (30th) ; rEo-arapaKocrro-, Dor. rerpwKOoro- (40th), 
 &c. ; UaTocrro- (lOOth); x'^totrro- (1000). The termination 
 -'(TTo is, perhaps, connected with the superlative ending -t&ro, 
 initial l being lost. The same ending is found in ifcacrrb-, 
 woaro-y'OTrpcTTO-. 
 
 In Latin we have primo- (1st) for pro-zmo-, according to 
 Curtius, or for 'pris-mo-^ according to Pott, pm being for 
 prius; secundo- (2nd), from R. sequ (to follow), whence sequor ; 
 iertio- (3rd) ; quarto- (4th), for quatuorto-; quinto- (5ih),yicii 
 quincto- ; sexto- (6th); septimo- {l\h.)\ octavo- (8th), &^dih 
 octav = I. E. aktdv; nono- (9th), for ^iozjmo-, m being assimi- 
 lated to the preceding w; decimo-: (10th.) ; undecima- (11th); 
 duodecimo- (12th); tertio- decimo- (iSth), &c. ; vigesimo-, vi- 
 cesimo-t (20th), for vicensimo* = vieenf-timo-' ; trigesimo-j tri- 
 cesimo- (30th), for tricensimo-^ - tncent-timo-^ &c. ; centesimo- 
 (100th) following the analogy of the preceding decades, &q, ; 
 millesimo- (1000th). 
 
GOiMPARATIVE <JRAMMAR. 3i|5 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 §. 162. Pronouns. 
 
 In the pronouns of the first and second person we find no 
 distinction of gender in any of the Indo-European languages.* 
 This may be accounted for by supposing that they were de- 
 veloped at a period preceding the introduction of thir^^- 
 tinction, as is probable, for they express ideas that are among 
 the first to suggest themselves to man. Their antiquity also 
 accounts for the fact, that there is such a variety in the 
 different pronominal roots employed to express these ideas, 
 and also for the fact that these pronominal roots have become 
 so disguised in various ways, that it is impossible to analyze 
 the greater portion of them, and consequently impossible to 
 reproduce the original Indo-European forms from which they 
 are derived. f 
 
 No distinction of gender is found also in the reflexive 
 pronoun ; all the other pronouns have three genders. 
 
 No vocative case is found in the pronouns. 
 
 In Sanskrit in all the pronouns the real stem is not used 
 in compounds, but in the pronouns of the first and second 
 person the abl. sing, or pi. is used, and in the others the nom. 
 sing. neut. 
 
 * In Sanskrit the pronouns in their acc.s. pi. asmdn, yushmdn, and 
 their Vedic nom.s pi. asme, yushme^ appear to be masculine inform. In 
 the White Yag'ur-Veda (XI., 47) we find a remarkable exception in 
 the fem. ace. pi. yushmds. 
 
 " ■ f Consult an Essay by Dr. C. Lottner, " On the Forms and Origin of 
 the Prbilouns of the First and Second Persons," in the Transactions of 
 the Philological Society (1859, Part I.). 
 
316 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 §. 163. The Pronoun of the First Person. 
 
 The stem of this pronoun was originally m«-, connected 
 either with the I. E. verbal root ma (to think), whence Skr. 
 man (id.), or with the pronominal root ma- (this), whence 
 Skr. i-ma- (id.). Ma is of universal occurrence in the verbal 
 inflexion, as in Skr. as-mi (I am), i-ma-s (we go), &c. ; Gr. 
 el-fjiLj i-fie-v, &c. ; L. su-m,, i-mu-s^ &c. 
 
 Beside the stem ma- we also find in Indo-European a stem 
 agham(a-)f whence Skr. aham (I.), or agam(a)y whence Goth. 
 ik (I.), Gr. lyu). As wa- has been connected with the verbal 
 root ma (to think), so agam(a-), from which, after the sepa- 
 ration of the European branches of the Indo-European from the 
 Asiatic, the Sanskrit agham^ and finally aham, was developed, 
 has been derived from the I. E. verbal root ag (to move),* 
 whence Skr. ag' (id.), Gr. ayw, &c. : agam-a would then be 
 divided thus : ag (a verbal root) + a- (a pronominal demon- 
 strative root) + ma- (the preceding stem of /). Bopp, how- 
 ever, considers that in Skr. aham an initial m has been lost, 
 and supposes that the first portion of the word is merely the 
 stem ma- (I.). 
 
 The other explanation, suggested by Bopp, is much pre- 
 ferable to either of the preceding, viz. : that the initial a- is 
 
 * In this case agama- would mean '•'■ I the mover,'''' and hence " I," as 
 the first idea we have of a mover ^ a cause^ is derived from the power we 
 have of willing. The I. E. root ag also meant " to speak^^'' whence Skr. 
 ah (which also passed through the stage agh^ ; L. ad-ag-ium, ajo - ag-io^ 
 Goth, af-aik-a (I deny) ; and here agama- would mean " I the speaker.^^ 
 Although it is possible that both forms of this stem, agama- and aghama-^ 
 existed in Indo-European, it is nevertheless more probable that aham is a 
 special Sanskrit form developed from agama-, through the stage aghama-. 
 We find a few other examples of a Skr. h being = an I. E. g- ; thus we 
 have Skr. hanu-s (the jaw), Gr. ysvu-e, L. gena^ Goth, kinnu-s ; Skr. 
 maha-t (great), Gr. fiiya-g, Goth, mikil-s. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 317 
 
 the demonstrative stem * a- (this). A-ga-ma- (or a-f/ha-ma-) 
 would then be resolved into the three pronominal stems, a- 
 (this) ; ga- (or gha-), which is connected with Yed. ghd, gha, 
 hd; Skr. ha, Gr. -ye, 7a (inDor. E'ywvya, Boeot. twvya) ; Goth. 
 'k in the aces sing, mik (me), thuk (te), sik (se), 0. H. G. -h 
 in the aces pi. unsih (nos), iwili (vos), and ma- (the other 
 stem of the first person). 
 
 Nominative Singular. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : agam{a-).^ 
 
 Skr. : aham. 
 
 Gr. : Ijix), Dor. tywv, iy^vr], lyujvya ; Boeot. twv, lijjveif 
 
 Iwvja. Here a> = I. E. a, but the cause of this change 
 
 is unknown. 
 L. : ego (with as in Greek), and later egd. 
 
 * So in the Sanskrit Dramas we find «y«w g'anah (lit. this person) 
 used to express the first personal pronoun. Compare also the use of L. 
 hie, and of this in vulgar English. 
 
 t Lottner (in the essay quoted in p. 315) considers that there were 
 two periods in prehistorical Indo-European times : firstly, a period when 
 Mwas solely the characteristic of the first person ; secondly, a period 
 when ikf became restricted to the oblique cases of the singular. Both 
 periods had been gone through before our ancestors separated. •"' In 
 the historical times," he writes, " the difference of singular and plural, 
 and of the nominative ' /,' as opposed to the oblique case Me is, upon the 
 whole, preserved ; but here and there we observe a tendency to come 
 back to the preprimitive — if I may say so — simplicity." .... The ten- 
 dency, that ilfhas to return to the nom. sing, we find "in some of the 
 English dialects which partly replace / by me, in the moi of the French, 
 in the men of the New Persian .... in the w?e of the Old Irish." . . . . 
 " Secondly, we find the m of the first person extended to the plural. 
 This we have in some German and Norse dialects (jner, mir for wir is 
 common about Thuringia ; mer is also sometimes used in Old Norse), in 
 the New Iranian languages almost throughout (»re is in New Persian md, 
 Armenian vneq, Ossetian max), ^^^ ^"^ Modern Greek j"«tf." I have ob- 
 served similar phenomena in the Italian dialect of San Pemo. 
 
318 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR, 
 
 Accusative Singular. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : md-m. 
 
 Skr. : md-m, md. Mdm in form is a fern. ace. Bopp 
 suggests either that d was first developed in md to 
 compensate for the loss of the final m, and that it was 
 borrowed by ^am from md, or that mdm is for ma-ha-m, 
 ha being = Gr. js. 
 
 Gr. : jul, £ju£ (the first c being only prosthetic), Dor. tfiii. 
 
 L. : me for mem = mim from stem mi-, final e being lengthen- 
 ed to compensate for loss of m. In Old Latin 7ned was 
 used for me, as in Novios. Plautios med JRomai fecid 
 (0. I. L. I. n. 54). MeJie was also written in Old 
 Latin for me. Bucheler suggests that mehe may be 
 = Gr. Ejucye, Goth mik. 
 
 Instrumental Singular, 
 
 Ind.-Eur.: ? 
 
 Skr. : mayd = ma + ^ + a = ma -k- a -^ a. 
 
 Dative Singular, 
 Ind.-Eur. : ma-hhyam, 
 Skr.: ma-hyam. 
 
 Gr. : Dor. I^Ty, IfuvY}^ Ifxivya ; -~iv - -e-rflv = -a-bhyam. 
 L. : mi-hei, mi-hi, from St. mi- ; U. me-he. 
 
 Ablative Singular. 
 Ind.-Eur. : ma-d or ma-t. ' 
 Skr. : ma-t, Yed. mama-t, a reduplicated form^ 
 L. : me, 0. L. me-d from St. m/-. 
 
 Genitive Singular. 
 
 Ind.-Eur.: ? 
 
 Skr. : mama, a reduplication of stem, with loss of case- 
 ending. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 3W 
 
 'Gr. : IJ.OV, ijuov ; Ep. t/iao (- f/x£-o-yo) ; Ion. t^eo; Dor. 
 tfiei), fjiev; Lacon. t/xeuvrj ; Syrac. tjuto, £juta>. In Dor. 
 £jU£oc, BjuLovg, £/x£uc ; Syrac. l/xwc; the gen. case-ending 
 g appears to be added to the old genitive. 
 
 Locative Singular. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ma-i. 
 
 Skr. : mayi = ma -\- i + i = ma -i- a -{■ i, the stem ma- being 
 
 lengthened by a, as in the instrumental. Skr. me 
 
 which is used for gen. and dat. sing, is properly a loc; 
 
 compare s'ivS, loc. of s'iva, 
 Gr. : juoi, iiuLoi from St. juo- = I. E. ma-. 
 L. : Bopp considers gen. mei to be a loc. = mei-t = 7nai-t 
 
 = Skr. mayi. 
 
 Nominative Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : the stem of this case was probably formed by 
 adding stna- to the demonstrative stems ma-, a-, va- ; 
 consequently it may have appeared in the forms niasma-, 
 asma-, vasma-. Initial m is found in Lith. mes, 0. SI. 
 mil, Arm. meq ; initial v in Skr. vayam^ Goth, veis (E. 
 we) ; initial a in Ved. asme. Bopp considers that Skr. 
 vayam is for mayam, and that v represents an original 
 m. This is possible, for initial m and v are sometimes 
 interchanged ; thus we find* Basque maguina from L. 
 vagina, Sp. mimbre from L. vimen, Sp. milano frorn L. 
 villus. In Pali we find mayam (we) from Skr. vayam. 
 In all these cases, however, v is older than m, so that 
 it is just as likely that m is derived from v, as v from 
 m (consult §. 95, p. 187). 
 
 Skr.*: vayam = i^a + i -}• am = va + a + am; Ved. asme ; 
 Pali nfiayam, amhe. 
 
 * Diez, ". Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen," vol. i., pp. 250, 
 357. 
 
320 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Gr, : i7ju£7c from St. riij.1- (not from rifio- = Ved. asma-, for 
 then the nom. pi. would be rtjuioi), Mo\. apLixhq^ Dor. 
 afiig, Ion. rifiUq {-sTq = Ion. -ieg = -ei/eg). 
 
 L. : ??05; nos is, perhaps, an old accusative used as a 
 nom., and follows the analogy o£ eqiios from equo-. 
 Bopp, however, considers that the final s here belongs 
 to the stem, as it occurs in no8-ter, and accordingly he 
 connects it with -sma, from which he also derives -me-t 
 in egomet, memet, tumet, nosmet, and -mmo in immo* 
 = ismo from St. i-. The final s of Skr. nas is also con- 
 sidered by Bopp to belong to the stem, as it is used 
 for the ace. dat. and gen. pi., and is explained in the 
 same way. In Z. ndo = nds we find the vowel length- 
 ened, as in L. nds. Nos may be connected with the 
 pronominal root na-, as has been already suggested in 
 §. 95, or it may be derived from ma-, as initial tn and 
 n are sometimes interchanged : thus we find It. nespolo 
 from L. mespilum, nicchio from L. mitulus; Sp. nespera 
 and nispola from L. mespilum, marjil from Arab, nah- 
 fil, mueso from L. noster, mastuej^zo from L. 7iasturtuim, 
 naguela from L. magalia, 0. Sp. nembrar from L. me- 
 morare; Fr. nappe from L. mappa, natte from L. matta^ 
 nhfle from L. mespilum; Wall, nalbe from L. malva.'f 
 
 Accusative Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : asma-ns and fna-ns. 
 
 Skr. : asinqn = asma-ns and nds = ma-ns. Schleicher con- 
 siders that lias is for ma-sma-ns, initial m becoming n 
 through dissimilation on account of following m. 
 
 Gr. : riimag, Ion. rijiiag from St. -nfiL- ; ^ol. ajuLiuiS, Dor. 
 
 * I prefer to connect immo with the superlative stem imo~ for immo- 
 = in-mo-. 
 
 f Diez, " Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen," vol. i., pp. 199, 
 357. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 321 
 
 ana, either following the analogy of ace. sing. fULe, or 
 being the mere stem for afifxi', a/it-. 
 L. : nos. 
 
 Instrumental Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : asma-bJiis. 
 Skr. : asmd-bhis. 
 
 Dative Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : asma-hhyams, 
 Skr. : asma-hhyam, nas, Ved. asma-Wiya. 
 Gr. : i/yuTv, JEol. afxfxiv, afifxi ; Dor. ajutv ; (-fv = -i-^iv). 
 L. : no-his perhaps for nos-bis, nos appearing as the stem, 
 as in nos-ter. 
 
 Ablative Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur.: ? 
 
 Skr. : asma-tj following analogy of abl. sing. 
 L. : no-his. 
 
 Genitive Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ? 
 
 Skr. : asmdkam, properly an adjective in ace. sing, neuter ; 
 
 Ved. asmdha, with loss of final m ; nas. 
 Gr. : rj/nMv, Ion. riiuiijjv, Ep. riineiiov from St. rifju-i JEiOl, 
 
 ajdfiiijjv, Boeot. a/iicjv, Dor. afiu)v, afiicov. 
 L. : nostrum, gen.pl. of possessive stem nostro-, for nostra- 
 
 rum, which occurs in Plautus ; nostri, gen. sing, of the 
 
 same stem. Some writers consider nostrum to be an 
 
 ace. sing, neuter. 
 
 Locative Plural, 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : asma-sva. 
 
 Skr. : asmd'SU, 
 
 Gr. : JEol, anfx^-aiv. 
 
322 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Nominative and Accusative Dual. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ^? 
 
 Skr. : dvdm from St. dva- = a + tva- {I + thou)^ according 
 to Bopp, or = a + dva- (/+ numeral two) according to 
 Schleicher, as in Old Lith. vedu (m.), vedvi (f.) ; New 
 Lith. mudu (m.), mudvi (f.); and Goth, vi-t {we two). 
 We also find as ace. ndu, for nds according to Bopp, a 
 lengthened form of pi. nds. Ndu is also used for gen. 
 and dat., and therefore -du belongs probably to the 
 stem ; it corresponds to Gr, vm in which w also ap- 
 pears to belong to the stem (c. f. Skr. ashtdu = Gr. 
 oKTw) . In form Tidu is a regular ace. dual of St. na-, 
 as s'ivdu from s'iva-. 
 
 Gr. : vwij vw ; Bceot. vwf. 
 
 Instrumental and Ablative Dual, 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ? 
 
 Skr. : dvdbhydm. 
 
 Dative Dual. 
 
 Ind.-Eur.: ? 
 
 Skr. : dvdbhydm^ ndu. 
 Gr. : vwtv, vi^v. 
 
 Genitive Dual. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ? 
 
 Skr. : dvaySs, ndu. ] 
 
 Gr. : vwiiV, vi^v. 
 
 Locative Dual. 
 
 Ind;-Eur. : ? 
 
 Skr. : dvayos. 
 
comparative grammar. 323 
 
 §. 164. The Pronoun of the Second Person. 
 
 Nominative Singular, 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ti^am for ta* + va + ma (see §. 95, p. 187) 
 
 Skr. : tvam, 
 
 Gr. : (Tu, Dor. tv^ Boeot. rovv (= Z. tum\ rov, rvvi/, 
 
 Lacon. rvvij. 
 L. : tu. 
 
 Accusative Singular. 
 Ind.-Eur. : tva-m, 
 Skr. : tvdm, tvdy which Bopp explains in the same way as 
 
 mam, ma. 
 Gr. : CT£, Dor. re, tv, rii; Cret. rpe, Boeot. tlv. 
 h.ite for tvemj from St. tvi-; 0. L. ^gJ (an ablatival form 
 
 used as an accusative by Plautus), U. tiom for tuom 
 
 = tvam ; or, according to Corssen, for tvio-m from St. 
 
 tvi^ lengthened by a. 
 
 * Lottner (in his essay quoted in p. 315) remarks, that " whatever 
 the actual nature of the Thou may be, it cannot be overlooked, that in a 
 mere abstract metaphysical point of view it is but one of the many cases 
 of the non-ego, and that therefore it is not altogether unreasonable to ex- 
 pect that language should treat it as such ; in other words, that the pro- 
 noun of thesecond person should somehow be a variety— strongly marked 
 indeed by individual characteristics — of the pronoun of the third per- 
 son." 
 
 Thus in the Indo-Eur. languages ta is the stem of Skr. ta-m (eum), 
 Gr. Tov, L. (is-) turn, SI. <w, Goth, thana, O. H. G. den, &c. 
 
 Also in the Semitic languages the stem of the second person is either 
 tha or ta, to which the syllable an or en is prefixed, and this same tha or 
 ta with the same prefix an or en is also used as the stem of the pro- 
 noun of the third person. Thus we have Egyptian ento-k (thou, m.), 
 Coptic entho-k (thou, m.), &c., beside Egyptian ento-f (he), Coptic 
 entJio-f, &c. 
 
 Those writers who derive the pronouns from verbal roots connect tvam 
 with I. E. tan (to stretch). 
 
 y2 
 
324 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Instrumental Singular, 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ? 
 
 Skr. : tvayd = tva + i + a = iva + a + a. 
 
 Dative Singular. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : tva-bhyam. 
 
 Skr. : tur-hhyam, Yed. tu-hhya. 
 
 Gr. : Horn, re/v, Dor. TLVt Tarent. rivr). 
 
 L. : tihi (final m being lost, as in Ved. tubhya) ; U. tefe. 
 
 Ablative Singular, 
 Ind.-Eur. : iva-d or tva-t. 
 Skr. : tva-t. 
 L. ; te, 0. L. ted from St. ti-. 
 
 Genitive Singular. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ? 
 
 Skr. : tava for tvatva, sl reduplication of stem, with loss of 
 
 case ending. 
 Gr. : (ToiT, Ion. (rioj cteu ; Ep. caTo, teolo (= tava-sya) , Dor. 
 
 TtOf reovj T£Vj Tia>. In Dor. riog, reovg, tevq, tioq^ 
 
 TLtjg, the gen. case-ending g appears to be added to 
 
 the old genitive. 
 L. : tui, the gen. sing of the possessive stem tuo-. 
 
 Locative singular, 
 Ind.-Eur. : tva-i. 
 Skr. : tvayi = tva + z + i = ^ua + a + i. Skr. ^^, Yed. tv^^ 
 
 which is used for dat. and gen. sing, is properly a 
 
 locative. 
 Gr. : a(>-i, Dor. to-L 
 
 Nominative Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : tvasma- was probably the stem. 
 Skr. : yuyam for tva ■\- i + am = tva -{■ a -^ am ; Ved. yushmS; 
 Pali tumhe (= tus-me). 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 325 
 
 Gr. : vjLia7g from St. vjui-, JEo\. vfifieg, Dor. vfjiig, Boeot. 
 
 ov/xig, Ion. vij.ieg. 
 L. : vos (compare nos). 
 
 Accusative Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : tvasmd-ns or tvd-ns, 
 
 Skr. : yushmdn = tvasmdns, Ved. yushmds (f.) ; vas = tvdns, 
 Gr. : v/zac, Ion. vfxiag from St. vjut- ; Mo\. vfifie, Dor. vjue 
 (compare a^/xe, &c.). 
 
 Instrumental Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : tvasma-bhis. 
 Skr. : yushmd-hhis. 
 
 Dative Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : tvasma-hhyams. 
 
 Skr. : yuslima-hliyam^ vas. 
 
 Gr. : vfiiv = vixL-(})iv, ^ol. vju/ic, vju/xiv ; Boeot. oujutv* 
 
 L. : w-6/s (compare no-his). 
 
 Ablative Plural, 
 
 Ind.-Eur.: ? 
 
 Skr-: yushma-t (compare asma-t). 
 L. : no-his. 
 
 Genitive Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur.: ? 
 
 Skr. : yushmdkam, Ved. yushmdka; vas. 
 
 Gr, : ujuwv, Ion. vfxiwv, Ep. vfxdwv from St. u^i- ; ^ol. 
 
 vfifxi(i)v, Boeot. ovjuLiiov. 
 L. : vostrorum, vostrum (ves-), vostri {yes-). 
 
 Locative Plural, 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : tvasma-sva. 
 
 Skr. : yushmd-su. 
 
 Gr. : ^ol. vfifieaiv probably, after analogy of ojUjUEdty. 
 
326 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Nominative and A ccusative Dual. 
 
 Ind.-Eur.: ? 
 
 Skr. : yuvdm from St. yuva- = tva + tva- (thou + thou), or 
 
 tva + dva (thou + numeral two), compare Lith. yic-du 
 
 (m.), yu-dvi (f.) ; Ved. yuvdm. We also find as ace. 
 
 vdm for vdv (according to Bopp) = vdu = vas, (compare 
 
 ndu). 
 Gr. : (Ttjtvj'i, (Ttjiw* 
 
 Instrumental and Ablative Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur.: ? 
 
 Skr. : yuvd-bhydm. In Vedic we also find yuvat as abl. ; 
 compare mat^ &c. 
 
 Dative Dual, 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ? 
 
 Skr. : yuvd-hhydm, vdm ; Ved. yuva-bhydm. 
 Gr. : (Tt^CSiv^ tr^tfy. 
 
 Genitive Dual. 
 
 Ind.-Eur.: ? 
 
 Skr. : yuva-yos, Ved. yuvos, vdm, 
 Gr. : or^witv, (T<p(^V' 
 
 Locative Dual. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ? 
 
 Skr. : yuva-yos. 
 
 §. 165. The Reflexive Pronoun. 
 
 There is no distinction of gender in this pronoun, except 
 in Gr. nom. and ace. pi. crcjiia. The Ind.-Eur. stem was sva-, 
 which in Sanskrit only occurs in compounds, as in sva-yam 
 (self) = sva + i + am = sva + a + am, sva-tas (by one's self), 
 
 * 20 in these forms implies an original sr, which may represent an 
 I. E. tv. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 327 
 
 sva-dhd (spontaneity), sva-bhu (self-existent), &c. In Sanskrit 
 the stem sva- is also used as a possessive; Skr. sva-s = Gr. 
 (T^6-g, L. suus. This stem is found in Gr. i^iog = afe-diog^ htig 
 = (TFf-r»]C) £^oc and ^9og = (rFe-Oog (compare Skr. svadhd) ; 
 Hom. ^r) = O-0T? (initial a being lost, as in Lac. (^Iv = (T<pivy Lac. 
 KOVToXa = <T/ci/raArj, Lac. KVparaviov = (TKvpOaviovj Lac. (jtaipid' 
 Seiv = (T(l)aipiZeiv, Boeot. Ot'S = ^({iiyK ', L. /wwcZa beside Gr. 
 <70f ySopTj, L. /zc?es beside Gr. <T(pi^£g, L. ya/Zo = Gr. arcjiaWti), 
 L. y^^o = Gr. <T(l)iyyu)f whence (plfiog = G(pLy-p.og) ; and in L. 
 s^, si-qua = U. sve-pu, si-ne (?), s^cZ (an ablative form), se-voco, 
 sed-itio, se-orsum, sue-sco, so-ddlis (from 5C>t7a = Skr. sva-dhd). 
 Bopp connects -pse in ipse with sm-, u becoming^ when trans- 
 posed, as in Dor. ^Iv = o-0/v ; but this is wrong, for ipse = i-pte 
 (compare sua-pte), and -pte is, probably, connected with Skr. 
 pati- (master) = Gr. irom-, L. pot-is, Lith. pati-s (self). 
 
 Nominative Singular. 
 This case is not found in Greek and Latin. 
 
 Accusative Singular, 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : svd-m, 
 
 Gr. : £, ^ol. Fl = aPc, Hom. ii = treFf, Dor. (t^^. Ep. 
 ^iv, Dor. vivi which are used for e, are, perhaps, for 
 Ifi-ijui* a reduplicated accusative of St. t ; compare the 
 Latin reduplicated accusatives sese, 0. L. em-em (eun- 
 dem). 
 
 L. : se = sve = svi-m from St. si;i, 0. L. sed (inter sed in SC 
 de Bac, apud sed in tab. Bant.) ; Osc. siom^ for suom 
 = sva-m. Corssen explains sio7n as a lengthened form 
 Irom St. si- by the addition of a, and consequently as 
 = svi-o-m (compare e-u-m = i-u-m, Osc. i-o-n-c from 
 
 St. 2-). 
 
 * Curtius, ** GrundzUge der Griechischen Etyraologie," p. 477. 
 t Schleicher, " Compendium," &c., p. 644. 
 
328 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Dative Singular, 
 Ind.-Eur. : sva-hhyam, 
 Gr. : Boeot. uv (Corinna), Dor. tV, contracted from iiv 
 
 L. : sihiy U, sibe, 0. sifei, from St. svi-. 
 
 Ablative Singular. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : sva-d or sva-t 
 
 L. : 56, 0. L. sed for sg^'c?, from St. sm-. 
 
 Genitive Singular, 
 
 Ind.-Eur.: ? 
 
 Gr. : ou, Ep. iio = aP^-ayo^ Ion. to, Dor. eu, eou, Boeot. iovg. 
 L. : swz, the gen. sing, of the possessive stem suo-. 
 
 Locative Singular, 
 Ind.-Eur. : sva-i. 
 Gr. : oT, Mo\. FoT, Boeot. Fu. 
 
 Nominative Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ? 
 
 Gr. : (7(^£iC5 o-'^^a (ii-)> ^^om St. o-^t-. 
 
 Accusative Plural. 
 
 Ind..Eur. : ? 
 
 Gr. : (T({)ag, a^ia (n.) ; Ion. Gc^mq-, (Tcjteiagi Dor. o-^t, Syrac. 
 
 L. : same as in sing. 
 
 Dative Plural. 
 Ind.-Eur. : sva-bhyams. 
 
 Gr. : Dor. a^iv, Syrac. -^ivi Lacon. ^iv, 2Eio\. aa<pi. 
 L. : same as in sing. 
 
 Ablative Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ? 
 
 L. : same as in sing. 
 
COxMPARATlVE GRAMMAR. 329 
 
 Genitive Plural. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : ? 
 
 Gr. : o-^wv, Ion. a^iiiiv, iEol. acpdwv, Syrac. ipwv and cwv. 
 L. : same as in sing. 
 
 Locative Plural. 
 Ind.-Eur.: sva-sva. 
 Gr. : a(l>i-ai. 
 
 Nominative and Accusative Dual. 
 
 Ind.-Eur. : — ? 
 
 Gr. : (70a>£, ar^w. 
 
 Dative and Genitive Dual. 
 
 Ind.-Eur.: ? 
 
 Gr. : ai^tjjCv = (T0a)-0iv. 
 
 §. 166. The Pronouns in which the Gender is marked. 
 
 An examination of all the pronouns of this class found in 
 each language belongs to the special grammar of each, and 
 we here limit our investigation to the declension of these pro- 
 nouns, selecting the I. E, demonstrative stem ta as the one of 
 which the declension will be given in full. In the three fol- 
 lowing sections we merely notice the chief points of difference 
 between the declension of the pronouns and that of the nouns, 
 omitting some exceptions which will be found in the special 
 grammars of each language. 
 
 §. 167. The Sanskrit Pronominal Declension. 
 
 The nom. sing. masc. generally ends in -s, as in the noun, 
 except in sa (nom. sing, masc), where the final s was omitted, 
 because it was perhaps a repetition of sa itself The same 
 omission is found in Goth, sa and Gr. 6. We also find the 
 peculiar nominatives ayam (m.), iyam (f), which are ana- 
 
330 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 logous to the personal pronoun aham;* also the nom. asdu 
 (m. f.), which, perhaps, arose from an older asds. The nom. 
 and ace. neut. sing, ends in d or % and this form is used as 
 the true stem in compounds. The nom. pi. masc. ends in -^, 
 which, perhaps, arose from -a-i-as = -a-a-as, the stem being 
 lengthened by a, which afterwards became ^, and the final as 
 being lost; thus U = ta-i-as = ta-a-as. In the dat., abl., and 
 loc. sing, the masc. and neut. a- stems are lengthened by 
 the addition of sm«; and in the same cases the fem. a- stems 
 are lengthened by si (= sm^, according to Bopp). The gen. 
 pi. ends in -sdm. 
 
 §. 168. The Greek Pronominal Declension. 
 
 The nom. sing. mas. ends in -g, as in the noun, except in 
 6 = Skr. sa. The nom. sing. neut. ends in -o = -or, final r (or 
 S ?) being lost. In other respects the pronominal is the same 
 as the nominal declension. 
 
 §. 169. The Latin Pronominal Declension. 
 
 Final -s of nom. sing. masc. is sometimes lost, as in ipse 
 (beside ipsus)^ isie (beside istus\ ecqui^ siqui, qui (beside 
 quis) = 0. pis, hie. Qui is probably for quoi (whence 0. L. 
 quei) = U. poi, poei, poe, and hie for hoi-ce^ the stems 
 in both cases being lengthened by -i. The nom. sing. fem. 
 ends in -a except in quce = 0. pai^ hcBc, illwc (beside 
 ilia), istcec (beside ista), the stems of these pronouns being 
 also lengthened by -i. Quis is used as a nom. fem. in Plau- 
 tus {quis mulier est), as Gr. rig. This -^ that is added 
 to the stem in quce is of common occurrence, as in U. 
 pir-iy pir-e = L. quid + i, &c. ; Gr. ovtoct-i, &c. : Boeckh con- 
 
 * The neuter termination -m, which is used as masculine and feminine 
 in ayam (m.), iyam (f.), and aham, dates from a time when the distinction 
 of gender had not yet been developed. 
 
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 331 
 
 siders that it is also found in the forms rot (= to)^ rat (= ra), 
 which occur in the " Foedus Eleorum et Heraeensium," but 
 Ahrens (" de Greecse Linguae Dialectis," I., p. 280) opposes 
 this view, and considers rot and rai to be for t(^ and t^. The 
 fern, sometimes occurs without this addition, as in aliqua, 
 nuinqua, siqua = U. svepu. The nom. and ace. sing. neut. are 
 formed by adding d to the stem, as in id = 0. id^ quod = 0. 
 piidf quid = 0. ptdj 0. L. alid = aliud, U. pir {-i) = quid, &c. 
 In the second century B. c. this d had a very weak sound, 
 and was sometimes almost imperceptible, just as in Gr. ri and 
 aXXo the suffix vanishes. Beside aliud we find alium (Fabr. 95, 
 211), as in Gr. roo-ourov beside rocrovro. Ipsumia neut. o£ ipse. 
 Hoc, 0. L. hoce is ^oihod-ce. The nom.s pi. maec. and fern, are 
 formed in the same way as in the noun: as in the masc. forms 
 eeis, ieisy eis, ei, ques, quel, qui, heis, hisce, hei, hi, and the fem. 
 qucB, istce, &c. The O. pas (= h.quce) is analogous to Skr. nom. 
 pi. fem. The nom. and ace. pi. neut. is the same as in the 
 noun, except in hcBC, 0. L. haice, quce = O pai, isicec (beside 
 ista, illcec (beside ilia), where the stems are lengthened by i. 
 This i is not found in aliqua and siqua. 
 
 The dat.s sing. (m. f. n.) illi, ipsi, toti, alteri = 0. L. 
 alterei for altero-i, &c., are, probably, old locatives : such as 
 humi and domi. In the 0. L. quoiei we fine the stem length- 
 ened by I and then the true dative suffix -ei = I. E. -ai was 
 added. It is possible that isti, &c., may have been formed as 
 quoiei, and accordingly that they may have arisen from the 
 true dative forms istoiei, &c. We also find the dat. sing, 
 masc. ending in -o, as in nullo usui, in Caesar, &c., and the 
 fem. ending in -ce in Plautus, &c. In the Umbrian datives 
 e-smei^ pu-sme, we find the stem lengthened by -sma, as in 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 The gen.s sing, istius, &c., were formed by adding -ius to 
 the stem lengthened by i : istius would then be for isto-i-ius. 
 The ending -ius is supposed by Bopp to have arisen merely 
 by transposition from the gen. ending -si/a, but it is much 
 
332 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 
 more probable that isto-i-iiis is for isto-i-siu-s, -siu being = -sy<7, 
 and -s being added, as in the Doric gen. sing, of the first and 
 second personal pronouns, Imiog, cjuouc, riog, teovq. Meunier 
 considers istius, &c., to have arisen from istl-ius, &c., istl 
 being the usual genitive in -i and i-us, an enclitic genitive of 
 the pronominal stem -/.* 
 
 The adverbs hie = 0. L. heic and qui are old locatives, 
 and = hoi-G and qitoi. Similarly in Oscan we find loc. 
 exei-c from pronominal stem ea^o-. Corssen considers qui to 
 be an ablative form for quei-d; quicum is used for both quo- 
 cum and quacum. 
 
 Beside quorum, gen. pi. of stem quo-, we find cuium as 
 gen. pi. of stem qui (Charisius II., 136). 
 
 §. 170. The Declension of the Stem ta- (m. n.) 
 
 Skr. Gr. L. 
 
 Stem. ta-. to-. is-to-.f 
 
 Sing. N. sa, sa-s (m.), ta-t (n.) b {nQ..)f TO {n.) iste(jn..),istu-d(ri.) 
 
 A. ta-m (m.), ta-t (n.) t6-v (m.), to (n.) istu-m (m.\ istu-d 
 
 (n.) 
 
 I. U.n-a. 
 
 * Consult Meunier' 8 Essay " De quelques anomalies que pr^sente la declinai- 
 son de certains Pronoms Latins" (" Memoires de la Societe de Linguistique de 
 Paris." Tome I., pp. 14-62). Beside these genitives in -ius we also find in Old 
 LatLathe gen.s ei, guoi, cui, qui, &c. : as in M rei argumenta dicam (PI. Trin. 622) 
 Quoi fides fidelita&que amicum erga cequiperet tuam (PI. Trin. 1126), Perii quot hie 
 ipseannos vivet, cui filii tarn diu vivont (PI. Mil. 1081), &c. In Plautus Pers. 83, 
 Meunier reads Set eccum parasitum quoi mi ius auxiliost opus, and considers that 
 here we find existing separately the two genitives {quoi from stem quo-, and iu^ 
 from stem «-), which afterwards coalesced into quoius. 
 
 The dative quoiei (which occurs on the fourth inscription on the tomh of the 
 Scipios, Qvoiei vita defecit, non honos, honoreis), is, according to Meunier, a double 
 locative from quoi loc. of quo-, and ei loc. of «'-. Similarly the dat. eiei (as in 
 Lucr. III., 555, Sive aliud quidvis potius connexius eiei) is a double loc. of i-. 
 
 t L. is-to- is compounded of the three stems i-, sa- and ta-. In addition to 
 the declension of isto- I also give some other pronominal forms to illustrate the 
 original declension of the pronouns. 
 
D. 
 
 Ab. 
 G. 
 L. 
 Plur. N. 
 
 I. 
 
 D.Ab. 
 Plur. G. 
 
 L. 
 Dual. N. A. 
 
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 
 Gr. 
 
 333 
 
 I. D. Ab. tu-bhyAm. 
 G. L. ta-y-6s. 
 
 Skr. Gr. L. 
 
 ta-stndL T(^. isti, U. pu-sme. 
 
 ta-smu-t. TU)Q — Tbi-r. isto-d. 
 
 ta-sya. ro-To, row. istius. 
 
 ta-sm-in. — — 
 
 U (m.), tA-n-i (n.) Toi, ot (m.), ret (n.) isti, IT. pur-e (m.) 
 
 — ista, qua-e (n.) 
 _tu'n{m.'),ta-n-i{rx.') tovq, TovQ(m..'), rd isto-s (m.), ista 
 
 (n.) (n.) 
 
 tdis. — — 
 
 U-bhyas. — istls. 
 
 U-sham. tCjv. isto-rum. 
 
 te-shu. Tol-ffi, Toig. — 
 
 tdu, tu (m.), ie (n.) rw, — 
 
 ro-Tj/. — 
 
 §. 171. The Declension of the Stem td- (f.). 
 
 Skr. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 td. 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 sd. 
 
 A. 
 
 td-m. 
 
 I. 
 
 ta-y-d. 
 
 D. 
 
 ta-sy-di. 
 
 Ab. 
 
 ta-sy-ds. 
 
 G. 
 
 ta-sy-ds. 
 
 L. 
 
 ta-sy-dm. 
 
 Plur. N. 
 
 ids. 
 
 A. 
 
 td-s. 
 
 I. 
 
 td-bhis. 
 
 D.Ab. 
 
 td-bhyas. 
 
 G. 
 
 td'Sdm. 
 
 L. 
 
 td-su. 
 
 Dual. N. A. 
 
 U. 
 
 I. D. Ab. 
 
 td-bhydm. 
 
 G. L. 
 
 ta-y-6s. 
 
 Gr. 
 ra-. 
 
 n- 
 
 rd-v, Ti]-v. 
 
 ry. 
 
 rrj-g. 
 
 rai, ai. 
 (rd-vg), rd-Q. 
 
 Ta-(t)V, TtOV. 
 
 Ty-ai, Toig, 
 
 rd. 
 
 ra-lv. 
 
 L. 
 
 is-ta-. 
 ista, qua-e. 
 ista-m. 
 
 isti. 
 
 ista-d. 
 
 istius. 
 
 istcB, 0. pa-s. 
 is td-s. 
 
 isiis. 
 istd-rum. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 The Sanskrit Cerebrals or Linguals. 
 
 Dr. George Buhler, in his essay "On the Origin of the Sanskrit 
 Linguals," has attempted to demonstrate that these sounds were not 
 borrowed from theDravidian races of India, but that they were for the 
 most part developed within the limits of the Sanskrit. As Biihler's 
 essay is very instructive, I have condensed his chief arguments in 
 this Appendix, and frequently employed his own words.* 
 
 The borrowing of sounds by one language from another is a 
 phenomenon that has never been proved to have occurred in lan- 
 guages that have been influenced by others in historical times. 
 Thus, take the case of English ; though it was under Norman in- 
 fluence for so many centuries, and though traces of that influence 
 are seen on all sides in borrowed words, loss of the old Saxon in- 
 flexions, &c., yet not a single jfyTorman sound was introduced into it. 
 Neither the French a nor u nor nasals were adopted by the English ; 
 and it is just as difficult for an Englishman of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury to pronounce these sounds as it was for a Saxon of the tenth 
 century. But the case of such nations as the Irish, the Germanised 
 Sclavonians, &c., demonstrate the same fact still more manifestly; 
 for, while these nations have almost completely lost their original 
 language, and adopted that of their conquerors, they still retain 
 their native sounds, and have adapted their new language to them.f 
 
 * Biihler of course is not responsible for all the examples and comparisons 
 adduced here. 
 
 t Thus the initial sound heard in the Irish pronunciation of E. car is not ky^ 
 as is commonly supposed, but the hard aspirate kh, which, with the other hard 
 aspirates, is still found in Irish. 
 
336 APPENDIX. 
 
 Moreover, before we can assert that the Skr. cerebrals are bor- 
 rowed'^from the Dravidian languages, we must prove that the con- 
 ditions under which alone sounds can be borrowed, existed in the 
 case of Skr. ; i. e. we must prove that a great many foreign words 
 containing the sound in question were first borrowed and that thus 
 the new sound became perfectly familiar to the people. Therefore 
 it has first to be demonstrated that Sanskrit in very early times 
 already possessed, as loans, a number of Dravidian words containing 
 these cerebrals. Dr. Caldwell, who strongly supports the theory 
 of the Dravidian origin of these sounds, enumerates only sixteen 
 nouns containing cerebrals which he supposed to have been bor- 
 rowed. Only two of these, dni (the pin of the axle of a cart), and 
 Tcatuha (sharp), are found in the Rigveda, and even these can be easily 
 deduced from ordinary Sanskrit roots. Ani is for ami, from R. ar 
 (to fit) ; and consequently may mean '' a thing to be fitted (into 
 some other thing"), compare ara (a spoke) ; Mtu (sharp) is for 
 kartu from hrt (to cat). Even supposing that these sixteen words 
 were borrowed, they would be far too few in number to cause the 
 introduction into Sanskrit of the cerebral sounds which they con- 
 tain. 
 
 As Zend, however, contains three cerebrals, the consonantal and 
 vocalized r and sh, and as it can be shown that nearly all the Skr. 
 cerebral mutes and nasal are produced by the direct change of r and 
 sh into them, or by the change of dentals into the corresponding 
 cerebrals through the influence of r, r and sh, we must surely infer 
 that cerebralization is not due to the influence of foreign tongues, 
 but solely due to the genius of the language itself. As proof of 
 this, we have the following facts : — 
 
 A dental n is frequently changed into n, when it is immediately 
 succeeded by a vowel or y or v, under the influence of a preceding 
 r, r, r or sh, provided no palatal, cerebral, dental, sibilant, or I in- 
 tervene ; thus IciMrsha with suffix mdna forms h'iMrshamdna, hhrah- 
 mdnan comes from hhrahman, &c.* Anadvah (an ox) is for anarvah, 
 from anas (a cart), and vah (to draw) ; the change of -as into ar be- 
 
 * Consult Bopp's "Kritische Grammatik der Sanskrita-Sprache," pp. 
 60, 61. 
 
AlTEiNDIX. 337 
 
 fore a soft consonant is found in the Vedas ^stiskarbudh (early awake) 
 for later ushobudh, vanargu (a thief) for vandgu. R, when followed by 
 n, is assimilated to it sometimes in Sanskrit and always in Prakrit. In 
 Sanskrit the first of these n's may be dropped, and the preceding 
 vowel lengthened, as dunds'a (imperishable) for and beside durndsa^ 
 dunas'a (difficult to obtain) for and beside durnas'a. Pa w* (the hand) 
 = parni from pr (to fill). Ann (small) = arnu from I. E. ar 
 (to hurt, grind), whence Skr. arus (n. a wound), and Gr. a\ew (I 
 grind), aXevpov"^ (flour); anu would accordingly mean literally 
 " ground down." Fan (to buy) is for parn from ^r (to fill) he- 
 side Gr.7r6pv7jjLLi,7r6pi^7} [of. ^\ir.panya-stri), TTpiajLiai, &c.; the obscure 
 hanig' or vanig (a merchant) may be connected with this root, Biihler 
 illustrates this change of ^ into lox v hjpibdmi ox pivdmi (I drink) 
 for jt?^ and sphdvaya fov sphdpai/a, the causal of 6/?/my (to swell). 
 We also find vishtapa (a world) for and heside pishtapa, vdm and 
 hdiia (an arrow) beside parna (a leaf, a feather). 
 
 In Prakrit, Pali, and the modern vernaculars, mute dentals have 
 become cerebrals through the influence of r. Thus Skr. tdlavrnta 
 (a leaf of a palm tree, a fan), vrddha (old), krta (made), Ihartd 
 (nom. sing, a husband), gardahha-a (nom. sing, an ass), &c., become 
 respectively talaventa, vudha, hata, or hita, hhattd, gacldaho, &c. 
 This influence of r shows itself even in Vedic as in dudhi for durdhi, 
 huta for Icrtay &c. In Classical Sanskrit we find many similar ex- 
 amples, as ndtaha (a dancer) for and beside nartaka ; hhata (a sol- 
 dier), derived by Benfey from hhar, and therefore being for Iharta ; 
 hhdtaha (wages) for hhartaka ; vata (a circle, rope) for varta from vrt 
 (to turn), cf. L. verto ; patta (a table, seat), from^a^r^, according 
 to Benfey; patu (skilful) from pat (to divide), for party cf. L. 
 
 * Curtius deduces these Greek words from a R. FsX or faX = I. E. val or 
 rar, whence Skr. urmi-s (a wave), Gr. IXvio (I roll), ovXai (unground barley), 
 oXfioQ (a mortar, a round stone), dXodu) (I thresh), dXiot], Att. uXojq (a thresh- 
 ing floor), fidXivpov (= dXtvpov, Hesych.) from FaXtvpov, &c., L. volvo, Goth. 
 valvjan (to roll). The final sound in Gr. eXw-, L. volo-, Goth, valv- is a short- 
 ened form of reduplication ; the F is represented by o in bXooiTQoxoQ (a rolling 
 stone) = oXPoirpoxog, and in dXodu) = dXFau). We find similar cases of short 
 reduplicated forms in Greek, as ^6-(3-o-g, <pi-l3-o-pai beside Skr. bhi (timere), 
 <pep-(3-(t>, beside (p'sp-ut, Skr. bhar^ Trop-x-ri beside Trep-du),!,. por-ia, &c. 
 
 Z 
 
338 APPENDIX. 
 
 par{t)-s ; vata (an enclosure) for varta, from vr (to enclose), cf. 
 L. vallum; Icantaha (a thorn) for Tcarntaha^ according to Benfey, 
 from hrt (to cut) ; tata (horizon, bank of a river, mountain) for ta/rta 
 from tr (to cross), as pdra"^ (ripa opposita) comes from pm- (to 
 cross), cf. Gr. Tropo^^ irepatvu}^ irepav^ L. per / tad (to strike) for 
 tardj with which Bopp connects Goth. (ws-)^Arw^(molestiamfacere); 
 tadit (fulmen), tandula (granum frumenti, prsecipue oryzae) from 
 tad ; path (to recite) from prath (to celebrate), cf. L. inter-pret- 
 ari; Benfey, however, considers it to be a demonstrative derived 
 from pashta for spashta (evident) ; purddds'a (a cake made of rice 
 meal, offered to the gods) from dd^ (to make oblations). In these 
 two last examples the dental is influenced by r, although a vowel 
 intervenes. Biihler considers that a dental has become a cerebral 
 in the following cases through the influence of a succeeding r; 
 h'anda (flaming, passionate)for Uand/ra\ (the moon, glowing) ; dand,a 
 (a stick) for dantra from dam (to coerce, tame), and tra (a suffix 
 signifying the instrument) ; mHha (an elephant- driver) beside 
 mahdmdtra (id.). 
 
 Shf when it is original or a substitute for h'h, g', s', hs, becomes 
 t, whenever it ends a word or precedes either the termination {-su) 
 of the loc. pL or hard consonants except t, th, and s : while before a 
 soft consonant it becomes d, and if d or dh immmediately follow, 
 then these become d or dh respectively. J Thus we have from the 
 stems dvish (hating), rdg' (a king), vis' (entering), vivihh (desirous 
 to enter) = viviks, prdh'h (asking), nis' (night), as nom. sing, dvit, 
 rdt, vit, vivit, prat, nit; as instr. pi. dvidihis, rddbhis, vidhhis, 
 vmdhhiSf prddhhis, nidhhis ; and as loc. pi. dvitsu, rdtsu, vitsu, 
 vivitsu, prdtsu, nitsu. "We have also sach verbal forms as dviddhi 
 (2 sing, imper. Par.) from dvish (to hate), diddhvam (ye ruled) from 
 U (to rule), &c. We find one of the soft cerebrals formed in ac- 
 cordance with this rule sometimes rejected, and then a preceding a 
 
 * Bopp ("Gloss. Comp. Ling. Sanskr.," p. 238) suggests that para may 
 come hompara (alius). 
 
 t Bopp connects Kanda with Goth, hata (I hate). 
 
 X There are some exceptions to this law ; from St. mrsh (enduring) we 
 have mrk (nom. sing.) tnrgbhis (instr. pi.), &c. 
 
APPENDIX. 339 
 
 becomes o, and i or u becomes i ov ti. Thus shodas'an (sixteen) = 
 shash (six) + das' an (ten), shddha (sixfold) = shash + dha, shddant (a 
 young ox with six teeth) = shash + dant. Nidha (a nest) = nishda = 
 ni + sada (what lies under) ; pid (to press) = pishd = api + sad (to 
 sit upon). Again, n becomes n when preceded by sh under the same 
 conditions as when preceded by r,r or r, as has already been remarked. 
 Lastly, when sh immediately precedes a hard dental, it changes 
 it into the corresponding cerebral, as dveshtum (to hate, infin.), 
 dveshti (he hates), dvishtha (ye hate), dvishta (hated), ushtha (ye 
 desire) from vas\ ashtdu (eight) for as'tdu from an original ahtdu = 
 L. octo, shashtha (sixth), shashta (sixtieth), &c. In a few cases s 
 after a becomes sh, and then, changes a following t or th into t or th, 
 thus from ava and stamhh (to prop) we get avashtamlha (relying on), 
 avashtahhnati (he supports himself), dshddha (the old name of a 
 month, partly June and partly July, or a staff carried in that month 
 by an ascetic), g'athara (the belly) for gastara beside Gr. r^aarr/p. 
 
 -2" can also become a cerebral and change a neighbouring dental 
 into a cerebral : thus we have from St. Izh (licking) we have lit 
 (nom. sing.), lidhhis (instr. pL), Utsu (loc. pi.) : from lih (to lick) 
 we have ledhi (he licks), lidha (licked), lidhvi (ye licked) ; from 
 ruh (to grow) we have rddhum (to grow, infin.) rudha (grown), &c. 
 
 Cerebrals also arise from the assimilative force of neighbouring 
 cerebrals, thus from id* (to praise) we have z^^e-(he praises) from 
 id + te, diddhvam (ye praised) from did + dhvam; y<?w^* (calculation) 
 from gan (to number) + ti, gan is a denominative derived probably 
 from gam (a multitude) connected with Lith. gand (satis), gana% 
 (pasco greges), according to Bopp, but it is better to treat gana as 
 for garna from I. E. gar (to collect) when dr^eipw ; phd7ita (easily 
 
 * According to Benfey, id is a denominative verb based on ish (to wish, 
 chose), and accordingly it is for isht = is-^ t ; compare Gr, iottjq, 'ifispog (?) from 
 same root. In the Vedas we find il for id, as in tvum .... martasa Hate (te 
 homines celebrant) ; consult Bopp's " Skr. Gloss.," p. 48. It is possible that 
 U is the original form, and that id is derived from it, as we frequently find d re- 
 presenting I in the Eomance languages, as in Sardinian pedde from L. pellis, 
 poddhige from L. poUex, casteddu from L. castellum, and Sicilian cavaddu from 
 L. eaballus, beddu from bellus, &c. 
 
340 APPENDIX. 
 
 prepared) from phan (to produce easily) + ta; tad dayanam (this 
 flight) for tat d., tan dindimdn (these drums) for tan d., &c. 
 
 Pinally, we find a great number of words where cerebrals have 
 arisen from dentals without any apparent reason, and of many of 
 which we still find side-forms in Yedic still preserving the original 
 dentals. Thus we have Yedic hhanati (he praises) beside Skr. hhan 
 (to speak), Biihler identifies hhan with (pwv-etv^ but wrongly, as 
 (jiwveu} is from (jiuovrj = (piv + vTj and 0a; = Skr. Ihd; pan and pan 
 (to praise), &c. 
 
 We may conclude then that cerebralisation is a phenomenon that 
 has arisen within the limits of the Sanskrit language, and that it is 
 not due to Dravidic influence. In the course of time this predilec- 
 tion for cerebrals grew rapidly stronger, till it produced the results 
 that manifest themselves so plainly in Prakrit.* 
 
 In English the original dentals have all become cerebrals, as we see 
 from the transliteration of English words into the various languages 
 of India. Thus in Tamil Uttar is written for Easter, kdrttu for 
 courts portt for fort (initial / always becoming j3 in Tamil), advdns 
 for advance, IcalaUar for collector, testu for test, &c. In Telugu, 
 likewise, we have halkataru for collector, ddhtar for doctor, dgashtu 
 for August, &c. These examples completely prove that the English 
 pronounce t and d as cerebrals, and not as dentals. In other European 
 languages we likewise find cerebrals developed, as in schtehen, the 
 High German form of the classical German stehen. In schtehen, 
 however, Biihler believes that the sound of the t is not quite so 
 hollow as that of the Indian t, because the G. sch is not pronounced 
 so far back in the mouth as the Indian sh. 
 
 The German ^sounds accordingly differ from the English ^sounds 
 in this, that the former are pure dentals, while the latter are pure 
 cerebrals or Unguals. 
 
 * For further information on this subject, consult C. Lassen's most valuable 
 work " Institutiones Linguag Pracriticae." 
 
 END OF VOL. I. 
 
ADDENDA ET COREIGENDA. 
 
 Page 12, line 20, for Inez, read liiez. 
 
 34, 33, /or 131, read 110, seq. 
 
 36, 12, "for bhugh, read bhagh. 
 
 41, 23, 24, for datrnam, read datmam. 
 
 48, 5, for mrs', read mrs'. 
 
 49, 33, omit A. 
 
 62, 26, for tubhyan, read tubhyam. 
 
 59, 25, omit Burrus {= Uvppog). 
 
 63, 22, for \^og, Xnep, readi^os, lirep. 
 
 69, I, for U, read 16. 
 
 70, 14, after aspect, insert unless the dangers of the sea are supposed to arise from 
 
 shoals. 
 
 73, 2, for ghrana, read ghrana. 
 
 125, 34, omit Consult Appendix B. 
 
 128, 24, for krs a, read kiya. 
 
 141, 24, for spies, read spiess. 
 
 143, Si, for as, read jnst as. 
 
 146, 24, 07nit only. 
 
 147, 5, for mefiai, read mefiax- 
 
 159, 6, 8, /or Zeud, read Zend. 
 
 163, 14, 22, omit in line 14, " Sestius beside Sextius, mistus beside mixtus ; tescenti foi 
 
 sexcenti;" and insert these words in line 22, after "in." 
 
 179, 9, for when, read whence. 
 
 . 186, 21, omit 'I. 
 
 . 189, 17, 07nit §. 99. 
 
 190, 6, for ffak'h-ati, read gatich-ati. 
 
 193, 24, omit §. 98. 
 
 195, 27, for drs, read di:s'. 
 
 198, 10, for bharanta-s, read bharant-s. 
 
 199, 29, omit §. 103. 
 
 202, 24, for -a, read -a. 
 
 208, 36, for n'artaka-s, read na'rtaka-s. 
 
 . 218, 13, for bharatt, read bharat-i. 
 
 ■ 219, 31, insert ncrudvat-su in the intermediate column. 
 
 220, 24, for anadvahs read anadvans. 
 
 226, 2, 3, for have become, read are. 
 
 227, 29, for krt, read krt. 
 
 229, 30, for tuddtsi, read tuddtsu. 
 
 232, 10,/or from, read by- 
 
 232, 22, for -mljaao, read mija(T03. 
 
 240, 18, add, after bfap, " or rather bap = Skr, svasar (sister), men originally having to 
 
 marry their sisters." 
 
 243, 18, 19, for conguis, read congius. 
 
 244, 29, for t, read r. 
 
 249, 29, /or x^uXaf , y],v\aK, read <pv\a^, ^vKaK. 
 
 250, 8, for J^:olic, read Argive. 
 
 250 237 
 
 25l' 13 C f°^ ^" o--stems a, read In <r-stems the nominatival <r. 
 
 263, 4, for hasiicapas, read hosticapas. 
 
 292, 10, for pitr7i, read pitrn. 
 
 295, 23, for avy'am, read avy-am. 
 
 305, 18, the reference belongs to peptimo, and not to proximo-. 
 
 308, . 24, 25, omit " fir I. E. -an becomes -a in Greek." 
 
 320, 20, for iiasturtuim, read nasturtium. 
 
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